From

Participation to Collaboration:
Reflections on the co-creation of innovative
business ideas
Cara Broadleya, Katherine Championa, Michael Pierre Johnsonb , Lynn-Sayers McHattiea
a
The Glasgow School of Art, UK
b
University of Abertay, UK
*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Design-led innovation interventions are predicated on the importance of

establishing complex disciplinary collaborations. This paper reflects on the effects of
different co-design methods to support knowledge exchange and the co-creation of
new business ideas with multidisciplinary participants. It draws on data collected
from sandpit style events entitled Chiasma, undertaken as part of the knowledge
exchange hub, Design in Action (DiA) in which co-design methods were used to bring
designers, entrepreneurs, and academics together to develop innovative business
ideas in Scotland. Employing a thematic analysis of idea generation, team formation,
and idea development, we suggest that a more nuanced range of methods, tools, and
techniques can strengthen multidisciplinary engagement and participation. We argue
that such approaches can be enhanced by designers and researchers’ shifting focus
from co-design methods to supporting collaborative mindsets in knowledge
exchange towards innovation.

Keywords: co-design methods; knowledge exchange; collaboration; design-led innovation

1. Introduction
The research presented in this paper is drawn from a case study of the Design in Action (DiA)
knowledge exchange hub, which has been in operation since June 2012. DiA is one of four
UK hubs, funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, and draws together six
universities and art and design institutions across Scotland. The key focus of DiA is
investigating design as a strategy for business growth in Scotland and the chosen approach is
the Chiasma method, which is a sandpit-style event for open innovation (Kearney &
McHattie, 2014). The term ‘Chiasma’ is taken from genetics meaning the exchange of
information between two chromosome strands, which is here used analogously to mean the

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0
International License.

1
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

exchange of ideas at the point of creation (Ballie & Prior, 2014). Chiasma brings together
multidisciplinary teams, from a range of business, design, and academic backgrounds, to
stimulate knowledge exchange and develop commercial ideas. At these 2–3 day residential
events, participants form teams around ideas aimed at addressing particular societal issues
and develop pitches for presentation before deciding to apply for up to £20,000 funding to
prototype and take the idea to market. During the Chiasma participants are introduced to
design-led thinking and provided with design methods, tools, and techniques, which aim to
support the co-creation of innovative business ideas.
The paper begins with a brief review of the literature regarding the growth of interest in
design-led innovation activities and their strategic use by Higher Education Institutes (HEIs)
in the development of SMEs. Attention is then drawn to a range of co-design methods
aimed at enhancing collaboration amongst multidisciplinary teams and supporting them in
developing solutions to creatively address complex societal challenges. Following the
presentation of a case study of the very first Chiasma event, a thematic analysis of the co-
design methods used across the subsequent twelve Chiasma events is presented. The paper
concludes with a summary of the initial research learnings, before highlighting limitations
and making recommendations for future research.

2. Scope of Context
2.1 SMEs and Knowledge Exchange
SMEs constitute more than 99 per cent of all private sector businesses, and, as well as
making a disproportionately large contribution to job creation, play a key role in driving
competition and stimulating innovation. They face considerable barriers to growth and
sustainability, however, and these have been identified as particularly acute for smaller
businesses as they have fewer resources available to overcome them (BIS, 2013).
In recent years the role of universities in economic growth and innovation has been
emphasised with increasing encouragement for them to become strategic actors in the
knowledge economy (Deiaco, Hughes, & McKelvey, 2012). Despite this, it has been argued
that the art, design, and humanities subjects have been somewhat neglected by formalised
knowledge exchange programmes between higher education and industry, with their
traditional focus being on Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)
subjects (Comunian, Gilmore, & Jacobi, 2013; Crossick 2006). The very linear models of
innovation which have emerged from models of technology transfer, associated with these
subject areas, are also seen to neglect the reality of virtuous cycles of multiple engagements
and new knowledge generated through the act of collaboration, often across disciplines
(Davenport, 2013).
Unsurprisingly, developing fruitful exchanges of knowledge between universities and
industry is complex, and multiple barriers to engagement are apparent. Within the Dowling
Review (2015) it was found that there is a degree of commonality in the barriers faced by

2
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

both businesses and academia when becoming involved in knowledge exchange, but due to
their operation in spheres with distinct financial and cultural pressures, there were
differentiated attitudes towards collaboration (BIS, 2015: 28). Some of the common barriers
related to a lack of mutual trust and understanding, different timescales and limited
resources for collaboration (BIS, 2015, p.29). Further challenges can be seen around
bringing together diverse teams; different languages; negotiating power relationships;
promoting the exchange of tacit knowledge; balancing risk and trust.
Although the nature of work within the design discipline is often naturally collaborative with
an emphasis on interdiscipinarity, there has been limited progress in finding ways to capture
methods, tools, and techniques for promoting good exchanges in order to replicate
successful relationships (Cruickshank, Whitham & Morris, 2012). Comunian et al. (2015)
advocate “third or shared spaces” as a crucial component for embedding people and
knowledge from academia and specialist knowledge in particular places. One key example
they give of such interventions was the 2011 Arts and Humanities Research Council funding
of Knowledge Exchange Hubs for the Creative Economy, which included the DiA Hub, from
which this paper’s focus is drawn.

