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Behaviour of Piled Rafts with Piles of Different Lengths and Diameters under
Vertical Loading

H.S.W Chow1 and J.C. Small2

1
BE, MES, MBA, PhD Research Student, Department of Civil Engineering, The
University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; Ph (61)-2-9351-4393; Fax (61)-2-9351-
3343; email: [email protected]
2
BSc(Eng), PhD, F.I.E. Aust, MASCE, Associate Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; Ph (61)-2-9351-2128;
Fax (61)-2-9351-3343; email: [email protected]

Abstract

The use of piled raft foundations has become popular in recent years as the system
can act as a settlement reducer. When the raft is subjected to non-uniform loadings,
piles of different diameters and lengths may be required to prevent the foundation
from rotatingand to reduce the differential settlement . This paper presents a finite
layer method used for the analysis of piled rafts with piles of different lengths and
diameters. The soil is divided into horizontal layers with different material properties
and only vertical loads may be applied to the raft. Interactions between raft-soil-pile
are computed. Results from the present method are shown to agree closely with those
from the finite element method.

Introduction

The use of a piled raft as the foundation for buildings has proven to be an effective
and economic way to control total and differential settlements as well as improving
bearing capacities. In the conventional foundation design approach, piles are
designed to carry the majority of the load, therefore, the behaviour of the foundation
system is governed by the pile group. In the design of a piled raft, the load is shared
between the raft and piles and it is necessary to take the complex soil-structure
interaction effects into consideration.

The behaviour of piled raft foundations has been studied by many researchers and
different techniques have been developed for the analyses in past decades. The
boundary element method which treated the raft as a plate, the piles as a series of

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springs and the soil as an elastic continuum was used by Brown and Weisner (1975),
Chow (1986), Kuwabara (1989), Poulos (1994) and Sinha (1997). A combination of
finite element and boundary element methods for the analyses were used by Franke
et al. (1994), Russo and Viggiani (1998) and Mendonca and Paiva (2003). In this
approach, the raft is treated as a bending plate modeled by the finite element method
and the soil and pile are modeled by the boundary element method. Three-
dimensional finite element techniques have been used by Zhang et al. (1991),
Katzenbach and Reul (1997), and Reul and Randolph (2003 and 2004).
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Finite Layer methods (Small and Booker 1986) were developed to compute the
deflections of horizontally layered soil. This technique can be used for the analysis of
piled rafts as it is capable of taking into account the raft-soil-pile interactions and has
been demonstrated for vertical loadings (Ta and Small 1996), horizontal loadings
(Zhang and Small 2000) and for rafts supported by different lengths of piles (Small
et al. 2004).

When a raft is subjected to non-uniform loadings, the overall and differential

settlements and the tilting of the building are of special importance (Reul and
Randolph 2004). In order to minimize the settlements and to resist tilting of the
foundation, piles of larger diameters or longer lengths may be required underneath
the heavily loaded areas. A good example for this case is the Messeturm in Frankfurt,
Germany, where longer piles were used to support the central core and shorter piles
were used to support the outer walls of the building.

Method of Analysis

The analysis of a piled raft is carried out by a combination of finite layer and finite
element methods. The foundation system can be separated into two free body
diagrams (an isolated raft and a pile group) as shown in Figure 1. The raft is
subjected to external forces and contact stresses between the piles or the soil and the
raft. The pile group is subjected to the interface forces transferred from the raft to the
pile. The raft is divided into a number of rectangular elements with each pile head
fitted within one of the elements and the pile is divided into a number of rod
elements.

Analysis of Pile Group

The pile is assumed to have a solid cross-section and is divided into a series of two
noded linear elements. The soil is divided into several layers which correspond to the
pile elements. The skin friction along the pile shaft is treated as a series of ring loads
acting on each soil interface and the force at the pile base is treated as a uniform
circular load with the same diameter as the pile as shown in Figure 2.

