08ICES-0102

High Transparency Inflatable Modules for Space Habitats

Valentin Stavrev
Membrane Structure Design - TILT OOD, Sofia, Bulgaria

Raffi Tomasian
Architecture & Interior Design, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio

Copyright © 2008 SAE International

ABSTRACT the first designs of flying apparatuses could not rid

themselves from the model of a man-bird, wielding
In reaction to the prevalent space design paradigm, we functionally and substantially bird!s wings. The
would like to explore a combination of transparent development of engine powered flight brought about
polymer laminate membranes and high tensile strength vehicles with little resemblance to birds, usually made of
webbing as the envelope of future transparent space aluminum alloys. Aerodynamically optimized, those are
habitats. Further study reveals fascinating possibilities in well suited to atmospheric flights in conditions of earth
the use a tensegrity structures as the exo- or endo- gravity. Because of the practical stratagem of space
skeleton for such envelopes. habitats to be preassembled on Earth and used as a
stage in a space rocket, they by necessity followed the
In the following work we look at thin shell transparent morphological principles that drove rocket design: in
structures as possible observation modules in space most case a cigar shaped aluminum body.
habitats or as the domed component for a colony on the
moon or another planet. For such structures the internal Alternative variants of this model have been scarce. With
pressure is not only a load but their shaping force as well, technological capacity and vision still associating rockets
i.e. they are de-facto inflatables. We investigate their and space habitats, it is not difficult to see how the
feasibility based on available technologies, such as inferred function still controls form making in space
lobed balloons. Other sources of technological transfer architecture.
are ETFE (ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer)
cushions, safety laminate foils, and hi-tech laminate sails
design. We further develop the basic idea of using lobed
transparent membranes in space habitats through
several case studies. We would finally like to spur a
discussion about design process as it relates to inflatable
structures.

INTRODUCTION

The protracted acceptance of Form follows function

liberated design in the last century from the dogma of
stylistic formalism, while in a fascinating way, introducing
a dogma of its own. Universally accepted by the rapidly
multiplying design disciplines, it was often territorialized
onto a familiar manifestation of a function and precluded
invention, in much the same way the incessant tinkering Fig. 1 Space travel fiction
with classic orders had stifled creativity before. Even
areas of design, which would seemingly be immune to Old pictures from the pioneering years of space era show
settled ideas, like automotive and aeronautic, paid at extensive glazing. But the reality is very different.
times homage to obsolete functional expressions. A Apertures of space habitats are sparing and look like the
familiar example are wheeled transportation vehicles. portholes of deep-sea submersibles. Such similarity has
Despite an significant century long design evolution, a structural reason – both underwater and space vehicles
they are still, according to a study by the MIT Media Lab, are pressurized vessels resisting external or internal
following the paradigm of “brick on wheels.” Similarly, pressure. Incorporating flat glazing in the walls of both
the traditional rigid (aluminum alloy) or the newer lobed super-pressure balloons. Structural analysis of
expandable space habitats is difficult, bulky, and costly. lobed structures was performed in a number of works
In comparison, the windows of large aquariums, connected to the NASA Ultra Long Duration Balloon
withstanding pressure comparable to the internal Project. The deployment stability and patterning was
pressure of a space station, have a mass comparable to a successively improved [8,9,10].
space station module. The fundamental cause of
unsatisfactory mechanical properties of transparent The materials we refer to in our design proposal are
materials is on atomic level. Moreover, often constructed described in their manufacturers! data sheets [11, 22]
flat for pragmatic reasons, the shape of such containers and in various papers on inflatable structures [16].
is far from the optimal for pressurized vessel walls.
APPROACH
The optimal shape for pressurized vessels is provided by
the Thin Shells Theory [29]. Thin shells theory describes This work is essentially a series of proposals for
shells with no bending stiffness – membranes. The constructing transparent envelopes for space and
equilibrium shape of pressurized thin shells is always planetary environment. The proposed designs consist of
curved, and the stress in the shell is directly proportional airtight skin formed from transparent materials with a low
to curvature radius. To keep optical distortion within an elastic modulus and a large capacity for plastic
acceptable range, a curving transparent shell must be elongation, and restraint tendons made from materials
sufficiently thin. That led us to the idea of transparent with a high elastic modulus.
membranes as the replacement of flat glazing.
One of our goals is to provide a feasibility study for the
Engineered membrane structures have a number of integration of transparent inflatable structures in space
advantages for space applications, notably their low mass habitats. We have focused on a simple structural model
and compact volume when stowed for launch [1]. An demonstrating that a tendon restrained plastic film will
increasing interest towards such structures as of late is maintain the pressure of artificial atmosphere in a space
boosted by some private initiatives for inflatable space module. A number of issues arise during developing the
habitats [2] and the proto development of space tourism work concerning material properties, space environment
[21]. factors, deploying procedure etc. We will touch briefly on
most of them but the scope of possible questions is too
A typical inflatable space module shell consists of a large to be covered within this discussion.
number of layers. Bladders form redundant air seals. The
internal pressure is resisted by woven straps of fiber Our study is based on a simple model suggested in [15],
material, e.g. Kevlar or Vectran, that form the structural on the proven technology of pumpkin balloon design
restraint layer. Micrometeoroid, debris, and radiation (Fig.3), and structural analysis of membrane design in
shielding is incorporated into the outer layers [3 - 6]. terrestrial architectural practice. A range of possible
materials for the transparent membrane, which we will
discuss later in this study, is provided by off-the-shelf
commercial technology: polyester foil laminates.
Sometimes called safety laminates, they are widely used
in terrestrial architecture and automotive industry for
securing and modifying the radiant properties of glazing.
Our goal of incorporating expansive translucent walls
enveloping observation decks in space habitats is
illustrated through a couple of case studies. In these we
introduce webbing patterns significantly different from
the meridional tendons of a pumpkin shape.