2.2 Design-led Innovation

In 2005, former chairman of the UK Design Council, Sir George Cox, underlined how design-
led creativity can propel business strategies and help to revive the British economy (Cox,
2005). To implement new ideas and bring about innovative change, Cox emphasised the
social and commercial benefits of the design process, explaining that it “shapes ideas to
become practical and attractive propositions for users or customers” (2005, p.2). Eleven
years on from Cox’s assertions, the Design Council’s evaluations of the impact of design in a
number of sectors across the UK (2015) propose that ongoing economic growth can be
supported by integrating increasingly diverse perspectives and skills into design processes
(2015, p.4).
Design-led Innovation establishes creative coalitions of design practitioners, design
researchers, multidisciplinary experts, entrepreneurs, users, and communities (Norman &
Verganti, 2014). Drawing from the democratic, inclusive, and creative principles of co-
design, participatory design, and design thinking (Ehn, 1989, 1993; Sanders & Stappers,
2008), groups of people with a shared interest or collective motivation to address a complex
set of challenges collaborate together through stages of exploration, ideation, and iteration.
In their recent reflections, Sanders and Stappers assert that these practices allow for teams
to share and develop insights and ideas, which in turn can enable collective creativity to
inform innovative products, services, and systems (2014).
In unpacking design-led innovation in its introductory phase, Sanders and Stappers visualise
the fuzzy front end as an entanglement of complex, spontaneous, and iterative activities
(2008, p.6). They recognise that this broad and open-ended phase offers an exploratory
space for scoping the design context and clarifying research aims and questions. The fuzzy

3
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

front end supports designers in aligning their project with the needs of prospective end
users and thus frames and directs the process towards increasingly defined co-design stages
of concept development, testing, and production (Sanders & Stappers, 2008, p.6–7).

2.3 Supporting Collaboration: Methods, Tools, and Techniques

From these perspectives on the design process, success depends on the team’s capacity to
approach the problem from a user perspective (looking), visualise information (make things
visible), and rapidly evaluate ideas (prototyping) (Burns, Cottam, Vanstone, & Winhall, 2006,
p.18–19). Grounded in design practice, these approaches have spawned a wealth of creative
and generative methods constituting drawing, illustration, and three-dimensional making to
enhance communication and strategic idea generation within multidisciplinary teams and
render the design process more open to participation and development from a range of
stakeholders (Hanington & Martin, 2012; Sanders & Stappers, 2014).
Bjögvinsson, Ehn, and Hillgren (2012) cite various designed artefacts including prototypes,
mock-ups, and models as stimulating shared understandings between designers and
prospective end-users, and providing a route towards their framing of responsive design
solutions. This notion of collective knowledge is framed methodologically and materially by
Lucero, Vaajakallio, and Dalsgaard in their dialogue-labs studies (2012). Here, the designers
appropriate Eriksen's participatory design tools as basic materials (paper, clay, and pens) and
pre-designed images and artefacts (printed cards and models) (2009). Lucero et al. observe
that a diverse array of materials with varying levels of specificity and provocation gave way
to “a relaxed atmosphere since participants are not forced into activities they are not
comfortable with”, and stimulated “a structured but flexible way in order to spark dialogue
between the co-design participants and thus support idea generation” (2012, p.19–20).
Investigating participatory design games, Vaajakallio notes that the ambiguity of her co-
design workshop tools allowed their seamless adaptation in future sessions with diverse
participant groups (2012, p.83). Following these distinctions, tools and techniques can be
generic and transferable to subsequent design projects, or actively designed as field/project
specific (Eriksen, 2009; Lucero et al., 2012, p.6).
With these design-led innovation principles, practices, and methods in mind, we go on to set
out the methodological underpinnings of our approach.

3. Methodology in Practice
As shown in the diagram presented in Figure 1, this paper draws on data gathered from
multiple Chiasma events, thirteen in total, in order to reflect on the co-design methods
created for and used in the process. For the purposes of this paper a case study is applied to
the first Chiasma, as it can deal with multiple causation and complexity (Bell, 2005). A
further twelve Chiasma were delivered by DiA’s institutional partners according to their
agreed sectors: one in the sport sector, three in the food sector, three in the ICT sector,
three in the rural economies sector, and two additional in the wellbeing sector. The

4
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

methods, tools, and techniques used within these later events are used as subsequent ‘case
examples’ and provide material from which to carry out a thematic analysis on their effects
within Chiasma. This follows the distinction drawn by Yee (2010) who argues that such
snapshots can provide examples to help find underlying principles of the research methods
being used.
Our methodology concurs with Biggs' views of the case study as bridging creative practice
and research (2004). Building on concepts of experiential knowledge and the role of the
artefact in practice-based research, Biggs deconstructs this iterative interplay of research
approach and research context, and values generalisations derived from artists' and
designers' experiences of practice (2007, p.184). Advocating the case study method, Breslin
and Buchanan encourage design researchers to carefully and critically evaluate their practice
in order for “universal ideas to be extracted” (2008, p.38).

Figure 1 Methodology in Practice: drawing on data gathered from thirteen Chiasma in order to reflect
on the co-design methods created for and used in the process. Diagram by DiA (2016).

