LIBRARY SYLLABUS & TOPICS FOR NET

LIST OF TOPICS

Sr. No. Page No.

1. UGC NET Library Information Science Syllabus Paper II and Paper III 4
2. Tools of Internet and Internet Security 6
3. Librametrics, Bibliometrics, Scientometrics, Informetrics, Cybermetrics &
Webometrics. 8
4. National Policy in Library and Information System 9
5. Bar Code System 11
6. Abstracts and Abstracting Service 13
7. Selective Dissemination of Information 16
8. Data Mining 18
9. University Grant Commission 20
10. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 22
11. Meta Data 24
12. Radio Frequency Identification and its Role in Libraries 26
13. Current Awareness Service 27
14. Developing Library Network (DELNET) 29
15. Information and Library Network 31
16. Open Source for Library System 33
17. Open Source Library Management Software: KOHA 35
18. Resource sharing 36
19. Network and Library Networking, 37
20. Types of Networks 38
21. Digital Library 39
22. Information Storage and Retrieval System 41
23. Evaluation of Information and Retrieval System 43
24. Compatibility of Information Storage and Retrieval System 46
25. Thesaurus 47
26. Keyword Indexing 51
27. Repackaging Formatting 55
28. Consolidation 57
29. Vocabulary Control 58
30. British Library‟s Automated Information Service (BLAISE) 60
31. Common Communication Format (CCF 61
32. Components of a Computer: 63
33. Software 68
34. Association for Special Libraries and Information Bureax 73
35. Book Selection Theories: 74
36. History of a Computer: History of a Computer 74
37. Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC) 78

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38. Machine Readable Cataloguing 21 (MARC 21) 79
39. Thesaurus 80
40. Databases 81
41. Management School of Thought 86
42. Evaluation of Reference Sources 89
43. Knowledge Management (KM) 91
44. Types of Library Software Packages 92
45. UGC-Infonet E-journal Consortium 93
46. UNISIST 94
47. Library Classification 96
48. Library Cataloguing 108
49. International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD) 124
50. Information System 127
51. Information Society 128
52. Information as a Resource / Commodity 130
53. Information Transfer Cycle 132
54. Role of Information 133
55. Communication 136
56. Intellectual Property Rights 137
57. Library and Information Policy at National Level 139
58. Library Resource Sharing and Networking 143
59. Library Movement in India 144
60. Library Extension Services 149
61. Library and Information Science Education in India 151
62. Library and Information Science as a Resource 155
63. Library Association 157
64. Indian Library Association (ILA) 159
65. Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres (IASLIC) 160
66. International Library Associations 161
67. Association for Information Management 162
68. International Federation of Library Association and Institutions (IFLA) 163
69. International Federation for Information and Documentation (FID) 166
70. International Bibliographic Information System for the Agricultural science & Tech (AGRIS) 166
71. International Nuclear Information System (INIS) 168
72. United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 168
73. Environmental Information System (ENVIS) 171
74. Sources of Documentary Information 172
75. Reference Sources 176
76. Union Catalogue, E-Documents 181
77. Reference and Information Service 184
78. Canons of Cataloguing 187
79. Information Needs of Users 188
80. Information Seeking Behavior 189
81. Librametrics, Bibliometrics, Scientometrics, Informetrics, Cybermetrics And Webometrics 193
82. Berlo‟s Model of Communication 196

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83. Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication 200
84. Schramm‟s Model of Communication 202
85. Helical Model of Communication 204
86. Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication 2 206
87. International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) 207
88. International Standard Book Number (ISBN) 208
89. Bibliographic Coupling, Co-Citation Coupling and Web of Science 209
90. List of Sources for Evaluation 210
91. Indexing and Abstracting Services 213
92. Indian National Bibliography 216
93. Library and Information Science Abstract 218
94. Chemical Abstract 219
95. Medical Index 221
96. Biological Abstract 222

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UGC NET Library Information Science Syllabus Paper II and Paper III
Unit I:
Information, Information Science, Information Society, Information as a Resource / Commodity,
Information Transfer Cycle (Generation, Collection, Storage, and Dissemination), Role of Information (In
Planning, Management, Socio-Economic Development, Technology Transfer), Communication (Channel,
Barriers), Intellectual Property Rights (Concept, Copyright, Censorship, Print and Non Print Media),
Library and Information Policy at the National Level

Unit II:
Laws of Library Science, Library Resource Sharing and Networking, Library Movement, Library
Legislation in India, Library Extension Services, Library and Information Science Education in India,
Library and Information Profession, Library Association in India, UK and USA, ILA, IASLIC, IATLIS,
SIS, LA, ASLIB, SLA, ALA, Library Association Organization at International Level, FID, IFLA,
UNESCO

Unit III:
Sources of Information (Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. Documentary and Non Documentary), Reference
Sources {Encyclopaedias, Dictionaries, Geographical Sources, Biographical sources, Year Books /
Almanacs, Directories and Handbooks, Statistical (Salient features and evaluation)}, Bibliographical
Sources {Bibliographies, Union Catalogue, Indexing and Abstracting Journals (Salient features and
Evaluations)}, E-documents (e-books, e-journals), Databases {Bibliographic, Numeric and Full text
(Evaluation)}

Unit IV:

Reference and Information Services, Referral Services, Bibliographic Service, Indexing and Abstracting
Services, CAS, SDI, Digest Service, Trend Report, Online Services, Translation Services, Reprographic
Services

Unit V: Organization of Knowledge / Information, Modes of Formation of Subjects, Library Classification

(Cannon and Principles), Library Classification Schemes (DDC, UDC, CC), Library Cataloguing (Cannons
and Principles), Library Cataloguing Codes (CCC and AACR 2), Bibliographic Records, Intellectual
Standards (ISBD, MARC and CCF), Indexing (Pre and Post co-ordinate), Vocabulary Control (Thesaurus
and List of Subject Heading), Databases (Search Strategies and Boolean Operators), Knowledge
Management

Unit VI:
Management (Principles, Functions and School of Thoughts), Planning, Organization Structure, Decision
Making, System Study (Analysis, Evaluation and Design), Collection Development (Books, Serials, non
books Material), Selection, Acquisition, Maintenance, ISBN, ISSN, Cataloguing-in-Publication (CIP),
Human Resource Management, Manpower Planning, Job Analysis, Job Description, Selection,
Recruitment, Motivation, Training and Development, Staff Manual, Leadership and Performance
Evaluation, Delegation of Authority, Financial Management, Resource Generation, Types of Budgeting,
Cost and Cost Benefit Analysis, PERT, CPM, Library Building and Equipments, Performance Evaluation
of Libraries/Information Centers and Services, Marketing Information Product and Services, Total Quality
Management

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Unit VII:
Information Technology, Components of Information Technology, Impact of IT on Society, Computer
Hardware, Computer Software, Storage Devices, Output / Input Devices, Telecommunications,
Transmission Medias, Switching Systems, Bandwidth, Multiplexing, Modulation, Protocols, Wireless
Communications, Fax, Email, Tele conferencing / video conferencing, Bulleting Board Service, Teletex,
Videotex, Voice Mail, Networking (Concept) Networking Topologies, Network Types (LAN, MAN,
WAN), Hypertext, Hypermedia, Multimedia, Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN), Open Systems
Interconnections (OSI)

Unit VIII:
Library Automation, Areas of Library Automation, Planning Library Automation, Hardware and Software
Selection for Automation, OPAC, Networks, ERNET, NICNET, DELNET, JANET, BLAISE, OCLC,
INFLIBNET, Internet, Components of Internet, Internet Services (Browsing, Web Browsers, Search
Engines, Meta Data Digital Object Identifier (DOI), National and International Information Systems,
NISSAT, NASSDOC, INSDOC, DESIDOC, INIS, AGRIS, MEDLARS, INSPEC.

Unit IX:
Types of Research (Basic, Applied, Interdisciplinary), Research Design, Scientific Method, Hypothesis,
Data Collection, Sampling, Methods of Research (Historical, Descriptive, Case Study, Survey, Comparative
and Experimental), Statistical Methods, Data Analysis, Report Writing, Research Methods in LIS,
Bibliometrics

Unit X:
Types of Libraries {National, Public, Academic, and Special (Objectives, structures and functions), Digital
Libraries (Concept), Virtual Libraries (Concept), Types of Users, User Studies, User Education, Role of
UGC in the Growth and Development of libraries and information centers in institutes of Higher Education
in India, Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF)

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Tools of Internet: Modems, Routers and Gateways
Routers: Routers are important devices, primarily used for providing connection between two networks
in such a way that the traffic from any terminal of a network is allowed to go across the router only if it
belongs to other network. Thus a router device is a large network into smaller network with
interdependent broadcast zones. This is a network activity does not interfere with the activity of the other
network connection across the routers. The routers also forms label security function by preventing
undesirable packets of information crossing across the routers. The other function of the router is to
provide intercommunication between two networks following different protocols, operating at widely
different speed.
It routs the traffic in ways. It checks whether a particular packet of information belong to a particular
route. If is belongs to the same route a sender intends to send, then only router, route is or pass it
otherwise sends it to back. It verifies IP address and approach through IP address. Routers re-route the
message or data, without the existence of router it is not possible to send message to right address.
Routers do not allow bad data to get passed on to the network. Thus they save network from broadcast
storm.
Routers are two types, static and dynamic routers. Static routers are required administrator to manually set
and configure the routing table and to specify each route. Dynamic routers maintain routing tables
automatically and require minimal set up and configuration.
Modems: Modems are most common types of communication processors. They convert the digital
signals from a computer or transmission terminal at one end of a communication link into analog signals,
which can be transmitted over ordinary telephone lines. A modem at the other end of the communication
line converts the transmitted data back into digital form at the receiving terminals. The process is known
as modulation and demodulation and the word modem is a combined abbreviation of those words.
Modem come in a several forms including small alone units, plug in circuit microelectronic modem chip.
Modems are necessary because ordinary telephone lines are primarily designed to handle
continuous analog signals, such as the human voice, since data transmission from computers are in digital
form, devices are necessary to convert digital signals into appropriate analog transmission frequencies and
vice versa. There are two types of modems:
i. Internal Modem
ii. External Modem
1. Internal Modems: Internal modems are a plug in circuit that site inside the computer. It incorporates
the serial part on bond. These types of modems less expensive than external modem because they do
not require a power supply and serial cable.
2. External Modems: External Modems site means to the computer and connect to the serial part using
a straight through serial cable.

Different types of Modem:

a. Optical Modem: Optical Modem uses optical fiber instead of wire. The modem converts the digital
signals to pulses of light be transmitted over optical lines (More commonly called a media adopter or
transreciever).
b. Acoustic Modem: A modem that couples to the telephone handset with what look like section used
by travelling saves person to connect to noted person.

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c. Smart Modem: A smart modem is a modem with the CPU (microprocessor) on board that uses the
keys at command set. This allows auto answer and dial capability rather than manual dialing and
answering.
d. Digital Modem: Digital modem converts Rs 232 digital signals to digital signals more suitable for
transmission.
e. V- 32: A milestone modem that uses a 2400 modem with 4 bit encoding this result in a 600 bps (bits
per second).
Gateways: Routing is the process of getting data from point A to point B. Routing data program is similar
to deriving a car. Before we derive to our destination. We determine which roads we shall take to reach
there. The I.Q. portion of DCPI protocol inserts a header that contains the source and destination
addresses from a data plan. Before the data begins its journey, however IP determines whether it knows
the destination, if it does not know IP and can‘t find out, IP sends the data programme to the hosts
gateway.
Each host on a TCP/IP network as a gateway is known as computer system for exchanging information
across network that uses different protocols. Each gateway has a defined set of routing tables that tell the
gateway. The route to specific destinations because gateways don‘t know the location of every IP
addresses. They have their own gateways. That act just like any TCP/IP host. Each network station or
terminal on over network that needs access to the internet has either connects itself directly to the internet
through a gateway. The most effective and popular way to connect a LAN to the internet is by using a
gateway that routes the entire LAN.
It is basically meant for decide route for data from source to destination or from point A to B. whichever
route is convenient is chosen by this.

Internet Security: As Internet uses a public switched telephone which is accessible to a large number of
person. Thus, it is not difficult for determined hackers to abstained unauthorized access to computers
connected to the internet. To prevent unauthorized access to an organization network a barrier called a
firewall is erected between the routers leading to the network. The primary purpose of firewall is to
examine each packet arriving from the Internet address to examine each packets originating from
unknown source, it suspicious are blocked. Firewall software can be implemented in the router leading to
the network or in a dedicated security server. There are three major types of firewalls:
i. Packet filter Firewalls
ii. Application Firewalls
iii. Proxy Firewalls

1. Packet Filter Firewalls: Which black suspicious incoming IP addresses, they also disallow access to
undesirable IP addresses from the Intranet normally telnet almost computers in the intranets perhaps
the organizations, we address will e prevented y firewall software.
2. Application Firewall: Filter viruses, unwanted email and application programmes (called applets)
which are not authorized, at this firewall, firewall software does on extensive checking it would
adversely affect speed of communication via internet.
3. Proxy Firewalls: To prevent outsiders from seeing the IP addresses of computers in the Intranet only
the IP addresses of the firewalls (also called proxy server) is visible to outsiders. All incoming traffic
will be only to be proxy server.

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LIBRAMETRICS, BIBLIOMETRICS, SCIENTOMETRICS, INFORMETRICS,
CYBERMETRICS AND WEBOMETRICS.
Introduction: Universe of knowledge is a complex output of man‘s intellect in the form of documented
literature. Now a days the division of subjects, in the universe of knowledge into sciences, humanities or
arts is known as information explosion or white plague, posed many problems and challenges among
libraries and information professionals. Identification and selection of documents is an example for such
challenges. So there is a need of special techniques or efforts to face these challenges.

Bibliometric/Scientometric study is one such useful technique which helps to solve the problems,
challenges posed by so-called information explosion. Over the years, several new terms have appeared,
represented quantitative studies in library and information science. They were known as ‗Librametrics‘ in
1940‘s, ‗Bibliometrics‘ in 1960‘s, ‗Scientometrics‘ in 1970‘s and ‗Informetrics‘ in the width of 1980‘s.
And now with the advent of information technology two new concepts namely ‗Cybermetric‘
Webometrics‘ are emerged in 1990‘s.

Librametrics: The term Librametrics has two roots: Libra and Metrics. The word ‗Libra‘ cannotes
‗library‘ and ‗Metrics‘ means measurement. The history of term librametry goes back in 1925, in order to
solve day-to-day library problems and to streamline the library activities, services, for their users.

Definition: According to Ravichandra Rao, bibliometric and librametrics is nothing but ―information
process and information handling in libraries and information centres by quantitavely analyzing the
characteristics and behavior of documents, library staff and library users‖

Within the sphere of libraries, Dr. S.R. Ranganathan and other Indian Scientists had suggested several
areas for the application of quantitative analysis in library and information systems and services.

a. Librametry in the day-to-day work of a library.

b. Librametry in organizing national or state library systems.
c. Operations research in library work.
d. Librametry and book selection.
e. Librametry and classification. f. Library administration. g. Library services.

Bibliometrics: A Statistical Analysis is considered to be the first bibliometric study, where for the first
time in 1917, the expression of statistical analysis has been used in the literature by Cole and Eale. Hulme
was the first to use the expression ‗statistical bibliography‘ in 1923. After Hulme this term was by many
others in their works.

Bibliometric Laws: The quantitative analysis of bibliometrics, developed three basic Bibliometric Laws
that is Lotka‘s Law (1926) predicting the productivity distribution of various authors. Zipf‘s Law (1933)
describes the word frequency ranking and Bradford‘s Law of Scattering (1934) explaining distribution of
documents (Usually journals) in specific disciplines or problem areas.

Bradford‟s Law: Samuel C. Bradford first formulated his law in 1934 but it did not receive wide
attention until the publication of his book ‗Documentation‘ in 1948. He, while searching for papers in his
two journals ‗Applied Geophysics‘ and Lubricans‘ noticed that the scatter of such papers among the
scientific journals had a common pattern.

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NATIONAL POLICY IN LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM

Introduction: Information has a very important role in the development of the society and nation. At all
stages, policy on the development of information services should be part of nation‘s scientific, technical,
and economic planning and policy. Many nations have realized that the progress of a nation depends upon
the information it generates, disseminate and put it to work. Lack of information adversely effects the
development of the nation.

Nature of Information Policy: The proposed national information policy should be so formed that it
could provide general directions for the solution of problems that we are already facing or can face in
future. Most of the countries, in terms of information system and communication technology are very
careful and organizing attention to planning, designing, implementing and maintaining information
services and policies. At the time of designing an information policy the main emphasis should be given
on the need for sharing of information sources, better coordination of information activities, development
of skilled manpower for handling of information systems, etc.

1. A nucleus of physical information resources like libraries and documentations, etc.;

2. Supply of trained information personnel;
3. Linkage to personnel information sources;
2. Linkage to significant decision making bodies, government agencies, economic sectors and
educational institutions, etc.
3. Two communication channels with users;
4. National policy that promote the systematic development of the infrastructure./

National Initiatives in India: National Policy in Library and Information System in India was
formulated by Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation and Indian Library Association. The Dept. of
Culture, Government of India, set up a committee, under the chairmanship of Prof. D.P. Chhattopadhyaya
in Oct. 1985, which toured different parts of the country and discussed with the people. The committee
submitted its report in May 1986.

Objectives: The Nation Policy on Library and Information System has the following objectives:

1. To improve the existing facilities in the field of library and information system.
2. To collect information related to scientific, technical and other developmental activities in the country.
3. To take steps in the improvement of existing information technologies.
4. To provide computer facilities for fast information access and retrieval.
5. To promote the collection and utilization of national and international information resources.
6. To provide financial support to the information organization and its use.
7. To encourage and initiate programmes for the training of library and information personnel.
8. To develop and use efficient tools and techniques for information handling.

National Knowledge Commission: It was constituted in June 2005 under the chairmanship of
Sampitroda and it focused on following areas:

1. Right to education
2. Translation
3. Knowledge

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4. Health information Network
5. Libraries
6. Social education
7. Management education
8. Open education sources
9. National Science and social science foundations
10. Traditional health system
11. Agriculture
12. E-governance

Recommendations: The important recommendations of the committee are as following:

1. Setup a national commission on libraries

2. Prepare a national census of all libraries
3. Revamp library and information science education, training and research facilities
4. Setup a central library fund
5. Modernization library management
6. Promote the application of ICT in all libraries
7. Development a system on national libraries
8. Facilitate domain and maintenance of private collections
9. The National Library of India at Calcutta should be strengthen

Salient Features: Following are the salient features on National Policy on Library and Information
System:

1. Free public library system in the country

2. Every school or college should have a library and its qualified librarian
3. Expansion of NISSAT at national, regional, sectoral and local levels
4. Systems similar to NISSAT should be organized in science, social science and humanities
5. Developments of information systems and data books in different fields
6. Manpower planning and development
7. Library legislation and regulation of flow of information
8. Use of technology
9. Removal of communication barriers
10. National network of libraries
11. National Library board

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BAR CODE SYSTEM
Define „Bar-Code‟. How bar-coding technology has changed the scenario of circulation work in the
library.

Introduction: According to American Heritage Dictionary of English Language, ―A series of vertical

bars of varying widths, in which each of the digits zero through nine are represented by a different pattern
of bars that can be read by a laser manner. The bars are commonly found on consumer products and are
used especially for inventory control‖.

Libraries make use of unique no., such as membership codes to identify their numbers, call no., ID no.,
Acc. No., etc. in an automated library, these numbers are used to be input into the computer for
circulation activities and stock verification.

History: Libraries began to make use of barcode in 1972 when the Kentish Town Branch of Cambler
Public Library started using the bar-coding system. This bar-coding system was known as Plessy Method;
in which a light pen was used for reading the code printed. Later on, the bar-coding system was also
started in use by 100 of libraries even in the developing countries.

Concept: A barcode is nothing but a series of thick black lines and white spaces that signify a series of
characters and can be read with the help of computers. Significantly, computers made use of digit binary
system to represent and it can only understand one and zero(1&0). The black thick lines represent 1 and
white represent0. Thus, barcodes are a series of 1 & 0 representing the numbers or letters in computer
readable form.

Role of Barcode Technology in Libraries: Barcode system can be used in following fields:

1. Use of personal names: List of all members with their corresponding pay roll no. can be prepared in
the alphabetical order of their surnames.
2. Circulation Desk: All the students and employees who are members of the library would be given
barcode employee ID cards. Similarly all the books with existing accession number is bar-coded on
the side and inside of the book. The user‘s ID number and Acc. No. of the book is scanned and the
information is automatically fed into the computer for the updating of database. Similarly the same
procedure is followed for the renewal of books.
3. Location Control System: The Bar-code helps in making sure that the right books go to the right
location. All the locations of books are bar-coded with a unique identification number. When any one
has need to know about a document, scan the location code and the book accession number, if there is
any mismatch, an error message will be flashed.
4. Stock Verification: Stock verification of the library can be done efficiently using this system. When
the holding of the library are saved in computer. It becomes very easy to take stock with the help of
bar-code scanners. As every book present in the stock can be scanned and a list of books that are not
scanned could be obtained.
5. Generating User Profile: Normally in a library, big or small, a gate register is maintained and the
members are expected to enter their details and sign at the time of their visit to the library. With the
help of this gate register, monthly and yearly statistics cannot be given instantly. Beside it, a vaster
can enter wrong details or date by mistake. When barcodes are used, it is not only possible to
overcome the above difficulties, but hourly, monthly and yearly statistics of different categories of

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 users like undergraduates, post graduates, research scholars, lecturers, readers and professors could be
given instantly. The requirements and procedure of the bar-coded system for generating user statistics:
a. To see membership database is updated.
b. To barcode and laminate all member‘s ID cards;
c. Installation of the offline scanner at personal check counter;
d. To deposit bar-coded member ID card at issue counter;
e. To scan and return member ID card
6. Periodical Control: When a particular issue of any periodical is received, its respective bar-code is
scanned. The keypads available for months and issue numbers are also scanned and with the help of
the software, a print out of issues is prepared and generated.

Advantages of Barcode System:

1. Increase Accuracy: Accurate data is possible with barcode. It has been seen that in manually
collected data, the error rate is 01 in 300 characters. Whereas in automated data capturing system, the
error rate is almost zero.
2. High Speed: By bar-coded, data entry is very fast. Barcode data entry rates are often 30 characters per
second.

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ABSTRACT AND ABSTRACTING SERVICES
What is the need and importance of abstracting service in a library? Give a brief account of two
abstracting services with which you are familiar.

Introduction: Abstract is summary or concise form of a document.

Types: Abstracts are of various types: Indicative, Informative, Indicative-Informative, Slanted and Titular
Abstract:

1. Indicative Abstract: Indicative Abstract merely indicates the contents and does not provide specific
information about the contents. Its purpose is to alert the user about the availability of a document.
2. Informative Abstract: Informative abstract is a comprehensive abstract which gives briefly the main
ideas, methodology, discussion, data, etc. of the document. This type of abstract is suitable for such
documents as deal with experimental, or covers a specific theme.
3. Indicative-Informative Abstract: In such abstracts, less important aspects are treated indicatively,
while precise information is provided for the significant aspects of the document. These abstracts
communicate adequate information with economy.
4. Slanted Abstract: When an abstract is oriented to serve a special group, it is called a Slanted
Abstract. For instance, the same document may be abstracted in Biological Abstract and in the
Chemical Abstract, but the abstracts in both the cases will be different, one for the biologists and other
for the chemists.
5. Titular Abstract: The title of the document representing its contents is Titular Abstract. In scientific
documents, the title usually indicates the subject.

Qualities, Contents and Formats of an Abstract:

1. Qualities: A good abstract should be brief, precise and objective. But its brevity should not be at the
cost of essential information. The language of an abstract should be simple, straight and intelligible.
2. Elements: A good abstract should include Purpose, Scope, Methodology, Data Results, Conclusions,
Specialized or Additional information, etc.
3. Formats: An abstract has three parts; the first is the citation or bibliographical information of
document abstracted. The second part consists of the abstract itself. The third part is the name of the
abstractor given below the abstract.

Abstracting Services:

1. Biological Abstracts, 1926, Fortnightly, Philadelphia, Bio-Science Information Services.

A comprehensive abstracting service is theoretical and applied biology with 50% of the dealing with
basic medical science publishes nearly 1, 50,000 abstract annually, which are arranged under 300-400
subject headings, exist reference provides information about sub heading, journals, patents, yearly
publications of host documents. The consultation of the main part is facilitated by five indexes:
Author index, Bio-systematic index, Genetic index, Concept index and Subject index.

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2. Chemical Abstract, 1907, Weekly, Easton, Pa., American Chemical Society.

It is world‘s largest abstracting service in chemistry and chemical engineering, publishes over 2.5 lakh
abstracts a year and has information scope. The reference is arranged under 80 subjects in a classified
order, and each subject constituting a separate section. Each reference provides information about
subject-heading, abstract no., title, author with address, host-document, year of publication, vol. no.,
issue no., page no., language of the text and abstractor‘s name. these bibliographical details are
followed by the abstract proper. The consultation of the Abstracts is facilitated by nine indexes:
Author index, Keyword index, Numerical patent index, Ring index, Molecular index, Formula index,
HAIC index, Chemical substance index, General subject index and Patent Concordance.

