2.

2 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Essential Question How can you use reasoning to solve problems?
A conjecture is an unproven statement based on observations.

Writing a Conjecture
Work with a partner. Write a conjecture about the pattern. Then use your conjecture
to draw the 10th object in the pattern.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

a.

b.

CONSTRUCTING c.
VIABLE ARGUMENTS
To be proficient in
math, you need to justify
your conclusions and Using a Venn Diagram
communicate them
to others. Work with a partner. Use the Venn diagram to determine whether the statement is
true or false. Justify your answer. Assume that no region of the Venn diagram is empty.
a. If an item has Property B, then
it has Property A.
Property A
b. If an item has Property A, then
it has Property B. Property C Property B
c. If an item has Property A, then
it has Property C.
d. Some items that have Property A
do not have Property B.
e. If an item has Property C, then it does not have Property B.
f. Some items have both Properties A and C.
g. Some items have both Properties B and C.

Reasoning and Venn Diagrams

Work with a partner. Draw a Venn diagram that shows the relationship between
different types of quadrilaterals: squares, rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids,
rhombuses, and kites. Then write several conditional statements that are shown
in your diagram, such as “If a quadrilateral is a square, then it is a rectangle.”

Communicate Your Answer

4. How can you use reasoning to solve problems?
5. Give an example of how you used reasoning to solve a real-life problem.

Section 2.2 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 75

2.2 Lesson What You Will Learn
Use inductive reasoning.
Use deductive reasoning.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry
conjecture, p. 76 Using Inductive Reasoning
inductive reasoning, p. 76
counterexample, p. 77
deductive reasoning, p. 78
Core Concept
Inductive Reasoning
A conjecture is an unproven statement that is based on observations. You use
inductive reasoning when you find a pattern in specific cases and then write a
conjecture for the general case.

Describing a Visual Pattern

Describe how to sketch the fourth figure in the pattern. Then sketch the fourth figure.

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

SOLUTION
Each circle is divided into twice as many equal regions as the figure number. Sketch
the fourth figure by dividing a circle into eighths. Shade the section just above the
horizontal segment at the left.

Figure 4

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1. Sketch the fifth figure in the pattern in Example 1.

Sketch the next figure in the pattern.

2.

3.

76 Chapter 2 Reasoning and Proofs

 Making and Testing a Conjecture

Numbers such as 3, 4, and 5 are called consecutive integers. Make and test a
conjecture about the sum of any three consecutive integers.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Find a pattern using a few groups of small numbers.
3 + 4 + 5 = 12 = 4 3 ⋅ 7 + 8 + 9 = 24 = 8 3 ⋅
10 + 11 + 12 = 33 = 11 3 ⋅ 16 + 17 + 18 = 51 = 17 3 ⋅
Step 2 Make a conjecture.
Conjecture The sum of any three consecutive integers is three times the
second number.
Step 3 Test your conjecture using other numbers. For example, test that it works with
the groups −1, 0, 1 and 100, 101, 102.

−1 + 0 + 1 = 0 = 0 3 ⋅ ✓
100 + 101 + 102 = 303 = 101 3 ⋅ ✓
Core Concept
Counterexample
To show that a conjecture is true, you must show that it is true for all cases. You
can show that a conjecture is false, however, by finding just one counterexample.
A counterexample is a specific case for which the conjecture is false.

Finding a Counterexample

A student makes the following conjecture about the sum of two numbers. Find a
counterexample to disprove the student’s conjecture.
Conjecture The sum of two numbers is always more than the greater number.

SOLUTION
To find a counterexample, you need to find a sum that is less than the greater number.
−2 + (−3) = −5
−5 ≯ −2

Because a counterexample exists, the conjecture is false.

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4. Make and test a conjecture about the sign of the product of any three
negative integers.
5. Make and test a conjecture about the sum of any five consecutive integers.

Find a counterexample to show that the conjecture is false.

6. The value of x2 is always greater than the value of x.

7. The sum of two numbers is always greater than their difference.

Section 2.2 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 77

 Using Deductive Reasoning

Core Concept
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning uses facts, definitions, accepted properties, and the laws of
logic to form a logical argument. This is different from inductive reasoning, which
uses specific examples and patterns to form a conjecture.

Laws of Logic
Law of Detachment
If the hypothesis of a true conditional statement is true, then the conclusion is
also true.
Law of Syllogism
If hypothesis p, then conclusion q.
If these statements are true,
If hypothesis q, then conclusion r.
If hypothesis p, then conclusion r. then this statement is true.

Using the Law of Detachment

If two segments have the same length, then they are congruent. You know that
BC = XY. Using the Law of Detachment, what statement can you make?

SOLUTION
Because BC = XY satisfies the hypothesis of a true conditional statement, the
conclusion is also true.
— ≅ XY
So, BC —.

Using the Law of Syllogism

If possible, use the Law of Syllogism to write a new conditional statement that follows
from the pair of true statements.
a. If x2 > 25, then x2 > 20.
If x > 5, then x2 > 25.
b. If a polygon is regular, then all angles in the interior of the polygon are congruent.
If a polygon is regular, then all its sides are congruent.