Fig. 2 The multi-layer inflatable shell of TransHab

[NASA]
A structural scheme consisting of an airtight skin and
webbing (tendons) made of high tensile strength fiber
was utilized in another class of advanced inflatables – the
 Fig. 5 Flat plate and membrane under uniform
normal load (pressure)
An alternative of formfinding from scratch is the design
based on generic, already well analyzed, and proven in
Fig. 3 Lobed inflatable – ULDB test model practice shapes. For our design we have chosen lobed
inflatable structures, or in more general terms, tendon
restraint pneumatic structures. In the following analysis
we use the results of pumpkin balloon studies, as well as
thin shell theory in general.

Placing a flaccid structure under a uniform normal load

develops the elastica curve. [8] points out its analogy to
the catenary shape, which is developed by placing a
flaccid string under a constant gravity load. The related
surface of revolution is known as isotensoid, or natural
balloon shape.

Pumpkin balloons consist of meridional tendons that

constrain a thin, highly curved plastic surface. The
isotensoid is a spheroidal shape that carries stress only in
one direction under uniform internal pressure. In this
shape, the pressure loads are carried almost entirely by
meridional stresses in the shell and the circumferential
Fig. 4 Elastica shape cupola stresses in the film are very small.
Our project aims to highlight the new potentials existing
for architecture by the reprioritization of form-affecting A familiar approach in membrane theory is reducing the
forces on built structures. It explores the use and 3-D problem to an equivalent 2-D problem [13].
recombination of well known but less used structural Considering locally the lobe as a cylindrical sector (fig.4)
principles, like tensegrity and pneumatics, and novel we can estimate the stress in the membrane !:
materials, to channel these forces along rarely used
paths and arrive at a new architectural morphology. RP
!= , (1)
SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL MODEL OF LOBED t
MEMBRANE
where R is the local radius, P is differential pressure, and
Membrane structures have negligible bending stiffness t is the thickness of the membrane. Equation (1) is
and can carry load only in tension. This fact has two known as a boiler equation. In other words the
consequences: 1. Equilibrium shape attained under membrane tension is directly proportional to the radius of
uniform internal pressure is not arbitrary. It must be curvature of the surface.
derived through a process of membrane formfinding. 2.
Optimum structural efficiency is achieved by means of
optimization of material properties utilization – pure
tension, in contrast to bending in flat glazing, for
instance.
 where c is the chord of the lobe (see Fig 14). We
assume the length of c to be equal to the initial width of
the gore pattern (Fig. 11). Let us look at the case when
the lobe is formatted entirely by film stretching. Using
the first three terms in the Maclaurin series for the inverse
sine:

1 3 1 5 c
arcsin x = x + x + x , where x =
6 40 2R

and solve it for the lobe radius, R. The expression for R is

Fig. 6 Transition from 3D to 2D model [13] more complex than in [14] but produces a closer
approximation even on large strain:
The principle behind the tendon restraint lobed
structures is to use a lightweight film as a gas barrier and
c
strong reinforcing tendons for pressure confinement. R= (3)
Roughly speaking, increasing the curvature by forming ("1 / 6 + 1 / 36 + 0.3!
lobes has the effect of transferring most of the load to 2
the tendons. Since materials with extremely high tensile
0.15
strength are available in the form of filaments, such
arrangement will have optimal structural efficiency. By substituting for R in the boiler equation (1) and
assuming P = const we derive the equation for stress in
The differential pressure in a typical terrestrial inflatable - terms of strain
ETFE cushions - is a few hundred Pascal. The internal
pressure in a space habitat would be close to normal
"+ Pc (4)
(#1 / 6 + 1 / 36 + 0.3!
atmospheric pressure 70 – 100 kP. To decrease the
membrane stresses that have to resist given pressure, it 2t
is necessary to proportionally decrease the radius of the 0.15
surface curvature. Using lobed shapes as the inflated
membrane reduces tension and allows the use of a thin Because stress/strain curve for polymer films is available
membrane to maintain the desired low mass and high as a diagram we can plot it together with graph of (4) and
flexibility. find solution for the equilibrium state as a crossing point
of two graphs.

Fig. 7 Lobe section and arch to chord ratio

A cyclic symmetric lobed inflatable shape is assembled
from identical lobes. Each lobe is manufactured
according to a specified cutting-pattern, called gore, and
is initially flat. It attains its final sinclastic curved shape Fig. 8 Stress/strain of lobed membrane: stress
after visco-elastic deformation under pressurizing during decreases with elongation because of
inflation. decreasing lobe radius. The initial chord
length c is 1 m, the membrane thickness is 1
After the inflation, a lobe between tendons will have mm.
radius R, which is related to strain in the film, _ , by the
equation [14]:

c c
arcsin = ( 1 + å) (2)
2R 2R
Fig. 9 Strain/stress curve for typical polymer
films

MATERIALS

This paper does not aim to introduce new materials and

does not focus on extrapolation of material science
achievements. Our emphasis is structural optimization.
The material properties we use in our structural analysis
are those of commercially available materials. The critical
point of the proposed design is the ability of a few layers
of plastic foil or laminate to protect the integrity of an
inhabitable module from the harsh space environment.
Here we will briefly discuss space environment factors
concerning the used materials:
1. UV radiation
2. Thermal cycling
3. MMOD (MicroMeteoroid and Orbital Debris) Fig. 10 Spectral transmittance of uncoated
4. Radiation and coated polymer film [26].
5. Atomic oxygen
Heat transfer analysis of spacecrafts is very complex.
UV radiation is among the primary factors of space Thermal transfer balance will strongly depend on mission
environment causing polymer degradation during its environment – LEO, open space, Lunar or planetary
service life. Highly transparent membrane windows must surface. One specific problem of transparent cupola is
provide protection from vacuum UV radiation according the direct radiant energy transfer between the interior
to crew habitation standards. The high technology and open space. The cupola interior will lose radiant
security laminates provide ultra violet radiation control energy to the cold portions of the sky away from the sun
(transmittance reduction) of over 99% [17]. Vapor and earth and will receive radiant energy from direct solar
deposition thin film coating provides adequate UV radiation; planetary albedo and planetary IR shine [19].
attenuation. Special attention is needed for UV
protection of tendon fibers to avoid degradation of its In conventional spacecrafts with controlled atmosphere,
mechanical properties. including inflatable ones, passive thermal control
depends on the selection of materials with specific
irradiative properties, in particular absorptivity/reflectivity
ratio. In a high transparency module radiant transmittance
control will play the same role. Adequate coating by
vapor deposit thin films modifies the radiant
transmittance of polymer membranes.