3. Indian Library Science Abstracts, 1967, Quarterly, Calcutta, IASLIC.

It covers Indian LIS literature, including the proceedings of conferences. References are arranged in
classified order according to Colon Classification Scheme. Articles in Indian languages are
transliterated into Roman script indicating original language. It provides author and subject indexes
also.

4. Indian Science Abstracts, 1965, Monthly, New Delhi, NISCAIR.

It abstracts the documents published in India and work done in India but published abroad. It covers
Indian scientific literature comprehensively. About 600 Indian and 2,000 foreign periodicals are
scanned regularly for the purpose. Entries follow a classified arrangement according to UDC.
Documents are grouped into 19 broad classes and 450 sub-classes. Each entry gives usual
bibliographical details. Each monthly issue has an author index and a keyword index. Annual author
and subject indexes are also brought out.

5. Library and Information Science Abstracts, 1950, Bi-monthly, London, Library Association.

Such subjects as library science, information science, publishing, book-selling and reprography are
covered. About 450 periodicals, conference papers, books and pamphlets are scanned for this. The
references are arranged in a classified order, according to CRG‘s classification of library science. Under
the class number and subject the entries are arranged by the title, author, host document, volume, issue,
year, pages. These are followed by followed by abstracts. Each entry has its serial number, Author and
subject indexes are given for each issue. Both of these indexes are cumulated on annual basis.

5. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1938, Monthly, Ann Arbor, Michigan, University

Microfilms.

Till 1952 this was known as Microfilm Abstracts, from 1952 as Dissertation Abstracts and since 1970 as
Dissertation Abstracts International. Since July 1966, it is published in two parts: A- Humanities and
Social Sciences and B- Science and Engineering. Basically it is a guide to American and Canadian
doctoral dissertations, now it has started covering theses from some of the British Universities also.

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Preparing of an Abstract: In the preparation of an abstract, generally the following three stages are
involved:

1. Identification of significant information: The document should be carefully read so that no key fact
is left out. Significant points should be marked out.
2. Organization of Information: The organization of information should be in the order of: Purpose,
Scope, Methodology, Data Results, Conclusion and Additional information. Depending on the type of
abstract, the contents of the document will either be indicated or brief details about them will be
given.
3. Writing: While writing an Abstract following points should be kept in mind:
a. The language used in abstract should be simple, clear and the expression should be concise and crisp.
b. The abstract should be in single paragraph.
c. Repetition should avoided and information conveyed by the title or lead sentence or feature-headings
should not be repeated in the body of the abstract.
d. Unknown and unfamiliar symbols or abbreviations or words should be avoided and only standard
terms be used.

15
SELECTIVE DESSIMINATION SERVICE
What is SDI Service? Discuss the characteristics and various steps to be kept in mind while
providing SDI services in a special library.

Introduction: The main objective SDI service is to keep users informed of new developments in their
respective areas of interest without overburdening them with non-relevant and unwanted documents. HP
Luhn was the man, who introduced the concept of first automated SDI in 1961. It is a changed form of
CAS, based on the mechanized system emphasizing it to persons or researchers to their pin-pointed
needs.

Characteristics: Following are some important characteristics of SDI Service:

1. Current Awareness Service: SDI is an improved and specialized form of CAS. It is concerned with
new information or information of recent origin.
2. Personalized Service: SDI can be called a personalized service. There are very limited or selected
individuals or groups of individuals who use this service.
3. Tailor-Made Service: SDI is a tailor-made service. It is just opposite to the Current Awareness
Service because it is designed according to the exact required or needed information of the
specialists/users.
4. Quick Service: It is a quick service because it provides latest information immediately. For
providing SDI service library staff should alert.
5. It is meant for scientists or specialists: SDI is basically for the specialists and provided
individually. Specialists like managers, doctors, policy makers or project co-coordinator or engineers
etc. use this service. It is provided in special libraries.
6. Save the time of Specialists/Scientists: SDI saves the time of specialists like policy makers,
scientists, engineers, doctors or project co-coordinators, etc. haven‘t such time that they came in
library and get information. So it very useful for them.

Purpose of SDI Service:

a. To save the time of specialists.

b. To provide personalized CAS.

Work Flow or Steps in SDI Service: SDI can be regarded as a by-product CAS, which not serves
current information but is also totally user-oriented. The different steps for providing SDI service are as
following:

1. Preparation of User Profile: First of all a librarian must and should select the group of users who
require SDI service. He should know what is the requirement of user? What he wants? What is his
topic? From which category he/she belongs? A librarian or SDI provider should have bibliographical
information of users.
2. Preparation of Document Profile: The incoming documents are analyzed and the subject content of
each of them is represented in the same indexing language that has been used in the preparation of user
profile. The document descriptions are then organized into a document profile file. A librarian should
have bibliographical information. There will be title, author, keywords, year of publication of the
document, etc.

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3. Matching of Document Profile with User Profile: User‘s database and document database is
matched. In small libraries it is done manually but in big libraries, this is done by computers.
4. Notifications: Each individual user receives notifications from the system if any close match is
observed between his interest profile and any document record. The notification may include bare
citation of the documents or citations with abstracts or keywords.
5. Response or Feedback: An important feature of SDI system is its mechanism of feedback. It is a
mechanism through with the response of subscriber to each notification can be obtained or observed by
the system.
6. Updating of User Profile: In present, the progress of science and technology is very advance and due
to this advancement, knowledge is increasing very fastly and broadly day-by day. As every moment,
new information or a new concept of knowledge is coming into existence, the nature of users also
changes. Therefore it is the duty of a librarian or information provider to update users profile time to
time.

Difference between CAS and SDI Service:

1. The objective of CAS is not to answer of a specific question but to provide update information of new
developments and newly published documents. Whereas SDI provides answer of a specific query to a
particular user.
2. CAS is a ‗Ready Made‘ service. It is already prepared. Whereas SDI is‘ Tailor-Made‘ service. It is
designed according to the exact requirement or needs of a specialists or user.
3. CAS is provided on anticipation of demand. It provides information on all matters, whatever a user
needs, without asking for purpose or needs. Whereas SDI is provided on demand. It provides answer
of a specific query to a particular user.
4. CAS covers a broader area of information because it provides information on all topics. Whereas SDI
is a personalized service. It is only provided to the particular users. SDI covers a specific area of
information.
5. CAS is available in all types of libraries such as Academic libraries, Public libraries and special
libraries. Whereas SDI is available only in special libraries.
6. Every user or student can use a CAS service without asking the purpose or needs whereas SDI service
is provided only to the scientists, engineers, doctors, policy makers or businessmen, etc.

17
DATA MINING
What do you understand by Data Mining? Discuss the applications of Data Mining in various fields.

Introduction: The World Wide Web as a Global Information system has flooded us with a tremendous
account of data and information. Our capabilities of generating and collecting data have been increasing
rapidly every day. In this age of IT Data Mining is a promising new technology in database systems and
applications which assist us in transforming the vast amount of data into useful information and
knowledge. Data Mining emerged during 1980s has made great strides during the 1990s.

What is Data Mining? Data Mining is a process of discovering non-trivial, previously unknown and
potentially useful information from a huge collection of databases. Data Mining refers to extracting or
‗mining‘ knowledge from large amount of data. Just like gold mining from rocks and sand, data mining
should have been more approximately named as ―knowledge mining from data‖. Data mining is an
essential step in the process of knowledge discovery in databases, knowledge extraction, data pattern
analysis and information harvesting.

a. Data Explosion Problem: The wide availability of tremendous amount of data stored in databases,
data warehouses and information repositories or human ability for comprehension without powerful
tools, has made the necessity of data mining that provides the necessary information and knowledge
to the users.
b. We are drowning in huge data, but starving for knowledge. So data mining is the only solution to
overcome the above problems, for extracting the huge data for getting useful information or patterns
c. Market analysis to engineering design.
d. Production control.
e. Science explosion.

Classification of Data Mining: Data Mining can be classified into two categories:

1. Descriptive Data Mining describes the data set in a concise and summarative manner and presents
interesting general properties of the data.
2. Predictive data Mining

Applications of Data Mining: Following are some important areas of Data Mining:

1. Data Mining Biomedical and DNA Data Analysis or Health Care Analysis: Data Mining is
applied in extracting the patterns and gene function from the explosive huge biomedical research
databases and had focused on DNA data analysis. Recent research in DNA analysis has led to the
discovery of genetic causes for many diseases and disabilities, as well as the discovery of new
medicines and approaches for disease diagnosis, prevention and treatment in the field of health care.
2. Data Mining for Financial Data Analysis: Most banks and financial institutions offer a wide variety
of banking services, credit and investment, insurance and stock investment services. The financial data
collected are mined and useful information have been provided with the application of Data Mining
processes.
3. Data Mining for Retail Industry: The retail Industry is a major application area for Data Mining,
since it collects huge amounts of data on sales, customer shopping history, goods transportation, and

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 consumption and service records. So the Data Mining is very much applicable to improve the quality
of the business.
4. Data mining for the Telecommunication Industry: The Telecommunication Industry has quickly
evolved from offering local and long distance telephone services to providing many services including
voice, fax, pager, cellular phone, images, e-mail, computer and web data transmission etc. This creates
a demand for data mining in order to help understand the business, identify the patterns, make better
use of resources and improve the quality of service.
5. Data Mining for Marketing in Business: Since in the field of business and marketing, the credit card
transactions, loyalty cards, discount coupons, customer complaint calls, public life style studies are
rapidly increasing, it is essential for data mining system to determine the target marketing and to
promote the quality and quantity of marketing in business. Data mining tells us what types of
customers buy what products. It also identifies customer requirements and provides statistical
information.

How to Choose a Data Mining System?

1. Data Types: it is important to check the format of the handling data. Some kinds of data may
require specialized algorithms, to mine text documents, geospatial data, multimedia data, time series
data, DNA sequences, web log records or web data.
2. System Issues: The most popular Operating System that host Data Mining software are UNIX,
LINUX and Microsoft Windows.
3. Data Sources: This refers to the specific data formats on which the data mining system will operate.
It is important that a data mining system supports ODBS connections.
4. Data Mining Functions and Methodologies: Data Mining Systems that supports multiple data
mining functions.
5. Coupling Data Mining with Database or Data Warehouse Systems: A Data Mining System
should be tightly coupled with a database system in the sense that the data mining retrieval
processes are integrated by optimizing data mining queries into interactive mining and retrieval
process.
6. Visualization Tools: ―A picture is worth a thousand words‖- this is very true in Data Mining. The
variety, quality and flexibility of visualization tools may strongly influence the usability and
attractiveness of a data mining system.
7. Data Mining Query Language and Graphical User Interface: An easy-to-use and high quality
graphical user interface is essential in order to promote user-guided, highly interactive data mining.

19
 UNIVERSITY GRANT COMMISSION
Discuss the role of University Grant Commission in the development of University and College
Libraries in India.

Introduction: The establishment of UGC in 1953 is the landmark achievement in the history of Higher
Education in India. Dr. C.D. Deshmukh was the first chairman of UGC. It is a statutory organization and a
national body for the co-ordination and maintenance of standards of university education. It serves as a
vital link between union and state government and the institutions of Higher education.

Being an apex body in maintaining higher education in the country, UGC is playing a major role in
promoting library and information services in the universities and colleges. It has also established and
constituted a number of libraries, information centers, study centers, and committees to provide education
and services in the field of library and information activities. Some of them are as:

1. Ranganathan Committee: In 1957 a library committee was constituted under the chairmanship of S.R.
Ranganathan. Its report was published by UGC in the year 1959 under the title‖Development of
University and College Libraries‖. The report gave due importance to the pay scale and training of the
staff so that they could meet the challenges. The committee also observed that the status and the salary of
the library staff should be same as that of the teaching and research staff.
2. Education Commission: The Government of India appointed Education Commission in 1964 under the
chairmanship of Prof. D.S. Kothari, to evaluate the education system as well as libraries. The committee
stated in the final report ―Nothing can be more damaging than to ignore its library and to give a low
priority‖. The committee also emphasized that the staff should be well trained and properly developed to
cater the needs of the users.
3. Mehrotra Committee: In 1983, UGC appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Prof. Mehrotra.
The committee recognized the importance of libraries and their manpower for imparting and
disseminating knowledge and recommended the revision of pay scale for the librarian and other staff.
The committee suggested for ‗National Eligibility Test‘ as the necessary requirement for lecturers,
assistant librarians, documentation officers and college librarians so that the standards of new entrants
could be improved.
4. Yash Pal Committee: In 1988, the UGC constituted a committee on National Network System under the
chairmanship of Prof. Yash Pal to suggest measures for networking of libraries and information centers
in universities, deemed universities, institutions of national importance, information centers, research and
development institutions and colleges. The committee prepared project report for creation of
(Information and Library Network) and subsequent year INFLIBNET came into existence.

5. Establishment of INFLIBNET and Modernization of University and College Libraries:

Recent advances in information and communication technology and its utility have forced the university
libraries to computerize their services and connecting themselves to various networks programmes. The
establishment of INFLIBNET is one of those programmes. The UGC established an Information and
Library Network (INFLIBNET) Programme with headquarter at Ahmedabad. It was established to
provide fast, efficient and reliable computerized information services to its users. The UGC has also
provided special financial assistance to central university libraries.

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 a. Purchase of computer system, monitor, printer, terminals, software etc.
b. Computer, furniture and electrical fitting and conditioning.
c. Mode, telephone line and connection to nearest communication mode.
6. Curriculum Development Committee: In Sept. 1990, the CDC on library and information science was
constituted under the chairmanship of Prof. P.N. Kaula. In the final report published by UGC, the main
focus was on the training the manpower of libraries with new technologies in order to enable them to
face the new challenges for the changing scenario in the country.
7. UGC-INFONET: University Grant Commission (UGC) has launched the UGC-INFONET project
joining hands with the Education and Research Network (ERNET) to implement the. Information and
Library Network (INFLIBNET) is the coordinating and monitoring agency of the UGC-INFONET
Project. The faculty members, research scholars and students of universities covered under UGC are
primary beneficiaries; however, this scheme is planned to be extended to colleges also. UGC bears the
entire expense for providing electronic journals access on behalf of participating universities.

The list of journals covered by the project can be accessed on the INFLIBNET Center‘s website
http://www.inflibnet.ac.in.UGC-INFONET covers the journals from all the disciplines namely pure
sciences and humanities including management and languages. Under the consortium, gateway portals
provide access to more than 20,000 journals with contents and abstracts for major collections. Around
4,053 full text journals in various subjects can be accessed either by directly visiting the publisher‘s site
or through gateways portals.

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UNITED NATIONS EDUCATUIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANIZATION (UNESCO)
Describe the contribution of UNESCO in the growth and development of libraries and information
centers in developing countries with special reference to India?.

Introduction: UNESCO was founded in 1946, by an inter-governmental agency belonging to the United
Nations system. It deals with Library, Documentation, Information, Archives, Book production, copy
right. However, in 1976, two main divisions, namely that of Documentation and Information which has
been responsible for carrying out the UNISIST programme were combined to establish a new division
known as the General Information Programme (PGI).

Objectives: UNESCO‘ main objectives: contributing to the world peace, security and international
understanding by promoting education, science, forecasting respect, rule of law, basic freedoms and
culture among the nations of the world.

Organizational Structure: At present it has 157 members and one associate member in the organization
with headquarter situated at Paris.

Activities: Following are some activities of UNESCO:

1. Principles and Structure of Documentation, Libraries and Archives Services: The UNESCO
Public Library Manifesto gave a new image and wide scope to public libraries. It influenced te
development of public libraries in many member states and underdeveloped countries and recognized
the role of libraries in educating communities. UNESCO initiated several activities like seminars,
technical assistance, missions, grants, publications, etc. to improve the services of libraries in member
states.
2. Internationalization of Documentation, Library and Archival Services: UNESCO‘s periodic
associations with International organization like FID, IFLA and ICA have enabled it to extend its
programme of activities. Many symposium, seminars, workshops, conferences, courses have been
organized at international, national, and regional levels including the Regional Seminar on ―Library
Development in Asia‖.
3. Professional Training: UNESCO‘s action in professional field takes the form of meetings of experts,
specialized courses, the setting up of regional training centers and schools of librarianship, the sending
of experts and consultants to member-states, the granting of fellowship and organizing of courses for
teachers in schools for librarians and archives.
4. Establishment of Public, University and National Libraries: The UNESCO championed the cause
of Public Library movement in the Third World. It established Pilot Public Libraries in Nigeria,
Columbia and New Delhi. Its faith in public libraries as means of continuing education and
information without any restriction is reflected in its publication ―UNESCO Public Library
Manifesto‖, 1949, revised in 1972 and 1994).
5. NWICO (New World Information and Communication Order): The UNESC is helping the
developing countries to strengthen their communication systems by its programme of NWICO. In
1986, UNESCO established Asia Pacific Information Network in Social Sciences (APINESS).

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6. ISORI (International Information System in Research in Documentation): UNESCO has also
established an International Information Systems on Research in Documentation for collecting and
dissemination of information on research activities in documentation, libraries and archives.
7. Book Promotion: A familiar problem in most of the developing countries is lack of books in their
vernacular languages. UNESCO has organized a number of regional meetings and provides the
facility of translation to solve this problem.
8. Publications: Following are some important publications of UNESC
a. Copyright Bulletin (Quarterly)
b. Impact of Science on Society (Quarterly)
c. UNESCO Courier (Monthly)
d. UNESCO Journal of Information Science
e. UNISIST News Letter (Quarterly)
f. UNESCO Chronicle (Monthly)

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META DATA
Discuss the concept, types and Functions of Meta Data? Discuss with Dublin Core Meta Data in
short.

Introduction: Meta Data is literally ―data about data‖, information that qualifies other information.
Bibliographic description is a form of Metadata. Information about intellectual property rights and terms
of use, formats of electronic information, abstracts and summaries is also a form of metadata.

What is Meta Data? Meta data is structured information that describes, explains, locates, accesses,
identifies or makes it easier to retrieve, use or manage an information resource. Meta data is often called
data about data or information about information. In the digital environment, Meta data is commonly used
for any formal scheme of resource description, digital or non-digital. Traditional library cataloguing is a
form of Meta data and MARC 21 and AACR2 are Metadata standards.

Definitions: According to Ovum, Meta Data are the set of rules of structured information which provides
systematic guide-lines to describe electronic journals, e-books, e-encyclopedia for the purpose of
discovery and manage.

Meta data can describe resources at any level of aggregation. It can describe a collection, a unitary
resource or a component part of a larger resource, for eg. a photograph in an article.

Types of Meta Data: There are several different types of Metadata including descriptive, administrative
and structural:

1. Descriptive Meta Data describes a resource for the purpose of discovery and identification. It can
include elements such as title, author, abstract and keywords.
2. Structured Meta Data indicates how compound resources or objects are put together, for eg. how
pages are arranged to form chapters.
3. Administrative Meta Data provides information to help and manage a resource, such as when and how
it was created, file type and other technical information and who can access it.

Need of Metadata:

1. Meta data not only collects the resources and retrieves the information but also provides
administrative central security, personal information and preservation.
2. To bring similar resources together;
3. To distinguish dissimilar resources;
4. To give location of file.
5. To facilitate the discovery of relevant information.
6. To allow resources to be found by relevant criteria;

Functions of Meta Data: Following are some important functions of Meta Data

1. The main function of Meta data is to improve the resource discovery and provide the necessary links
between the information creator and user.
2. It not only collects the resources and retrieves the information but also provides administrative
central security, personal information, content rating, right management and preservation.

24
 3. Preservation of information resources for a long time is possible with Meta data.
4. Meta data is a systematic method of describing resources.
5. It is a good system to share information about a resource among people and across time.
6. Digital information is fragile, it can be corrupted or altered, intentionally or unintentionally. Meta
data is the key to ensuring that resources will survive and continue to accessible into the future.

Meta Data Standards: Many different Metadata schemes are being used in library environment. One of
the most popular and accepted one is the Dublin Core with 15 elements. The original objective of the
Dublin Core was to define a set of elements that could be used by authors to describe their own web
resources. Dublin Core Metadata came into existence in 1995 after a thoughtful meeting of information
experts on the event of ―OCLC/NCSA Metadata Workshop" held in Dublin Ohio. Dublin Core standard
recommended 15 elements for Metadata description. These are:
1. Title, 2. Author or Creator, 3. Subjects, 4. Description, 5. Publisher, 6. Contributors, 7. Date, 8.
Resource Type, 9. Format, 10. Identifier, 11. Source, 12. Languages, 13. Relation, 14. Coverage,
15. Authority

25
REDIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION AND ITS ROLE IN LIBRARIES (RFID)
Define „RFID system‟. How bar-coding technology has changed the scenario of circulation work in
the library.

Introduction: Radio Frequency Identification is one of the most acceptable, fastest, easiest and most
efficient technologies for identifying, locating and managing documents. By giving productivity, staff
comfort and customer services; it has generated great enthusiasm in the library world. RFID is an
acronym for ‖Radio Frequency‖ and ID means ―Identifier‖ that allows an item, for eg, a library to be
identified, accessed, stored, reprogrammed and communicated by using microchip based technology or
radio waves.

Need of RFID:

1. It saves time and money;

2. Minimize work stress of staff;
3. Automated issue/return of items;
4. Gathers statistics on used items;
5. It improves and efficient user services;
6. It prevents theft;
7. An automated system atomically identifies objects;

RFID Vs Bar-Code:

1. Read more than one item at a time;

2. Read while item is moving;
3. Programmable;
4. Line of site read not required;
5. Able to resist water damage;
6. Built in security;
7. Inventory tool with handling items;
8. Able to locate specific items on shelves.

RFIS Architecture:

Firstly, form tags are scanned by readers;

Secondly, in backend transmitted data coming through antenna (RF wave) are being recognized by RFID
system PC. It acts as a middleware communication gateway among items, reader and system database;
And at the end, it filters out and store data in RFID database for checking the data fault and
relevant operations.

26
CURRENT AWARENESS SERVICE
What is the need and importance of Current Awareness Service in a library? Discuss the forms and
applications of CAS.

Introduction: There has been an exponential growth of information contained in publications originating
from various sources, in different languages and forms. So it has become necessary for libraries and
information centers to design new and innovative information services by announcing and disseminating
current information to the users. CAS and SDI are such services.

At present the libraries and information centers has been providing new documentation services which is
helpful in research and development. Industrial productivity, management marketing and explosion of
publication in world is increasing day-by-day. These publications are in different languages. But for any
active researcher it is absolutely essential that he keeps himself up-to-date in the field of his work. This type
of approach to information is known as current approach to information. Any service intended to meet this
current approach is generally known as Current Awareness Service (CAS).

Characteristics of CAS:

1. A CAS is that service that is intended to provide latest information or developments in the field of
interest of users.
2. This service is a continuous process of keeping the users abreast of latest information.
3. The coverage of CAS is always broader than the subject area of users. This affords him an opportunity to
know about other related fields.
4. It is speedy-quick and timeless process. Its aim is to provide latest information to users as quickly as
possible.
5. A CAS supplements the information which a user receives from his own informal channels. This
informal service makes up what he misses from the informal service.
6. The CAS service provided in the library is very easy to use. As other services need some techniques,
CAS can be used by any user without any training or search strategy.
7. A CAS is for temporary use.
8. It provides information on all matters.

Forms and Formats of CAS: Following are some important forms and formats of CAS:

1. Content-by-Journal Service: In this service, the documentation section of library publishes the table lists
of commercial publications and serves current awareness service. It is a very easiest, cheapest, and
quickest way of providing current awareness services because very little intellectual effort is needed in
providing this service.
2. Current awareness Lists: In this service the library or documentation centre collects the bibliographical
details of primary journals and other sources of current information and classifies and groups them into
broad or narrow subject groups. The collected bibliographic entries are listed under the different subject
headings, class numbers or groups. The list is circulated to the users.
3. Research in Progress Bulletin: A research in progress bulletin usually contains information about the
laboratory at which the project is being done, name of researchers, sources of funds, duration of the
project, and special equipment in use. It also includes a short description of the research project and
progress made till date.

27
4. Newspaper Clipping: In this service, a library subscribes one or more daily or weekly newspapers,
carefully according to need and demand of the organization. This his service is becoming more important
in the context of science and technology because most of the scientists are concerned with the socio-
economic development now. This service is particularly useful for those who are responsible for
planning and management of policies.
5. CA List- International and Local: It is an important form of CAS. Usually this list is of two types-a.
That published by international bodies or professional organizations or others who are not directly touch
with the users.
b. Local- That brought out by those who are in touch with their clientele and know the requirements and
interests of the users.
6. Announcement of Research in Progress: This service provides information about the title of the
project, the names of research workers, organization sponsoring the research project, whether research is
basic or applied or developmental, date of announcements, proposed date for the completion of project,
academic degree and abstract of the project, source and amount of financial support, budget break down,
etc.
7. List of Periodical Received: This service consists of an alphabetical list of periodicals arranged title-
wise and its circulation. These periodicals can be daily, weekly, bimonthly, monthly, quarterly, bi-yearly,
annually. Each reference consists of the titleof the periodical, volume numbers, issue number, and the
date. This list is sent to all the departments of the university to inform them of the new arrivals in current
periodicals.
8. Library Bulletins: Library bulletin is another satisfactory media for dissemination of current
information. It is weekly, monthly or bi-monthly. The type of items most commonly given in the library
bulletins are:
a. Articles from current periodicals with or without abstract.
b. Patents with or without abstracts.
c. Titles of newly required books.
d. Pamphlets
e. Reports from organized or government departments.
f. New items.
g. Staff publication.
h. Notifications of forthcoming meeting.