To carry out the analysis, four different interactions have to be considered. Figure 3
shows the following interactions:
(i) Pile-to-Pile – deflection of an unloaded pile due to an adjacent loaded
pile

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(ii) Pile-to-Soil – deflection of the soil surface due to a loaded pile

(iii) Soil-to-Pile – deflection of a pile due to the loaded soil surface
(iv) Soil-to-Soil – deflection of the soil surface due to another loaded area on
the soil surface
Pz External forces
Mx
tr
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{Pr}
Interface forces between the Interface forces between the
raft and piles raft and the soil

Interface forces transferred from raft to pile heads and soil surface

{Psp}
x
z
Soil Ring loads
acting on soil
nodes
Pile
Circular loads acting
on pile base
Figure 1. A raft and a pile group subjected to external forces and interface
forces in all directions (the y direction is not shown)

Material 1

Material 2

Ring loads applied

at interfaces
Sub-layer Material 3

Uniform base Single layer (if

soil uniform) or
multiple layers

Rough rigid base

Figure 2. Single pile showing ring loads and uniform base load
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(a) Pile to pile (b) Pile to soil

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(c) Soil to pile (d) Soil to soil

Figure 3. Interactions computed for soil and piles

The pile-to-pile interaction can be obtained by using the stiffness approach (Zhang
and Small, 2000). A pair of piles being considered in the calculation can have
different lengths and diameters. Firstly, the influence matrix for the soil has to be
computed by applying a unit ring load at each soil layer along the pile shaft and a
unit uniform load at the pile base. Deflections computed at the locations of these ring
and base loads form the columns of the soil influence matrix [Isoil]. Deflections of the
soil at the locations of the ring or uniform loads can be expressed as

{ s}= [Isoil]{fs} (1)

where fs are the forces acting at the soil interfaces, and s are the deflections of the
soil at the locations of ring or uniform loads. The soil stiffness matrix [Ksoil] can be
obtained by inverting the soil influence matrix.

[Ksoil] { s} = {fs} (2)

1
where [Ksoil] = [Isoil]

Once the soil stiffness matrix has been constructed, we can assemble the pile
stiffness matrix [Kpile] for the two piles under consideration. The pile stiffness matrix
is simply the sum of individual element stiffness matrices.

[Kpile]{ p} = {fp}+{P} (3)

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where p are the deflections at the nodes of the pile, fp are the forces applied at the
nodes and P is the load vector of the applied load at the pile heads. By assuming that
no slip occurs along the pile shaft, the deflection of the soil and deflection at the pile
shaft are the same and the forces acting on the soil and along the pile shaft have
opposite sign. The pile-soil stiffness can be formed by adding the pile stiffness
matrix to the soil stiffness matrix.

[Ksoil + Kpile] { } = {P} (4)

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The deflection of an unloaded pile due to the adjacent loaded pile can then be
computed by applying a unit load at the pile head.

The pile-to-soil interaction can be obtained by using the same stiffness approach as
for the pile-to-pile interaction. However, the stiffness matrix is set up for a single pile
only. By solving the equations, the magnitudes of the ring loads along the pile shaft
and circular load at the pile base can be computed. Then these loads are applied back
to the soil to solve for the surface deflections at the desired positions.

The interaction between the uniformly loaded soil surface and an unloaded pile (soil-
to-pile) can be computed by the use of the interaction method. Considering the soil
first, the deflection of the soil consists of two components – (i) due to the ring loads
along the pile shaft and (ii) the surface load applied to the soil. The deflection due to
the ring load can be computed by Equation 1, whilst the deflection due to the surface
load can be computed simply by the finite layer method.