3.1 Data Gathering

The first event was held in February 2013 in Glasgow, and targeted the wellbeing sector,
focusing on the topic of type 2 diabetes. As part of designing this initial Chiasma, methods
of data capture were also prepared to best support the understanding and delivery of future
Chiasma. These included methods of observation by facilitators, providing each participant
with stickers identifying them by a colour and number, which participants attached to the
tools they had used during the Chiasma. The Chiasma Moodwall shown in Figure 2 was

5
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

employed to document participants’ emotional responses to each stage in relation to the

accompanying tools and techniques. This was supported by Exit Polls taken at the end of
each day on which participants wrote reflections on their high point, low point, most
valuable and most challenging moments they had experienced.

Figure 2 Chiasma Moodwall: timeline of activities, emotional scale, and colour-coded stickers used to
track participants experiences across the Chiasma. Photograph by DiA (2013).

The model of activities for the initial Chiasma was designed to take the participants through
three key stages, largely based on the Design Council’s model of the stages of the design
process, The Double Diamond (2007): 1) idea generation (discover/define), 2) team
formation, 3) idea development (develop/deliver). These provided the initial themes from
which to perform thematic analysis of the tools and techniques used in subsequent Chiasma.
Thematic analysis is particularly useful for researchers as it is a flexible method well suited to
large data sets and allows categories to emerge from the data collected (Creswell, 1994;
Miles & Huberman, 1994). Our reflections on the tools and techniques applied across the

6
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

Chiasma allow us to identify emergent themes that evaluate the impact of different co-
design methods in supporting collaboration for innovative business development.

4. Chiasma 1.1
For Chiasma 1.1, part of this process involved scoping the context of type 2 diabetes and
finding ways for activities to best represent these issues to the participants, who had a mix
of understanding and experience on the topic. As this was the first iteration of a Chiasma, a
variation of co-design methods were prepared and brought together to establish an initial
model.

4.1 Idea Generation

In the discover/define stage, participants were split into four rooms for an activity called
Design Whispers. Each room had a theme – learning, eating, living, treating – around which
participants were encouraged to discuss and map facts and statements in the context of
type 2 diabetes, develop user personas representing key issues, explore their hopes and
fears of living with diabetes, then brainstorm ideas on sticky notes responding to these
motivations. Participants moved between rooms for each of these stages to contribute to
each theme.
In the Exit Polls carried out, many participants cited the intensity of these activities and the
idea generation that followed as a high point of the first day of the Chiasma. Among
participants’ comments was recognition of a “positive atmosphere”, enjoying “learning
about how diabetes can affect people” (Chiasma 1.1 Participants, 2013), and valuing the
mapping and development of ideas from a person with diabetes’ perspective. Difficulties
were cited by participants in being able to focus during ideation, just when ideas were
flowing, as well as lacking the understanding of diabetes to fully represent people with the
condition.
The key concerns of the co-design methods at this stage of the Chiasma consisted of
representing issues around type 2 diabetes for discussion whilst allowing participants to
build relationships and generate ideas. The considerations designed into the activities
aimed to reinforce a visual flow from engaging with the topic of type 2 diabetes, to setting
user-centred briefs and opportunities that the ideas generated would address. As the ideas
were only briefly formed and written on sticky notes, they only provided a divergent process
of rapid idea generation.

4.2 Team Formation

The ideas were taken from each of the rooms and clustered into new emerging themes for
plenary discussion and team formation. Facilitators from each room presented the themes,
highlighting key ideas constituting potential briefs, before participants were asked to vote
for the most inspiring ideas with stickers. After protracted group discussion, the lead
facilitators asked for explicit teams to be set out by encouraging participants to commit to

7
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

headline themes; ensuring a designer was present in each emerging team. The teams were
then designated a separate room each and continued to develop the idea together.
Many participants cited this activity as a low point in the day as it was seen as “lacking
structure” (Chiasma 1.1 Participants, 2013), moved away from the previous activity’s focus
on core problems and needs around diabetes care, and was underpinned by a sense of
disparity amongst participants’ knowledge of the surrounding issues. This led to clashing
views within teams, overlaps of expertise in some teams, and gaps in skills for others, all of
which could be argued to have disrupted each team. Dividing the group into individual
rooms also had mixed effects. Some participants identified this separation as creating a
competitive dynamic between teams, inhibiting knowledge exchange, yet others felt that
the opportunity to focus on a specific idea was the most productive point in the day.
Aiming to stimulate connections and inspire team formation, the key concerns of the co-
design methods at this stage of the Chiasma were to expose participants to a range of
themes, support them to identify their own key areas of interest, and enhance their
awareness of participants with a common interest. Whilst the facilitators provided sticky
notes to cluster ideas and the participants voted with stickers in an attempt to demonstrate
visual thinking and democratic decision-making, participants commented that teams formed
without a useful understanding of the individual areas of expertise comprised by their
members, or their shared interest in the theme.

