ASSIGNMENT NO.

Material Science and Engineering

SUBMITTED TO:-

Madam Asia Farukh

SUBMITTED BY:-

Muhammad Usama Zubair

REISTRATION NO:-

UW-19-CHE-BSC-025

SUBMISSION DATE:-

4th-November-2019

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

WAH ENGINEERING COLLEGE

 TOPICS :
1.Definition:

2.Phase Equilibrium in Thermodynamics:

3. Phase Diagram:

4.Gibbs’s Phase Rule:

5.Degree of Freedom:

6.Phase Rule:

7.Phase Rule Uses:

8.Limitations of Phase Rule:

9.Eutectic Phase Diagram:

10.Types of Phase Diagrams:

11.Phase Diagram Used:

12.Criterion for Phase Equilibrium:

13.The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation:

14.Application of Phase Equilibrium:

15.Phase Diagram Called Equilibrium Diagram :

16.Importance of Phase Diagram :

17.Metallurgy:

18.Phase Diagram in Metallurgy:

19.Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram :

20.Aluminium-Copper Phase Diagram:

21.Phase Equilibrium in Industry:

22.Laguerre-Gaussian Method:
23.Thermodynamics in Phase Equilibrium:

24.Molecular Thermodynamics for Phase Equilibria in Mixtures:

25.Introduction :

26. Molecular Thermodynamics of Aqueous Protein Precipitation:

27. Phase Equilibria and Transport in Polymer Solutions:

28.Properties of Ionic Liquids for Chemical Engineering Applications:

26. Ceramic Phase Equilibrium Data :

27. Application of Phase-Equilibrium Data to the Estimation of Oil and Gas

Reserves :

28. High-Pressure Phase Equilibrium Methodologies Applied to Food

Systems:

29.Dangers in interpretation of Phase Diagram:

 ❖ Application of Phase Equilibrium

➢ Definition:-
“Phase equilibrium is the study of the equilibrium which exists between or within
different states of matter namely solid, liquid and gas. Equilibrium is defined as a stage
when chemical potential of any component present in the system stays steady with time.”

➢ Phase Equilibrium in Thermodynamics:-

“Phase equilibrium is the state of thermodynamic system, in which the different phases of the
substance having common boundary surfaces do not vary quantitatively.”

➢ PHASE DIAGRAM :

“A phase diagram in physical chemistry, engineering, mineralogy,

and materials science is a type of chart used to show conditions
(pressure,temperature,volume, etc.) at which thermodynamically
distinct occur and coexist at equilibrium.”
 ➢ Gibbs’s Phase Rule:
“The Gibbs phase rule gives the relationship between the number of phases and components in a
given alloy under equilibrium conditions at constant pressure where n is the number of
thermodynamic degrees of freedom in the system.”

➢ Degree of Freedom:
“The degrees of freedom of a system describe the dependency of parameters such as temperature
and pressure on each other The critical point can only exist at one temperature and pressure for a
substance or system and thus the degrees of freedom at any critical point is zero.”

➢ Phase Rule :-
“The Phase Rule describes the possible number of degrees of freedom in a system at
equilibrium, in terms of the number of separate phases and the number of chemical constituents
in the system.”

➢ Use of Phase Rule:-

1. Gibbs' Phase Rule provides the theoretical foundation, based in thermodynamics
2. For characterizing the chemical state of a system, and predicting the equilibrium relations of
the phases
3. In (minerals, melts, liquids, vapors) present as a function of physical conditions such as
pressure and temperature.
 ➢ Limitations of Phase Rule:-
“Limitations of Phase Rule. Phase rule is applicable only for those systems which are in
equilibrium. It is not much use for those systems which attain the equilibrium state very slowly.”

➢ Eutectic Phase Diagram:

Eutectic point - the point on a phase diagram where the maximum
number of allowable phases are in equilibrium. Incongruent
melting - melting wherein a phase melts to a liquid with a
composition different from the solid and produces a solid of
different composition to the original solid.

➢ Types of Phase Diagrams:-

There are three main types of binary phase diagrams

1. Complete solid and liquid solution diagram.

2. Eutectic diagram (including Eutectic diagram with partial solubility of the components in
solid state and Eutectic diagram with intermetallic compound) Peritectic diagram.

➢ Phase Diagram Used:-

“Phase Diagrams. Triple point : A phase diagram is a graph showing the limiting conditions for
solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a single substance or of a mixture of substances while
undergoing changes in pressure and temperature or in some other combination of variables, such
as solubility and temperature.”