Defining emissivity _ as the ratio between the energy

radiated by the real surface at temperature T and the
blackbody emission at the same temperature:
 Ereal than aluminum or fused silica. Metals become the source
"= of secondary radiation when exposed to cosmic rays for
!T 4 an extended period. Protecting a crew against the
effects of Galactic Cosmic Radiation involved the
where Eb = Rate of Energy, W/m2 ! = 5.67X10- inclusion of hydrogen-rich materials, like polymers, and
8W/m2K4 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, T = Absolute the exclusion of metallic materials from the habitat
temperature, W/m2. And if [30] construction [32].
"+#+$ = 1
Atomic oxygen vulnerability of polymers is rare.
Fluoropolymers, Polyimides and Mylar, in that order,
where " = Absorptivity # = Reflectivity $ = Transmissivity,
have good resistance to atomic oxygen.
modifying transmissivity for short wavelength IR radiation
will effect the radiative balance with the environment
TRANSPARENT MEMBRANE
decreasing solar thermal flux and preventing
overheating.
Fluoropolymers. ETFE was chosen as the initial
baseline. Our earlier research proved the feasibility of a
Similar problem exists for any expansive glazing, even on
pressurized membrane vessel made of several layers of
earth. Overheating protection by means of selective
commercial 200 micron ETFE foil widely used in
filtering of incoming and outgoing IR radiation, combined
architectural pneumatic cushions. Despite its relatively
with thermal shield and active thermal control, may be the
low tensile strength it may be attractive due to its
possible solution for limiting the temperature within
flexibility and extreme capacity for plastic elongation, up
desired ranges. Selective wavelength filtering by a
to 800%. It is tolerant to space environment factors as
variety of vapor deposited thin films is a mature
most fluoropolymers. Some inherent opalescence,
technique in commercial sun protective foil
however may disturb the clarity of the view.
manufacturing. Conventional spacecraft windows made
of fused silica also utilize thin films coating for modifying
We considered different polymer films in the process of
radiant transmittance.
investigation. Further research and experimental studies
will be needed to select the most adequate materials. We
Vacuum is the perfect thermal insulator. Multi-layer
believe that multiple films laminates provide a more
insulation of closely spaced layers of aluminized Mylar or
plausible research direction than a possible “lucky strike”
Kapton is a part of the standard spacecraft thermal
discovery of a new material combining all the desired
control. A multi-layer lobbed membrane will have similar
properties.
characteristics when adequate thin film coating is
applied. A special case is the environment on planets
PIV (Tedlar) is routinely used in passenger aircrafts
with significant atmosphere. On Mars for example,
interior. We suggest it as the internal layer protecting the
because of the atmosphere, there is convective heat
multiyear envelope from the inside and as a fire barrier.
transfer on the surface. In contrast to vacuum
environment, additional thermal insulation will be needed
Polyester Mylar is the first material used in a space
for a Martian greenhouse.
inflatable – The Echo satellites in 1960. It is clear and has
excellent optical properties. Mylar laminates have a better
MMOD MicroMeteoroid and Orbital Debris risk is a tough
tear resistance, but also a limited flexibility.
problem for thin shell structures. Nevertheless, polymer
laminates are suggested for Multilayered Micrometeorite
Polyimide film can be laminated, metallized, formed or
protection. According to [27] ”Empirical studies on MLI
adhesive coated. Its high mechanical and thermal stability
[Multilayered Insulation] have shown that it can provide
make it the preferred material for the majority of inflatable
the same impact protection as an aluminum bumper, but
space structures. It also does not suffer from radiation
at 13 percent of the aluminum mass, per unit area.” The
damage. Kapton insulated wiring has been widely used
mechanism of absorbing high-speed projectiles includes
in civil and military avionics, however it was later found to
the destruction of the first layer and absorbing the
have very poor resistance to mechanical wear, mainly