{ s}= [Isoil]{fs} + { l} (5)

where l are the deflections of the soil due to the surface load. The pile influence
matrix can be obtained by applying unit loads at each node to a pinned pile (pinned
at the pile head). The deflection of the pile can be written as

{ p} = [Ipile]{fp} + a (6)

where is the vertical translation for the pinned raft due to the surface load applied
on the soil and a = (1,1,1,…,1)T. The deflection of the pile can be computed by
combining these two equations with the assumption that no slip occurs along the pile
shaft (i.e. s = p and fs = - fp) and writing

I soil + I pile a f
l
= (7)
0 aT 0

The interaction between a uniformly loaded surface and the unloaded soil surface
(soil-to-soil) can be computed by applying a uniform rectangular load on the surface
to calculate the deflection of the soil at desired positions.

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By applying rectangular unit pressures onto the soil surface or a pile head
corresponding to the raft elements, deflections at the centre of each element as a
result of different interactions can be obtained. These deflections form the columns
of the influence matrix for the soil and piles [Isp]. The deflection at the centres of the
elements due to the contact pressures between the raft and piles or soil can be
expressed as
{ sp} = [Isp]{Fsp} (8)
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where sp are the deflections of the soil at the interface between the raft and soil and
raft and pile, Fsp are the contact pressures at the interface.

Analysis of Raft
The raft is analysed by the use of eight noded isoparametric elements with forty-eight
degrees of freedom. The contact stresses between the raft and soil surface are
assumed to be a uniform rectangular block of pressure acting vertically on each raft
element. The actual displacement at the centre of each raft element (Zhang and Small,
1991) can be computed and expressed as

{ r} = [Ir] {Fr} + a +b y+ c x + a (9)

where
[Ir] = influence matrix of the pinned raft
{Fr} = contact stresses on the raft elements
{ a} = vector of deflections at the centre of each raft element for the
pinned raft under the applied load
= vertical translation of the pinned raft
x, y = rigid body rotations of the pinned raft in the x and y directions
a = (1,1,1,….,1)T
b = (x1 – xp, x2 – xp, …, xi – xp, …, xn – xp)T
c = (y1 – yp, y2 – yp, …, yi – yp, …, yn – yp)T
xp, yp = coordinates of the pin
xi, yi = coordinates of the centres of each raft element

To obtain the influence matrix of the raft [Ir], the raft must be pinned at one node to
restrain it from undergoing rigid body rotations and translations. Deflections at the
centre of all elements can be calculated by applying a unit pressure to any single
element. These deflections form the columns of the influence matrix of the raft.

Analysis of Piled Raft

Considering the equilibrium equations for the total applied forces and total moments
due to the applied load, we may obtain another three equilibrium equations
T
F = Ptot
T
F = Mx (10)
T
F = My

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= (A1, A2, A3, … , An)T

= [!1(y1- yp), A2(y2 – yp), A3(y3 – yp), …, An(yn – yp)]
= [!1(x1- yp), A2(x2 – yp), A3(x3 – yp), …, An(xn – xp)]

where Ptot are the total loads applied to the raft and Mx and My are the total moments
due to the applied load about the pin in the x and y directions respectively. A1 to An
correspond to the areas of each raft element if the raft consists of n elements.
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By assuming that r = sp and Fr = -Fsp and combining of Equations (8) to (10), we

can obtain the following set of equations to solve for the contact pressures F on the
raft, the vertical translation and the two rigid body rotations x and y.

[I sp + Ir ] a b c F a
T
0 0 0 Ptot
T
= (11)
0 0 0 x Mx
T
0 0 0 y My

Results

Analysis of Piled Raft

The analysis of a piled raft foundation is illustrated in an example where the piles are
longer at one end than at the other. Figure 4 shows the layout of the piled raft, and
properties of the piles and raft are given in Table 1. The soil modulus and Poisson’s
ratio chosen correspond to typical values for a clay with undrained shear strength of
approximately 50 kPa, while the modulus and Poisson’s ratio typical of concrete with
a compressive strength of about 25 MPa have been chosen for the raft and the piles.
Two cases were analysed, for case 1 – the raft is supported by piles of equal length (9
m) with a uniform pressure of 100 kPa applied to left half of the raft and another
uniform pressure of 25 kPa applied to the other half of the raft, for case 2, the same
pressures as in case 1 are applied but the raft is supported with piles of different
diameters and lengths.