SOLUTION
a. Notice that the conclusion of the second statement is the hypothesis of the first
statement. The order in which the statements are given does not affect whether you
can use the Law of Syllogism. So, you can write the following new statement.
If x > 5, then x2 > 20.
b. Neither statement’s conclusion is the same as the other statement’s hypothesis.
You cannot use the Law of Syllogism to write a new conditional statement.

78 Chapter 2 Reasoning and Proofs

 Using Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

What conclusion can you make about the product of an even integer and any
other integer?

SOLUTION
Step 1 Look for a pattern in several examples. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture.
MAKING SENSE
OF PROBLEMS (−2)(2) = −4 (−1)(2) = −2 2(2) = 4 3(2) = 6
In geometry, you will (−2)(−4) = 8 (−1)(−4) = 4 2(−4) = −8 3(−4) = −12
frequently use inductive
reasoning to make Conjecture Even integer • Any integer = Even integer
conjectures. You will also Step 2 Let n and m each be any integer. Use deductive reasoning to show that the
use deductive reasoning conjecture is true.
to show that conjectures
are true or false. You will 2n is an even integer because any integer multiplied by 2 is even.
need to know which type 2nm represents the product of an even integer 2n and any integer m.
of reasoning to use.
2nm is the product of 2 and an integer nm. So, 2nm is an even integer.

The product of an even integer and any integer is an even integer.

Comparing Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Decide whether inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning is used to reach the

conclusion. Explain your reasoning.
a. Each time Monica kicks a ball up in the air, it returns to the ground. So, the next
time Monica kicks a ball up in the air, it will return to the ground.
b. All reptiles are cold-blooded. Parrots are not cold-blooded. Sue’s pet parrot is
not a reptile.

SOLUTION
a. Inductive reasoning, because a pattern is used to reach the conclusion.
b. Deductive reasoning, because facts about animals and the laws of logic are used
to reach the conclusion.

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8. If 90° < m∠R < 180°, then ∠R is obtuse. The measure of ∠R is 155°. Using the
Law of Detachment, what statement can you make?
9. Use the Law of Syllogism to write a new conditional statement that follows
from the pair of true statements.
If you get an A on your math test, then you can go to the movies.
If you go to the movies, then you can watch your favorite actor.
10. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the sum of a number and
itself. Then use deductive reasoning to show that the conjecture is true.
11. Decide whether inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning is used to reach the
conclusion. Explain your reasoning.
All multiples of 8 are divisible by 4.
64 is a multiple of 8.
So, 64 is divisible by 4.

Section 2.2 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 79

 2.2 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. VOCABULARY How does the prefix “counter-” help you understand the term counterexample?

2. WRITING Explain the difference between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3–8, describe the pattern. Then write or In Exercises 17–20, use the Law of Detachment to
draw the next two numbers, letters, or figures. determine what you can conclude from the given
(See Example 1.) information, if possible. (See Example 4.)
3. 1, −2, 3, −4, 5, . . . 4. 0, 2, 6, 12, 20, . . . 17. If you pass the final, then you pass the class. You
passed the final.
5. Z, Y, X, W, V, . . . 6. J, F, M, A, M, . . .
18. If your parents let you borrow the car, then you will
7. go to the movies with your friend. You will go to the
movies with your friend.

19. If a quadrilateral is a square, then it has four right

8. angles. Quadrilateral QRST has four right angles.

20. If a point divides a line segment into two congruent

line segments, then the point is a midpoint. Point P
— into two congruent line segments.
divides LH
In Exercises 9–12, make and test a conjecture about the
In Exercises 21–24, use the Law of Syllogism to write a
given quantity. (See Example 2.)
new conditional statement that follows from the pair of
9. the product of any two even integers true statements, if possible. (See Example 5.)
21. If x < −2, then ∣ x ∣ > 2. If x > 2, then ∣ x ∣ > 2.
10. the sum of an even integer and an odd integer
1 1
22. If a = 3, then 5a = 15. If —2 a = 1—2 , then a = 3.
11. the quotient of a number and its reciprocal
23. If a figure is a rhombus, then the figure is a
12. the quotient of two negative integers
parallelogram. If a figure is a parallelogram, then
the figure has two pairs of opposite sides that
In Exercises 13–16, find a counterexample to show that
are parallel.
the conjecture is false. (See Example 3.)
13. The product of two positive numbers is always greater 24. If a figure is a square, then the figure has four
than either number. congruent sides. If a figure is a square, then the
figure has four right angles.
n+1
14. If n is a nonzero integer, then — is always greater
n In Exercises 25–28, state the law of logic that
than 1.
is illustrated.
15. If two angles are supplements of each other, then one
25. If you do your homework, then you can watch TV. If
of the angles must be acute.
you watch TV, then you can watch your favorite show.
16.
— into two line segments. So, the
A line s divides MN If you do your homework, then you can watch your
—.
line s is a segment bisector of MN favorite show.