particles cloud by the next layers. We expect that a multi
abrasion within cable harnesses due to aircraft
layer inflatable membrane will work in a similar way. To
movement.
enhance MMOD protection we envision a retractable
shield in our example described further. In terrestrial
applications polyester laminates are used commercially Physical and Thermal Properties of
for impact reinforcement of glazing [18]. Kapton(R) Type VN Film
Property 4
Ionizing radiation in space consists predominantly of Ultimate Tensile MPa 231
light charged nuclei. Materials containing light atoms, like Ultimate Elongation, % 82
hydrogen, are more effective protection against Tear Strength-Propagating N 0.58
radiation. Therefore, polymers offer better protection
Tear Strength-Initial N 46.9 TENDONS
Folding Endurance (MIT),x103 cycles 5
The structural efficiency of tendon restraint pressurized
Density, g/cc 1.42 vessels is achieved by utilizing high tensile strength
Flammability , [standard] 94V-0 filamentary materials. Such arrangements date at least as
Tab. 1 Typical polyimide data far back as the Goddard fuel tank made out of soft
aluminum and reinforced by piano-wire webbing, and the
As a fenestration material it has a significant disadvantage first hydrogen balloon of Charles costing gas bag and
– poor transparency and a yellow-brown color. cable net. Prospective materials such as nanotubes are
also highly anisotropic and can carry unidirectional load,
Fluorinated polyimide films offer "the best of the two lending themselves such a use.
worlds!. LaRC™-CP1 and LaRC™-CP2 polyimides
provide superior physical properties over a wide Below is a brief summary of the features of the so called
temperature range and in a number of harsh super-fibers, which can be used as tendon restraint
environments. These fluorinated polyimides may be material
dissolved readily in a number of solvents for use in
various applications such as castings and coatings.
Tendon fibers
Competing polyimide materials have less UV resistance PBO (Zylon)
and are not as transparent as CP1 and CP2. CP1 and Highest strength-to-weight ratio of any fiber
CP2 are superior for long-duration, space-based Highest resistance to heat of among high
applications where transparency is needed for modulus fibers (decomposes at 1200°F)
functionality. CP1 has been tested and is rated for a10 Negligible creep
year life in GEO. It was developed by NASA and Poor abrasion resistance
Produced under License to SRS Technologies. It has Should be protected against degradation from
light sources
only one disadvantage, cost: $1750.00 per pound of
unprocessed powder [24]. ARAMID (Kevlar, Twaron, Technora)
Excellent strength-to-weight ratio
CP1 Film Properties (Space Qualified) Excellent resistance to heat (chars at 800°
F/427° C)
Film Color (%T at
Negligible creep
500nm/1 mil film) Pale Yellow to Colorless
Susceptible to axial compression fatigue
Film Density 1.434 g/cc Poor abrasion resistance
Glass Transition LCP (Vectran)
Temperature 263°C
Excellent strength-to-weight ratio
Polymer Decomposition Zero creep
Temperature (TGA) 530°C Excellent flex fatigue resistance
Refractive Index 1.58 Good abrasion resistance
High resistance to heat (melting point of
UV Cut Off (0.2 mil film) 320 nm
626°F/330°C)
Imide IR Bands 1780, 1725, and 745/cm
Specific Heat. Cp (at The UV stability of highly tensile fibers is unsatisfactory
25°C) 1.094 J/g°C thus special measures to prevent degradation must be
Tensile Strength 14.5 ksi taken. Kevlar fibers in laminate sails lose up to 50% of
their initial strength within 6 months exposed to terrestrial
Tensile Modulus 315 ksi
UV.
Solar Absorptance. Full
Spectrum (Uncoated
Film) 0.072 (0.25 mil) Of Special interest for space applications are carbon
Solar Absorptance. Full fibers because of their UV stability in combination with
Spectrum (Coated Film. their excellent mechanical properties and moderate
Aluminum) 0.106 (0.25 mil) price.
IR Emittance.
Hemispherical, 300K TENSILE TENSILE
(Uncoated Film) 0.194 (0.25 mil) TYPE OF STRENGTH ELONGA ATTION MODULUS
IR Emittance. FIBER psi x106 BREAK (%) psi x106
Hemispherical, 300K
Kevlar 22 2.4 850
(Coated Film. Aluminum) 0.03
Carbon 23 1.5 1480
Tab. 2 CP1 Film Properties [25]. Zylon 42 2.5 2000
Vectran 23 3.3 525
Tab, 3 Mechanical properties of fibers used in
restraint tendons [16]
EVALUATION