Electronic or Computerized Current Awareness Service: Following are some important forms of CAS:

a. Telephone: Library can inform the users about the latest developments, journals, magazines, research
conference, and new services, through mobile service or by sending SMS.
b. Electronic-mail: If a library wants to send some material by post it will be very costly and will take long
time. But by email a library can send information whether is it in few pages or in hundreds of pages in
just few seconds or minutes.
c. Fax: Through the facility of an electronic CAS a library can send text messages.

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DELNET (DEVELOPING LIBRARY NETWORK
Discuss the role of Developing Library Network (DELNET) in the development of University and
College Libraries in India.

Introduction: DELNET is a computerized networking project for resource sharing among Delhi based
libraries. DELNET was established in 1988 with the financial support of NISSAT now it is promoted by
National Informatics Centre (NIC). By giving importance and significance to this network, its name has been
changed into Developing Library Network (DELNET). At present the number of libraries incorporated
with this network has been increased to over 500 including both institutional and associate institutional
libraries, in which 235 libraries of the country and 8 libraries from outside India.

The membership of DELNET is progressively increasing day by day as it includes universities, colleges,
governmental departments, institutions and public libraries.

Objectives: Following are some important objectives of DELNET:

1. To promote sharing of resources among the libraries by developing and work of libraries by collecting,
storage and disseminating of information by offering computerized services to the users
2. To promote undertake scientific research in the area of information science and technology.
3. To offer technical guidance to the member libraries and collecting, storing, sharing and disseminating
information.
4. To coordinate efforts for suitable collection development and reduce unnecessary duplication wherein
possible.
5. To facilitate and promote delivery of documents manually or mechanically.
6. To develop specialized bibliographic database of books, serials and non-book materials.
7. To develop database of projects for specialists and institutions.

Functions and Services of DELNET: Following are some important functions and services of DELNET:

1. Database Creation: DELNET has created so many databases which are available to all member libraries
online. Presently the databases related with union catalogue of books, periodical, Hindi books, Union list
of current periodicals, articles, sound recordings, newspapers and video recordings are available.
2. Facility of Software: In beginning it provided CDS/ISIS software developed by UNESCO in India
through NISSAT. But now it provides its developed software for complex cataloguing and union
cataloguing work.
3. Standardization: A standardization committee of DELNET has been meeting from time to time. This
committee takes into account the CCF for interchanging bibliographic data, input/output format,
bibliographic description, classification scheme and subject headings, thesaurus, authority files, forms of
headings, etc.
4. Online Inter Library Loan Service: DELNET members can place their inter-library loan requests
through online service, which is available on the union catalogue of books database. The requests of the
member libraries are fulfilled by sending books through courier.
5. DEL-LISTSERY Service: DELNET has created this service to provide the current awareness services
to users and allow the member libraries to receive the latest daily information through email.
6. REFERRAL Services: DELNET also maintains a referral centre that provides reference facilities to
participating libraries.

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7. Training Programmes: DELNET conducts training programmes in the use of DELNET services,
software, email, and AACR-2 and library automation etc. from time to time.
8. Lectures and Workshops: DELNET organizes conferences, lectures, workshops, seminars and
meetings of experts of network at time to time, which are open to members, specialists and users in
general.
9. DELNET also provides a newsletter named DELNET Communicates in order to spread the message and
increase the awareness about library networking and it progress in India.
10. DELNET Mail: DELNET provides RENNIC-E-mail facility to its member libraries, which is
introduced by NIC. The rate of emails is Rs. 2750/- per year for 5 MB data transfer.
11. Web Page: DELNET has a web page(http://www.delnet.nic.in) on internet which enables the users to
know about DELNET and its activities all over the world. The web page also includes a list of member
libraries along with their email address.

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INFLIBNET (INFORMATION LIBRARY NETWORK)

Explain the concept of Library Networking. Discuss in detail the INFLIBNET programme.

Introduction: INFLIBNET is cooperative library network like ULTAS of Canada and JANET of UK. It is
major national programme initiated by the UGC with its head quarter at Gujarat University Campus,
Ahmadabad, set up in 1986. The aim of this network is to contribute to pooling, sorting and optimization of
resources, facilities and services of college and university libraries.

It is a national level resource sharing centre of university libraries in the country. It is very useful to all
libraries and their readers. Near about 170 universities libraries, 500 autonomous college libraries and 200
libraries of research and development institutions are the members of this network.

Objectives: The primary objective of INFLIBNET is to promote and establish communication facilities to
improve capability in information transfer and access that provide support to scholarship, learning, research
and academic activities.

Functions and Services of INFLIBNET: Following are the functions and services provided by
INFLIBNET to its users:

1. Databases and Development and Management: INFLIBNET provides reliable access to document
collection of libraries, e.i. union catalogue. It also provides bibliographical information.
2. Updating of Union Databases: Development, managing and updating of union databases is one of the
major activities of this network. Databases for book theses, serial holdings, current serials, secondary
serials, DDC serials, experts and research reports have been developed by this network.
3. Users Manuals: INFLIBNET constituted a task force of experts to maintain consistency and quality in
databases prepared by member libraries and INFLIBNET. It also provides guidelines as per AACR-2 as
to how to render the information in each field and sub- filed with examples.
4. Authority File: This network is going to create and maintain the authority files of names and subject
headings in machine readable form and it will be linked with the union catalogue and SOUL Software
developed by INFLIBNET.
5. Staff Development: To enhance the skills of the staff of university libraries for implementation of
INFLIBNET programme some courses of training have been conducted.
a. One month training programme
b. Onsite training
c. ILMs training
d. Annual convention related to library automation.
e. SOUL training.
6. SOUL Software: For the automation of in-house operations of participating university libraries,
INFLIBNET centre has developed user friendly state-of-the-art GUI based software named SOUL
(Software for University Libraries). This software is based on client/server architecture.
7. Database Research and Development Groups: A Database Research and Development Groups have
been set up to address the problems involved in the development, maintenance and updating of these
union databases.

31
8. Networking: It is working as a media agency to implement UGC-INFONET programme of University
Grants Commission. Through this programme, free access of e-journals will be provided to each and
every participating university through Internet connectivity.
9. Publications: It has brought out following publications:
a. Compilation of Union Catalogue;
b. Database of thesis/ dissertations;
c. Serial Database.

32
OPEN SOURCE FOR LIBRARY SYSTEM
Introduction: Open source has become synonymous with open source software, the source code of which is
freely available to the users. Through the open source, libraries can offer better services, improve their
functionality and also share resources and information with other libraries.

Open Source: Concept and definition: The term open source is used to describe the process in which the
services of the end product of a system can be accessed, used and improved. Open source systems are
software created, the source code of which is freely available so that the users can read, modify, circulate
and redistribute it. The open source software is typically created and maintained by a team of developers that
surpasses institutional, regional and national boundaries.

Features of open Source software:

1. The license of open source software must guarantee the right to read, redistribute, improve and bugs
circulate and share his efforts freely with others.
2. Its license must include source code and allow distribution in source code as well as in the changed &
compiled form.
3. Its license must allow modifications and derived works and should allow for their distribution under the
same terms as original.
4. Its license may require that the derived name carry a different name or version number from the original
software.
5. Its license must not discriminate against any person or a group of persons.
6. Its license must not be specific to a product.
7. Its license must not place restrictions on other software that is distributed along with it.
8. Its license must be technology neutral.

Benefits and Challenges: Due to the free availability of the source code, open source software has quite a
few advantages over any propriety software. It allows for free distribution and redistribution of the software,
initial costs are reduced. It generally has lower implementation and support cost as well. However, the cost
may be escalating if a development team needs to be maintained to meet the local needs. It provides more
support options. It tends to be more secure and stable software.

Though largely beneficial, open source software raises a few challenges in the form of unanticipated cost,
limited technical support and chaotic progress. It may not be as scalable and as fast as commercial software.

Open Source Software for Libraries: Implementation and use of open source software in libraries
facilitates improved services and access to more information. Some of the OSS currently available for library
systems are Avanti, Emilda, Evergreen, Firefly, Koha, Learning Access ILS, Mark Z39.50, Opec Biblo.

1. Avanti: Avanti was developed by Peter Schlump in 1998. Written in Java, it is a simple, scalable,
networkable client server that is deployed in small to written scale libraries. Avanti LCS includes its own
database management system.
2. Emilda: Emilda OSS is developed and maintained by the Real Mode Ltd. And SDV. It is a complete ILS
that features:
a. Web-OPEC allowing comprehensive system management.
b. Template based layout.

33
c. 100% MARK compatibility using zebra server.
d. Extensive configuration.
3. Evergreen: It was developed by a group of librarians at the Georgia Public Library service (GPLS). It is
an ILS that manages catalogs and tracks the circulation of library holdings. Written in C, Java Script and Perl
it uses a post gre SQL.
4. Firefly: It was developed in Pythan, Perl and XML. It is an integrated open source library system for
public libraries.
5. Koha: It is the first open source software for public library system. It was developed by Katipo
Communication, and first deployed in Jan. 2000 at the Horomhenua Library Trust in New Zealand. It is an
enter prize class Integrated Library System with comprehensive functionality including basic and advanced
options. Its core features include a library catalogue front end/ OPEC, libraries system intranet, a circulation
tracking system and a document acquisition/ budgeting system.
6. Learning Access ILS: It is a standard based, fully integrated open source library system offered by the
Learning Access Institute in Seattle. The system consists of Web OPEC, cataloguing, circulation and
administrative modules. MARC, Z39.50, UNICODE are supported. It is specifically positioned to offer
smaller libraries.
7. Open Biblo: It is an easy to use, automated library system written in PHP. It provides OPEC, cataloguing
and staff administered functionalities.

Conclusion: Most of the open source applications have sufficient online documentation and active user
groups, forums and other resources. The OSS provides a platform for exchanging of ideas from other
systems and individuals throughout the world. It allows access to large amount of information which is not
available in four walls of institutional libraries. OSS enables resource sharing internationally, without any
hindrance. It is developed, managed and improved continuously and collectively. The OSS is an effective
system in the hands of intelligent librarians to satisfy their users in a very attentive and speedy manner.

34
KOHA : OPEN SOURCE LIBRARY MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE
Introduction: KOHA is an integrated library system written in PERL and using MYSQL as the underlying
database. KOHA makes it simple to create and manage a small integrated library system, equipped with
acquisition, cataloguing, circulation and searching modules it provides much of functionality of traditional
catalogs. With the recent implementation of its Z39.50 interface, it is easy to enter ISBN numbers in to the
system, and locate the MARC record. It represents a major step in providing a catalog that is functional and
usable for small libraries.

Key Features of KOHA: KOHA has all expected features of integrated Library System Software,
including:

1. Linux, UNIX, Windows and MacOS platform.

2. Simple, clear interface for librarians and members.
3. Customizable search.
4. Reading lists for members.
5. Full acquisition system including budgets and pricing information (including supplier and currency
conversion).
6. Simple acquisition system for the smaller libraries.
7. Ability to copy with any member of branches, patrons, user categories, item categories, currencies and
other data.
8. Serials system for magazines or newspapers.
9. Full text electronic journal support.
10. Copy cataloguing and Z39.50.
11. MARC21 and UNIMARC for professional cataloguers.
12. Koha is multitasking and enables updates of circulation, cataloguing and issues to occur
simultaneously.
13. Web based OPAC system (allows the public to search the catalogue in the library and home).
14. Full catalogue, circulation and acquisitions system for library stock management.
15. Import/Export facility.

To successfully use KOHA one need have some additional software:

1. A web server
2. Perl
3. MySQL (Structured Query Language based database)
4. DBI
5. DBD (for the use of Database system)
6. AuthenDBI (for the use of database based authentication)
7. CDK (for the telnet interface)

35
 RESOURCE SHARING

Introduction: Library resources means, the library materials, functions and services. Library materials are
of two types documentary and non-documentary. Documentary materials are those which are in the form of
documents that includes books, periodicals, reports, patents, thesis. Non-documentary materials include
audio-visual aids, microforms, machine readable databases, computers, etc.

The term functions connote acquisition, processing, storing, retrieving, maintenance, etc. services mean the
activities which a library offers to its users and include lending of documents, reference services,
reprography services, etc.

By sharing we mean sharing the use of materials either by inter library loan or by allowing users of one
library to use materials of another library. The functions and equipments can be shared through cooperative
acquisition, processing, retrieval services, expertise, computers, reader printers, etc.

Need of Resource Sharing: Following point‘s emphasis on the importance of Resource Sharing:

1. First law of Library Science explains that it is the duty of librarian that he puts his collection to the
maximum use not only for the users visiting his but also users scattered over other libraries.
2. In modern times, self-sufficiently remains only imaginative because of insufficient financial resources and
explosion of literature in the form of ever increasing volumes of journals, current and back volumes,
technical reports, conference papers, books and monographs, thesis and dissertations, etc.
3. Every reader his/her book and every books its reader require special care and attention. The user must get
his/her reading materials whether it is available in the library or not. It is not available in the library;
through inter-library loan cooperation the library takes that document from other library.
4. To overcome the problems of language barrier inter-library cooperation or resource sharing is an essential
activity for the modern library to maximize library use with minimum resources.
5. As we know, library is a growing organism, thus the collection is tend to increase every year by
procurement of new documents. This leads to problem of storage of books. Nowadays, equipments like
photocopy and personal computers are becoming quite common in libraries. These medium also occupy
some space of the library. Through library cooperation or resource sharing this problem can be easily
solved.
6. The problem of scarcity of staff can also be solved by using cooperative cataloguing or union classification.
Thus the staff efforts can also be scared by using such library cooperative activities.

36
 NETWORK AND LIBRARY NETWORKING

Introduction: Network can be defined as a group of individuals, organizations, computers and terminal
devices that are interconnected by a communication system in order to share resources. In other words,
when a group of individuals or organizations using computers decide to exchange their information or
resources through computer applications, a computer network is created.

The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellite, etc. The
set of computers may include large scale computers, medium scale computers, mini computers,
microprocessors. The set of terminal devices may include intelligent terminals, dumb terminals, and
workstations of various kinds.

The need of human being to communication gave rise to various forms of communication techniques.
Networking is one of them. Today computers are being used to send information across the globe. A
network, besides facilitating data communication allows resources to be shared among all the systems
connected to the network. This concept of connecting computers and sharing resources is called
Networking.

Need and Scope of Library Network:

1. Programme and file sharing

2. Network resource sharing
3. Database sharing
4. Centralized management
5. Email.
6. Fax sharing
7. Internet Access and security
8. Fault tolerance
9. Communication and collaboration
10. Enhancement of the corporate structure

Benefits of Networks:

1. Networking allows simultaneous access to critical programs of data.

2. It allows people to share peripheral devices.
3. Networking makes the backup process easier.
4. It provides communication with email.
5. It reduce organizations cost and improve efficiency.
6. It reduces errors and saves energy through union catalogue.

37
Types of Networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network): LAN is a network which covers a limited area. It consists so many
computers and devices connected together within a distance or building premises. LAN has become a key
resource for any organization to share information and resources within organization. In this system, input
to data and access to data is possible through any of the terminals or computers linked with the central
server. This system is highly suitable for offices, Libraries, departmental shops, factories, etc. to share
resources and to exchange information.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): It is a network that is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is
called Metropolitan Area Network since it normally covers the area of a big city. It might be either a private
or public. A MAN can support both data and voice, and might even be related to the local cable television
network. MAN communication speed is normally in-between LAN and WAN, higher than LAN and lower
than WAN. DELNET, CALIBNET, PUNENET, BONET, etc. are some examples of MAN.

3. WAN (Wide Area Network): A WAN is network system which operates in a wide area. It covers a
large geographical area with various communication facilities such as long distance telephone services,
satellites transmission, and undersea cables. It is a satellite based wide area network with national coverage.
It is composed of a number of autonomous computers that are distributed over s large geographical area,
often a country or continent. Examples of WAN are banking network, mobile phone network, railway
network, Internet etc.

In most of the LANs, the network contains numerous cables or telephone lines. NICNET, INFLIBNET, I-
NET, ERNET, etc. are some examples of WAN.

38
 DIGITAL LIBRARY
Introduction: Library and Information centers are playing a vital role and supporting academic
organizations in providing higher and qualitative education, research and social development to achieve
their aim and objectives around the world.

Due to variety of explosion of knowledge, information needs, shrinking budget and IT inventions the
scenario of library and information centers has changed. Today the libraries and information centers are
modernizing their services and structures and have been converting into Digital Libraries.

Concept: The Digital Library is an electronic library where the information is acquired, shared and
retrieved in digital form. Digital libraries are groups of inter-linked workstations connected to high speed
network. In other words, digital library is a library that contains materials and collection in digital form. The
digital information collection may include digital books, sound images, digital graphics, and textual and
numeric data, and digitized films, audio and video clips. A digital library allows faster addition to the data
collection with better quality control, improved search functionality and faster access to information.

Definition: According to University of Illinois, ―Digital libraries basically store materials in electronic
format.‖

Purpose:

1. To expedite the systematic development of the means to collect, store and organize information and
knowledge in digital form
2. To promote the economical and efficient delivery of information to all sectors.
3. To encourage co-operative efforts
4. To strengthen communication and collaboration between and among the research, business, government
and educational communities.
5. To take an international leadership role in generating and dissemination of knowledge inareas of strategic
importance.

Services Rendered by Digital Library: The objectives of a digital library can be fulfilled by offering the
following services:

1. Shared Catalogue: It enables a librarian to use catalogue. Information available in a major university
library or a resource centre for cataloguing new publication added to the library.
2. Union Catalogue: A union catalogue of serial books and non-book materials held in different libraries of
the country is created. This catalogue contains information about the available materials and documents in a
library.
3. Online Catalogue of Library/Information Centre: The Machine readable catalogue of the library or
information centre can be made available through Internet Web.
4. Document Supply/Delivery Services: It will enable a library to request another library for a copy of
document to be transmitted via e-mail or fax.
5. Inter Library Loan Service: This service will enable a library to a request to another library through the
network for one or more books on inter library loan services basis for meeting the demands of its users.
6. Referral Services: In this service, the user will be informed about the source to be approached to get the
required information.

39
7. Electronic-Mail: E-mail is an important communication based service. It enables participants in the
network to transfer/receive messages from any part of the world. Using data network to which they are
subscribing.
8. Bulletin Record: It is proposed to provider this facility to display/view news announcements etc. with
constant updating of information in an electronic bulletin board.
9. Current Awareness Service: List of latest additions to the library normally books, periodicals, patents,
standards, audio-visual material any other can be into the internal needs for education.

40
INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM
Information

An Information Retrieval System is designed to analyze process and store the sources of information and
retrieves those that match a particular user‘s requirement. Modern Information System deals not only with
textual information but also with multimedia information, which contains oral, written, audio, video, images,
microform, computer data and graphic etc.

The term Information Retrieval was coined by Colvin Moors in 1952 but it gained popularity in research
communities after 1960 onwards on account of the application of Information and Communication
Technology. The need of IRS is felt due to the exponential growth in the literature. Its primary objective is to
provide right information to the right searcher at the right time.

Definition: IRS is a process of searching and retrieval of information from storage according to specification
by subject.‖

―It is a process of locating and searching data, relevant to given problem.‖ J.H. Shera.

Purpose and Functions of IRS: An IRS deals with the sources of information on the one hand and user‘s
requirement on the other hand. The major functions of an IRS are as follow:

 To identify the sources of information relevant to an area of interest of the target user‘s community.
 To analyze the content of the sources or documents.
 To present the content of the analysis source in a way that will be suitable for matching with user‘s query.
 To analyze user‘s queries and to represent them in a form that will be suitable for matching with the
databases.
 To retrieve information that is most relevant and suitable for users.
 To make necessary adjustment for incorporating the future changes.

TYPES OF IRS: There are two types IRS-

 In-house
 Online

In-house: When IRS is set up by a particular library or information centre to serve mainly the users within
the organization, such as OPAC.

Online: This type of IRS is designed to provide access to remote databases to a variety of users; such
services are available through commercial venders on payment base.

The basic technique for searching and retrieving of information from the in-house or online IRS are more or
less some except the online system provides more avenues to retrieve a document fr

In the modern age, with the application of www and other techniques various types of Information Retrieval
Systems have come came into existence, such as-

 Online Information Retrieval System.

 CD-ROM Retrieval System.

41
 Multimedia Information Retrieval System.
 Intelligent Information Retrieval System.

According to Colvin: The IRS can also be of three types:

Data Retrieval System: Answers to questions immediately or statistical information source known as data
retrieval system bank.

Reference or Citation Retrieval: To provide information along with the bibliographical or abstract
information.

Text Retrieval: To provide full document on a particular subject, such as Emerald, Internet, and Wikipedia.

42
EVALUATION OF IRS: An evaluation is basically judgment of worth, value and merits and demerits of an
object or system. It is a process of measuring the performance of a system or service to determining its
effectiveness in meeting the established goals or objectives.

Purpose of Information retrieval System: Evaluation is a process based on the feedback system in
response of queries or question. Following are some important purpose of evaluation of an IRS system:

 To assess a set of goals, a performance plan or design a suitable model for implementation.
 To determine whether and how will goals or performance or expectations can be fulfilled.
 To determine the specific reasons for success and failure.
 To recover theories and principles for successful performance.
 To establish a foundation for further research on the reasons of relative success.
 To improve the system or goals.

Components:

Resources / Databases

Techniques

Defined Users / Particular group of users

Search system / Search facility provided

Types of Evaluation: There are two types of evaluation:

Laboratory based evaluation

Real time evaluation

Levels of Evaluation: There are two levels of evaluation of Information Retrieval and Storage:

Macro Level Evaluation: In this kind of evaluation, we try to know about different kinds of services
provided by the system. Here the evaluation of every service is done very exhaustively.

Micro Level Evaluation: Here we try to know about the services provided by the system and evaluation is
done very lightly. Evaluation can be done in two ways, such as

a. By user b. By management

Factors Affecting Evaluation of Information Retrieval System: There are some factors which influence
the process of Information Retrieval System:

Environment

a. Collection

b. Subject

c. Users‘ need

43
Software

a. Indexing System

b. Search strategy

Operational Factors

a. Subject Coverage

b. Time

c. Efforts

d. Personal

Hardware

a. Storage b. Input c. Output

Criteria for Evaluation: The evaluation of an Information Retrieval System may be management oriented
or users‘ oriented. For the evaluation of an IRS users point of view is appropriate.

Coast

a. Direct charges

b. Effort involved

Response time

Quality

Coverage b. Recall c. Precision d. Accuracy

Coast effectiveness

Coast per relevant items

Coast per new items.

In 1966, Cleberdon gave six criteria for evaluation of an Information Retrieval System:

Recall: Recall is the retrieval of relevant documents by the system. Among the total Recall ratio means as to
how many relevant documents have been retrieved by the system.

Precision:

44
Time Response: To determine the efficiency of an IRS, the response time is another important factor. Quick
retrieval of relevant documents is expected as an efficient IRS. The response time is depend on the type of
query.

Effort: Effort can be defined, as how much physical and intellectual effort is required to retrieve the relevant
information or documents. Intellectual effort means different search techniques are used by the users.

Form of Representation: To see the way or form in which the information is presented, and which affects
the user‘s ability to make use of retrieval system.

Coverage: The extent to which the system includes relevant items.

Steps for Evaluation: Following are some important steps in Information Retrieval System:

Define the Scope /Purpose of Evaluation: At first, decide the objectives of evaluation and limitations of
the scope of evaluation. It means, if the Information Retrieval System is providing so many services. It is
very important to specify for what services you are going to evaluate the Information Retrieval System.

Designing the Evaluation Program: Designing the evaluation program means to decide whether the
evaluation is macro level or micro level and to decide whether it will be laboratory based or real time based.

Data Collection / Execution of the Evaluation: It is an important stage in any evaluation system, whatever
methods are applied to access the system; in each step some results will be received.

Data Interpretation / Analysis and Interpretation of the Result: The obtained data should be interpreted
so that it can convey the same meaning. To get a successful conclusion, proper interpretation of data is
necessary.

Getting Certain Results / Modifying the system: After analyzing the data, result will be received. After
that we will be able to know on what areas in our system fulfill the objectives and in which area it does not
fulfill the objectives.

45
COMPATIBILITY OF INFORMATION RETRIEVAL AND STORAGE

Introduction: The literal meaning of compatibility is adjustment or compactness between or among entities
or systems. In the concept of IRS it refers to the property that facilitated two or more organizations to
communicate or exchange resources without any problem. The basic parameter to judge the compatibility
between IRS is one of the structures and functions performed by the system. The compatibility expresses
harmony between and among the system and focuses on various issues:

Compatibility makes able to operate together harmoniously which leads qualitative works.

It can be used together without any modification and alternation of system.

It leads to standardization.

Need of Compatibility: In the traditional librarianship the compatibility is referred as the mind act of
librarians / libraries for resource sharing especially manually. Due to following reasons the compatibility is
needed:

a. Resource sharing
b. Increasing the price of resources
c. ICT and surrogates greatly influenced resource sharing mechanism
d. Growing cultural and digital documents
e. Availability and usefulness of digital resources world wide
f. Survival of fittest.