4.3 Idea Development

Following their formation, teams were encouraged to expand on their ideas and consider
their potential impact in contributing to diabetes care. The progress of idea development
differed greatly across the teams, but a suite of design tools – including storyboards,
network mapping exercises, and user personas – were provided on the second day as
printed templates, with instructions provided within a slideshow on a monitor. During idea
development, facilitators visited the teams for critical feedback and support in preparing
their final presentations.
A proportion of designers and participants demonstrated their familiarity with the tools and
completed the templates provided, applying their own methods in tandem. Other
participants were less confident when using the tools, often struggling to complete them or
to recognise their value in relation to their own expertise. These tools were largely used for
refining the teams’ concepts, but only partly informed how each team chose to present.
Participants also reflected that tools were introduced at too late a stage in the activities;
teams desired early idea refinement from which more considered business proposals could
be presented.
The key concerns with the co-design methods at this stage of the Chiasma were to enable
teams to explore, refine, and model aspects of their concepts. Having simple pre-designed
templates for complex activities allowed participants familiar with design tools to use them
with relative confidence, however those unfamiliar with them needed tutorials, and this

8
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

turned out to be a protracted process for facilitators. The focus of activity for these teams
appeared to be on questioning the rationale of co-design methods, tools, and techniques,
rather than developing the idea according to their own expertise. The variety of progress
made from team to team in their final presentations heightened a sense of skill gaps and the
lack of attention paid to the capabilities of the design participants.

5. Cross-Chiasma Reflections on Co-design Methods

An overview of the subsequent twelve Chiasma in chronological order of their delivery is
presented below in Table 1. The table lists the key co-design methods used within the
previously identified stages of idea generation, team formation, and idea development in
order to provide a consistent framework for comparison during thematic analysis.

Table 1 Co-design methods used across stages in subsequent twelve Chiasma.

Chiasma Co-design methods within Chiasma Stages
Idea Generation Team Formation Idea Development
1.2 Food: Building Film clips to Clustering themes. Paper prototyping
Opportunity Without represent issues. Drawing and materials.
Losing Sight – April Brainstorming on sticky pitching ideas.
2013 notes.
1.3 Rural: Made in Likert scale About.me profiles. Paper prototyping
Scotland – June 2013 provocations. Clustering themes. materials.
Card prompts and
statements.
Future headlines.
Brainstorming on sticky
notes.
1.4 Sport: Inclusion Video animation to Clustering themes. Paper prototyping
Outdoors – September represent issues. Participant materials.
2013 Card prompts and profile cards. Knowledge
statements. exchange cards.
User personas. Assigned design tools.
Future headlines.
Brainstorming on sticky
notes.
1.5 ICT: Beyond Mobile Likert Scale Clustering themes. Assigned design tools.
– February 2014 provocations. Participant Knowledge
Floppy disk prompts. profile cards. exchange cards.
Brainstorming on sticky
notes.
2.1 Food: The Canny Card prompts and Clustering themes. Business model canvas.
Consumer – April 2014 statements. Participant profile Paper prototyping
User personas. cards. materials.

9
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

Brainstorming on sticky
notes.
2.2 Wellbeing: Ageing Likert scale Clustering themes. Paper prototyping
Well – June 2014 Provocations. Participant profile materials.
Narrative drawing. cards. Assigned Design tools.
Card prompts and Participant avatar
statements. groupings.
Flag ideas over
narratives.
2.3 Rural: Sustaining Likert scale Clustering themes. Hat critical personas.
Rural Scotland – provocations. Participant profile Idea library card.
October 2014 Knowledge bank. cards. Design tools.
Inspiration cards. Team roles.
Brainstorming on sticky
notes.
2.4 ICT: Technology Likert scale Clustering themes. Participant feedback
Accelerator Chiasma – provocations. Participant profile cards.
January 2015 Knowledge bank. cards. Assigned Design tools.
Fast idea generator. Team roles cards.
Brainstorming on sticky
notes.
3.1 ICT: Creative Brainstorming on sticky Clustering themes. Participant feedback
Currencies – February notes. Participant profile cards.
2015 cards. Paper prototyping
materials.
3.2 Rural: Zero Waste Likert scale Clustering themes. Critical hat personas.
Scotland – March 2015 provocations. Participant profile Idea library card.
Knowledge bank. cards. Assigned Design tools.
Inspiration cards. Team roles cards.
Brainstorming on sticky
notes.
3.3 Food: Food Futures Likert scale Clustering themes. Critical hat personas.
– October 2015 provocations. Participant profile Idea library card.
Knowledge bank. cards. Assigned Design tools.
Inspiration cards.
Fast idea generator.
Brainstorming on sticky
notes.
3.4 Wellbeing: Likert scale Clustering themes. Paper prototyping
Surviving and Thriving provocations. Participant profile materials.
– November 2015 Knowledge bank cards. cards. Assigned Design tools.
Fast idea generator. Knowledge bank cards.
Brainstorming on black
canvas.

10
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

The following section summarises the methodological decisions and alterations made across
the subsequent twelve Chiasma. Reflecting on the information presented in Table 1, we
articulate three key findings – revealing participant insights and concerns, aligning interests
and expertise, and sharing the vision – that demonstrate the value of iteratively and
responsively developing co-design methods.

5.1 Revealing Participant Insights and Concerns

From the first Chiasma presented above, there was a key shift in approach in how the
contextual challenges were represented to participants. Prior to each Chiasma, the DiA
team carried out an intensive scoping period to gather key facts, trends, issues, and
organisations relevant to the chosen theme. Applying their design skills, the DiA team then
represented these through animated videos, fact cards, posters, and other tools, such as the
Sports Chiasma Fact Cards shown in Figure 3, and explored user perspectives within these
issues. This focus on explicating defined contextual issues surrounding each Chiasma theme
became less important to the wider process due to the DiA teams’ recognition that
participants often had strong associations, experience, or expertise in relation to the sectors
and issues.