➢ Criterion for Phase Equilibrium:-

“The thermodynamic criterion for phase equilibrium is simple. It is based upon the chemical
potentials of the components in a system. For simplicity, consider a system with only one
component. For the overall system to be in equilibrium, the chemical potential of the compound
in each phase present must be the same.”

➢ The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation:-

“The Clapeyron equation can be developed further for phase equilibria involving the gas phase
as one of the phases. This is the case for either sublimation (solid → gas) or vaporization (liquid
→ gas).”
 ➢ Application of Phase Equilibrium:-
“One of the primary functions of an equilibrium phase diagram
is to graphically show the extent and boundaries of
composition-temperature regions within which an alloy exists
as a single phase or as two phases”.

➢ Phase Diagram Called Equilibrium Diagram:-

“It's because phase diagrams apply to the equilibrium state of a system. ... In each of these cases
the force impelling such changes is the lowering of the Gibbs free energy in order that the system
attain its lowest energy, namely, equilibrium.”

➢ Importance of Phase Diagram:-

“Phase diagrams are graphical representations of the phases present in a particular alloy being
held at a particular temperature. Phase diagrams can be used to predict the phase changes that
have occurred in an alloy that has been exposed to a particular heat treatment process.”
 ➢ Metallurgy:-
“Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and
chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures,
which are called alloys. Metallurgy is used to separate metals from their ore.”

➢ Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram:-

An example of a commonly used phase diagram is the iron-carbon phase
diagram, which is used to understand the phases present in steel. The
amount of carbon present in an iron-carbon alloy, in weight percent, is
plotted on the x-axis and temperature is plotted on the y-axis. Each
region, or phase field, within a phase diagram indicates the phase or
phases present for a particular alloy composition and temperature. For
the iron-carbon phase diagram, the phase fields of interest are the ferrite,
cementite, austenite, ferrite + cementite, ferrite + austenite, and austenite
+ cementite phase fields.

➢ Laguerre-Gaussian Method:-
“Laguerre-Gaussian beam can transfer orbital momentum to a trapped particle, inducing it to
rotate around the optical axis. For this reason, Laguerre-Gaussian optical tweezers are also
known as “optical vortices”.
 ➢ Aluminium-Copper Phase Diagram:-
Another commonly used phase diagram is the aluminum-copper phase diagram, which is useful
for understanding precipitation strengthening in Al-Cu alloys. The amount of copper present in an
alloy is plotted on the x-axis. The phase fields of interest are the Al, θ, and Al+θ phase fields on
the left hand side.

➢ Phase Equilibrium in Industry:-

Phase equilibria play a central role in the design
of most processes in the chemical and oil & gas
industry, such as the separation of liquid
mixtures by distillation or liquid-liquid
extraction, the absorption of gas components
using a solvent, and enhanced oil recovery
processes. The activities carried out in the
Section of Chemical Engineering encompass
both experimental aspects and thermodynamic modelling, as well as chemical process design.

Another field of expertise consists in analysis and conceptual process design of offshore topside
processes and oil/water gravity settling in the presence of production chemicals.

➢ Phase Diagram in Metallurgy:-

In metallurgy, the term phase is used to refer to a physically
homogeneous state of matter, where the phase has a certain
chemical composition, and a distinct type of atomic bonding and
arrangement of elements. Within an alloy, two or more different
phases can be present at the same time. The images below show the
phases in aluminum-copper and iron-carbon alloys.The phases
present in an alloy depend on the alloy composition and the thermal
treatment to which the alloy has been exposed heat treatment process.
 ➢ Thermodynamics in Phase Equilibrium:-
“Continuous thermodynamics is applied to phase-equilibrium calculations for mixtures of fatty
alcohols as an example of industrial interest. The use of Γ-distributions together with the method
of Laguerre-Gaussian quadrature is tested with flash calculations of systems containing methanol
and a homologous series of long chain n-alcohols and with simulation of a two-column
separation of alcohols.”

➢ Molecular Thermodynamics for Phase Equilibria in Mixtures:-

➢ Introduction:-
The goal of our research is to increase fundamental understanding of the equilibrium properties of
solutions; we need this understanding not only for scientific purposes but also for providing the
basic information required in chemical-process and chemical-product design. We are particularly
concerned with (1) properties of aqueous multi-protein solutions, to induce or prevent aggregation
or precipitation.

(2) properties of polymer solutions, especially those containing block copolymers or gels for
design of contact lenses and drug-delivery devices

(3) properties of ionic liquids with application to batteries, separation processes and for media to
promote synthesis of selective chemical and biochemical products.