Here is a brief list of possible applications for the tendon

restraint translucent/transparent membrane structures
described so far:

• Attraction for a space hotel – orbital belvedere

• Greenhouses for space or planetary environments
• Observation cupola for space stations
• Large span transparent dome for planetary bases
• “Second skin” over planetary habitats

CASE STUDIES

ELASTICA SHAPE CUPOLA

Fig. 11 Integration of elastica cupola in
This 16-leaf daisy is aimed to provide the ultimate conventional space module airlock.
panoramic view from an orbital space hotel. Minimal visual This project directly borrows its structural scheme from a
obstructions, combined with weightlessness, will create lobed balloon. It consists of 16 sectors (lobes) spaced at
the perception of sky walking. 1 m along the equator. Assuming s/c ratio 1.2 (see Fig.
6), in equation (2) results in a value of 0.57 m for the lobe
radius. The internal pressure is 100 kP. The
corresponding stress may be obtained by referring to the
diagrams on Fig. 7 and Fig 8.

Fig. 12 Gore patterning

The membrane material is polyester laminate in
combination with fluoropolymer. Gores are sealed edge-
to-edge. Sealing methods are well developed by
inflatables manufacturers. Tendons use Kevlar – carbon
unidirectional tapes welded on the gore seams. Similar
tape is used in laminate sails design.
 Tendon stress may be estimated assuming uniform
tension. The area of equatorial section is 23.3 m2 at 100
kP pressure. 16 tendons must bear 2330 kN. At a safety
factor of 5, the allowable stress will be 500 MP for
Kevlar/carbon fiber. The cross section of tendons will be
0.005 m2. Each tendon is 6.6 m long. The entire mass of
the webbing, including the terminals and the protection
cover, is less than 100 kg (180 lb).

Polymer film mass estimation: the non-stretched

membrane area is 83 m2. Five layers of 1 mm each make
0.415 m3. The average density of used polymers is
~1450 kg/m3. Adding 5 % for seams results in 660 kg or
1455 lb for the polymer envelope. . Adding airlock,
rigidizable MMOD and thermal shield and some internal
structure the mass of the module will not exceed 2 metric
tons. The usable volume of the module is ~40 m3 or 20
Fig. 13 Equatorial section of elastica shape m3/ton.
cupola
A thin membrane shell is vulnerable not only on the
Assuming 20% elongation on equilibrium and membrane outside but from the inside. Any sharp object hurled at
thickness of 1 mm, the stress will be 50 MP according to the plastic wall may damage it. In TansHab the multi layer
film data [12], if the lobe radius is 580 mm and the internal bladder is protected from the inside by an abrasion
pressure is 100 kP. However, that implies a safety factor resistant layer and a fire barrier. The inner layer of PVF
of 1. The safety factor must be at least 4. Resolving the may be used for the same purpose in a multi-layer
design as a multiyear membrane follows a common transparent envelope. While its contribution to carrying
technique for producing architectural cushions. Spacing the pressure load will be negligible, some differential
apart layers allows them to act as micrometeorite and pressure will have to be applied to introduce enough
debris shielding [5]. The safety factor is achieved both by prestress. Inverting the differential pressure will reverse
additional layers and by the extended elongation the curvature of the inner layer forming a kind of a
capacity of ETFE film. The possibility for decreasing the bumper between the interior and the primary structure
curvature radius locally through expansion must be membrane.
provided. In the proposed design every membrane layer
is restrained by an independent set of tendons (Fig. 6). A retractable shield arranged around the cupola will
deliver additional protection. It will consist of TranHab
style protective layers but instead of an open foam
spacer it will include a foam rigidizable structure. Since
the orbital debris threat and free oxygen erosion are not
omni directional, a retractable shield will effect protection
even when not fully deployed.

STRUCTURE: TENSEGRITY

So far we explored and attempted to define the use of

transparency/translucency in space architecture through
materials and their local behaviors and patterns. What are
then the morphological possibilities as a whole for space
structures enveloped by those materials?