Areas and Compatibility of IRS: As we know that IRS consists of various activities and actions from
sections to dissemination, the most important areas of compatibility of IRS:

a. Interface compatibility (protocol) means user can communicate any terminal without any technical
problem.
b. User may be to retrieve or search all databases in a similar fashion (means through common command).
c. The interface of IRS must be able to store and display results in most convenient form.

The similar search strategies are available in other databases also.

Compatibility in Bibliographic Format: The bibliographic format is the basic unit of recording of items of
information in a computerized environment, therefore bibliographic record must have the compatibility in
order to exchange information data one system to another.

The bibliographic format such as CCF, UNIMARC, MARC, MARC21, are designed and developed on the
international standards, ie. ISO or 9000. So that exchanging or transferring the bibliographic records from
one format to another can be maintained.

46
THESAURUS

Introduction: The word thesaurus has been derived from the Greek root ‗thesauri‘ means storehouse of
knowledge. In the modern usage it is a list of terms arranged according to their relationship of their ideas.
P.M. Roget is considered the first person who compiled the English thesaurus called ‗Thesaurus for English
Words and Phrases‘ in 1852. Now it is known as Roget‘s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases‘, the
benefits of writers, who are looking for appropriate words to express their ideas in other words. The
thesaurus is generally alphabetical or classified. Helen Brownson is considered the first person who used the
term thesaurus in context of IRS in 1957 while presenting a paper on classification research.

Definition: UNESCO has defined thesaurus from the functional and structural point of view:

Functional Point of View: A thesaurus is a terminological device used in translating the Natural Language
of documents into a controlled language system. It guides the researchers, which term is most suitable for his
problem.

Structural Point of View: It is a collection of terms arranged semantically and generally related to a specific
domain of knowledge. A thesaurus is a list of terms from a specialized vocabulary which has been arranged
to facilitate the selection of terms. Thesaurus is a book of terms or words that shows explicitly the
relationship among the terms.

Types on an IRS Thesaurus: There are two types of thesaurus:

Hierarchical Relation: This is indicated by the display of generic to specific, or specific to generic, or general
to non-specific relationship.

B.T. (Specific to generic)

N.T. (Generic to specific)

N.T. Science

B.T. Physical Science

Biological Science

N.T. Botany, Physics, Chemistry.

S.N. Cell

Cell

Cricket

Cricket

47
Non-Hierarchical Relation: This type of thesaurus may further be grouped as following:

Preferential Relation: This is indicated by cross reference, such as See, Seen for, Use, use for. Example-

Seen For

Chemical Treatment
See Chemotherapy

Use CC

Use For Colon Classification

Use Physically Challenged People

Use For Deaf and dumb people, blind and handicapped people.

Associative Relation: The associative relation is an essential part of the cross reference structure of all
thesauri. It is coded as R.T. stands for Related Term and is not always reciprocal.

Based on Ranganathan‘s general theory of subject classification Neelamghan has also categorized the types
of associative relations between ideas in the following manner:

Facet Relation:

E. g. Radar

R. T. Antenna

Special Relation:

E.g. Hole

R. T. Accident

Coordinate Relation:

E. g. Algebra

R.T. Arithmetic

R. T. Geometry

R. T. Trigonometry

Phase Relation:

E. g. Chemistry

R. T. Chemical Engineering

However, UNISIST has also outlined the various associative relations between ideas in the following
manner:

48
Antonyms Relation:

Es. g. Hardness

R.T. Softness

Genetic Relation:

E.g. Father

R.T. Son

Concurrent Use of two Concepts:

E.g. Education

R.T. Learning

Cause & Effect Relation:

E.g. Teaching

R.T. Learning

Instrumental Relation:

E.g. Writing

R.T. Pencil

Material Relation:

E.g. Paper

R.T. Pencil

Similarity of different Kinds:

E.g. Teaching

R.T. Teaching

Synonymous Relation: A term whose meaning can be regarded as the same in a wide range of context.

Popular names & Scientific names

Philip Flops : Bristle

Spider : Scientific name

Common name and Scientific name:

LPG : Cooking Gas.

49
Terms originated from different cultures sharing a common language:

Arial : Antenna

Bus : Lorry

Tube : Metro

Postal Service : Rail Road Service

Electronic Library : Electronic Library

Competitive names for emerging Concepts:

Tale Working : Distance Working

Individual Development Planning :

Current Vs Outdated Terms:

Job Centre : Placement Centre

Children‟s : Orphan

Old age House : 2nd inning‘s House

World : Global Village

Lexical Variations: These terms are different in spelling but meaning is same:

Capitol : Capital

Musaulims : Muslims

Abbreviations : Full Forms TQM

: Total Quality Management

Quassi Synonyms and Nearer Synonyms:

Urban Areas : Cities

Car parking : Parking Place

Gifted People : Genius

50
 KEYWORD INDEXING
Introduction: A keyword Indexing is prepared from the title of the document. The title itself acts as an
abstract for the document and represents the content of the document. In the currency of terms, it is known
by various names, such as keyword indexing, derived indexing, permitted indexing, free indexing, natural
indexing or concordance indexing, etc.

Genesis: A keyword indexing method is not a new method. Andrew Cristadora introduced it in 1856 under
the name ―Keyword in Titles‖ He used it for the catalogue of the Manchester Public Library. He also
introduced it in his author catalogue in 1864 as a concordance of titles to provide a quassi-subject approach.
H.P. Luhn of IBM revised this system under the name ―Keyword in Context (KWIC) in 1958. In 1960,
KWIC was adopted by the American Chemical Society for its publication Chemical Titles. Later on, BIOSIS
& Science Citation Index also adopted indexing system.

Definition: Keyword or word indexing is a system of deriving headings from the title, abstract, or full
Features of Keyword text of the article / book through a procedure by significant terms for the purpose of
Indexing.

Features of Keyword: Following are some important features of keyword indexing:

a. Keyword is based on natural language of the document. So the currency of the language of terms can be
maintained.
b. It does not require controlled vocabulary.
c. Entries are made from each approach terms.
d. Keyword may be single word, multi words or phrase that conveys the content.
e. The keyword indexing system is the very useful in the ICT environment.

Need and Purpose of Indexing: The needs and purpose of Indexing is as follow:

1. Publication of Primary Sources: In present the importance of primary sources has increased much due to
rapid growth in printing and its high technology. Lacs of periodicals, research reports, research publications
and patents are some examples of this flow. Under such circumstances it is very difficult for a reader to
study all the huge publication for his specific study, thus to avoid this problem indexing is needed.

Keyword In Context (KWIC): Keyword In Context indexing system is based on the principle that the title
of a document represents its content. The significant words in the title indicate the subject of the document.
AKWIC makes on entry under significant term in the title. Keywords are natural language.

Format & Structure of Keyword Indexing System: In keyword indexing, each entry consists of three
basic parts (a) Keyword (b) Context (c) Indication locator or code.

Keyword: Significant terms of the title or abstract which serves as an approach or access term.

Context: The rest of the terms of the title along with the keywords specify the context of the document.

Identifier / Locator: A code which provides the address of the document where its full bibliographical
description or other information is found.

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 Procedure of Deriving Keyword Indexing: The following steps are to be used at the time of deriving
Keyword headings:

Selection of the significant terms which usually refers as keyword from the title, abstract or text.

In the case of computerized system a stop is prepared and stored in the computer while deriving the
keywords.

Indexing Process: Keyword Indexing consists of three steps:

1. Keyword Selection 2. Entry Generation 3. Filling

Keyword Selection: The first important step is selection of significant terms from the title, abstract by
omitting articles, prepositions, conjunctions and other non-significant terms.

Entry generation: Each significant term in the title serves as a keyword. The title has the significant words,
provide the complete content to the keyword serving access point to the search. The location of the
document is indicated by the identification code on the right side.

Filling: After generating entries; each entry is filled at its appropriate place in the alphabetical sequence.
E.g.

Automation of Libraries in India 799

First Step: Keyword Selection:

Automation Libraries India

Second Step: Entry generation:

AUTOMATION of Libraries in India / 799

LIBRARIES in India / Automation of 799

INDIA / Automation of Libraries in 799

Third Step: Filling:

AUTOMATION of Libraries in India / 799

INDIA / Automation of Libraries in 799

LIBRARIES in India / Automation of 799

The first word in each entry- Automation, Libraries, India is a keyword. The part of the title following each
keyword is the context. The number 799 with each entry is the identification code.

Variation of KWIC index: Some variations in the Keyword indexing system have been introduced to
overcome its limitations and to improve its working efficiency.

KWOC : Keyword Out of Context

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KWAC : Keyword Augmented in Context

KWWD : Keyword with Context

KEYTALPHA : Keyword Alphabetical

KWOC: Keyword Out of Context: In KWOC system, keyword or the access point is shifted to the left side
at its normal place in the beginning of the line. It is followed by the complete title to provide complete
content. The identification number is on the extreme right. E.g. Automation of Libraries in India, 799

First Step: Keyword Selection:

Automation Libraries India

Second Step: Entry generation:

AUTOMATION Automation of Libraries in India 799

LIBRARIES Automation of Libraries in India 799

INDIA Automation of Libraries in India 799

Third Step: Filling:

AUTOMATION Automation of Libraries in India, 799

INDIA Automation of Libraries in India, 799

LIBRARIES Automation of Libraries in India, 799

KWAC- Keyword Augmented in Context: The acronym KWAC stands for keyword and context, which
like represents a particular format. The keyword augmented in context provides for the enrichment of the
keywords of the title with additional significant words taken either from the abstract of the document or its
content. E.g.

My experiment with truth: Autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, 253.

First Step: Keyword Selection

My experiment with truth

Autobiography

Mahatma Gandhi

Second Step: Entry generation:

MY EXPRIMENT WITH TRUTH

My experiment with truth: Autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, 253.

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AUTOBIOGRAPHY

My experiment with truth: Autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, 253.

MAHATMA GANDHI

My experiment with truth: Autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, 253.

Third Step: Filling:

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

My experiment with truth: Autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, 253.

MAHATMA GANDHI

My experiment with truth: Autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, 253.

MY EXPRIMENT WITH TRUTH

My experiment with truth: Autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi, 253.

KEYTALPHA: Keyword Alphabetical: In this indexing system, keywords are arranged side without
forming a sentence it is a permuted subject index that lists only keywords assigned to each abstract E.g.
Automation of libraries in India 799

AUTOMATION. Libraries . India 799

INDIA. Libraries. Automation 799

LIBRARIES. Libraries. India 799

Merits:

 It is useful in providing CAS-Current Awareness Service.

 Being it is mechanized system, there is least burden on human power.
 A person having little knowledge.
 Cumulative figure in tables are prepared with the help of computer.
 Indexing can be prepared speedily without mistakes.

Demerits:

a. This system depends upon entries, but few entries are not very clear and do not reveal the real sense of the
document.
b. This system is not suitable for the research already done in the past.
c. Reader wants to get his desired material at one place which is not possible in this system.
d. Pre coordinate Indexing
e. In the pre coordinate indexing system, the compound or composite subjects are analyzed according to a
plan and these constituent concepts are then represented in a particular pattern of coordination of terms.
f. Following are the main characteristics of pre coordinate indexing
g. It is based on the subject analysis of a document. h. Subject heading consists two or many index terms

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REPACKAGING FORMATING
Introduction:

Packaging: Repackaging of information is the physical recording, arrangement and presentation of

information in a given medium in a given form. In packaging two species can be distinguished:

Packaging Media: The reference here is to physical medium in which the information IS displayed or
presented to users. For e.g. Print, audio-visual, demonstrations, interpersonal control.

Packaging Format: In packaging formats, the requirement of effective formulating should be followed in
terms of:

 Readability
 View ability
 Audibility
 Identificability
 Mnemonics

Repackaging: Repackaging of information is the rearrangement of physical media and / or forms in which
information has been presented, which is tailored to the requirement of a specific clientele. In other words,
repackaging of information refers to the presentation of information in more understandable, readable,
acceptable, acceptable and usable forms.

Customizations of information taking into in account the needs & characteristics of the individual or user
groups, and matching that information to be provided to the users so that diffusion of information occurs.

Functions of Repackaging Programme: Following are some important functions of repackaging:

a. Assembling information into manageable listing.

b. Assembling titles
c. Assembling source of information
d. Tailoring & reducing lengthy and voluminous materials.
e. Abstracting or summarizing
f. Extracting
g. Reprinting
h. By critically matching information with information needs of the user(SDI)
i. By analyzing, consolidating & synthesizing scattered & voluminous information into concise & usable
forms highlighting new findings or lesson learned.
j. Literature review
k. Case studies

By undertaking secondary data analysis & transforming highly technical information data into useable forms
such as table, graphs etc.

By transforming information into news forms to update users to current events.

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Factors for determining the Choice of Repackaging Activities:

a. Characteristics and subject interest of user communities.

b. Functions of information centers.
c. Availability and capacity of trained personnel.
d. Budget
e. Reproduction of facilities
f. Administrative policies

Guidelines for Preparing Packages of Materials:

a. To identify the users ‗needs and objectives of the packages

b. Formation the main theme as well as the sub theme

c. Select and process materials into abstracts, experts, reprints, summaries, literature review, bibliographies,
photo copies of curriculum materials, audio-visual aids, decide which theme is best presented by what form
of material.

d. Presentation

e. Use of self making questionnaires

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CONSOLIDATION
Introduction: Concise, authentic, reliability and relevant Information consolidation involves comprising
relevant documents in order to provide defined user groups, audiences with reliable and concise new bodies
of knowledge.

Definition: UNESCO‘s symposium on information analysis and consolidation in Sri Lanka has given the
following definition,‖ Information consolidation activities are are used to define the responsibility exercised
by individuals departments or organization for evaluating & expressing relevant document documents in
order to provide define user groups with reliable and concise new bodies of knowledge.

Saravonic and Wood say,‖ Information consolidation is public knowledge specifically selected, analyzed and
possibly restructured and repackaged for the purpose of earning some of the immediate decisions, problems
& information need of a defined clientele or social groups, who otherwise may not be able to effectively &
efficiently access & use the knowledge as available in the great amount of document in its original form.

Need of Consolidation: Following are some important needs of information consolidation:

 Information explosion.
 Language barriers or languages of the documents.
 Content of the information presented.
 Form of the information presented.
 Information may not be trusted.

Objectives of Consolidation: Following are some important objectives of information consolidation:

 To increase the effectiveness of information transfer.

 To encourage more intensive information use in a wide array of development activities.
 To widen the circle of the population of potential users particularly by fulfilling specific information
needs for evaluation & synthesized information.

Audience: Several distinct types of user groups are addressed by various information consolidation products
and services:

a. Scientists, engineers and professionals engaged in research & development activities, manufacturing,
health services, planning, education etc.
b. Managers & businessmen, policy makers in commerce and marketing.
c. Technicians, supervisors and para professionals.
d. Policy &decision makers in government.
e. Communicators such as extension workers and services, teachers, local bodies in adopting new
technology or practices.
f. Agricultural and industrial workers from rural and urban population.

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VOCABULARY CONTROL
Introduction: Vocabulary is one of the most important components of information retrieval system. An
information retrieval system tries to match user queries with the stored documents and retrieves those that
match with particular users‘ requirements. In order to match the contents of the user requirements, one must
follow a vocabulary that is common to both.

In other words, user requirements need to be translated and put to the retrieval systems in the language as
was used to express the contents of the document records. This leads the concept of using a standard or
controlled vocabulary in an information retrieval environment.

The standardization and the systematic selection of preferred terms is known as vocabulary control.

Definition:

According to Lancaster, the process of subject indexing involves two quite distinct intellectual steps:

 Conceptual analysis of the documents; and translation‘ of the conceptual analysis into a particular
vocabulary.
 The second step in any information retrieval environment involves a ‗controlled vocabulary‘. Similarly
the process of preparing the search strategy also involves two stages:
 Conceptual analysis: It involves an analysis of the request to determine what the user is really looking for.
 Translation: It involves the translation of the conceptual analysis to the vocabulary of the system.

Lancaster identifies two major objectives of vocabulary control in an information retrieval environmental:

 To promote the consistent representation of subject matter by indexers and searchers, thereby avoiding the
dispersion of related materials. This is achieved through the controlled vocabulary (merging of synonymous
and nearly related expressions and by distinguishing among homographs).
 To facilitate the conduct of a comprehensive search on some topic by linking together terms whose
meaning is related paradigmatically or syntagmatically.
1. Vocabulary Control Tools: Vocabulary tools are used to control the vocabulary of indexing and
retrieval. These natural language tools meaning that these tools contain natural language terms that can be
used for indexing retrieval purposes.
2. Lists of Subject Heading: For many years printed dictionary book catalogue of libraries were used for
the preparation of subject headings. Some of the important and well known lists of subject headings are as
follows:
3. ALA List: The result of this works of printed by the ALA in 1895 as ALA List of subject Headings. The
third edition of ALA List of Subject Headings published in 1911, consisted of 398 pages. It is now out of
print and more importantly will never be printed in the future because of the availability and use of Library
of Congress Subject Headings and Sears List.
4. Sear‟s List of Subject Headings: It was first published in 1923, consisting of a collection of subject
heading used in representation small libraries and latter its scope was expended to provide headings suitable
for small as well as medium sized libraries.
5. Formation of Subject Headings: SLSH is an enumerated list of subject headings. It is guided by general
principles such as specific and direct entry, common usages, and uniformity in the formation of subject

58
headings. The rule of specific and direct entry is to enter the subject that accurately and precisely represent
its content.
6. List of Congress Subject Headings: Library of Congress Subject Headings is the official subject
heading list of the Library of Congress, the National Library of USA. It is one of largest libraries of its time,
consisting of a variety of terms and references for use in its catalogue. Originating at the Library of Congress
1897, it has been in existence and updated and revised.
7. Formation of Subject Headings: Library of Congress Subject Headings is an enumerated list of
predetermined Subject Headings. For providing subject approach in Subject Catalogue all that on indexes or
a subject catalogue has to do, to choose an appropriate headings from LCSH that matches a closely the
subject contents of the documents. In other words, there is no need for the person tp conduct a subject
heading by him/ her but nearly select from the readymade subject headings already available in LCSH.

59
BRITISH LIBRARY‟S AUTOMATED INFORMATION SERVICE (BLAISE):
Introduction: Blaise is an online information retrieval service that includes access via a new graphical
interface on the World Wide Web. It is a library network which was introduced in April 1977 and now it
is the world largest commercial service. It is an online interactive computerized information retrieval and
cataloguing system and the individual databases are stored on an IBM-370 computer located at Harlow.
Teletype compatible terminals are used together with the ordinary public telecommunication system to
access BLAISE. Thus BLAISE can be called up from anywhere in the UK and Europe. The system is
available from 9-5 on Monday to Thursday and 9-4.30 on Friday. To access BLAISE, subscribers are
given individual identity numbers and passwords.

The following services are available through BLAISE-

a) BLAISE Line: It is operated from the existing computer installation at Harlow, Essex. It host
British library bibliographic database.
b) Telnet access is also available. The Web version of BLAISE-LINE is called BLAISE Web.
c) BLAISE Link: It is the official host providing full access to all US National Library of Medicine
MEDLARS databases, in the UK and Ireland, via the British Library. It is also involved in
processing UK / Irish contributions to the MEDLINE database.

The BALISE Link provide access to the following

I) MEDLINE: The MEDLARs databases are available through online in the form of Medline.

ii) SDI-Line: It contains the latest month‘s reference to be used primarily for current awareness.

iii) Chem-Line: It is an online dictionary files which enables the user of Toxline to describe chemical
substances before beginning the search.

iv) Mesh: It is a controlled indexing structure of MEDical Subject Heading.

c) Catalogue: The catalogue production is made through Local Catalogue Service (LOCAS) which is an
integral part of BLAISE.

d) Database: BLAISE provide access to 21 databases containing 18.5 million bibliographic records.

e) Editors Software: It was developed by British Library. The editor system of BLAISE allows records to
be transferred from MARC files and edited. The new records can also be created and added to the main
database.

Blaise gives access to a wide range of bibliographic information that includes not only British Library
catalogues but also complementary bibliographic databases, some of which are produced outside the
British Library. Blaise has other value-added features, such as its link to the British Library Document
Supply Centre for ordering loans and photocopies and its ability to supply fully formatted catalogue
records for use in local automated catalogues. Blaise has traditionally been used by trained librarians in
other libraries. Recently, Blaise has added a World Wide Web option that makes it much easier to use by

60
untrained and inexperienced searchers. According to Allen Kent "the success and survival of libraries will
much depend on how much and to what extent the libraries cooperate with each other in future". Further,
tremendous explosion of information, financial constraints, information in different forms, etc.,
compelling the libraries to form network and consortia is an essential facet of modern library practices. In
library network the particular focus is forming online networks by using computers and linking members
to the computer resources by means of telecommunication connections. When a group of libraries using
computers decide to exchange information, a network is developed.

The library network deals with the development of software for library automation, automation of the
member libraries, retro-conversion of records, cooperative acquisition, creating union catalogue,
development of database of the holdings in member libraries, conducting training, workshops and
seminar, providing DDS, Email, CD-ROM, internet access facilities. It also provides reference service,
referral service, and provides technical support to member institutions in the selection of hardware,
software, and technical problem faced by the member libraries. But till now except DELNET and
INFLIBNET, most of the other library networks have yet to develop databases of library holdings in a
significant way. Even these two networks have to go a long way to cover in their databases the entire
holdings of all the participating libraries. Unless this is achieved, the networks would not be able to
achieve significant resource sharing as well as rationalization in library acquisitions.

COMMON COMMUNICATION FORMAT (CCF):

Introduction: CCF is a structure format for creating bibliographical records and for exchanging records
between groups of information agency and libraries. An international symposium in Taormina, Sicily
conducted by UNESCO was held in April, 1978. On the recommendations of the symposium UNESCO /
PGI formed the adhoc group on the establishment of a Common Communication Format (CCF). The first
edition of CCF was published in 1984 under the editorship of Peter Simmons and Alan Hopkins and its
second edition was published in 1988 in two volumes called CCF/B and CCF/F. Several countries have
adopted this standard for exchange and creation of bibliographic records at national level.

A) Structure of CCF: The structure of CCF is the implementation of ISO-2709. It consists of the
following-

a) Record Labels: Each CCF record begins with a fixed record label of 24 characters and consists of data
element which contains the record. Each data element is identified by its relative character positioning the
label.

b) Directory: The directory is a table containing a variable number of 14 characters entries i.e the length
of each directory entry is of 14 characters terminated by a fixed separator character. Each directory entry
corresponds to a specific variable. Data fields in the record are divided into four sub sections or parts,
containing data for the following data element-

i) Tab

ii) Length of the data field

iii) Starting character position

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iv) Implementation defined section

c) Data Fields: In the CCF a data field is defined as consisting of-

i) Indicator

ii) Sub Fields: A sub field consists of a subfield identifier followed by a data string which is terminated by
either another sub field identifier or a field separator.

iii) Field Separator: The field separator is that character which constitutes the final character of every data
field except for the final data field in the record.

iv) Record Separator: The record separator is that character which makes the end of the final data field in
the record and constitutes the final character of the record.

B) Limitation of the CCF: CCF is not designed to meet the requirement of all types of libraries and
information organizations for local implementation. It is also not expected that institutes will use CCF
record format for internal storage and processing purpose. The major limitations of CCF are-

a) It is not sufficiently detailed in its definition and coverage of all data elements necessary for creating a
bibliographical database for an individual library.

b) It does not include its cataloguing rules nor does it align itself with any particular cataloguing code or
set of rules oriented towards a specific or fixed type of information output form.

c) Except for standard CCF fields CCF recommends the use of alphanumeric code for tags but it may not
be possible to use alphanumeric code for tags in all cases (eg when library system uses CDS/ISIS, this
recommendation cannot be implemented).

d) Though in CCF further addition of the new data elements and their respective content designator is
possible, the unrestricted interpolation by different users can create complication for exchanging data
among libraries. In such cases, the content designators of newly added data elements are likely to vary
which may cause inconvenience for exchanging data from one database to another.

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COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER:
Introduction: The computer unit is frequently called as the computer system because of its numerous
parts, machinery units and complicated sequential operation. A computer system has three main parts i.e
Hardware, Software and Humanware. A general purpose computer has two main parts Hardware and
Software.

1. Hardware: The physical or mechanical parts of the computer system that can be seen and touched are
known as hardware. It consists of a combination and collection of electro-mechanical and electronic
components and devices, electronic circuits and microelectronic equipment assembled in metal boxes in
the form of modules and cabinet. All these equipment and elements are interconnected by wiring and
switching communication components like transistors, capacitors, resistors, diodes, printed circuits,
integrated circuits, main and auxiliary storage systems, various types of magnetic media, communication
media for carrying and transformation of data, coded instruction, etc. The different hardware parts are
interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

Any computer system has three important hardware parts. They are input device, central
processing unit and the output device. The central processing unititself has three parts, namely memory
unit, control unit and arithmetic and logic unit. These three units along with the input and output devices
form the five important components of any computer system. In addition to the above five parts
mentioned, computers also have secondary storage devices, which are used for storing data or instruction
on a long term basis.
A) Input Unit: The input devices are used to transfer the information into the memory unit of a computer.
In simplest term, they bring information into the computer from the user‘s hand, i.e. input unit feeds data
into the computer. It is thus a communication medium between the user and the machine. The input
devices are of the following types.
i) Keyboard: Keyboards are the most commonly used input devices usually having 83-84 keys and
enhanced with 101 keys or even more. The enhanced keyboards are more popular.
ii) Mouse: It is a hand-held pointing device that allows controlling the computer without having to type
the instruction through keyboard. The Scrolling mouse is a small unit with a round ball at the bottom and
with two depression switches at the upper top portion having again a scroll button. Nowadays cord less as
well as without scroll ball-type of mouse is also used.
iii) Scanners: Scanners are used to store or feed an entire image / data or page of other information into
the computer system. Image scanner is a general-purpose device which digitizes a two-dimensional
image.
iv) Track Ball: A trackball is just like a mouse lying on its back. It is stationary and does not need to
move on any surface. To move the pointer only the ball should be rotated with the thumb / finger or with
the palm. The buttons next to the ball are used just like mouse button.
v) Joystick: A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle
or direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video games and they usually
have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer.
vi) Digitizing Tablet: A graphics tablet (or digitizing tablet, graphics pad, drawing tablet, pen pad or
digitizer) is a computer input device that allows one to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the way
one draws images with a pencil and paper. These tablets may also be used to capture data or handwritten
signatures.