80 Chapter 2 Reasoning and Proofs

26. If you miss practice the day before a game, then you 37. REASONING The table shows the average weights
will not be a starting player in the game. of several subspecies of tigers. What conjecture can
you make about the relation between the weights of
You miss practice on Tuesday. You will not start the
female tigers and the weights of male tigers? Explain
game Wednesday.
your reasoning.
27. If x > 12, then x + 9 > 20. The value of x is 14.
So, x + 9 > 20. Weight Weight
of female of male
28. If ∠1 and ∠2 are vertical angles, then ∠1 ≅ ∠2. (pounds) (pounds)
If ∠1 ≅ ∠2, then m∠1 = m∠2. Amur 370 660
If ∠1 and ∠2 are vertical angles, then m∠1 = m∠2. Bengal 300 480

In Exercises 29 and 30, use inductive reasoning to South China 240 330
make a conjecture about the given quantity. Then use Sumatran 200 270
deductive reasoning to show that the conjecture is true.
(See Example 6.) Indo-Chinese 250 400

29. the sum of two odd integers

30. the product of two odd integers 38. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Determine whether you
can make each conjecture from the graph. Explain
In Exercises 31–34, decide whether inductive reasoning your reasoning.
or deductive reasoning is used to reach the conclusion.
Explain your reasoning. (See Example 7.) U.S. High School Girls’ Lacrosse

Number of participants
31. Each time your mom goes to the store, she buys milk. y
140
So, the next time your mom goes to the store, she will
buy milk. (thousands) 100

32. Rational numbers can be written as fractions. 60

Irrational numbers cannot be written as fractions.
20
So, —12 is a rational number.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7x
33. All men are mortal. Mozart is a man, so Mozart Year
is mortal.

34. Each time you clean your room, you are allowed to a. More girls will participate in high school lacrosse
go out with your friends. So, the next time you clean in Year 8 than those who participated in Year 7.
your room, you will be allowed to go out with b. The number of girls participating in high
your friends. school lacrosse will exceed the number of boys
participating in high school lacrosse in Year 9.
ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 35 and 36, describe and
correct the error in interpreting the statement.
35. If a figure is a rectangle, then the figure has four sides. 39. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS Use inductive
A trapezoid has four sides. reasoning to write a formula for the sum of the
first n positive even integers.

✗ Using the Law of Detachment, you can

conclude that a trapezoid is a rectangle.
40. FINDING A PATTERN The following are the first nine
Fibonacci numbers.
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, . . .
36. Each day, you get to school before your friend. a. Make a conjecture about each of the Fibonacci
numbers after the first two.

✗ Using deductive reasoning, you can

conclude that you will arrive at school
before your friend tomorrow.
b. Write the next three numbers in the pattern.
c. Research to find a real-world example of
this pattern.

Section 2.2 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 81

41. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Which argument is correct? 45. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Decide whether each
Explain your reasoning. conclusion is valid. Explain your reasoning.
Argument 1: If two angles measure 30° and 60°, • Yellowstone is a national park in Wyoming.
then the angles are complementary. ∠ 1 and ∠ 2 are • You and your friend went camping at
complementary. So, m∠ 1 = 30° and m∠ 2 = 60°. Yellowstone National Park.
Argument 2: If two angles measure 30° and 60°, then • When you go camping, you go canoeing.
the angles are complementary. The measure of ∠ 1 is
• If you go on a hike, your friend goes with you.
30° and the measure of ∠ 2 is 60°. So, ∠ 1 and ∠ 2
are complementary. • You go on a hike.
• There is a 3-mile-long trail near your campsite.
42. THOUGHT PROVOKING The first two terms of a a. You went camping in Wyoming.
sequence are —14 and —12 . Describe three different possible
patterns for the sequence. List the first five terms for b. Your friend went canoeing.
each sequence. c. Your friend went on a hike.
d. You and your friend went on a hike on a
43. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS Use the table to 3-mile-long trail.
make a conjecture about the relationship between
x and y. Then write an equation for y in terms of x. 46. CRITICAL THINKING Geologists use the Mohs’ scale
Use the equation to test your conjecture for other to determine a mineral’s hardness. Using the scale,
values of x. a mineral with a higher rating will leave a scratch
on a mineral with a lower rating. Testing a mineral’s
x 0 1 2 3 4 hardness can help identify the mineral.

y 2 5 8 11 14
Mineral
Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite
44. REASONING Use the pattern below. Each figure is
made of squares that are 1 unit by 1 unit. Mohs’
1 2 3 4
rating

a. The four minerals are randomly labeled A, B,

C, and D. Mineral A is scratched by Mineral B.
Mineral C is scratched by all three of the other
1 2 3 4 5
minerals. What can you conclude? Explain
your reasoning.
a. Find the perimeter of each figure. Describe the
pattern of the perimeters. b. What additional test(s) can you use to identify all
the minerals in part (a)?
b. Predict the perimeter of the 20th figure.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Determine which postulate is illustrated by the statement. (Section 1.2 and Section 1.5)

E
A B
C

47. AB + BC = AC 48. m∠ DAC = m∠ DAE + m∠ EAB

49. AD is the absolute value of the difference of the coordinates of A and D.

50. m∠ DAC is equal to the absolute value of the difference between the
&&&⃗ and &&&⃗
real numbers matched with AD AC on a protractor.

82 Chapter 2 Reasoning and Proofs