Table 1: Properties used in the analysis of the piled raft

Parameters and Dimensions Soil Pile Raft

Young’s Modulus, E (MPa) 10 25,000 25,000
Poisson’s Ratio, " 0.35 - 0.15
Thickness of Raft, tr (m) - - 0.8
Dimensions of Raft, B x W (m) - - 20 x 10
Diameter of Piles, D (m): Case 1 – - 0.4 -
Case 2 – 0.6 (long) / 0.4 (short)
Length of Piles, L (m): Case 1 – - 9 -
Case 2 – 21 (long) / 7 (short)

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Figure 5 shows the comparison between the results of the present program (finite
layer (FL)) and a finite element (FE) program for displacement of the piled raft along
the centre line (the x-axis in Figure 4). The overall depth of the clay layer is assumed
to be 28 m below the raft. It can be seen that the finite element results are slightly
smaller than the finite layer results. This may be due to several assumptions made in
the finite layer analyses (i) soil layers are of infinite lateral extent, (ii) assumption of
a perfectly smooth base of the raft and pile heads are not rigidly attached to the raft,
(iii) horizontal movements are neglected. Computational times were measured as 4.5
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mins and 17.8 mins for the present program and the finite element program
respectively.
y
0.3w 0.2w

0.2w

0.3w
w x

Uniform load

L/2

Rough, rigid base

Figure 4. Raft with piles of unequal length

Figure 6 shows the vertical displacements for the case where the piles are of equal
length (Case 1) and longer and larger beneath the heavy load (Case 2). The overall
depth of the clay layer used for the analysis is assumed to be 40 m below the raft. As
was expected, the raft tilts towards the more heavily loaded area of the raft. It is
clearly shown that when the raft is subjected to non-uniform loads, increasing the
pile length and diameter can help to minimize the total and differential displacements,
and the tilt.

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X-coord. (m)
0 5 10 15 20 25
0.000

0.010

Displacement (m)
0.020

0.030
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0.040

0.050

0.060

FL FE

Figure 5. Comparison of vertical displacement along the centre line of the raft
(x-axis) with equal pile lengths

X-coord. (m)
0 5 10 15 20 25
0.000

0.010
Displacement (m)

0.020

0.030

0.040

0.050

0.060

CASE 1 CA SE 2

Figure 6. Comparison of vertical displacement along the centre line of

a raft with different lengths

Case History

Messeturm Building, Frankfurt, 1988-91

The 256.5 m high Messeturm is one of the tallest office buildings in Frankfurt. The
foundation was founded on a stiff, overconsolidated Frankfurt clay underlain by
Frankfurt limestone.

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In order to reduce settlements and excessive tilt of the foundation, a piled-raft was
designed as the foundation for the building such that part of the structural load could
be transferred to the deeper soil layers (Katzenbach et al 2000). The raft is 58.8 m x
58.8 m supported by 64 bored piles. The raft is founded at a depth of 14 m below the
ground level and the thickness varies from 3 m at the edge to 6 m at the centre. The
piles have a diameter of 1.3m and are arranged in three concentric rings. The pile
length varies from 26.9 m in the outer ring through 30.9 m in the middle ring and to
34.9 m in the inner ring. The effective load applied to the raft was 1570 MN. Figure
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7 shows the layout of the piled raft foundation. The piles in the middle and outer
rings are designed to carry the outer load bearing walls of the building to minimize
tilting and the piles in the inner circles are designed to carry the loads of the centre
core of the building (Franke, 1991).

The piled raft was installed with extensive instrumentation to monitor the behaviour.
These measurements include settlement of the foundation, loads at pile heads and
along the pile shafts and contact pressures on the raft.

Exterior corner
Core column

14 m
6m

34.9 m

64 piles 1.3 m dia.