The inflatable strand of space design morphology has

traditionally resulted in bulbous shapes identifiable in
standalone or clustered cupola. Those have captured
and often monopolized the imagination of science and
Fig. 14 Multi layer lobed structure – only three art visionaries and become a familiar image whenever the
layers are shown futuristic, or space architecture topic is brought up. For
Cascade pressure in the gaps between layers should be another approach to the tectonic challenges of space
maintained to keep stresses equal for all layers. architecture we turn to a structural principle embodying
pizzazz but limited applicability in terrestrial applications.
Continuous tension – discontinuous compression
(tensegrity) provides opportunities of hybridization with
transparent tensile surface materials. It seems uniquely HOTEL AT THE END OF THE UNIVERSE
suitable to take advantage of the unique conditions of
interplanetary environment. Conditions of lower gravity Our Hotel at the End of the Universe does not bend time
would help such structures distribute stress more like the related establishment from the book by Douglas
efficiently due to the isolation of the forces of tension Adams. To an extent, it does bend our time tested
and compression. A major advantage is the manner in terrestrial understanding of structural principles, or at
which a tensegrity is disassembled and stowed for least helps broaden its scope.
transportation, and its speed of deployment upon arrival.
Built on the tensegrity principle, all components of this
Another significant fact is the correlation between the design contribute synergetically to its structural stability.
tendons of a tensegrity and the tensile character of For the purpose of easier description, however, we can
stresses in membranes albeit applied in a complex separate it into three subsystems.
surface geometric systems, rather than a linear one.
Thus it becomes possible to exchange locally groups of The first one, a tension-compression skeleton, is a
simple linear tendons with membrane surfaces to classical tensegrity structure made of stiff trussed
stunning effects. We are currently looking at a particular compression struts and cable tendons. The trusses are
example described below. arranged along the spatial diagonals of three latitudinaly
layered square antiprisms with a=10m. The structure is
Practically, inhabited space inflatables include some rigid kept in dynamic stability by cable rigging attached to the
elements i.e. they are hybrid structures. As exemplified ends of the struts.
by the TransHab concept, most of the designs
incorporate a rigid central core comprising the airlocks, Secondly, the outer cable rigging serves as the support
infrastructure and equipment. An expandable shell is structure of an exterior membrane layer. Its make up
arranged around the rigid core. Exploring the synergies recalls a windsurfing sail: the perimeter, made out of
between membrane and tensegrity design in space, we layered Nextel is less elastic and sturdier, hence it is
arrived at a tensegrity exo- or endo-skeleton for our opaque to translucent. The translucent middle portion is
modules. made out of several layers of fluorpolymer.

GEODESIC WEBBING The morphogenetic nucleus, a polyhedral (antiprism)

core, is outlined by an inner rigging belt, forming the third
Another development idea is to explore an alternative to generative subsystem. It becomes the supporting
the meridional/circumferential restraint webbing patterns. outline for the inhabited internal envelope of the
The webbing of lobed inflatables can also follow structure. It is constructed out of several layers of
geodesic lines. The intended application of this Vectran silicone composite which follows the outline of
approach is in the design of inflatable geodesic the antiprisms. The envelope is further articulated by
structures. If the patterning polygons are regular, the roughly conical “bays” made of translucent material, like
local curvature of the membrane becomes nearly laminated Mylar/CP1 membrane. This way the inhabited
spherical. In that case the pressure stress will be half as envelope takes advantage of both transparent and
much as in the case of a locally cylindrical curvature. We opaque perimeter areas creating greater variety in the
plan a detailed investigation of a geodesic restrained surface treatment to allow more flexibility for a practical
inflatable structures in future works. layout of the interior.
Fig. 15 Hotel at the End of the Universe:
morphogenetic sequence.
Following a basic principle of MMOD protection the
design incorporates multilayered tensioned membranes
The hotel thus creates two envelopes with different as protective external envelope. That arrangement has
pressurization. The exterior one (negligible low two advantages: it eliminates the problems of gas
pressure) acts as the overall protection barrier to leakage, and replaces the linear tension cables with
micrometeoric dust, UV radiation, etc. The interior one is stressed skin surfaces.
the actual habitat where the needs of space tourists are
taken care of.
 conceptual justification for such a search comes from an
unusual source: recent cytological theories uphold that
mechanical behaviour in living cells is consistent with the
tensegrity model. [25] Maybe we could export cellular
structure to the level of cosmic habitats?

DISCUSSION

The governing force for terrestrial architecture is gravity.