Figure 3 Sports Chiasma Fact Cards: artefacts created by DiA team to represent key issues around the
Chiasma theme, and encourage participants’ insights in response. Photograph by DiA
(2013).

Representing the issues dynamically and authentically, expert speakers were also invited to
present at all Chiasma. As a result, later Chiasma activities focused on drawing out the
knowledge of participants through Likert Scale Provocations and discussions. Represented

11
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

by signage and printed statements, this activity, shown in Figure 4, allowed participants to
reflect in action on contextual issues and reveal their insights and concerns to the wider
group through physical movement. The dynamics of this activity provided participants with
an overview of the knowledge and expertise in the room, the positions of participants in
relation to the context, and skill sets that could be useful for developing ideas.

Figure 4 Likert Scale Provocations: activity designed to stimulate participants’ discussions around
contextual issues. The DiA team printed textual provocations and read these aloud, before
encouraging participants to move to the corner of the room that best represented their
response – strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree – and engaging the group in a
collective discussion on their varying perspectives. Photograph by DiA (2015).

5.2 Aligning Interests and Expertise

One of the major challenges within Chiasma was learning how to support effective team
formation towards successful funding applications for business development. In early
Chiasma, team formation was driven by issues expressed through service design tools and
techniques, which often led to service design solutions within teams that contained
disciplines unable to deliver such concepts. By introducing Participant Profile Cards and
Knowledge Bank Cards shown in Figure 5, the DiA team shifted the approach to render
participants’ knowledge, experience, skills, expertise, and interests more visible and
tangible. These tools aimed to reveal participants’ assets and empower them to strategically
construct their team to converge on a defined idea. As the Chiasma presented limited time
or scope for prototyping or testing ideas, facilitators commented on how the co-design
methods applied were often more effective in supporting participants to think divergently
rather than focusing on convergent processes. The challenge for teams in Chiasma was
therefore to demonstrate the potential for convergence in their final presentations. The

12
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

onus moved from facilitating activities for individual participants to engage with, to
providing the space and materials for participants to become active collaborators. While
this has not been uniformly successful across all the teams and presentations within
Chiasma, it is expressed here as a learning from DiA in delivering effective facilitation.

Figure 5 Participant Profile Cards and Knowledge Bank Cards: tools given to participants during day
01 and day 02 of Chiasma to assist in introductions, knowledge exchange, and making
connections. Photograph by DiA (2015).

5.3 Sharing the Vision

One of the major aims within Chiasma was to integrate designers into the process from the
start of idea generation to enhance design-led innovation throughout. Designers have
accounted for at least a third of all participants within each Chiasma. Prior to the event,
they are provided with a distinct brief to lead creative activities and distribute themselves
between the teams formed. Upon reflection, the dispersal of designers allowed for some
bespoke methods to be created within Chiasma, such as the Narrative Drawing activity
shown in Figure 6, as it was felt the design participants would be comfortable to visually
engage in drawing. Tools and techniques for idea development were provided within each
Chiasma, but whereas in the first few cases these were introduced as ways of developing
ideas, they were backgrounded in later Chiasma as potential methods to introduce if
needed, according to the design capabilities within each team. As in the first Chiasma, some
design participants demonstrated a familiarity and capacity to use the tools, others struggled
to appreciate their value, and a limited number sought to actively learn about and apply the
tools presented. Later Chiasma would replicate and repeat tools and techniques that were
intended to represent an identifiable DiA Chiasma toolkit, which focused on the emerging
importance of Participant Profile Cards and Knowledge Bank Cards.

13
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

Figure 6 Narrative Drawing: black paper table cloths, white marker pens, and flags used to stimulate
participants’ collective responses to contextual issues and represent their shared
perspectives. Photograph by DiA (2014).

Figure 7 Floppy Disk Prompt Cards: bespoke cards designed for ICT Chiasma to metaphorically
connect Chiasma tools and techniques to Chiasma theme. Photograph by DiA (2014).

14
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

These bespoke methods, such as the visual Narrative Drawing activities, Floppy Disk Prompt
Cards used in the first ICT Chiasma (Figure 7), and a range of playful icebreaker activities
were often differentiated as resonating activities within each Chiasma. Whilst this learning
was not explicitly applied across later Chiasma, the experiential differentiation from simply
completing sticky notes is seen as a valuable asset to co-design methods. The caution is that
this highlights a need for careful facilitation, such as demonstrating the activity beforehand,
allowing an iterative understanding of the purpose and effect of such visual methods. This
also brings the design and preparation of such methods into play, rather than rolling out a
prescriptive toolkit. The design and facilitation of such co-design methods brings much
more of a performative dimension (Johnson, 2016), tuning into more suitable appropriations
of such methods according to, not just participation, but active associations of interest,
collaboration and, ultimately, enrolment towards new business development.

6. Learnings on Knowledge Exchange within Design-led Innovation

From our case study descriptions and thematic analysis we have attempted to demonstrate
the conceptual and material nuances of the co-design methods applied across the thirteen
Chiasma held by DiA. Reflecting on the potential value of these tools and techniques for
participants and facilitators of knowledge exchange events, we go on to discuss the key
learnings gleaned from this research.