58.8 m
28 piles 26.9 m long
20 piles 30.9 m long
16 piles 34.9 m long

Figure 7. Piled raft foundation for Messeturm Building

The measured settlement at the centre of the raft upon completion in 1990 was 85
mm (Katzenbach et al 2000), increasing to 115 mm in 1995 about 5 years after
completion (Tamaro, 1996), and reaching 144 mm in 1998 (Reul and Randolph,
2003).

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Analysis of the piled raft was carried out by the present program and comparisons
were made with the measurements. The thicknesses of Frankfurt Clay and Frankfurt
Limestone for the anaylsis have been assumed to be 74.8 m and 55.2 m respectively
(Reul and Randolph, 2003). Young’s modulus of Frankfurt clay can be calculated
using the following expression based on back-analysis (Reul, 2000):

) z 30 &
E = 45 + tanh' $ + 1 × 0.7 z (12)
( 15 %
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where E is Young’s modulus (MPa) and z is the depth (m) below the surface. Table 2
summarizes the parameters used for the analysis.

Table 2: Properties of materials used in the finite layer analyses (Reul and Randolph,
2003)

Material Young’s Modulus, E Poisson’s Ratio, "

Frankfurt Clay Equation (12) 0.15
Frankfurt Limestone 2000 0.25
Piles 25000 0.20
Raft 34000 0.20

The analysis of the foundation was carried out by the present program based on the
finite layer method. To save computation time, one-quarter of the foundation has
been modeled as shown in Figure 8 for the analysis. At the axes of symmetry, the raft
is restrained from rotations in the appropriate directions. As symmetry was assumed
in the analysis, tilting of the foundation has been neglected.

Figure 8. Finite Element Mesh for the Analysis of Messeturm

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Figure 9 shows the settlement contours of the foundation. The computed settlement
at the centre of the raft amounts to 139 mm which shows good agreement with the
measurement of 144 mm in 1998 ((Reul and Randolph, 2003). As there is a lack of
support underneath the central region of the foundation, some small differential
settlements were observed from centre to edge in the finite layer analysis.
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Distance from the centre line of raft (m)

30
12.2 cm
12.4 cm
25
12.6 cm

20 12.8 cm

15

10

0 13.8 cm 13.6 cm 13.4 13.2 13.0 cm

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Distance from the centre line of raft (m)

Figure 9. Contours of settlement for Messeturm raft by Finite Layer Analysis

Conclusion

The behaviour of a piled raft is governed by the soil-structure interactions. When

non-uniform loads are applied to the piled raft, the use of long piles underneath the
heavily loaded area can help to minimize the risk of tilting as well as to reduce the
overall and differential settlements.

The Finite Layer Method can be used for the analysis of piled rafts supported by
piles of different lengths and diameters and subjected to non-uniform loadings.
Comparisons of actual measurements and the results of finite element calculations
have shown that the finite layer method can provide reasonably accurate solutions. It
is very easy to prepare data for the finite layer analysis as only the pile locations and
properties need to be specified, and the piles discretised into linear elements. This
method is more efficient than the conventional three-dimensional finite element
analysis. The computational time for the finite layer analysis is about four times less
than for the finite element analysis in the example presented here.

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References

Brown, P. T. and Weisner, T. J. (1975). “The behaviour of uniformly loaded piled

strip footings.” Soils and Foundations, 15(4)13-21.

Chow, Y. K. (1986). “Analysis of vertically loaded pile groups.” Int. Jl. for
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 10, 59-72.
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Franke, E. (1991). “Measurements beneath piled rafts.” ENPC Conf. on Deep Found.,
Paris.

Franke, E., Lutz, B. and El-Mossallamy, Y. (1994). “Measurements and numerical

modeling of high rise building foundations on Frankfurt Clay.” Geot. Spec. Pub. 40,
ASCE 2, 1325-1336

Katzenbach, R. and Reul, O. (1997). “Design and performance of piled rafts.”