Weight is not only the main load, but the force upon
which the structural integrity of a building usually
depends on. For space architecture such a governing
force is the internal pressure of the artificial atmosphere
within the envelope. This is true even for structures on
celestial bodies with low atmosphere and low gravity
such as the Moon or Mars. The architectonic intuition of
people living in the relatively strong gravitational field of
the Earth is well trained to design structures to not only
withstand but relay gravity to buried foundations. We
have no such notation, we could say gestalt, concerning
atmospheric pressure because only differential pressure
may be perceived.

The above rationale have recently forced space

designers to take a second look at pneumatics, long
neglected out of a combination of misunderstandings
and disastrous mishaps. Traditional pneumatic shapes,
like spheres, cylinders, and regular polyhedra lend
themselves well to a generative force acting normal to
their walls. Ironically for such a futuristic field,
Fig. 16 Hotel at the End of the Universe – tensegrity accumulated inertia kicked in once again and this
antprism defines the space between the traditionalism presented us with forms, which are often a
external protective layer and an inhabitable combination of spherical, cylindrical and conical
core. derivatives.

Since in a typical design process conceptual design

goes before calculations, structural intuition lies at the
heart of structural conceptions. We likely lack an inherent
intuitive concept about the scale of forces shaping
pneumatic structures. That may be the explanation for
the scarce variety of inflatable structures, manifested in a
set of generic shapes. The physical restriction on
possible equilibrium shapes of pressurized thin walled
shells can!t be the sole reason for such a monotony.

Structural calculations usually verify or fine tune the

shape already created by the designer. A remarkable
exception to that scenario is the method of formfinding in
membrane structures design – a well developed branch
of terrestrial architecture [31]. In a heuristic process,
Fig. 17 Hotel at the End of the Universe – detail physical models are used side by side with numerical
algorithms in the conceptual design stage, and may be
As a structural principle, which transforms the gravity utilized to derive non-intuitive forms providing both
loads defining traditional built structures on Earth into architectural sense and structural efficiency.
tension and compression within a closed system,
tensegrity has demonstrated its potential for use in
space. We would like to draw attention to the great
variety of forms, which would emanate from the blending
and interaction between tensegrity and pneumatic
construction methods. A curious impetus and
Fig. 18 Carbon fiber tape reinforced laminate
sails – visual metaphor of form follows force
principle [UK- Halsey Tape-Drive® Sail Design]

CONCLUSIONS

From a structural point of view, it is possible to provide

pressure confinement of normal artificial atmosphere at
an adequate safety factor within highly transparent
habitats made up of plastic film acting as gas barrier, and
restraint net composed of high tensile strength tendons.
Situating such tendon restraint structures in space or on
planets with low-pressure atmosphere is possible, but a
number of environmental problems still need be solved.

A habitat shell made of a few translucent layers may look

rather delicate to serve as a shelter, however we find no
insurmountable obstacles for using this technique as an
envelope of inflatable cupola or a space hotel.

Although several highly transparent film materials look

promising in this context, the long-term behavior of most
polymers is generally unknown. A highly charged issue
is the micrometeoroid and orbital debris vulnerability of
polymer film laminates. One possible solution lies in the
use of external retractable shields. Recent projects
witness the effective MMOD protection capacity of
multilayered polymer films. Nevertheless extensive
experimental studies are needed to verify that possibility.

Lobed pneumatics display extended possibilities for

morphing generic pneumatic shapes. Non-trivial
inflatable shapes can be derived by tailoring filament
restraint webbing over a deformable bladder. The
genesis of novel inflatable shapes will be greatly
enhanced by combining simplified form/stress
estimation, interactive formfinding software and the
development of heuristic approaches to physical
modeling.

The estimated cost for lobed structures designs is lower

than the current expandable space habitats due to their
enhanced structural efficiency and simplified design
process.
 Composites and Inflatable Structures 3 of 16
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33. Definitions, Acronyms, Abbreviations
Antiprism:
*An n-sided antiprism is a polyhedron composed
of two parallel copies of some particular n-sided
polygon, connected by an alternating band of
triangles. [Wikipedia]
* An antiprism is a prismatoid whose bases are
congruent and whose lateral faces are
congruent triangles.[PlanetMath.org]
* An n-sided antiprism is a polyhedron
composed of two parallel copies of some
particular n-sided polygon, connected by an
alternating band of triangles.[ScienceDaily]