63
vii) Digital Camera: A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or
both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor.
viii) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): It allows the computer to recognize character
printed using magnetic ink. MICR is widely used in banks to read the cheque number written on the
bottom of the cheque. It is also used in the back of credit cards and bank debit cards and ID cards.
ix) Optical Character Recognition (OCR): An optical character reader is used to read character of
special type fonts printed on conventional paper with conventional ink i.e. it involves reading text from
paper, book or from a magazine articles but they still have difficulty with handwritten text.
x) Bar Code Reader: Bar code readers are photoelectric scanner that reads the bar codes or vertical zebra
striped marks printed on the product container and the computer automatically tells the prices of the
product at the terminals.
xi) Speech Recognition and Voice Response Devices: In this type of device the user speaks into a
microphone which is attached to a digitizer. The dizitizer converts the analog sounds waves to ―0‖ and
―1‖s which can be easily understood by the computer. Speech recognition devices are necessary because
spoken commands are much quicker than typing. It helps to give command to a remote computer over
telephone. It helps the computer usable to the blind people. In computer assisted learning environment it
helps in the interaction between the man and machine.
xii) Touch screen: A touch screen is a display that can detect the presence and location of a touch within
the display area. The touch screen has two main attributes, .Firstly, it enables one to interact with what is
displayed directly on the screen, where it is displayed, rather than indirectly with a mouse or
touchpad. Secondly, it lets one do so without requiring any intermediate device such as a stylus that needs
to be held in the hand. Such displays can be attached to computers or, as terminals, to networks.
xiii) Touchpad: A touchpad (also track pad) is a pointing device consisting of specialized surface that
can translate the motion and position of a user's fingers to a relative position on screen. They are a
common feature of laptop computers and are also used as a substitute for a computer mouse where desk
space is scarce.
xiv) 14 Light Pen: A light pen is similar to a mouse except that with a light pen one can move the pointer
and select objects on the display screen by directly pointing to the object with the help of the pen.
xv) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) is also called mark sensing. It
is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark such as pencil mark.
OMR is used in test such as aptitude test.
B) Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of any computer system; all major calculations
and comparisons are made inside the CPU and it is also responsible for activating and controlling the
operations of other units of a computer system. It guides, directs and controls a computer performance. It
also executes the instruction given to it. The CPU consists of the ALU, control unit, registers, and basic
I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these). Early CPUs were composed of many separate
components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit
called a microprocessor.
a) Arithematic and Logic Unit (ALU): The input devices are used to transfer the information into the
memory unit of a computer. Information from the memory can be transferred to the ALU where
comparison and calculation are done and the results are sent back to the memory unit. The set of
arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might
include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc) and square roots. Some can
only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers with

64
limited precision. An ALU may also compare numbers and return Boolean truth values (true or false)
depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other. Logic operations involve
Boolean logic: AND, OR, and NOT. These can be useful both for creating complicated conditional
statements and processing Boolean logic.
b) Control Unit: It acts as a manager which controls all activities being carried out within the computer.
The control unit strictly obeys the instruction given by us, follows the instruction in the same sequence
and executes them one after another until the entire set of instruction is exhausted. CU brings one
instruction at a time from the memory, interprets it and obeys it by coordinating the working of all other
units. The CU tells the input unit what is to be read and addresses the memory as to where it is to be
stored. The CU ensures that according to the stored instruction the right operation is done on the right data
at the right time. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. The simplified descriptions of
the steps that are performed by the Control unit are given below. Some of these steps may be performed
concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU
* Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter (program counter
is conceptually just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU);
* Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other
systems;
* Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction;
* Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device).
The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code;
* Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register;
* If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform
the requested operation;
* Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device
* Jump back to step one.
c) Memory Unit: It is the workspace area within the computer where the data and instructions are stored.
It holds all data, instruction and results temporarily. It stores the data to be processed, the intermediate
results and the final results until they are displayed. It contains the programs that are currently being run
and the data the programs are operating on. In modern computers, the main memory is the electronic
solid-state Random Access Memory (RAM). It is directly connected to the CPU via a "memory bus" and
a "data bus". The arithmetic and logic unit can very quickly transfer information between a processor
register and locations in main storage, also known as a "memory addresses". The memory bus is also
called an address bus or front side bus and both buses are high-speed digital "superhighways". Access
methods and speed are two of the fundamental technical differences between memory and mass storage
devices. Main memories are of the following types
i) Random Access Memory (RAM): It is the key working area of the memory. It is possible to select
randomly and use any location of this memory. It is also called the read/write memory because
information can be read from RAM chip and can also be written into it. It is a volatile storage medium i.e.
the contents of the memory are lost when power is switched off/cut, as it requires a steady flow of
electricity to maintain its content. RAM is also quite expensive. RAM may be of VRAM, WRAM,
NVRAM.
ii) Read Only Memory (ROM): It holds permanent data or instruction that can only be read. That
information is permanently recorded and cannot be changed by the programmer. It is non volatile in
nature i.e. the contents of ROM are not lost when the computer is switched off. It contains instruction to

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get the computer started when the switch is on, holds instruction and data that control the various
peripheral units of the computer such as graphic display, disk drives, etc. Most personal computers
contain a small amount of ROM that stores critical programmes, as it is expensive to produce. Typically,
ROM must also be completely erased before it can be rewritten, making large scale use impractical, if not
impossible. ROM may be of the following types-
* Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): A PROM is a memory chip on which set of instructions
or information can be stored, but it cannot be modified or wiped out later on. Like ROM its memory is
also non volatile. To write data on a PROM one will need a special device called a PROM programmer or
PROM burner. The difference between a PROM and ROM is that PROM is manufactured as blank
memory where ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process.
* Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): EPROM is used widely in personal
computers to enable the manufacturer to change the contents of PROM before the computer is actually
skipped so that the bugs can be removed and new versions can be installed shortly before delivery. The
EPROM is of two types - Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM), where high voltage electric pulses are
used to erase the previous data or instruction and after that the disk can be reused and Ultra Violet
Erasable PROM (UVEPROM), which retains its data or instruction until it is exposed to Ultra Violet
light. The UV light clears its contents making it possible to reprogramme the memory. The difference
between an EPROM and PROM is that while in PROM the data or instruction can be written only once
and cannot be erased, in EPROM the content can be erased and reprogramming can be done.
iii) Flash Memory: Many modern PCs have their Basic Input Output System (BIOS) stored on flash
memory chip so that it can easily be updated if necessary. Such type of BIOS is sometimes called flash
BIOS. Flash memory is also important for modem as it enables the modem manufacturer to support new
protocols as they become standardized. EEPROM is similar to flash memory (sometimes called flash
EEPROM). The principal difference between the two is that EEPROM requires data to be written or
erased in byte at a time whereas flash memory allows data to be written or erased in blocks. This makes
flash memory faster.
iv) Cache Memory: It is a special type of internal memory used by many central processing units to
increase their performance or "throughput". Some of the information in the main memory is duplicated in
the cache memory, which is slightly slower but of much greater capacity than the processor registers, and
faster but much smaller than main memory. Multi-level cache memory is also commonly used—"primary
cache" being smallest, fastest and closest to the processing device; "secondary cache" being larger and
slower, but still faster and much smaller than main memory.
C) Output Unit: An output device is any product or machine that is capable of bringing information for
user view. It presents the processed data or information to the user. It can be a printed page, a picture in
monitor, and so on. Anything which comes out of a computer system is the output of it. The common
output devices are-
a) Monitor [Video Display Unit (VDU) / Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)]: It looks like a television. The
advantage of having a video display unit is that as we write we can see what is being fed into the
computer and by this way we can spot the mistakes and make the necessary correction. It also helps to
display the stored information inside the computer system.
b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): CRT screens are relatively heavy and bulky, therefore unsuitable for
small portable computer like note book. Considering this the screen of a portable computer is effectively
replaced by a flat panel LCD screen which is smaller in size and lighter in weight.

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c) Printer: A computer printer, or more commonly called the printer, is a device that produces a hard
copy (permanent human-readable text and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic form, usually on
physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Many printers are primarily used as computer
peripherals, and are permanently attached by a printer cable to a computer which serves as a document
source. The latest technology is combining printers with a scanner and/or fax machine in a single unit.
The world's first computer printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles
Babbage for his Difference Engine.
d) Plotter: A plotter is a vector graphics printing device which operates by moving a pen over the surface
of paper. Plotters are used in applications such as computer-aided design, though they are being replaced
with wide-format conventional printers.
e) Speaker: Speaker output the music or speech from the programme. A speaker or loudspeaker converts
an electrical signal to sound. The speaker pushes a medium in accord with the pulsations of an electrical
signal, thus causing sound waves to propagate to where they can then be received by the ear.
f) Computer Output on Microfilm and Microfiche (COM): The output from the computer, instead of
being printed is displayed on a high resolution cathode ray tube, and the output is obtained in microfilm or
microfiche from which it is often used to store massive data in compact form. Then, when needed, with
the help of a special microfilm reader it is used to read the output.
g) Speech Output Unit: A speech output unit is one which reads string of character stored in a computer
memory and converts it into spoken sentence. This type of speech output is very useful in many areas.
Examples: A telephone where a message is given to the caller when the number dialed does not exist,
railway and airlines enquires.

D) Auxiliary Storage Devices: Auxiliary memory / storage devices or secondary storage supplements the
main memory and it requires the computer to use its input/output channels to access the information.
Secondary storage is also known as ―mass storage devices‖. It functions as back up device even if by
some accident the computer is crashed and the data in it is unrecoverable. One can restore it from the
backups. It acts both as input and output devices. The secondary storage devices are also used as a
transport medium to transfer data or information from one computer system to another computer system.
If we use keyboard as an input device we will waste a lot of valuable computer times because manual
input is always slow. Secondary storage is also used for long-term storage of persistent
information. Secondary storage device includes Magnetic tapes, Floppy disc, CD / DVD, Pen drive,
External Hard Disc etc. The Floppy and Magnetic Tapes are now obsolete as secondary storage devices.

i) CD-ROM: CD-ROM is an abbreviation for Compact Disc Read-only memory. The standard CD-ROM
holds 650 or 700 MiB of data. A "700 MB" CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 MiB. The CD-ROM
is popular for distribution of software, especially multimedia applications, and large databases.

ii) DVD: It typically may contain at least 4.4 GiB of data, nearly 7 times the amount of a CD-ROM. DVD
capacities are given in decimal units: A "4.7 GB" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 GiB.

iii) Pen Drive: A USB flash drive consists of a NAND-type flash memory data storage device integrated
with a USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable,
much smaller than a floppy disk, and most weigh less than an ounce (30 g). Storage capacities can range
from 64 MB to 256 GB with steady improvements in size and price per capacity. Some allow 1 million
write or erase cycles and have 10-year data retention, connected by USB 1.1 or USB 2.0.

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SOFTWARE:
Introduction: A computer cannot perform on its own. It needs to be exclusively instructed on what it has
to do, the programmes written for a computer to perform different operation are called software and it can
be defined as ‗the set of computer programme, procedures and associated documentation or complete set
of instruction which enable the computer to obtain solution of a problem that resides in the memory or
storage device of a computer‘. (The programme is a set of instructions written in computer language).
Software is a general term that is used to describe only single programme or group of programme and
makes the hardware run. It acts as an interface between the user and the computer. Computer softwares
are generally classified into two broad categories:
A) System Software: It is a set of one or more programs, designed to control the operation of a computer
system. Generally, the system software supports the running of the other software, communicates with
other peripherals devices, supports the development of other types of software and supervises the user of
various hardware resources. System software is of the following types-
a) Operating System: An operating system (OS) is an integrated set of computer programmes that
manage the hardware and software resources and the overall operation of a computer system. The
operating system is designed to support the activities of computer installation. It acts as an interface
between a user and the hardware i.e. all computer resources. It forms a platform for other system software
and for application software. Its prime objectives are to improve the performance and efficiency of a
computer system, increase the facility and the ease with which a system can be used. Most operating
systems have a command line interpreter as a basic user interface, but they may also provide a Graphical
User Interface (GUI) for ease of operation. Operating systems are mainly of two types-
i) Command / Character User Interface (CUI): In this type of OS the user has to type the commands at
the command prompt mode, which will act as an input to execute and program. E.g. UNIX, MS DOS.
ii) Graphic User Interface (GUI): In this type the user is able to select files, programmes or commands by
pointing to graphical representations on the screen and thereby it avoids the typing of lengthy complex
commands. E.g. Windows XP.
b) Language Processor: Men use their own language (High Level Language) to write their programmes
because it is much easier to code in such languages. However, the computer is unable to understand such
a High Level Language; it only understands its own language i.e. Machine Language (Binary Language).
Therefore, it becomes necessary to process a HLL to LLL. The computer programme that performs this
job is the language processor. The language processors are of the following types-
i) Assembler: In the 1950s to reduce programming complexity in Machine Language and to provide
some standardization, assembly languages were developed. Assembly language is also known as
Symbolic Language. Assembly language uses abbreviation or mnemonic code to replace the earlier 0s and
1s of machine language. i.e. it substitutes letters and symbols for the numbers in the machine language
program. The function of an assembler is to translate an assembly code into the computer machine code / language.
ii) Interpreter: This language processor converts a HLL program into machine language by converting
and executing it line by line. If there is any error in any line, it reports it at the same time and the
programme execution cannot resume until the error is rectified. For error debugging the interpreter is very
useful as it reports the errors at the same time, but, once errors are removed then also interpreter is present
in the memory. So, unnecessary usage of memory takes place in this case.
iii) Compiler: It converts the entire HLL program at one go and reports all the errors of the programme
along with the line numbers. After all the errors are removed, the programme is recompiled and after that
the compiler is not needed in the memory as the object programme is available.

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B) Application Software: These are the programmes written by the programmers to enable the computer
to perform a specific task such as processing words, inventory control, handling calculation and figures,
medical accounting, financial accounting, result preparation, railway reservation, billing, etc. It can be
defined as ―a set of programmes necessary to carry out operation for a specified application‖. Application
software can further be subdivided into three categories-
a) Packages: The application softwares that are designed for the individual user, so that they can be used
in a manner that suits their needs and requirements are known as packages. Actually it is a bundle of
essential features for carrying out a particular task. There are different packages available in the market.
Some of the most common categories are given bellow-
i) Word Processing Software: It is the software that processes textual matter and creates organized and
flawless documents. It provides a general set of tools for entering, editing and formatting text. A word
processor has everything that a conventional type writer has; in addition, it also removes various barriers
of the conventional type writers. eg. M.S. Word, Wordstar, WordPerfect, Softword, etc.
ii) Spreadsheet: An electronic spreadsheet is a programme that accepts data values in tabular form and
allows the users to manipulate / calculate / analyze data in the desired manner. It can also generate graphs
and charts to show the relationship among numbers. Eg. MS Excel, Quattropro, etc.
iii) Database Management System: A DBMS is a software that can effectively store, manipulate and
handle bulk of data. Eg. Foxpro, MS Access, Oracle, etc.
iv) Desktop Publishing Software: Desktop publishing packages handle page layout by combining the
function of a traditional typesetter and a layout artist.
v) Graphics: The application software that manipulates images is known as graphics software.
vi) Multimedia: The software that incorporates images, text, sounds, animation, video sequences is
known as multimedia software.
vii) Presentation Software: The application software that concentrates on professional looking visual
aids is called presentation graphics software. Eg. Corel Draw, Macro Media, Director, MS. Power Point, etc.
b) Utilities Software: Utility software (also known as service program, service routine, tool, or utility
routine) is a computer software designed to help, manage and tune the computer hardware, operating
system or application software by performing a single task or a small range of tasks. Some utility
softwares have been integrated into most major operating systems.
i) Text Editors: Text and Hex / Editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data
or an actual programme.
ii) Backup Utility: Backup utilities can make a copy of all the information stored on a disk, and restore either the
entire disk (e.g. in the event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in the event of accidental deletion).
iii) Compression Utility: Disk compression utilities can transparently compress / uncompress the contents
of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
iv) Disk Defragmenter: Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are stored on the
hard disk in disjointed fragments, and move the fragments together to increase efficiency.
v) Antivirus Software: Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
c) Customized Software: Customized software (also known as Bespoke software) is a type of software
that is developed either for a specific organization or function that differs from or is opposite of other
already available softwares (also called off-the-shelf or COTSsoftware). It is generally not targeted to the
mass market, but is usually created for companies, business entities, and organizations. The trained
computer professionals who, by their knowledge are able to run the computer and can perform different
operations are known as Humanware. They are the persons who programme, design and operate a
computer installation such as System Analyst, Programmer and computer operator.

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Concepts Related to Software Packages
Concepts Related to Software Packages: Open-source software is computer software whose source
code is available under a licence that permits the users to study, change, and improve the software, and to
redistribute it in modified or unmodified form.When we talk about the software packages especially Open
Sources Software, we will come across some concepts or terminologies or term. Some of such popular
concept or terminologies are discussed below-

Open Archives Initiative (OAI): OAI is an attempt to build a low-barrier interoperability framework for
archives or institutional repositories containing digital content. It allows service providers to harvest
metadata from the data providers. The collected metadata thus obtained is used to provide "value-added
services". More: http://www.openarchives.org/ b) Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata
Harvesting (OAI-PMH):

It is a protocol developed by the Open Archives Initiative. It is used to harvest (or collect) the metadata
descriptions of the records in an archive so that services can be built using metadata from many archives.
A number of software systems support the OAI-PMH, including GNU EPrints from the University of
Southampton and DSpace from MIT. The OAI Protocol has been widely adopted by many digital
libraries, institutional repositories, and digital archives. Commercial search engines have started using

OAI-PMH to acquire more resources. Google has started to accept OAI-PMH as part of their Sitemap
Protocol, and they are using OAI-PMH to harvest information from the National Library of Australia
Digital Object Repository. In 2004, Yahoo! acquired content from OAIster (University of Michigan) that
was obtained through metadata harvesting with OAI-PMH. The mod_oai project is using OAI-PMH to
expose content to web crawlers that is accessible from Apache Web servers. A number of large archives
support the protocol including arXiv and the CERN Document Server.

c) Directory of Open Access Repositories (OpenDOAR): OpenDOAR is an authoritative directory of

academic open access repositories. It provides the facility to ―search for repositories‖ or ―search
repository contents‖. It also provides tools and support to both repository administrators and service
providers in sharing the best practice and improving the quality of the repository infrastructure. Website:
http://www.opendoar.org/

d) Richard Matthew Stallman: Richard Matthew Stallman often abbreviated as ―rms‖

(http://stallman.org/) is an American software freedom activist and computer programmer. In September
1983, he launched the GNU Project (http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html) to create a free
Unix-like operating system. In October 1985 he founded the Free Software Foundation (FSF). Stallman
pioneered the concept of copyleft and he is the main author of several copyleft licences including the
GNU General Public Licence, the most widely used free software licence.

Application Programming Interface (API): An Application Programming Interface (API) is an

interface implemented by a software programme which enables it to interact with other software. It
facilitates interaction between different software programmes similar to the way the user interface
facilitates interaction between humans and computers. An API is implemented by applications, libraries,
and operating systems to determine their vocabularies and calling conventions, and is used to access their
services.

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The Digital Library Federation (DLF): The Digital Library Federation (DLF) is an international
consortium of libraries and related agencies that are pioneering the use of electronic-information
technologies to extend collections and services. Since its formation in 1995, DLF has made a number of
significant contributions to the academic library and library services vendor communities.
Website: http://www.diglib.org/

g) The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative:

The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, or "DCMI", is an open organization engaged in the development of
interoperable metadata standards that support a broad range of purposes and business models. The Dublin
Core set of metadata elements provide a small and fundamental group of text elements through which
most resources can be described and catalogued. It can describe physical resources such as books, digital
materials such as video, sound, image, or text files, and composite media like web pages. Metadata
records based on Dublin Core are intended to be used for cross-domain information resource description
and have become standard in the fields of library science and computer science. Implementations of
Dublin Core typically make use of XML and are Resource Description Framework based.
Website: http://dublincore.org/

h) Search / Retrieval via URL (SRU): SRU is a standard XML-focussed search protocol for Internet
search queries, utilizing Contextual Query Language (CQL), a standard syntax for representing queries.

Website: http://www.loc.gov/standards/ or http://www.loc.gov/standards/sru/

Free Software Foundation (FSF): The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a non-profit corporation
founded by Richard Stallman in October 1985 to support the free software movement, a copyleft-based
movement which aims to promote the universal freedom to create, distribute and modify computer
software. Website:http://www.fsf.org/

j) Open Source Software (OSS): The Open source software (OSS) is defined at the
website www.opensource.org as ―Open source promotes software reliability and quality by supporting
independent peer review and rapid evaluation of source code. To be certified as open source, the license
of a program must guarantee the right to read, redistribute, modify, and use it freely.‖ Open source
software is normally created and maintained by developers crossing institutional and national
boundaries, collaborating by using internet-based communications and development tools. In case of
OSS, the developers take personal pride in seeing their working solutions adopted but not gaining profit
drive.

k) Copyleft Licenses: Copyleft is a general method for making a program (or other work) free, and
requiring all modified and extended versions of the program to be free as well. It means releasing the
content giving with permission for anyone to use, copy, and distribute, either verbatim or with
modifications, either gratis or for a fee.The GNU General Public Licence, originally written by Richard
Stallman, was the first copyleft licence to see extensive use, and continues to dominate the licencing of
copylefted software. Creative Commons, a non-profit organization founded by Lawrence Lessig, provides
a similar licence called ShareAlike.

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Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA): DMCA is
a United States copyright law that implements two 1996 treaties of the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO). Passed on October 12, 1998 by a unanimous vote in the United States Senate and
signed into law by President Bill Clinton on October 28, 1998, the DMCA extended the reach of
copyright, while limiting the liability of the providers of on-line services for copyright infringement by
their users.

It criminalizes production and dissemination of technology, devices, or services intended to

circumvent measures (commonly known as digital rights management or DRM) that control access to
copyrighted works. It also criminalizes the act of circumventing an access control, whether or not there is
actual infringement of copyright itself. In addition, the DMCA heightens the penalties for copyright
infringement on the Internet.

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ASSOCIATION FOR SPECIAL LIBRARIES AND INFORMATION BUREAX

a) Aim and Objectives

i) To facilitating the co-ordination and systemic use of sources of knowledge and information in all public
affair and in industry and commerce and in all the arts and sciences.

ii) To increase the contribution of information to the economy, social and cultural life of community
management.

b) Membership: The membership of ASLIB is largely composed of bodies including industrial and
business organizations, profession and learned societies, public, academic and national libraries publishers
and database providers.

c) Activities: The main activities of ASLIB are discussed bellow

i) Conference and Seminars: Each Annual Conference of ASLIB takes up a specific theme for
deliberations. Besides, ASLIB and its various specialist group regularly organize conference seminars and
professionals meetings to discuss issues confronting the library and information specialists.

ii) Training: ASLIB organize short term courses and training programmes for both members and non
members.

iii) Information Service: ASLIB through its outline information centre provide enquiry service
concerning the availability of databases on specific subjects, coverage of data, search strategy and
equipment and telecommunication.

iv) Library: There are more than 30,000 volumes in the ASLIB library. Most of the books are related to
Information Science d) Publication: Some of the publications of ASLIB are

i) ASLIB Newsletter (Monthly)

ii) ASLIB Proceeding (Monthly)

iii) ASLIB Booklist (Monthly)

iv) ASLIB Directory

v) Journal of Documentation (quarterly)

vi) Program : News of computers in libraries (Quarterly)

vii) Forthcoming International scientific and technical conference (Quarterly)

viii) The hand book of special librarianship ix) Index to theses and Documentation.

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BOOK SELECTION THEORIES

Book Selection Theories: There are some principles of selection of documents which guide the librarian
in making a judicious choice of a document and thus help to develop a meaningful collection of
documents in the libraries.

i) L. R. McColvin: Theory of Book Selection (1925): According to L. R. McColvin books in themselves

are nothing. They have no meaning until they are made serviceable by demand. So he gives much stress
on demand and gives stress on the selection of only those documents which are demanded by the users for
their information needs.
ii) Drury: Book Selection (1930): It states that the right book will be provided to the right reader at the
right time. In this principle the reader is the central theme. A document is right or otherwise is to be
provided when the user needs it for use. The selector should know the users and their requirements. He
should select only that material which caters to the informational educational and recreational needs of the
users.
iii) Haines: Living with book (2nd ed, 1950): The first edition of Living with Books appeared in 1935. It
was one of the first true textbooks aimed at training librarians in the art of book selection. Although
Haines died in 1961, her legacy continues to be felt. Through the 1970s, Living with Books remained the
standard text on book selection, and it is still referenced on many collection development course syllabi.
iv) Ranganathan: Library book selection (1952, reprint 1990): The first three laws of library science
enunciated by Ranganathan are also helpful in formulating the principles of selection of the documents for
libraries.

v) Dewey’s Principle: According to Dewey, the library should select the best documents within the
finance available, which may satisfy the information need of the maximum number of users.