Proceedings of the 14th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechs. And Gound Eng., Hamburg, 4,
2253-2256.

Katzenbach, R., Arslan, U. and Moormann C. (2000). “Chapter 13, Piled raft
foundation projects in Germany.” in Design applications of raft foundations, J. A.
Hemsley, Editor, Thomas Telford, London, pp.323-391

Kuwabara, F. (1989). “An Elastic Analysis for Piled Raft Foundations in a

Homogeneous Soil.” Soils and Foundations, 28(1)82-92

Mendonca, A. V. and Paiva, J. B. (2003). “ An elastostatic FEM/BEM analysis of

vertically loaded raft and piled raft foundation.” Engineering Analysis with Boundary
Elements, 27, 919-933

Poulos, H. G. (1994). “An approximate numerical analysis of pile-raft interaction.”

Int. Jl. for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 18(2) 73-92.

Reul, O. (2000). In-situ measurements and numerical studies on the bearing

behaviour of piled rafts. PhD thesis, Darmstadt University of Technology, Germany.

Reul, O. and Randolph, M. F. (2003). “Piled rafts in overconsolidated clay:

comparison of in-situ measurements and numerical analyses.” Geotechnique,
53(3)301-315.

Reul, O. and Randolph, M. F. (2004). “Design Strategies for Piled Rafts Subjected to
Nonuniform Vertical Loading.” Jl. of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Eng.,
ASCE, 130(1)1-11

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Russo, G. and Viggiani, C. (1998), “Factors Controlling Soil-Structure Interaction

for Piled Rafts.” Darmstadt Geotechnics, Darmstadt Univ. of Technology, No.
4,297-322

Sinha, J. (1997) Piled raft foundations subjected to swelling and shrinking soils. PhD
thesis, University of Sydney, Australia

Small, J. C. and Booker, J. R. (1986) “Finite layer analysis of layered elastic

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materials using a Flexibility Approach, Part 2 - Circular and Rectangular Loadings.”

Int. Jl. for Numerical Methods in Eng., 23, 959-978.

Small, J. C. and Zhang, H. H. (2000). “Piled raft foundations subjected to general

loadings.” Developments in Theoretical Geomechnics, Smith & Carter (eds),
Balkema, Rotterdam, 431-445.

Small, J. C. and Zhang, H. H. and Chow, H. (2004). “Behaviour of piled rafts with
piles of different lengths and diameters.” Proceedings of the 9th Australia New
Zealand Conference on Geomechanics, Auckland, Vol. 1,123-129.

Ta, L. D. and Small, J. C. (1996). “Analysis of piled raft systems in layered soils.”
Int. Jl. for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 20,57-72.

Tamaro, G. J. and Brand, A. H. (1995). “Messeturm, foundations for the tallest

building in Europe.” Design and Performance of Mat Foundations, State-of-the-Art
Review, Ed. By E. J. Ulrich, Amer. Conc. Inst. SP-152, 161-185.

Tamaro, G. J. (1996). “Foundation engineers: why do we need them?” 1996 Martin S.

Kapp Lecture, ASCE, New York.

Zhang, B. Q. and Small, J. C. (1991) “Finite layer analysis of soil-raft interaction.”

Research Report R642, School of Civil and Mining Eng., University of Sydney,
Australia.

Zhang, H. H. and Small, J. C. (2000). “Analysis of axially and laterally loaded pile
groups embedded in layered soils.” Proceedings of the 8th Australia New Zealand
Conference on Geomechanics, Hobart, Vol. 1, 475-483.

Zhang, G. M., Lee, I. K. and Zhao, X. H. (1991). “Interactive analysis of behaviour

of raft-pile foundations.” Proceedings of the Int. Conf. on Geotech. Eng. For Coastal
Development – Theory and Practice on Soft Ground – GEO-COAST’91. 3-6 Sept
Yokohama, 1,759-764

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KEYWORDS:

piled-raft, settlement, piles of different size, layered soil, case study

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