➢ Molecular Thermodynamics of Aqueous Protein Precipitation:-

“To establish a rational design procedure for a large-scale process to separate aqueous protein
mixtures by selective precipitation using one (or more) salts; and to study fibril formation, a
probable cause of Alzheimer’s disease.”
 ➢ Phase Equilibria and Transport in Polymer Solutions:-
“Polymers are used for manufacturing numerous products including packaging materials, drug-
delivery devices and contact lenses. Process and product design often require quantitative
information on phase equilibria and diffusivities for solvent-polymer systems.”

➢ Properties of Ionic Liquids for Chemical Engineering Applications:-

“Despite much progress in recent years, little is known about the properties of ionic liquids; an
ionic liquid is a molten salt whose melting temperature is near (or below) 25 °C. Such liquids are
of interest as “green” solvents because, at ordinary temperatures, they have essentially zero
vapor pressure.”

➢ Ceramic Phase Equilibrium Data:-

Advanced ceramics and inorganic materials are critically enabling
elements in devices and systems across many technology sectors,
such as telecommunications and energy. Every deliberate effort to
develop a new ceramic or to improve processing begins with
chemical composition and the conditions (temperature, pressure)
under which pure compounds and their mixtures are stable (an
equilibrium phase diagram.

➢ Dangers in interpretation of phase diagrams:-

“An essential point to remember in phase diagrams is that during normal or fast cooling,
results may not be as expected in the diagram. Both the theory and the experiments to construct
phase diagrams rely on the assumption that the system is in equilibrium,”
 ➢ High-Pressure Phase Equilibrium Methodologies Applied to Food
Systems:-
“In addition to new methods to produce safe, healthy and shelf-stable products, food industries
aim to recover valuable products or to separate undesirable compounds from natural food
matrices.”

➢ Application of Phase-Equilibrium Data to the Estimation of Oil and Gas

Reserves:-
A critical, analysis is made of the application of equilibrium data to the estimation of reserves. The
advantages and shortcomings of the material-balance method are discussed. Indications are given
as to the field information which appears to be necessary for making such estimates.

Schilthuis and Katz have also made calculations of this nature for several Mid Continent fields-
basing, however, their calculations upon laboratory measurements of hydrocarbon behavior.
Recently, Huntington discussed several hypothetical cases, and indicated the significant effects of
edge-water encroachment and the presence of gas-cap areas upon these calculations

REFRENCES:

• Clugston, Michael J. (1990). "A mathematical verification of the second law of

thermodynamics from the entropy of mixing". Journal of Chemical Education. 67 (3):
203. Bibcode:1990JChEd..67Q.203C. doi:10.1021/ed067p203.
• Davies, C. W. (1962). Ion Association. Butterworths.
• Grenthe, I.; Wanner, H. "Guidelines for the extrapolation to zero ionic strength"
• Rossotti, F. J. C.; Rossotti, H. (1961). The Determination of Stability Constants. McGraw-
Hill.
• Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry. 1994. ISBN 0-89925-457-8. Missing or empty |
• Beck, M. T.; Nagypál, I. (1990). Chemistry of Complex Equilibria (2nd ed.). Budapest:
Akadémiai Kaidó.
• "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1967". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
• Eigen, Manfred (December 11, 1967). "Immeasurably fast reactions" (PDF). Nobel Prize.
Retrieved November 2,2019.
• Atkins, Peter W.; Jones, Loretta. Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight (2nd
ed.). ISBN 0-7167-9903-0.
• IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online
corrected version: (2006–) "chemical equilibrium". doi:10.1351/goldbook.C01023
• Berthollet, C.L. (1803). Essai de statique chimique
• Brady, James E. Chemistry: Matter and Its Changes (4th ed.). Fred Senese. ISBN 0-471-
21517-1.
• Schultz, Mary Jane (1999). "Why Equilibrium? Understanding Entropy of
Mixing". Journal of Chemical Education. 76 (10):
1391. Bibcode:1999JChEd..76.1391S. doi:10.1021/ed076p1391.
• https://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/kc.html
• Gordon, Sanford; McBride, Bonnie J. (1994). "Computer Program for Calculation of
Complex Chemical Equilibrium Compositions and Applications" (PDF). NASA Reference
publication 1311. NASA.
• Smith, W. R.; Missen, R. W. (1991). Chemical Reaction Equilibrium Analysis: Theory and
Algorithms (Reprinted ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing.
• "Mathtrek Systems".
• The diagram was created with the program HySS
• "Chemical Equilibrium with Applications". NASA. Retrieved October 5, 2019.
• C. Kittel, H. Kroemer (1980). "9". Thermal Physics (2 ed.). W. H. Freeman
Company. ISBN 0-7167-1088-9.