Besides the above, we may mention Rovert Broadus‘ Selecting Materials for Libraries, 2nd ed.
New York: H.W. Wilson Co, 1981 and Building Library Collections: 6th Ed. By: Arthur Curley, Dorothy
M. Broderick, and Published: January 1985 as important books on book selection.

HISTORY OF A COMPUTER: HISTORY OF A COMPUTER:

Introduction: It is difficult to identify any one device as the earliest computer, partly because the term
"computer" has been subject to varying interpretations over time. It was the fusion of automatic
calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers.
1. The Beginning: Examples of early mechanical calculating devices included the abacus, the slide rule
and arguably the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism (which dates from about 150-100 BC). The
end of the middle ages saw a re-invigoration of European mathematics and engineering. Wilhelm
Schickard's 1623 device was the first of a number of mechanical calculators constructed by European
engineers. However, none of those devices fit the modern definition of a computer because they could not
be programmed.

a) Abacus: The concepts of number and counting are believed to have been developed first by the
herdsmen of ancient times, who sought to avoid animal losses. It can be traced back to 3000 BC. The
herdsmen (or the Stone Age men) used small round stones (pebbles) for counting cattle. After counting

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with pebbles, the successor was a tool known as ABACUS, which is treated as the first mechanical
computing device. The word ―Abacus‖ is derived from the Greek word ‗abakos‘ which means a board or
calculating tables. Beads are strung on wires or strings held in a frame and they are slid along the wires
counting, adding, etc. It was invented by the Chinese in 3000 BC, which was later improved by the
Egyptians and the Greeks.
b) Mechanical Theater: Hero of Alexandria (c. 10 – 70 AD) built a mechanical theater which performed
a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be
considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when.
c) Joseph Marie Jacquard: In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom
that used a series of punched paper cards as a template to allow his loom to weave intricate patterns
automatically. The resulting ―Jacquard loom‖ was an important step in the development of computers
because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early form of
programmability.
d) Napier‟s Bones: John Napier was the inventor of logarithms. He used his data tables and with the help
of a mechanical device could do the necessary computing.
e) Pascal‟s Machine Arithmetique: In 1642 Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented a
mechanical adding machine, a prototype of the digital calculating machine. This device was able to add
and subtract directly, whereas multiplication and division were performed through repeated addition and
subtraction respectively.
f) Leibnitz‟s Stepped Reckoner: Gottfried Withelm Von Leibnitz, a German mathematician invented a
more advanced calculating machine in 1671, which could not only add but also multiply, divide and
extract square root. As the machine could make a series of repeated additions, it was called the Stepped
Reckoner. The merit of Leibnitz‘s contribution is that he showed the advantage of binary system over
decimal system in the operation of mechanical computer.
g) Punched Card: A French weaver‘s son named Joseph Marie-Jacquard made the next significant
contribution in 1804. After observing how his father could make different weaving patterns on the loom,
he thought of storing these patterns for future use. So, he developed a plate with multiple holes to control
the weaving patters, not knowing that only his idea of storing the weaving patterns would be used to store
data and would be called the Punched Card. A Punched card is a thin rectangular card divided into 80
columns and 12 rows in which the various characters could be represented by punching holes in different
rows and columns. On one card it is possible to punch 80 characters – one character per column, thus it is
possible to store 80 characters of data.
h) Babbage‟s Difference and Analytical Engines: Charles Babbage, a professor of Mathematics,
designed a computing machine in 1822 for the purpose of producing ballistic tables called the ―Difference
Engine‖. Then he conceived the idea of a new computing machine in 1833 and designed the machine in
1835 called Analytical Engine, which is the forerunner of the modern computer. It could be called as the
first digital computer having the memory and the calculating units as well as sequential control with
provision for automatic printout. Thus, Charles Babbage is widely regarded as the father of the computer.
Due to limited finances, and an inability to resist thinking with the design, Babbage never actually built
his Analytical Engine. (The Analytical Engine should not be confused with Babbage's Difference Engine
which was a non-programmable mechanical calculator).
i) Lady Ada Lovelace: Lady Ada Lovelace, an amateur mathematician, and a friend of Babbage
produced supporting material for the ―Analytical Engine‖ in the form of programs, and explanatory

75
documentation. As such, she is considered the first lady computer programmer. ADA is one of the
programming languages named after her.

j) Boole‟s Symbolic Logic: George Boole, the famous logician, discussed symbolic logic in 1859 in his
work ‗Treatise of differential equation‘. The development of symbolic logic and the application of binary
logic operation AND, OR, NOT are his main technology.

k) Hollerith‟s Punched Card Machinery: Dr. Herman Hollerith, an American statistician invented the
punched card machinery in 1886. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed
for the U.S. Census in 1890 by tabulating machines designed by Herman Hollerith and manufactured by
the Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation, which later became International Business Machine
(IBM) Corporation. The punched card invented by Hollerith is still used as the basic input medium to
computers.
l) Aiken and MARK I: This computer is also known as automatic sequence controlled calculator, which
was designed by Howard A. Aiken of Harvard University. It is also known as Harvard MARK I. It is the
first fully electro-mechanical computer.
m) Stibitz‟s Machine, MARK II and SSEC: George R. Stibitz developed a large relay computer at Bell
Telephone Laboratories in 1946. Aiken built the MARK II, the large relay computer in 1947. Another
machine was also constructed by the people of IBM Corporation. It was known as
the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC).
n) The Atanasoff-Berry Computer: This electronic machine was also known as ABC (Atanasoff-
Berry Computer) as it was named after its founder Dr. John Atanasoff and his assistant Clifford Berry.
The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) used vacuum tube based computation, binary
numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
o) Colossus Computers: The secret British Colossus computers (1943) (Copeland, 2006), had limited
programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and
electronically reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime codes.
p) Z Machines: In 1941, Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines" (Z3) was the first working
machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of
programmability. In 1998, the Z3 was proved to be the world's first operational computer.
q) Bush and Memex: Memex is a device in which an individual stores all his books, records and
communications, which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility.
Dr. Vannevar Bush visualized the library of the future with mechanized services from housekeeping to
operation.
2. Early Electronic Computer: The early electronic computer can be categorized into the following-
a) ENIAC: (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator): This computer was built by a team at
the University of Pennsylvania, designed by a team of members from the USA headed by Professor J.
Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which
used decimal arithmetic, is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad
Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). Initially, however, ENIAC had an
inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming.
Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant
design, which came to be known as the stored program architecture or Von Neumann architecture. This
design was first formally described by John Von Neumann in the paper "First Draft of a Report on the

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EDVAC", published in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored program
architecture commenced around this time, the first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first to
be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM) or "Baby".
b) BINAC (Binary Automated Computer): Mauchly and Eckert established their own company and
design the BINAC in 1950, which was the first machine to use self checking devices.
c) EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer): Dr. John Von Neumann and the
ENIAC group designed this computer. The device could store both the instruction and the data in the
binary form, instead of human readable words or decimal numbers.
d) EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator): It was developed by the Britishers,
headed by Professor Maurice V. Wilkes at the Cambridge University Mathematical Laboratory. It was
much faster than EDVAC. EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program (Von
Neumann) architecture.
The EDSAC which completed a year after SSEM, was perhaps the first practical implementation
of the stored program design. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's
paper EDVAC was completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.
e) SEAC (Standard Eastern Automatic Computer): The US National Bureau of Standards constructed
this computer following the design of EDVAC and was completed in 1950. It was the first stored-program
American Computer.
f) Manchester Mark I (1948): This machine was designed by a group of scientists headed by Professor
M. N. A. Newman.
g) UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer): Mauchly and Eckert designed and built UNIVAC I. It
was the first computer to handle both numerical and alphabetical information.
h) MARK III and IV: Aiken built MARK III with magnetic drum storage at Harvard in 1950 and
MARK IV, an improved version of MARK III, in 1952.
3. Modern Electronic Computer: Modern electronic computers have a faster speed. A major
breakthrough in the computer technology was made by introducing transistor in place of vacuum tubes
during the early sixties. With the development of transistor it was possible to design printed circuit,
integrated circuit and other miniaturization techniques in the structure of computer.

The first devices that resemble modern computers date to the mid-20th century (around 1940 -
1945), although the computer concept and various machines similar to computers existed earlier. Early
electronic computers were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern
personal computers. Modern computers are based on tiny integrated circuits and are millions to billions of
times more capable while occupying a fraction of the space. Today, simple computers may be made small
enough to fit into a wristwatch and be powered from a watch battery.

In 1946, ENIAC consumed an estimated 174 kW. By comparison, a typical personal computer
may use around 400 W; over four hundred times less (Kempf, 1961). Early computers such as Colossus
and ENIAC were able to process between 5 and 100 operations per second. A modern "commodity"
microprocessor (as of 2007) can process billions of operations per second, and many of these operations
are more complicated and useful than early computer operations.

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MACHINE READABLE CATALOGUING (MARC):
Introduction: MARC format has become a generic term to all MARC formats including UKMARC,
CANMARC, InterMARC, etc. which are used for the identification and arrangement of bibliographical
data for handling by computer.

The first conference on Machine Readable Cataloguing was sponsored by the Library of Congress.
The committee on Automation of the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) and Council of Library
Resources (CLR) was met at the Library of Congress. This conference recommended that

i) MARC records should include additional information to be used as multipurpose records, in addition to
information available on printed card;

ii) The element of MARC data should be standardized;

iii) MARC records should be produced and distributed to libraries which have automated system.

In the second conference held at the Library of Congress in November 1965, Library of Congress
sought funds from CLR and in December 1965 it received a grant to conduct a pilot project.

In early January 1966 the planning for the pilot project began. The third conference was held in
February 1966 at the Library of Congress which was considered the official opening of the pilot project
for machine readable cataloguing data. The pilot project was called MARC I. In this way the MARC I
format was set up in April 1966 which was restricted to books only. The distribution of regular weekly
service of MARC tapes started from Nov. 1966. The MARC I format was based entirely on the structure
of the Library of Congress catalogue card. So, BNB (with active collaboration with Library of Congress)
made some operational changes to make it interchangeable record format. As a result, MARC II was
developed. It is capable of containing bibliographic data of all forms of library material such as books,
monographs, serial, map, music, etc. By subscribing to this service a library can acquire Magnetic tapes in
machine readable form.

Due to the differences between the British Library and the Library of Congress MARC II was later
split into two formats - BNB MARC (later UK MARC) and US MARC. The USMARC format becomes
the U. S. National Standard in 1971 (ANSI Z39.2) and an International Standard in 1973 (ISO 2709). The
MARC II also influenced the other countries to develop their own standard format which followed the
same structure but the tags were slightly different. As a result, certain amount of incompatibility exists
among the different countries. To solve this problem IFLA launched a programme known as UNIMARC,
but eventually it failed.

A) Structure of MARC Tapes

a) Leader: It provides information about ensuring such records as total length of the record, the type of
record, etc. It is 24 characters (00-23) long.

b) Record Directory: It shows what variable fields are in the record and what their locations in the record
are. It is of 12 characters long.

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c) Variable Field: The variable fields are of two types- Variable Control Field (001-009) and Variable
Data Field.

B) Advantages of Using MARC:

a) MARC tapes can be used by individual libraries for producing their conventional card catalogue / book
form of catalogue, etc.

b) It helps in the creation of centrally prepared catalogue.

c) Distribution of MARC tapes to the receiving libraries avoid duplication of effort.

d) Uses of MARC tapes make different library softwares compatible to one another.

e) MARC tapes can be used for computerized SDI services. f) MARC tapes perform sharing of
bibliographical information.

MACHINE READABLE CATALOGUING 21 (MARC 21)

Machine Readable Cataloguing 21 (MARC 21): The MARC 21 is a standard format for the
representation and communication of bibliographic and related information in machine readable form.
The MARC 21 is a new name of harmonization of CANMARC and USMARC in a single edition. In
1987, the Library of Congress issued the first edition of the document MARC 21. Subsequent editions
were published in 1990, 1994 and 2000.

a) Necessity of MARC 21: Mark 21 is necessary because of the following factors:

i) Lack of standardization among different national MARC formats;

ii) Lack of internationally accepted cataloguing code to MARC record; iii) Diverse functions of
bibliographic agencies; iv) Lack of agreement among different bibliographic communities.

b) Maintenance of MARC 21: The Library of Congress and the National Library of Canada serve as the
maintenance agency for MARC 21. The MARC 21 format, documentation and reviewing and revision are
done by the Machine Readable Bibliographic Information Committee (MARBI). MARBI is a committee
of the ALA. MARBI meets in conjunction with MARC advisory committee at each American Library
Association (ALA) conference.

c) Standard Used in MARC 21

i) Cataloguing Code: AACR II; ii) Subject Heading: LCSH; iii) Classification Scheme: DDC;
iv) ISO 2709 and ANSI / NISO Z39.2.

Till now, MARC 21 remains the standard one which is widely accepted in different library
softwares and also in different countries.

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THESAURUS
Thesaurus: The word thesaurus more commonly means a listing of words with similar, related, or
opposite meanings. It is designed for drawing distinctions between similar words and assisting in
choosing exactly the right word. A formal definition of a thesaurus designed for indexing is: a list of
every important term (single-word or multi-word) in a given domain of knowledge arranged in a
systematic order and manifesting various types of relationship existing between the terms; and a set of
related terms for each term in the list. Some examples of thesaurus are Thesaurus of English Words &
Phrases (ed. P. Roget); The Synonym Finder (ed. J. I. Rodale); Webster's New World Thesaurus (ed. C.
Laird); etc.

The thesaurus consists of descriptors and non-descriptors. Descriptors are indexing terms
consisting of one or more words, and representing always one and the same concept. Non-descriptors are
terms which help the user to find the appropriate descriptor(s). They appear followed by a reference (USE
operator) to the descriptor, which is the preferred term, and the only one which may be used for indexing.
When a term is ambiguous, a ―scope note‖ can be added to ensure consistency, and give direction on how
to interpret the term. Naturally, not every term needs a scope note, but their presence is of considerable
help in using a thesaurus correctly and reaching a correct understanding of the given field of knowledge.

Term relationships are links between terms that often describe synonyms, near-synonyms, or
hierarchical relations. Hierarchical relationships are used to indicate terms which are narrower and
broader in scope.

i) Related Term (RT): Synonyms and near-synonyms are indicated by a Related Term (RT). The way the
term "Cybernetics" is related to the term "Computers" is an example of such a relationship.

ii) Broader Term (BT): A Broader Term (BT) is a more general term, e.g. ―Apparatus‖ is a generalization
of ―Computers‖.

iii) Narrower Term (NT): A Narrower Term (NT) is a more specific term, e.g. ―Digital Computer‖ is a
specialization of ―Computer‖.

BT and NT are reciprocals; a broader term necessarily implies at least one other term which is
narrower. Thesaurus designers are generally careful to ensure that BT and NT indicate class relationships,
as distinguished from part-whole relationships. Some thesauri also include Use (USE) and Used For (UF)
indicators when an authorized term is to be used for another, unauthorized, term; for example the entry for
the authorized term "Bird" could have the indicator "UF Aves". Reciprocally, the entry for the
unauthorized term "Aves" would have the indicator "USE Bird".

Symbol Meaning Type

BT Broader Term Descriptor
NT Narrower Term Descriptor
RT Related Term Descriptor
USE Use Non-descriptor
UF Used For Descriptor

Table 1: Symbols used in the word blocks of descriptors and non-descriptors

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DATABASES

Databases: Most of the search engine or databases often return thousands of results. So, to use search
engines / databases effectively, it is essential to apply techniques that narrow results and push the most
relevant pages to the top of the results list. Below are a number of strategies for boosting search engine /
database performance. Without these strategies or techniques, finding what you need will be difficult task
and any user by spending a few minutes clarifying his / her need, can increase the chances of finding
relevant information over internet.

a) Search Strategies: To arrive at appropriate target, a user of a database or search engine should know
about the search strategies that need to be followed. In the following paragraphs some such steps are listed
out.

i) Step 1: Framing the need by sentence: Frame your need by appropriate sentences. For example: One
need information on ―Digital libraries of India‖

ii) Step 2: Identify Keywords: Find out the keywords or main concepts in the statement. In the above
example the keywords will be <digital library> <India>.

iii) Step 3: Select Synonyms and Variant Word Forms: Find out the synonyms / alternate spellings,
and variant word forms of each keyword. In the above example the synonyms of< digital library> will be
<Virtual Library>, <Library without wall>, and <Institutional Repository>.

iv) Step 4: Combine Synonyms, Keywords, and Variant Word Forms With Boolean Operators:
Now combine synonyms with Boolean OR. Place parentheses around OR statements. So, in the above
example, the search terms will be: ‗Digital Library or virtual library or Library without wall or
Institutional repository‘ and India. Please note here that some search engine consider ―OR‖ as ―+‖,
―AND‖ as ―*‖ and ―NOT‖ and ―-―. You should combine your words accordingly.

When you are unaware of the complete word you can use the truncation facility with an asterisk
symbol (*). Eg. Librar* to retrieve the document that contain the word library, librarian, and so on.

v) Step 5: Check Your Spelling: Search engines return websites with words that match your keywords.
If you misspell a keyword, your results will contain websites where that word is also misspelled. So at the
last step check all your spellings.

b) Boolean Operators: Boolean logic is a complete system for logical operations. It was named after
George Boole, an English mathematician at University College Cork who first defined an algebraic
system of logic in the mid 19th century.

i) Boolean AND: Connecting search terms with AND tells the search engine to retrieve web pages
containing ALL the keywords. So, AND considerably limit the search results.

Example: OCLC and Classify

Please note that the star sign (*) is the equivalent of AND in some search engine (Google).

81
 ii) Boolean OR: Linking search terms with OR tells the search engine to retrieve web pages containing
ANY and ALL keywords. When OR is used, the search engine returns pages with a single keyword,
several keywords, and all keywords. So, OR expand the search results.

Example: Librarian or Library

Please note that in many search engines, the plus symbols can be used as alternatives to Boolean OR.

iii) Boolean NOT: NOT tells the search engine to retrieve web pages containing one keyword but not the
other.

Example: OCLC not DDC

The above example instructs the search engine to return web pages about OCLC but not web
pages about the "DDC". One can use NOT when he/she have a keyword that has multiple meanings. In
some search engines, the minus symbols (-) is used as alternatives to Boolean NOT.

The AltaVista's Simple Search requires the use of plus and minus rather than AND, OR, and AND
NOT. However you can use AltaVista's Advanced Search for full Boolean (AND, OR, and NOT)
searches.

iv) Complex Search Using Boolean Logic: Example: Library AND (Acquisition OR Classification).
This expression will search for results matching the document of Library acquisition or classification.

c) Some Other Search Techniques: Some other popular search techniques that can be used over the web
in many search engines are listed bellow:

i) Phrase Searching: Surrounding a group of words with double quotes tells the search engine to only
retrieve documents in which those words appear side-by-side. Phrase searching is a powerful search
technique for significantly narrowing your search results, and it should be used as often as possible.

Example: “Five Laws of Library Science”

ii) Phrase Searching With Boolean Operators: You can also combine a phrase search with additional
keywords using Boolean logic.

Example: “Five Laws of Library Science” * Dr. S R Ranganathan

iii) Title Search: Field searching is one of the most effective techniques for narrowing results and getting
the most relevant websites listed at the top of the results page. A web page is composed of a number of
fields, such as title, domain, host, URL, and link. Searching effectiveness increases as you combine field
searches with phrase searches and Boolean logic. For example, if you wanted to find information about
Five Laws of Library Science and Dr. S R Ranganathan, you could try the following search:

Example: +title:"Five Laws of Library Science" + Dr. S R Ranganathan

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 Example: title:"Five Laws of Library Science" and Dr. S R Ranganathan

The above title search example instructs the search engine to return web pages where the phrase
Five Laws of Library Science appears in the title and the words Dr. S R Ranganathan appear somewhere
on the page. Please note that like plus and minus, there is no space between the colon (:) and the keyword.

iv) Domain Search: The domain search allows you to limit results to certain domains such as websites
from the United Kingdom (.uk), educational institutions (.edu), or government sites (.gov).

Example: +domain:in +title:"Guwahati"

Example: domain:in and title:"Guwahati"

Example: +domain:in +title:"Guwahati" * Dispur

Example: domain:in and title:"Guwahati" * Dispur

v) Host Search: The host search comes in handy when you need to find something located at a large site
that does not have an internal search engine (if the site has an internal search engine then for the best
result you should use it). With the host search technique, you can search all the pages at a website
(contained in the engine's database) for keywords or phrases of interest.

Example: +host:www.kkhsou.org +"PhD"

Example: host:www.kkhsou.org and "PhD"

vi) URL Search: The URL search limits search results to web pages where the keyword appears in the
URL or website address. A URL search can narrow very broad results to web pages devoted to the
keyword topic. Example: +url:NET +title:UGC

Example: url:NET and title:UGC

vii) Link Search: Use the link search when you want to know what websites are linked to a particular site
of interest. For example, if you have a home page and you are wondering if anyone has put a link to your
page on their website, use the Link search. Researchers use link searches for conducting backward
citations.

Example: link:http://www.lislinks.com

In conducting a search over any search engine / database please note that they have some variants.
The variants can be viewed from the following angles-

i) Capital Letters: Most search engines interpret lower case letters as either upper or lower case. Thus, if
you want both upper and lower case occurrences returned, type your keywords in all lower case letters.
However, if you want to limit your results to initial capital letters (e.g., "George Washington") or all
upper case letters, type your keywords that way.

83
ii) Plural Forms: Most search engines interpret singular keywords as singular or plural. If you want
plural forms only, make your keywords plural, otherwise ignore it.

iii) Alternate Spellings: A few search engines support truncation or wildcard features that allow
variations in spelling or word forms. The asterisk (*) symbol tells the search engine to return alternate
spellings for a word at the point that the asterisk appears. For example, catalog* returns web pages with
catalogue and cataloguer.

d) Practicing with Search Engine: Now let‘s explore some popular search engine in terms of the
facilities they provide for searching their databases.

i) Google (http://www.google.com/): Google has the largest database at 1.5 billion pages and is very adept
at returning relevant results. Google uses mathematical formulas to rank a web page based on the number
of "important" pages that link to it.

Google supports OR (in all caps), but does not support full Boolean AND NOT. However, it does
allow the implied Boolean minus sign (-). When multiple keywords are entered, all keywords are treated
as "AND" queries. Because Google automatically returns pages that include all keywords, the plus sign
(+) and the operator AND are not necessary. Also, quotation marks for phrase searching are not required
as Google returns pages with keywords in close proximity.

Google supports link searching and title, domain, and host searching through its Advanced Search
page. It provides domain searching on .gov and .mil sites with a special "Uncle Sam" database. Using the
Image Search database, News Search database, or Discussion Group Search database, visitors can search
for pictures / graphics, news articles, and newsgroup postings. Finally, unlike other search engines,
Google offers a cached copy of each result. The cached copy can be especially helpful if the site's server
is down or the web page is no longer available.

ii) Hot Bot (http://www.hotbot.com/): HotBot has an index of about 500 million pages. It supports
implied Boolean logic (+/-), full Boolean logic (and, or, and not), and truncation (*). HotBot also offers
phrase, title, and domain searches as well as several media-type searches such as audio, video, and
images.

iii) Alta Vista (http://www.altavista.com): AltaVista offers both a Simple Search and an Advanced Search
page. Simple Search requires the use of implied Boolean logic (plus and minus), while Advanced Search
requires full Boolean logic (and, or, and not). Both the Simple and Advanced pages support phrase
searching, field searching (title, domain, host, URL, and link searches), and truncation (*). AltaVista
offers several specialty search engines including an image finder, an MP3/audio finder, a video finder,
and a people finder.

AltaVista offers a number of powerful search features not found elsewhere. One very effective
tool available on the Advanced Search page is the NEAR search. A NEAR search limits results to pages
where keywords appear within 10 words of each other. This can be extremely helpful in situations where
an AND search produces too many results and a phrase search (" ") produces too few results.

84
 Example: "heart disease" near prevent

Example: heart disease near prevent

iv) All The Web (http://www.alltheweb.com/): All the Web/FAST Search supports implied Boolean logic
(+/-) and phrase searching on the Basic Search page. The Advanced Search page also offers title, domain,
host, URL and link searches.

d) Let Us Sum Up: The more care and thought you put into your search strategy, the more relevant
your search results will be. A well designed search strategy will save you time in the long run,
allow you to search for information in many different places, and help you to find a larger amount
of relevant information. Different strategies work better for different people. There is no need to
follow every step listed above. Try a few different techniques to see what works best for you.