6.1 From Participation to Collaboration

Participants were encouraged to tailor their experience by integrating their skills,
techniques, and knowledge; therefore an ethos of openness was essential for the Chiasma
process. Set out in our presentation of Chiasma 1.1, the introduction of user-centred design
tools exposed the participants’ varying levels of familiarity with such methods, which
reinforced disciplinary boundaries and disrupted team collaboration. Critiquing the
proliferation of a range of toolkit resources that prescribe the use of creative methods
within defined stages of the design process (Aldersey-Williams, Bound, & Coleman, 1999;
Hanington & Martin, 2012; Helen Hamlyn Centre for Design, 2013; IDEO, 2002; Tassi, 2009),
we believe that participants’ sustained engagement is predicated on their ability to identify
with the aims of the process, interpreting and adapting each method in ways that are
meaningful for them.
Returning to Sanders and Stappers’ conceptualisation of the complexity and ambiguity
characterised by the fuzzy front end (2008) and Comunian et al.’s emphasis on the need for
shared spaces for knowledge exchange (2015), the openness of the Chiasma process sets the
scene for participants to jointly explore contextual challenges. As Chiasma coordination and
delivery progressed, the visual, material, and performative dimensions of the co-design
methods blurred the boundaries between the idea generation and team formation stages by
providing participants with opportunities to build relationships and articulate ideas through
iterative dialogue and reflection (Sanders & Stappers, 2014, p.6).

15
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

For idea development to take place as a largely autonomous process, participants need to
discover a clear rationale for each stage and activity, integrate their own perspectives from
the offset of the design process, and draw from the shared reflections of the wider group
gleaned from enacting design as a collective activity (Vaajakallio, 2009, p.8). The iterative
development of accessible and inspiring co-design methods contributes to empowering
participants to form teams and work as collaborative partners.

6.2 From Generic to Bespoke Techniques

Varying levels of specificity and provocation embodied the co-design methods used across
the thirteen Chiasma. Recalling Eriksen’s distinctions of basic and pre-designed materials
(2009) and Lucero et al.’s discussions of methodological transferability (2012, p.6), we
propose an additional distinction of resonant materials – those in which the content and
format are intrinsically entwined with elements of the innovation context. Exemplifying the
bespoke qualities of resonant materials, the Floppy Disk Prompt Cards’ symbolic connections
to technological innovation in the first ICT Chiasma, and the Visual Narrative Drawing
activity, created in anticipation of the number of designers attending the second Wellbeing
Chiasma both sparked participants’ engagement in idea generation stages and functioned as
artefacts to relay stories of their ideas in development.
Accounting for both transparency and readability in participatory design processes,
Schoffelen, Claes, Huybrechts, Martens, Chua, and Moere (2015) affirm that visual
representations engage people to interact with complex issues, and aid both sense-making
and reflection. In turn, they propose that “representations of an issue are never finished
and should allow for unforeseen and unpredictable uses by unknown users, and be flexible
to evolve over time in asynchronous participative processes separated in time and space”
(Schoffelen et al., 2015, p.12).
The presence of designers within the participant groups and the DiA delivery team enabled
design expertise to be embedded within the teams that formed. Dorst voices concern that
desires to rationalise design processes have overshadowed designerly skill and agency and
dismiss the practitioner as the “missing person in design research” (2008, p.8). We do not
put forward the methods applied in the Chiasma as a dogma of design-led innovation
efficacy. Instead, we oppose the view of the seemingly impartial facilitator as a trainer,
rather than a player, a social connector, and an agent of change (Julier, 2007, p.208;
Manzini, 2009, p.11; Morelli, 2007, p.6; Sanders & Stappers, 2008, p.13–14). We argue that
facilitators are immersed, relational, non-neutral collaborators in the innovation process,
denoting Steen’s notions of reflexivity as a means of “constructively combin[ing] practice
and analysis” (2008, p.69; Broadley, 2013). This dual role is invaluable within fostering
effective knowledge exchange and echoes Press, Bruce, Chow, and White’s proposition that
a liberation from methodological constraints enables our “valuing of the sensuous and
creative qualities of design knowledge and the confidence to use this in new and appropriate
ways to develop new solutions” (2011, p.9).

16
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

7. Conclusion: From Methods to Mindsets

In this paper we have acknowledged the growth of interest in design-led innovation
activities for the development of SMEs through knowledge exchange between HEIs and
industry. Design in Action’s Chiasma method was presented, firstly through a case study of
delivering the very first Chiasma process, followed by a thematic analysis of the co-design
methods used across the subsequent twelve Chiasma events. Key concerns, reflections, and
learnings were then presented around how co-design methods can reveal participant
insights and concerns and align their interests and expertise, towards sharing their visions of
innovation in ways that could engender meaningful collaboration.
This paper has argued for the recognition of more nuanced, resonant materials in co-design
methods, and proposes these as opportunities for translating design knowledge to a wider
range of stakeholders. From our perspective of delivering and reviewing co-design methods
to support collaboration, stronger resonance came from establishing a constructive platform
for participants to identify and engage their knowledge and skills in line with the chosen
context (Sanders & Stappers, 2014; Vaajakallio and Mattelmäki, 2014). The balancing act
rests on the ability for such co-design methods to serve the purpose of activity, yet prove
bespoke and creative enough to facilitate new connections between participants.
Concurring with Acklin, Cruickshank, and Evans (2013), we recognise through the
development of Chiasma that a shift in focus from co-design methods to the role of the
designer in supporting collaborative mindsets was critical.
Acknowledging the paper’s limitations, we point out that without being directly involved in
the coordination and delivery all thirteen Chiasma, we are unable to reflect fully on the
rationale underpinning each activity or the participants’ interactions with the corresponding
co-design methods. In future similar processes, we would recommend the integration of
methods to actively capture participants’ experiential accounts to more fully evaluate the
impact of co-design methods. As we embark on an extensive phase of evaluation, we point
out that our accounts of Chiasma in this paper provide only a snapshot of the breadth and
depth of activity carried out across the hub. There is limited evidence at this stage of
Chiasma’s impact in delivering economic growth through design-led innovation, yet as
Chiasma is an innovative concept, we feel these learnings around co-design methods and
knowledge exchange are of interest to the design community.