85
MANAGEMENT SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
Management School of Thought: During the present century, certain schools of management thought
have developed. Each school reflects the problems of the period during which they were popular. Herold
Koontz was the first who have attempted to classify the various approaches on the management in the
schools of management theory. Based on the writings of some of the scholars and Koontz, the
management thoughts, have been classified in the following schools of management theory.

a) Management Process School: This school developed in France. Henri Fayol, a Frenchman is
considered as the father of this school. Sometimes this school is referred to as ―Traditional or
Universalist‖ or Classical school. It regards management as a universal process. The management process
is analyzed, conceptual framework is established, principles are identified and a theory of management in
built from it.

Henri Fayol applied scientific approach but looked at administration from the top to down. He
focused on a systematic understanding of the overall management process. It holds that management is a
process which can best be understood by analyzing its function.

The traditional school is also called the rules of thumb, where workers are not given the chance for
decision-making. It is running as usual without any logic. There is not any consideration of scientific
method. The traditional school gives rise to:

i) Narrow work specialization;

ii) Rigid hierarchical structure of management;

iii) Gulf between vision and work due to organizational levels;

iv) Salary and perks determining the structure of management rather than work structure.

b) Scientific Management School: Scientific management is the application of the principles and
methodology of modern science to problems of administration. Scientific management, in brief, involves
certain combination of the following elements-

i) Science instead of rule of thumb;

ii) Co-operation instead of individuation;

iii) Harmony instead of discord;

iv) Maximum output instead of restricted output;

v) The development of each person to his greatest efficiency.

The term scientific management was introduced by Louis Brandeis in 1910 in his appearance
before Interstate Commerce Commission. ―The basic assumption of this school is the philosophy that
workers are economically motivated and they will respond with their best emphasis is on maximum
output with minimum effort by eliminating waste and inefficiency at the operative level‖.

86
 The above theory owes its origin to Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is regarded as the father of
scientific management. Efficiency was the central theme of his writing. He aimed at making management
a science based on well organized, clearly defined and fixed principles of management instead of
depending on more or less lazy ideas.

Scientific management is also called Modern management. Modern management gives due
emphasis on Human Resource Development (HRD), so that they can use the existing resources. Existing
resources should be trained so that they can handle the latest technology. Modern management looks into
the personal development of the staff. Welfare of the staff is the objective of modern management.

c) Bureaucratic Theory: This theory was propounded by Max Weber which has profoundly influenced
modern thinking in these areas. Weber developed a bureaucratic model of organization which is
essentially a universal model of efficient organization. Bureaucracy refers to a certain characteristic of
organizational design. This emphasized specialization within an organization and considered hierarchy of
the decision making process of great importance. He analyzed the authority and responsibility of the
office rather than individual. He made monumental contribution to authority structures in a complex
organization.

Luther Gulick, an American has described the functions of an executive in terms of an acronym
POSDCORB, representing Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, COordinating, Reporting and
Budgeting.

d) Human Relation School: The human relations approach to management began with the Hawthorne
experiments in the early 1930s. Its findings led to the development of a new hypothesis i.e. motivation to
work, morale and productivity are related to social relations among the workers and the supervision and
not to physical condition of work. The human relation school considers that as managing involves getting
things done through people; therefore management studies should be evolved around interpersonal
relations. Thus the main emphasis is on the individual and the informal group in the formal organization.
The basic concern is to study people as human beings rather than as mere work units. Sociologists and
psychologists have been very active in developing this school of thought.

i) Human Behavior School: The focus of the human behavior school is on behaviour of the individual,
the group and the organization. This theory looks at the human factor as the central theme. It lays greater
emphasis on interpersonal relationship, leadership, group dynamics and motivation of personnel. The
basic assumption is that in case the management can keep the employees happy, then this will result in the
maximum performance.

Elton Mayo and group of industrial Psychologist conducted experiments at the Western Electric
Hawthorne plant in Chicago. They came to the conclusion that social interaction and psychological
factors are important in determining the level of productivity and satisfaction.

ii) Social System School: This theory views organization as a system which is composed of interacting
and inter dependent parts. As a system, an organization is composed of a number of subsystem of parts,
each of which are in itself a system composed of various subsystems which are also in interdependent and
interaction relationship among themselves. The various subsystems of an organization are linked with

87
each other through its communication network, decisions, authority, responsibility, relationship,
objectives, policies, procedures and other aspects of coordinating mechanism. The social system school
encourages employees to develop social group on the job, to participate in management and allows
democratic functioning in the enterprise.

e) Decision Theory School: The decision theory school of management, led by Simon looks upon the
management processes as a decision making process. In view of the decision theories, since the
performance of various management functions involved decision making the entire field of management
can be studied from the study of the process of decision making. They have expanded their area of theory
building from the decision making processes to the study of the decision, the decision maker and the
social and psychological environment of the decision maker. The decision theory starts with the small
areas of decision making and then looks at the entire field of management through this keyhole.

f) Democratic Schools: With development, people are now aware about their rights and responsibilities.
Democratic rights are given to the workers. They have the right to oppose to illegal works. They can
demand for the right to oppose to illegal works. They can demand for their rights. All these approaches
led to the development of democratic school of management.

g) Contingency Theory School: This theory emphasizes that there is no best way to manage. It focus on
the inter relationship within and among the subsystems as well as between the organization and its
environment. It emphasizes the multivariate nature of organization and attempts to understand how
organizations operate under varying conditions and in specific situation. It regards management as
situational.

None of the above school provides a comprehensive view. Each has strong and weak points. In the
present time, people don‘t support the traditional school, as there is not any scope of right of the workers.
It is not the mentality of workers to work as a toy under the authority. As a result, democratic school has
got the importance. But the contingency school of management includes all other schools of management
and so seems to be more adaptable.

Human relation school should get importance, as for the development of an organization it is most
essential. An organization can fulfill its objectives only when the employees are satisfied. They should get
an environment to work and to get working environment mutual respect for each other is essential.

The most suitable school in the present situation seems to be modern school. This is because
personnel constitute the most important and vital key to the effective functioning of an organization. Their
knowledge and skills have to be constantly upgraded to handle new task to achieve organizational success
and the modern schools feel the necessity of this point.

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EVALUATION OF REFERENCE SOURCES

Introduction: Reference sources are the backbone of a library. It helps the libraries and librarian in
maintaining the question banks from which answer to queries of the users and material required by users
are available. It may be added that the border line of demarcation between a reference book and others is
not always sharp. The decisions as to whether or not to regard a given book as a reference book will
sometime different from library to library.

The checklists for evaluation of reference sources are more or less same for all types of work.
They can be applied to all sources with slight modification. The mnemonic form APPARATUS can be
used as a check points for their appraisal. The APPARATUS indicates:

A-Authority

P- Purpose, Price

P- Physical format, Picture

A-Arrangement

R- Receney, Revision

A-Accuracy

T- Treatment

U- Use

S- Scope

Authority: The work should be authoritative. The authoritiveness of a reference book can usually be
judge on the basis of qualification, experience and reputation of the sponsoring body (if any), publisher,
distributor, author(s), Editor(s), Compiler(s).

Purpose, Price: What is the purpose of the work as stated by the editor himself? Has this purpose been
full field in the main work? What is the total cost of the work and whether the cost can be justified on the
basis of its content?

Physical Format, Picture: It refers to the physical make up of the book. All reference works should be a
handy volume easy to withstand wear and tear. Format refers to binding quality of paper, typefaces, page
make up, illustration, plates, diagrams, maps etc. Binding is of special consideration for bulky works
likely to be used heavily. Type face should be clear and legible with suitable headings and subheading in
bold types for the guidance of the readers.

Arrangement: A reference sources demand easy and quick location of recorded entries. Goods
arrangement adds to the value of a reference sources. The information must be systematically arranged. It
is essential to have a detailed index which should provide for various kinds of approaches. The
arrangement of the main text can be classified or chronological or geographic or alphabetical or some

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other. The kind of arrangement used should have a sound basis. Index to the main text is extremely
important. The index should be detailed one providing reasonable number of approaches complemented
by cross references. The index can be alphabetical or classified or some other.

Receney, Revision: Information is always developing, some old becomes obsolete and some new are
added. So in the evaluation process, the evaluator should keep it in mind to check whether the work is
current and update or not. A continuous revision policy must be followed. Some works may issue
supplements containing new information. What devices it uses to keep the bibliographies up to date.
Though some reference sources may contain some retrospective information, every year it should be
thoroughly revised and updated. The time lag is important for current sources.

Accuracy: The work should be judged by the accuracy of the facts mentioned in the work.

Treatment: It is to be ascertained whether the information is reliable and accurate or not, whether the
treatment is biased or unbiased. It includes how through, reliable and complete is the information e.g.
Facts, statistics, place, names, names of persons, names of organization, bibliography whichever is
applicable. Treatment should also include questions like does it show any bias on controversial topics.
Has the space allocated for a topic related to the degree of importance attached to a topic? Has the work
written for scholars or layman, adults or children? How readable is the writing etc.

Use: If the work will be purchased then who will be the user, who will benefit from the work. Does the
library have such kind of user base or not?

Scope: The kind of information included would depend upon the scope of the work. Some work may
cover a particular country or the whole world or all subjects while others may be restricted to some
specific or minute topic only. The date or period covered is an important criterion. Sometimes it may
relate to a particular subject, organization also. The content page, preface, and introduction may give an
idea of the information contained in the work. What are the limitations of the reference work with regard
to subject, class of reader, up- to-dateness of material, what is the overall coverage? Does it follow a
definite plan consistently? What is the extent of supervision provided by the editor(s)?

Some works have a long history. It would be useful to add history as an additional check point

Overall Judgment: The evaluated reference sources are useful for what kind of library.

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KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT (KM):
Introduction:There is no universal definition for knowledge management. At its broadest, KM is the
―process through which organizations generate value from intellectual and knowledge based assets‖.

Information management tries to make the right information available to the right person at the
right time though a variety of database driven information applications. Information management tools try
to capture the human experience of knowledge through collecting, classifying, disseminating, searching,
indexing, and archival power of technology. Information management may well be considered the first
wave of KM (and is still often considered synonymous with KM).

a) Knowledge Assets: Knowledge assets are often described as the intellectual capital of an organization.
There are two types of knowledge assets –

i) Explicit or formal assets like copyrights, patents, templates, publications, reports, archives, etc.

b) Tacit or informal assets that are rooted in human experience and include personal belief, perspective,
and values.

b) The Value of KM: Knowledge began to be viewed as a competitive asset in the 1980s, around the
same time that information explosion started becoming an issue. The trend was fueled by the development
of IT systems which made it simple to store, display, and archive classified, indexed information. It is
important to manage knowledge assets because –

i) Organizations compete increasingly on the base of knowledge (the only sustainable competitive
advantage, according to some)

ii) Most of our work is information based (and often immersed in a computing environment)

iii) Workforces are increasingly unstable leading to escalating demands for knowledge replacement /
acquisition.

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TYPES OF LIBRARY SOFTWARE PACKAGES:
The computer cannot do anything without some programme or instruction or software. Unlike the
hardware, software cannot be touched but it instructs the computer what to do in a particular situation.
Any type of computer programme designed to perform some kind of library activities is known as library
software. It may be a simple programme to perform the job of acquisition or cataloguing or integrated
library management software that will perform the job of acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, serial
control and others. It may also be digital library management software which will manage the digital
resources of the library or some other types, say a Learning Management System or Content Management
System, etc.
There are different library software packages, and each of them has different functionability. The
amalgamation of features adds a lot of difficulties in categorizing the library software packages. However
for the purpose of our study, an attempt is made to categorize the library software packages into the
following:

A) Based on Function Performed

a) Database Creation Software (E.g CDS/ISIS)

b) Library House Keeping / Management Software Packages (Libsys, OASIS, Sanjay, SLIM, SOUL)

c) Institutional Repository Software Packages (CDSWare, Dspace, E-prints, Fedora, Ganesha digital
library, Greenstone)

B) Based on Source Code Availability

a) Proprietary software (SOUL)

b) Open Source Software Packages (Koha)

C) Based on Cost Factor

a) Completely Commercial (LibSys)

b) In-house Developed;

c) Shareware

d) Freeware (Gratis / Libre software)

e) Open Source Software

The following paragraphs will describe each and every aspect of the library software packages. Due
attention is given to list the free software packages (open source and proprietary) that can be implemented
without giving much stress on library finance. Sometimes a few commercial software packages that are
also well proven also listed out to have a comparative study of the trend of available functionality in both
categories.

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UGC-INFONET E-JOURNAL CONSORTIUM
Introduction: UGC-Infonet is an ambitious programme of UGC to interlink all the Universities in the
country with state-of-art technology. The access to e-journal consortia was started in October 1, 2003
when the users started getting access to these resources on trial basis for three months. The UGC-Infonet
E-journal consortium was formally launched on the concluding day of UGC‘s Golden Jubilee celebrations
by his Excellency the President of India, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam at Vigyan Bhawan on 28th December
2003. Access to various e-journals formally began on January 1, 2004. The programme was set up by the
Chairman, UGC and it was the result of an understanding and co-operation between UGC, ERNET, the
inter university centre, INFLIBNET, national and international publisher, etc. The programme is wholly
funded by UGC and monitored by INFLIBNET centre, Ahmedabad. The Network is being switched to
BSNL backbone w.e.f 1st April 2010 and renamed as UGC Infonet 2.0. ON the new scheme 10
Mbps(1:1) Leased line is being established in 180 plus universities preferably by using Fiber to provide
Internet Services.

a) Organization: The whole programme has been implemented in different phases. The UGC is
providing funds for the programme which will be cost free for the universities. INFLIBNET Centre, an
IUC of UGC, will subscribe resources based on the recommendations of National Negotiating Committee
set up by UGC in the 10thplan period. The universities have been funded for connectivity under UGC-
Infonet and will have network connectivity. Individual universities will then have unique IP address
through which access is given by the publisher for which subscription is made. However, the entire
programme will be ministered, monitored and maintained by the INFLIBNET centre.

c) Membership: The universities covered under UGC are the primary beneficiaries. However, this
scheme will be extended to colleges very soon. The scheme is likely to be open to other institutions such
as ICAR and others after signing MOU with UGC/INFLIBNET.

So far 100 universities out of 171 Indian universities under the purview of UGC have been
provided access to these journals and it is gradually entering to the affiliated colleges as well.

d) Functions and Activities: The consortium aims at covering all fields of learning of relevance to
various universities such as Arts, Humanities and Social Science to Computer and Pure Science.

i) Access to Full text E-Resources: Under the consortium, about 4000 full text scholarly electronic
journals from 25 publishers across the globe can be accessed. The consortium provides current as well as
archival access to core and peer-reviewed journals in different disciplines. eg. J-STOR (457)
<http://www.jstor.org/>.

ii) Access to Bibliographic Database: It provides access to Analytical Abstracts, Biological Abstracts,
Catalysts & Catalysed Reactions, Chemical Abstracts Service, MathSciNet Database, Royal Society of
Chemistry, etc.

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UNISIST
1. Introduction: The word UNISIST was never meant to be an acronym but rather to connote
phonetically the part that U. N. Agencies particularly UNESCO should play in the promotion of an
international system for information covering science and technology. UNISIST stood for the study of the
conference and for the programmers launched thereafter. So UNISIST is an international project sponsor
by UNESCO.

The two organizations UNESCO and ICSU jointly formed a UNESCO / ICSU central committee
in January 1967 to carry out a feasibility study for a world science information system. The feasibility
study continued for about 4 years and in 1970 the report entitled UNISIST study report on feasibility of a
world science information system by UNESCO and ICSU was published and widely distributed. The
feasibility report was prepared by Jean Claude Gardin. This report and a synoptic version became the
working document of the UNISIST inter governmental conference held in Paris in October 1971.

A second conference, the inter-governmental conference on scientific and technical information

for development was held in Paris in 1979 to review development since UNISIST conference of 1971.
This was known as UNISIST –II.

2. Aims and Objectives: The ultimate goal or keynote of UNISIST is the establishment of a flexible and
loosely connected network of information services based on voluntary cooperation. UNISIST aim to
coordinate existing trends toward cooperation and to act as a catalyst for the necessary development in
scientific and technical information and to develop the necessary condition for system interconnections
and to facilitate access to world information resources.

The UNISIST study report made twenty two recommendations which are focused on five main
objectives of the UNISIST programme. The may be summarized as follows:

a) Improvement of tools of system interconnection (recommendation 1-6)

b) Strengthening the role of institutional components of the information transfer chain (recommendation
7-10)

c) Development of specialized manpower (recommendation 11-14).

d) Development of scientific information policies and structure (recommendation 15-19)

e) Assistance in developing countries in the development of scientific and technical information

infrastructure (recommendation 20-21)

3. Organization: In the last i.e 22 no of recommendation of the feasibility report recommended three
interrelated managerial body for the organization of UNISIST.

a) An intergovernmental conference responsible for approving UNISIST‘s programme and reporting on

their progress.

b) An international scientific advisory committee.

c) An executive office serving as permanent secretariat of UNISIST.

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4. Activities: Under the UNISIST programme, standards rules, principles and techniques for the
processing and transfer of information are adopted and applied internationally.

a) Standardization of Bibliographic Description: The UNISIST/ICSU AB working group has prepared a

draft manual (Reference manual for machine readable bibliographic description).

b) Control of Serials and Abstracting / Indexing Periodicals: To have a complete control over the
periodical publications a computer based system of data bank has been established under the name of
International Serial Data System (ISDS).

c) Broad System of Ordering (BSO): In view of the great diversity of classification schemes that are the
existence the B.S.O has been conceived as a switching mechanism to link different individual
classification and thesauri in the process of information transfer.

d) Handbook and Manual: A comprehensive handbook for scientific information and documentation
services in developing countries has been planned. The handbook has been published in 1977.

e) National Focal Point: Emphasis has been given to the creation of a focal point to scientific information
agencies in each country.

5. Publications: UNISIST published their newsletter quarterly.

6. India at UNISIST: The NISSAT advisory committee functions as the national committee of UNISIST
in India.

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LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION
Different Schemes of Classification: To derive the particular class number different libraries use
different classification schemes. All classification schemes can be categorized into three kinds- based on
the language, based on the synthesis and based on arrangement. Let us discuss them in detail
Based on the language library classification can be:
i) English-Speaking World: In the English –speaking countries Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC),
Library of Congress Classification (LC), Bliss Bibliographic Classification (BC),
Dickinson Classification are generally followed.
ii) Non English Speaking World: Non English speaking countries use Nippon Decimal Classification
(NDC), Principes de Classement des Documents Musicaux (PCDM), Chinese Library Classification
(CLC), Korean Decimal Classification (KDC), etc.
Synthesis means combining codes from different lists to represent the different attributes of a
work. Based on synthesis library classification may be Bibliographic Classification by Bliss,
Colon Classification by Ranganathan, Expansive Classification by Cutter, Universal Decimal
Classification, etc.
Based on the arrangement there are three main types of classification systems:
i) Enumerative: Produce an alphabetical list of subject headings; assign numbers to each heading in
alphabetical order. The most common classification systems, LC and DDC, are essentially enumerative,
though with some hierarchical and faceted elements, especially at the broadest and most general level.
ii) Hierarchical: Divides subjects hierarchically, from general to specific.
iii) Faceted or analytico-synthetic: Divides subjects into mutually exclusive orthogonal facets. The first
true faceted system was the Colon classification of S. R. Ranganathan.
iv) Specialist Classification: Specialist classification systems have been developed for particular subject
areas, and some specialist libraries develop their own classification system that emphasizes those areas
they specialize in. An example is the Medical Subject Headings devised by the US National Library of
Medicine (NLM). Another example is the specialist classification system for art and iconography
(Iconclass). There are also emerging metadata standards that are being developed for web resources,
digital images, and other specialized materials.
4. Dewey Decimal Classification: The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system is the world‘s most
widely used library classification system. American librarian and library educator Melville Dewey
devised the system in 1873 while he was a student at Amherst College in Massachusetts. The Dewey
Decimal system was first published in 1876 as ―A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and
Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library‖. It appeared in the form of a small book of 44 pages.
The Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee (EPC) was established in 1937 to serve as an
advisory body to the Dewey Decimal Classification. In 1988, Online Computer Library Center, Inc
(OCLC) acquired the DDC. The editorial headquarters was located at the Library of Congress in the
Decimal Classification Division. The editors prepare the proposed schedule revisions and expansions, and
forward the proposals to EPC for review and recommended action. Nowadays, DDC is published by
Online Computer Library Center, Inc in full and abridged editions. The abridged edition targets the
general libraries having less than 20,000 titles. Both the full and abridged editions are available in print as
well as in electronic version.
4.1 Introduction to 22nd Edition of DDC: The edition 22 is the first edition of the DDC, which is
produced in the context of the web environment. DDC 22 is composed of the following major parts in
four volumes.

96
a) Volume 1: It includes special features of edition 22, introduction regarding how to use the DDC,
glossary, index to the introduction and glossary, a manual (guide to the use of the DDC), and six
numbered tables. It also has the lists that compare editions 21 and 22 with the list of relocated,
discontinued and reused numbers.

b) Volume 2: It includes DDC summaries (the top three levels of the DDC), and schedules (from 000-
599). The summaries will help you to visualize at a glance the structure and scope of various subjects as
laid down in DDC.

The first summary contains ten main classes. The first digit in each three-digit number represents
the main class. For example, 600 represents technology.

The second summary contains the hundred divisions, ten for each main class. The second digit in
each three-digit number indicates the division. For example, 600 is used for general works on technology,
610 for medicine and health, 620 for engineering, 630 for agriculture.

The third summary contains the thousand sections. The third digit in each three-digit number
indicates the section. Thus, 610 is used for general works on medicine and health, 611 for human
anatomy, 612 for human physiology, 613 for personal health and safety.

c) Volume 3: It includes the organization of knowledge schedules from 600-999.

d) Volume 4: It includes a relative index. The relative index (it relates subjects to discipline) contains an
alphabetical list of subjects with the disciplines in which they are treated as sub-arranged alphabetically
under each entry.

4.2 Understanding the Structure of DDC: The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system uses
simple decimal notation to divide recorded knowledge into 10 main classes at the broadest level which
together cover the entire world of knowledge. Each main class is further divided into ten divisions, and
each division into ten sections giving 100 divisions and 1,000 sections. All the numbers for the divisions
and sections have not been used.

iii) Third Summary: In the third summaries, each one of the 100 divisions is further subdivided into 10
sections resulting in 1000 sections. For the copyright issue, the third summary is not included here in this
unit. But, you can find the complete summaries of DDC 22nd edition over OCLC website
(http://www.oclc.org/dewey/resources/summaries/default.htm), and Chopac.org (http://chopac.org/cgi-
bin/tools/ddc22.pl). The Chopac.org provides the DDC summaries of 22nd edition in a very easy to
browse, and search structure. You can also use this interface to obtain the main class number of any
document.

a) Tables: The six tables in the DDC are as following

T1 Standard Subdivisions

T2 Geographic Areas, Historical Periods, Persons

T3 Subdivisions for the Arts, for Individual Literatures, for Specific Literary Forms

T4 Subdivisions of Individual Languages and Language Families

97
T5 Ethnic and National Groups

T6 Languages

The notation from T1can be added to any numbers unless there is an instruction in the schedules
or tables to the contrary. The other table notations may be added only when instructions are given in the
schedules or tables.

b) Summaries: The Dewey Decimal Classification divides human knowledge into ten basic categories,
with subdivisions indicated by decimal notation. Each of the ten main classes has the potential to be
broken down into smaller multiples of ten. The word decimal in the name of the classification system
comes from decem, the Latin word for ―ten‖.
DDC has three summaries. The first summaries includes 10 main classes, the second summary
includes 100 divisions and the third summary includes 1000 sections.
i) First Summary: The ten primary classes of DDC are as follows:

000 Generalities

100 Philosophy and psychology

200 Religion
300 Social sciences
400 Language
500 Natural sciences and mathematics
600 Technology (applied sciences)
700 The arts; fine and decorative arts
800 Literature and rhetoric
900 Geography and history

A brief explanation of each of the class is given below.

000: Class 000 is the most general class. It includes the works that are not limited to any one specific
discipline or the works that are related to information and knowledge. It includes encyclopedias,
newspapers, general periodicals, computer science, library and information science, journalism, etc.

100: Class 100 covers Philosophy, Parapsychology and occultism, and Psychology.

200: Class 200 is devoted to Religion.

300: Class 300 covers the social sciences that include Sociology, Anthropology, Statistics, Political
science, Economics, Law, Public administration, Social problems and services, Education, Commerce,
Communications, Transportation, Custom (including folk literature), etc.

400: It comprises languages, linguistics, and specific languages.

500: It includes Natural sciences and Mathematics.

600: Class 600 includes technology.

700: It covers arts in general, fine and decorative arts, music, and the performing arts. It also includes
recreation, including sports and games.

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800: It covers literature, and includes rhetoric, prose, poetry, drama, etc.

900: It is devoted to History and Geography.

ii) Second Summary: Again, each of the 10 Main Classes is subdivided into 10 Divisions resulting in
100 Divisions on the whole. The entire second summary is reproduced bellow for your reference. You
should remember the first and second summary of DDC fully.