Acknowledgements: We thank all our collaborators from Design in Action, and the
participants who attended the thirteen Chiasma. Design in Action is funded by the Arts
and Humanities Research Council (AHRC). We gratefully acknowledge their ongoing
support.

17
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

8. References
Aldersey-Williams, H., Bound, J., and Coleman, R. (1999) The Methods Lab: User Research for Design,
London: Design for Ageing Network; Helen Hamlyn Research Centre.
Acklin, C., Cruickshank, L., and Evans, M. (2013) Challenges of introducing new design and design
management knowledge into the innovation activities of SMEs with little or no prior design
activities. European Academy of Design – Crafting the Future, Gothenburg, April 2013,
http://tinyurl.com/hndrah2, (Accessed 9 March, 2016).
Ballie, J., and Prior, S. (2014) The Strategic Role of Design in Supporting Knowledge Exchange,
ServDes 2014 – Service Future, Lancaster, April 2014, http://tinyurl.com/zvu569a, (Accessed 7
March, 2016).
Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project, Buckingham: Open University Press.
Biggs, M. (2004) Learning from Experience: approaches to the experiential component of practice-
based research, Karlsson H., ed. Forskning, Reflektion, Utveckling, Stockholm: Vetenskapsrådet, pp
6–21.
Biggs, M. (2007) Modelling Experiential Knowledge for Research, Mäkelä, M., and Routarinne, S.,
eds, The Art of Research: Research Practices in Art and Design, Helsinki: University of Art and
Design Helsinki (UIAH), pp 180–204.
Bjögvinsson, E., Ehn, P., and Hillgren, P.A. (2012) Design Things and Design Thinking: Contemporary
Participatory Design Challenges, Design Issues, 28.3, pp 101–116.
Breslin, M., and Buchanan, R. (2008) On the Case Study Method of Research and Teaching in Design,
Design Issues, 24.1, pp 36–40.
Broadley, C. (2013) Visualising human-centred design relationships: a toolkit for participation, PhD
Thesis and Portfolio submitted to the Glasgow School of Art, September 2013.
Burns, C., Cottam, H., Vanstone, C., and Winhall, J. (2006) Red Paper 02, Transformation Design,
http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/resources/report/red-paper-02-transformation-design,
(Accessed 20 October, 2015).
Chiasma 1.1 Participants (2013) Quotes taken directly from responses in the exit polls submitted to
participants at the end of each day of Chiasma 1.1. 28 February, 2013.
Comunian, R., Gilmore, A., and Jacobi, S. (2015) Higher Education and the Creative Economy:
Creative Graduates, Knowledge Transfer and Regional Impact Debates, Geography Compass, 9.7,
pp 371–383.
Cox, G. (2005) The Cox Review of Creativity in Business: building on the UK's strengths, London: HM
Treasury, http://tinyurl.com/hqfbgtr, (Accessed 10 August, 2011).
Creswell, J. (1994) Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. London: Sage.
Crossick, G. (2006) Knowledge transfer without widgets: the challenge of the creative economy,
London: Goldsmiths, University of London.
Cruickshank, L., Whitham, R., and Morris, L. (2012) Innovation Through the Design of Knowledge
Exchange and The Design of Knowledge Exchange Design, Leading Innovation Through Design:
2012 International Design Management and Research Conference, pp 453–460,
http://tinyurl.com/guw7rys, (Accessed 20 October, 2015).
Davenport, J. (2013) Technology Transfer, Knowledge Transfer and Knowledge Exchange in the
Historical Context of Innovation Theory and Practice, The Knowledge Exchange, An Interactive
Conference, September 2013, Lancaster University
Deiaco, E., Hughes, A., and McKelvey, M. (2012) Universities as strategic actors in the knowledge
economy, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 36, pp 525–541.

18
 From Participation to Collaboration: Reflections on the co-creation of innovative business ideas

Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) (2013) SMEs: The Key Enablers of Business Success and the
Economic Rationale for Government Intervention, http://tinyurl.com/nebzrh6, (Accessed 20
October, 2015).
Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) (2015) The Dowling Review of Business-University Research
Collaborations, http://tinyurl.com/nm32hsq, (Accessed 7 March, 2016).
Design Council (2007) Eleven lessons: managing design in eleven global brands, A study of the design
process, http://tinyurl.com/h5tru2v, (Accessed 7 March 2016).
Design Council (2015) The Design Economy 2015: The Value of Design to the UK, London: Design
Council.
Dorst, K. (2008) Design research: a revolution-waiting-to-happen, Design Studies, 29, 1, pp 4–11.
Ehn, P. (1989) The art and science of designing computer artifacts, Scandinavian journal of
information systems, 1.1, pp 21–42.
Ehn, P. (1993) Scandinavian design: on participation and skill, Schuler, D., and Namioka, A., eds,
Participatory design: principles and practices, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp 41–
77.
Eriksen, A. (2009) Engaging design materials, formats and framings in specific, situated codesigning –
A Micro-material perspective, Nordes 2009 – Engaging Artefacts, Oslo, September 2009,
http://tinyurl.com/jt9ut7z, (Accessed 20 October, 2015).
Hanington, B., and Martin, B. (2012) Universal Methods of Design: 100 ways to Research Complex
Problems, Develop Innovative Ideas, and Design Effective Solutions, Massachusetts: Rockport.
Helen Hamlyn Centre for Design, Royal College of Art (2013) designingwithpeople.org: Methods,
http://tinyurl.com/gruz549, (Accessed 20 October, 2015).
IDEO (2002) IDEO Method Cards, http://tinyurl.com/opwo3k9, (Accessed 20 October, 2015).
Johnson, M.P. (2016) Mapping Design Things: making design explicit in the discourse of change, PhD
Thesis submitted to the Glasgow School of Art, March 2016.
Julier, G. (2007) The Culture of Design, London: Sage.
Kearney, G., and McHattie, L. (2014) Supporting the open innovation process in small and medium
enterprises, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 23.4, pp 552–557.
Lucero, A., Vaajakallio, K., and Dalsgaard, P. (2012) The dialogue-labs method: process, space and
materials as structuring elements to spark dialogue in co-design events, CoDesign, 8.1, pp 1–23.
Manzini, E. (2009) New Design Knowledge, Design Studies, 30.1, pp 4–12.
Miles, M., and Huberman, A. (1994) Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd edn).
London: Sage.
Morelli, N. (2007) Social Innovation and New Industrial Contexts: Can Designers “Industrialize”
Socially Responsible Solutions?, Design Issues, 23.4, pp 3–21.
Norman, D.A., Verganti, R. (2014) Incremental and Radical Innovation: Design Research vs.
Technology and Meaning Change, Design Issues, 30.1, pp 78–96.
Press, M., Bruce, F., Chow, R., and White, H. (2011) Rip + Mix: Developing and Evaluating a New
Design Method in Which the Designer Becomes a DJ, The Endless End – The 9th International
European Academy of Design Conference, Porto, May 2011, http://tinyurl.com/ztn3mkq,
(Accessed 20 October, 2015).
Sanders, E.B.N., and Stappers, P.J. (2008) Co-creation and the new landscapes of design, CoDesign,
4.1, pp 5–18.
Sanders, E.B.N., and Stappers, P.J. (2014) Probes, toolkits and prototypes: three approaches to
making in codesigning, CoDesign, 10.1, pp 5–14.

19
BROADLEY, C., CHAMPION, K., JOHNSON, M. P., MCHATTIE, L.

Schoffelen, J., Claes, S., Huybrechts, L., Martens, S., Chua, A., and Moere, A. V. (2015) Visualising
things. Perspectives on how to make things public through visualisation, CoDesign, 11.3–4, pp 1–
14.
Steen, M. (2008) The fragility of human-centred design, Amsterdam: IOS Press.
Tassi, R. (2009) Service Design Tools: communicating methods supporting design processes,
http://tinyurl.com/kk52xz, (Accessed 20 October, 2015).
Vaajakallio, K. (2009) Enacting Design: understanding co-design as embodied practice, Nordes 2009 –
Engaging Artefacts, Oslo, September 2009, http://tinyurl.com/hxb5g3p, (Accessed 20 October,
2015).
Vaajakallio, K. (2012) Design games as a tool, a mindset and a structure, manuscript for PhD
dissertation, submitted to Aalto University, August 2012, http://www.uiah.fi/publications,
(Accessed 30 May, 2012).
Vaajakallio, K., and Mattelmäki, T. (2014) Design games in codesign: as a tool, a mindset and a
structure, CoDesign, 10.1, pp 63–77.
Yee, J.S.R. (2010) Methodological Innovation in Practice-Based Design Doctorates, Journal of
Research Practice, 6.2, pp 1–23.

About the Authors:

Cara Broadley Dr Cara Broadley is a Research Fellow at The Glasgow

School of Art. In 2013 she completed her practice-based AHRC-
funded PhD exploring the role of participatory design approaches,
visual methods, and reflexivity in engaging with organisations and
communities.

Katherine Champion Dr Katherine Champion is a multidisciplinary

researcher currently employed as a Research Fellow within the
AHRC-funded Knowledge Exchange Hub ‘Design in Action’ (KEHDiA)
programme. She holds a PhD from the Urban Studies Department at
the University of Glasgow.

Michael Pierre Johnson Dr Michael Pierre Johnson is a post-doctoral

design researcher interested in the effects and viability of design
innovation approaches. His AHRC-funded PhD was awarded in 2016
at The Glasgow School of Art as part of the Knowledge Exchange Hub
‘Design in Action’.

Lynn-Sayers McHattie Dr Lynn-Sayers McHattie is Programme

Director at the Institute of Design Innovation at The Glasgow School
of Art. Her research focuses on multidisciplinary practice-based
inquiry towards exploring complex socio-cultural challenges, which
enhance collective wellbeing and can inform policy.

20