000 Computer science, knowledge& systems 010 Bibliographies

020 Library & information sciences 030 Encyclopedias & books of facts

040 [Unassigned] 050 Magazines, journals & serials

060 Associations, organizations& museums 070 News media, journalism & publishing

080 Quotations 090 Manuscripts & rare books

100 Philosophy 110 Metaphysics

120 Epistemology 130 Parapsychology & occultism

140 Philosophical schools of thought 150 Psychology

160 Logic 170 Ethics

180 Ancient, medieval & eastern philosophy 190 Modern western philosophy

200 Religion 210 Philosophy & theory of religion

220 The Bible 230 Christianity & Christian theology

240 Christian practice & observance 250 Christian pastoral practice& religious orders

260 Christian organization, social work & worship 270 History of Christianity

280 Christian denominations 290 Other religions

300 Social sciences, Sociology& Anthropology 310 Statistics

320 Political science 330 Economics

340 Law 350 Public administration & military science

360 Social problems & social services 370 Education

380 Commerce, communications& transportation 390 Customs, etiquette & folklore

400 Language 410 Linguistics

99
420 English & Old English languages 430 German & related languages

440 French & related languages 450 Italian, Romanian & related languages

460 Spanish & Portuguese languages 470 Latin & Italic languages

480 Classical & modern Greek languages 490 Other languages

500 Science 510 Mathematics

520 Astronomy 530 Physics

540 Chemistry 550 Earth sciences & geology

560 Fossils & prehistoric life 570 Life science; Biology

580 Plants (Botany) 590 Animals (Zoology)

600 Technology 610 Medicine & health

620 Engineering 630 Agriculture

640 Home & family management 650 Management & public relations

660 Chemical engineering 670 Manufacturing

680 Manufacture for specific uses 690 Building & construction

700 Arts 710 Landscaping & area planning

720 Architecture 730 Sculpture, ceramics & metalwork

740 Drawing & decorative arts 750 Painting

760 Graphic arts 770 Photography & computer art

780 Music 790 Sports, games & entertainment

800 Literature, Rhetoric & Criticism 810 American literatures in English

820 English & Old English literatures 830 German & related literature

840 French & related literatures 850 Italian, Romanian & related literatures

860 Spanish & Portuguese literature 870 Latin & Italic literatures

880 Classical & modern Greek literature 890 Other literatures

900 History 910 Geography & travel

100
920 Biography & geography 930 History of ancient world (to ca. 499)

940 History of Europe 950 History of Asia

960 History of Africa 970 History of North America

980 History of South America 990 History of other areas

iii) Third Summary: In the third summaries, each one of the 100 divisions is further subdivided into 10
sections resulting in 1000 sections. For the copyright issue, the third summary is not included here in this
unit. But, you can find the complete summaries of DDC 22nd edition over OCLC website
(http://www.oclc.org/dewey/resources/summaries/default.htm), and Chopac.org (http://chopac.org/cgi-
bin/tools/ddc22.pl). The Chopac.org provides the DDC summaries of 22nd edition in a very easy to
browse, and search structure. You can also use this interface to obtain the main class number of any
document.

You can also find the Dewey Decimal Classification System (13th Abridged) in the website of
Near North District School Board (http://www-lib.nearnorth.edu.on.ca/dewey/ddc.htm).

c) Schedules: Schedules contain the schedules of Class Numbers assigned in numeric order from 000 to
999. To follow the correct use of the Schedules, it is necessary to understand the various notes and
instructions suggested in different entries. So, let‘s explore the schedule in some details.

Entries in the schedules and tables are composed of DDC number in the left margin, a heading
describing the class that the number represents, and often one or more notes. All entries, numbers,
headings, and notes should be read in the context of hierarchy. The first three digits of schedule number
appear only once, when first used, in the number column. They are repeated at the top of each page where
their subdivisions continue. Subordinate numbers appear in the number column, beginning with a decimal
point. The numbers and notes in parentheses provide options to standard practice. Numbers in square
brackets represent the topics that have been reallocated or discontinued, or unassigned. Square brackets
are also used for standard subdivision concepts that are represented in another location.

Only a fraction of the potential DDC numbers is included in the schedules. It is often necessary to
build or synthesize a number that is not specifically listed in the schedules. If you turn the third page of
the schedule (Vol 2), you will see that entries start with the notation ―000‖ at the top of the page and a
summary of all divisions and sections below it. In the 5th page you will see the first entry that is ―001‖
which stands for knowledge, and below it the numbers and descriptions and different notes to arrive at the
correct class number of a document.

d) Relative Index: The volume 4 contains the Relative Index. It is an alphabetical list of all the subjects
given in the Schedules and Tables. It is called the Relative Index because it brings together under the
name of the subject the various aspects of a subject which are scattered in the schedules according to the
disciplines. This index not only arranges the concepts and their terms in an alphabetical sequence but also
shows the relation between the terms and the contexts in which the subjects appear in the Schedule. It is a
key to the Schedules as well as an independent approach to classification. In the index, all possible
subjects are included under main divisions and sub-divisions so that the classifier finds it easy to search
out the possible subjects under the alphabetical list of relative index. The numbers that are given for

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subjects in the index are readymade numbers, but they are not the same as those of the schedule. The
classifier has to finally decide the number himself.

4.3 Steps for Classifying with DDC: While doing the classification of a document one should procede to
the class number in the following ways

a) Determine the Subject: First, try to determine the subject of the book or document in your hand. The
title often provides a clue to the subject, but it should never be the sole source of analysis. The subject
which the book deals with can be determined by going through the table of contents, chapter headings, the
preface or introduction, and the book jacket or the accompanying materials.

If a work includes multiple subjects, class it under the subject that is being acted upon (rule of
application). The rule of application takes precedence over any other rule. For instance, class an analytical
work dealing with Shakespeare‘ influence on Keats with the subject Keats. Class a work (book) on two
subjects with the subjects receiving fuller treatment. If two subjects receive equal treatment, class the
work with the subject whose number comes first in the DDC schedules (first-of-two rule). For example,
history dealing equally with the United States and Japan, should be classed under history of Japan,
because 952 Japan precedes 973 United States (even if in the title of the work United States appears first,
and it is discussed first in the contents of the work). Class a work in which three or more subjects are
treated equally but are all subdivisions of a broader subject in the first higher number that includes them
all (rule of three). For instance, a history of Portugal (946.9), Sweden (948.5), and Greece (949.5) is
classed with the history of Europe (940).

b) Determine the Discipline: After determining the subject the classifier should try to determine the
disciplinary focus and, if possible, the approach or form of the work.

If a work is dealing with more than one discipline, interdisciplinary number should be provided to
the work.

If you are not able to determine the subject and the discipline of the book in hand, you can consult
―The Relative Index‖. It will help by suggesting the discipline(s) in which a subject is normally treated.

c) Consult the Schedule: The schedules are the only place where all the information about coverage and
use of the numbers may be found. So, once the subject has been determined and information on the
discipline has been found, the classifier should turn to the schedules. The summaries, headings and notes
within the schedules will provide the necessary guidance to arrive at the appropriate class number.

In the schedule of DDC, special headings, notes, and entries indicate relationships among the
topics that violate the notational hierarchy. The notes are usually given at the highest level of application.
For example, the scope note at 700 applies to 730 to 736 and to 736.4. So, during the process of
classifying a document the classifier has to turn the pages up and down.

Even if the classifier has used ―The Relative Index‖, he should still rely on the structure of the
classification schedule to arrive at the proper class number of a work. Even the most promising Relative
Index citations must be verified in the schedules.

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d) Close and Broad Classification: Close classification means that the content of a work is specified by
notation to the fullest extent possible. Broad classification means that the work is placed in a broad class
by the use of notation that has been logically abridged. For example, a work on French cooking is classed
closely at 641.5944 (641.59 Cooking by place + 44 France from the T1), or broadly at 641.5 (Cooking).
The DDC provides the basic options of close versus broad classification. A library should choose between
these two option based on the size of its collection and the needs of its users. The abridged edition of the
DDC is another source for broad classification.

e) Other Points: It should be noted that DDC uses the convention that no number should have fewer than
three digits; zeros are used to fill in the numbers. A decimal point (or dot) follows the third digit in a class
number, after which division by ten continues to the specific degree of classification needed. The ―dot‖ is
not used as a decimal point in the mathematical sense; it used to ease the transcription and copying of the
class numbers.

A number should never end in a zero anywhere to the right of the decimal point. Again,
subdivisions beginning with zero should be avoided if there is a choice between zero and 1-9 at the same
point in the hierarchy of the notation (rule of zero).

4.4 Examples of Classifying a Document with DDC Summaries: Now let‘s try to classify some general
books practically, wherein we do not require to use seven tables and the details about the Schedules. For
classification of such books, the three summaries of DDC and the Relative Index will be enough. Now,
for example, take a book whose name is ―A Text Book of Geometry”

Here, in the title, it is very easy and expressive enough to determine the subject. Geometry is the
branch of Mathematics and it will come under science. So, go to the first summary wherein you will find
―500 Science‖, then consult the second summary, wherein under 500 you will find ―510 Mathematics‖.
Now, in the third summary under ―510 Mathematics‖, you will find ―516 Geometry‖. Now, consult the
schedule for verification. In the schedule also the 516 is for Geometry. So, the class number of the above
book will be ―516‖.

Now, suppose, in lieu of the above approach you want to move from the Relative Index. In such
cases, find the word Geometry in the page number 331 of volume 4. Opposite to the word you will find
the number ―516‖ in the following format.

Geometry 516

famous problems 516.204

Now consult the schedule for verification. In page number 515 of volume 2, you will find ―516
Geometry‖, so the class number of the above book will be ―516‖.

4.5 Classification of Document by Using the Web: The cost of DDC is very high. Every library in India
and in other developing countries cannot afford to have a set of DDC as its own. But the classification of
the documents in a library is a must. To meet this end, librarians can use some tools and techniques to
have a class number of a document they have procured in their library. There are some excellent tools

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over the web that share the class numbers. Some of these tools and techniques are discussed bellow. They
will provide the readymade class number of a document and will save the time of the classifier. We may
not require to follow these options if we have a set of DDC. We are to only follow the options listed
below in the event of not having a set of DDC. We can also follow these options to verify the class
number obtained by consulting the DDC on our own.

a) Classify: An Experimental Classification Web Service: OCLC Research experimental classification

service launched ―Classify‖ (http://classify.oclc.org/classify2/) which is targeted to support the
assignment of class number and subject heading by using the web. The interface can be used both by a
machine as well as human being. It provides access to more than 36 million collectively built records
from a large pool of related resources. Each record in the database contains Dewey Decimal Classification
(DDC) numbers, Library of Congress Classification (LCC) numbers, or National Library of Medicine
(NLM) Classification numbers, and subject headings from the Faceted Application of Subject
Terminology (FAST).

In the database of Classify (http://classify.oclc.org/classify2/) by inputting any one or in

combination of some basic information related to the document, the class number or subject heading can
be obtained. The inputted information may be of the following types-

i) ISBN: You can use the 10 or 13 digit ISBN. The ISBN should be used without hyphens in between.
You can find more about ISBN over: http://www.isbn-international.org/

ii) OCLC #: Each bibliographic record in the WorldCat has a unique number that range from 1 to 9 digits
in length. You can also use this number to find out the information from the database. More about OCLC
# is available over: http://www.worldcat.org/links/default.jsp

iii) Barcode / The Universal Product Code (UPC): You can use the 12 digits UPC number found in the
document. You can know more about Barcode over: http://www.gs1us.org/

iv) International Standard Serial Number (ISSN): You can use the eight digits ISSN with or without
hyphen (as it is appeared in the document). You can know more about ISSN over: http://www.issn.org

v) Title and / or Author: You can also use full title of the document or some portion of it or its author or
both the title and the author as a combined search.

vi) Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST): You can also use the FAST controlled
vocabulary that is based on the Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH). You can collect more
information about FAST over: http://www.oclc.org/research/activities/fast/

If you go to (http://classify.oclc.org/) web address and enter the ISBN / ISSN or any standard
number correctly in the interface it sometimes shows a ―No data found for the input argument‖ error. But,
if you use the title and some portion of the authors‘ name of the same document it shows the result. It
happens probably because sometimes people perhaps do not entered those fields in the records of the
database, while preparing it. Entering some portion of the title and the first author‘s surname (or
sometimes the forename) of the document in the interface mostly leads to the relevant document and class

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number. You can use this option as your first approach to obtain the class number of the document or its
subject heading.

b) DeweyBrowser: The DeweyBrowser (http://deweybrowser.oclc.org) provides access to approximately

2.5 million records from the OCLC Worldcat database. You can also use this interface to obtain
readymade class number of a document in your library. Just make a search by entering the complete title
of the document in the search box of the site to have its class number.

c) ISBNdb.com: ISBNdb.com (http://isbndb.com/) is a database of books that is built by taking data from
hundreds of libraries across the world. It is developed by Andrew Maltsev. He has also a company named
Ejelta LLC (http://ejelta.com/), based in San Gabriel, CA. This ISBNdb.com is one of the outputs of the
company. You can enter the keywords, book title, author, publisher, topic or ISBN of the document in its
search box to have its class number. After displaying the result by the interface, click on the most relevant
title under the heading of ―Books Matching (‗your enter title‘)‖ and consult the ―Dewey Class:‖ under
―Classification:‖ heading. Here you will find the classification number of the document you are looking for.

If you don‘t find the heading ―Classification:‖ or you find the heading ―Classification:‖ but don‘t
find the ―Dewey Class:‖ then you should move to the appropriate title under ―Libraries this book has an
entry in:‖. Now under the ―MARC Record‖ you should consult the number against: 092: $a: or 082. This
will be your classification number of the document you were looking for.

d) Library of Congress Online Catalogue: To classify document by using Library of Congress Online
Catalogue (http://catalog.loc.gov/), enter the address http://catalog.loc.gov/ in the address bar of your
browser, and then click on ―Alternative Interface to the LC Online Catalog (Z39.50)‖. It will lead you to a
new screen, from where you have to opt for ―Advanced Search (multiple terms using Boolean operators)‖.
In the new page you have arrived at (it will look just like the following) you can search for class numbers
by entering different details about the document in your library. Your search term may be the name of the
author, title, series, ISBN, ISSN, publisher and many others to choose from. After submission of the
details in the interface you have to click on "Submit Query" and then should navigate to ―More on this
record". Now, against the "Dewey No.:", you will find the class number of the document you are
searching for. Please note that for some titles you will not be able to find DDC number in this database, as
it was mainly designed by using the Library of Congress Classification number.

The WebDewey also offers easy-to-use, World Wide Web-based access to the Dewey Decimal
Classification (DDC) and related information, with searching and browsing capabilities. One can also find
Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) intellectually and statistically mapped to Dewey numbers;
and links from the mapped LCSH to the corresponding LCSH authority records. It is also an excellent
tool for online classification of the document, but the bad thing is that it is a paid service. It costs from $
225-$575 per year.

4.6 Let Us Sum Up: In this unit you have learnt how to classify a document by using the DDC
summaries as well as by using different online tools and techniques. Sometimes a book itself may contain
the classification number. In such cases, you can simply copy down that classification number from
Cataloguing in Publication (CIP) data. The CIP will provide classification number, subject headings, and
notes. This type of data is very common in the verso of the title page of many books published from U.S.,

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Australia, British, and Canada. So, if you have a book published from the above countries, try to find the
CIP data and copy it to your document.

The unit takes into account the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) that includes the structure of
the DDC consisting of Tables, Summaries, Schedules and Relative Index. Classification of document by
using the web is another important point of discussion in the unit. In this section the relevant matter
includes ―Classify‖, Dewey Browser, ISBNdb.com and Library of Congress Online Catalogue. Each of
these concepts has been exercised to give an idea about the use of the web for classification.

5. Library of Congress Classification: In 1898 a group under the guidance of J. C. M. Hanson, the head
of the catalog division at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C, and Charles Martel, the library‘s
chief classifier, developed the first part of the Library of Congress (LC) Classification system. In the years
that followed, numerous specialists contributed to the further development of the system and expanded it
to cover other subject areas.
The Library of Congress Classification system divides human knowledge into 21 major classes,
using letters of the English alphabet for each, with further subdivisions indicated by decimal notation. The
system does not use the letters I, O, W, X, and Y.
The major classes of the Library of Congress Classification system are as follows:
A General works
B Philosophy; psychology; religion
C Auxiliary sciences of history
D History: General and Old World
E-F History: America
G Geography; anthropology; recreation
H Social sciences
J Political science
K Law
L Education
M Music and books on music
N Fine arts
P Languages and literature Q Science
R Medicine S Agriculture
T Technology U Military science
V Naval science Z Library science
6. Universal Decimal Classification: UDC, which was designed to facilitate the organization of a
universal bibliography of all recorded knowledge, first made its origin at Belgium in 1895 by
bibliographers Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine. Initially UDC was based on the fifth edition of the
Dewey Decimal Classification that combines notation to express multiple concepts. The Universal
Decimal Classification system is issued by the International Federation for Documentation, in the
Hague, Netherlands, which is responsible for its ongoing revision.
7. Colon Classification: In 1933 Indian librarian Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan introduced the Colon
Classification system, which classifies all knowledge into broad, fundamental concepts.
The Colon system then divides these concepts into several distinguishing characteristics, which
Ranganathan called facets. The classification system uses colons (:) to distinguish between the various

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facets in a single notation and the name ―Colon Classification system‖ is derived from its use in its
notation scheme.
In United States, most research and academic libraries use Library of Congress Classification,
while most schools and public libraries use Dewey Decimal Classification. The UDC system is widely
used in Europe, Latin America, Russia, and Japan. Although the use of the Colon Classification system is
limited to a few Indian libraries, Ranganathan‘s concept of facet analysis in classifying knowledge has
been widely recognized. Some of its key concepts have been adopted by subsequent editions of the DDC
or UDC, among others.

8. Allotting Class Number: In classifying, a classifier first takes up those books which are additional
copies or new editions of works available in the library. In such cases, he/she would put down the call
number in the book order slip and on the process slip along with the fact whether the book in hand is an
additional copy or a new edition. Sequence numbers are also copied in the processing slip. The rest of the
books received by a classifier are sorted by basic classes. The indexes attached to the classification
schedules are used to find out the basic class numbers. Each basic class is taken, one by one. In the
process of classification, based on the subject content of the item, a class number is assigned by
consulting the schedules. The classification of the document can be made by manual means or by copy
cataloguing, etc.

9. Allotting Book Number: Generally, the author marks constitute a book number. Cutter‘s Author
Table, Cutter-Sanborne Author Table, Merrill‘s Author Table, Author Tables of L. Stanley Jast, Biscore
Time Numbers, Ranganathan‘s Book Numbers System may be used to allot author marks. A decision is to
be taken by each library as to which system is to be used for allotting book numbers. The class number
and book number together constitute the call number of the book. The call numbers should be written on
the processing slips, adding the sequence number, wherever required.

10. Assigning Subject Heading: Subject heading is the words or group of words under which books and
other materials on a subject are entered in a catalogue. The heading may include punctuation to which an
arranging significance may be assigned. In a classified catalogue the subject heading consists of a
classification symbols with or without its verbal meaning. It may also include entries for all materials on
the same subject in an index or bibliography. For assigning subject heading, Library of Congress List of
Subject Headings, Sears List of Subject Headings, ALA List of Subject Headings, Ranganathan‘s Chain
Procedure may be used. The chain procedure method is useful in deriving proper subject headings. The
smaller libraries, where minute subject headings are not required, may use Sears List of Subject Headings
or ALA List of Subject Headings. But large, research or special libraries may use the Library of Congress
List of Subject Headings which is a very comprehensive and standard one. Each library due to some local
and special conditions may adopt certain subject headings of its own in order to meet the readers‘
demand.

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LIBRARY CATALOGUING

Library Cataloguing: The cataloguing department decides on the appropriate form for identifying
authorship of works in the collection, describes the item as a physical item or a virtual source, and assigns
subject access points. In the cataloguing, on the process lip, headings for different types of entries to be
prepared should be listed. The headings should be listed on the pattern of a tracing section. At this state,
the cataloguer should pass on the volumes along with process slips to the typist to type out catalogue
cards or to handwrite the card. So at the end, the product of cataloguing is just like a card or in modern
sense an entry in the OPAC giving essential general information about informational entity. This essential
general information includes details about author, title, place of publication, name of publisher, year of
publication, edition, editorship, pagination, illustration, etc. The individual cards which bear the class
number or call number to enable the item to be located are arranged in some definite order. It may be
noted that for each volume, an additional card called shelf list card shall be prepared.

Definition: In order to provide access to the holdings of a library, an index or list of the materials is
always prepared and maintained systematically for the readers. It contains all the essential details about
the documents with location mark, usually in numerical form, by which the documents can be located on
the shelves of the library. This list or index or tool is basically called a library catalogue.

Cataloguing meant those activities that record, describe and index the resources of a collection that
were acquired in a manner that will aid the end-user in locating materials in the collection(s). Library
items that are written in a foreign script are, in some cases, transliterated to the script of the catalog.

Ranganathan has defined a library catalogue as ―a list of document in a library or in a collection

forming a portion of it‖. A ―list‖ refers to some kind of arrangement based on a set plan and a ―document‖
constitutes embodied thought, which is a ‗record of work on paper or other material fit for physical
handling, transport across space and preservation through time‘. This means that document includes all
types of records in which information can be stored or presented.
According to Ruth French Strout, a catalogue may be considered ―a work in which contents are
arranged in a reasonable way, according to a set plan or merely word by word‖.

2. Need and Purpose: The objective or function of the early catalogue was to serve as an inventory list
with progressive pattern of arrangement based on the order of accession chronologically by date of
publication or period of author. From this arose a wide variety of approaches and an expansion of the
inventory idea to include retrieval.
The modern library catalogue serves both the inventory (listing) and retrieval (finding) function.
Without cataloguing, it would be difficult for anyone to know what is in the collection, how many items
dealing with a particular topic are in the collection and so on. What one sees in the public catalogue is the
result of the efforts of the cataloguing staff and the extent of the use of library resources depends greatly
upon the quality of it. A well made catalogue definitely adds to the reputation of the library. Library
cataloguing allows library aids to assist the end-users in locating the materials. The need and purpose of
the library catalogue can be viewed from the following points of view

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a) General Objectives: The general objectives of library catalogues are-
i) Register: At any time the user may not find the entire collection of the library on the shelf. Therefore, to
know about the entire collection (what is available) at any time reliance is to be given to some other
dependable tool. Catalogue, which is a register of all informational items found in a particular library or
group of libraries serves this end.
ii) Finding Aid: Cataloguing helps the user in locating the document in the stack. Simply it guides the user
to the exact location of a stack in which he / she will find the book of his/her interest.

iii) Describes an Entity: Catalogue is only one of the many forms of bibliography, giving essential general
information about an informational entity (e.g., books, computer files, graphics, regalia, cartographic
materials, a webpage etc.).

iv) Satisfies Different Approaches: Cataloguing satisfies different kinds of approaches of the patron of the
library, say author, title, series, subject approach etc.

b) Charles Ammi Cutter Objectives: Charles Ammi Cutter made the first explicit statement regarding
the objectives of a bibliographic system in 1876. These have been frequently quoted and criticized.
According to Cutter, those objectives are
a) To enable a person to find a book of which (Finding objective) one of the following is known
i) The author
ii) The title
iii) The subject.
b) To show what the library has (collocating objective)
i) By a given author
ii) On a given subject
iii) In a given kind of literature
c) To assist in the choice of a book (Choice objective)
i) As to its edition (bibliographically)
ii) As to its character (literary or topical)
It is only a few readers who are able to express their subject requirements in specific terms. They
think of either a narrower or broader subject rather than the specific subject they require. Considering this,
Ranganathan raised an important point by quoting ―if it is the interest in the subject which takes him to
the library, his wants will be better served if the catalogue can spread before him a full connected
panorama of all materials on his specific subject, all its subdivisions and all broader subject of which it is
itself a subdivision‖. Ranganathan in the light of the five laws of library & information science expressed
the objectives of a catalogue as the following
A catalogue should be so designed as to
i) Disclose to every reader his or her document;
ii) Secure for every document its reader;
iii) Save the time of the reader and with this save the time of the staff.
The Cutter objectives are more specific in comparison to the Ranganathan approach in describing
the objectives of a library catalogue.

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c) Paris Conference: The principles adopted by the International Conference on Cataloguing Principles
held in Paris in 1961 are considered a landmark that leads to the standardization of practices.
The Paris conference resolved the function of a catalogue as given below
The catalogue should be efficient instrument for ascertaining
a) Whether the library contains a particular book specified by
i) Its author and title or
ii) If the author is not named in the book its title alone or
iii) If author and title are inappropriate or insufficient for identification, a substitute for the title and
b) i) Which work by a particular author and
ii) Which edition of a particular work in the library.
The function as adopted by the Paris conference is more or less a restatement of the Cutter
objectives as described in his first edition of 1876.
d) Simonton Objectives: According to Simonton (1964) a library catalogue serves three purposes in the
conventional library and especially in the research library.
i) Describing all items catalogued to a degree of precision permitting positive identification.
ii) Establishing and describing the relationship of all items catalogued in terms of community of
authorship or sponsorship, similarly of context and continuity of bibliographic history.
iii) Serving as a finding list.
Though the objectives stated by Cutter have been criticized a great deal and quoted very often,
these can only explain the explicit objective of a catalogue. These have stood the test of time and
according to Patrick Quigg ―later statements‘ are most usually restatements of them‖.

3. Different Kinds of Catalogue: The catalogue may be of different types based on different approaches
to division.

Based on physical form of presentation library catalogue can be of the following types
i) Printed Catalogue: The printed catalogue is also known as dictionary catalogues or bound book
catalogue. This type of catalogue is just like a book where individual catalogues are printed to make it
easy to consult for the user. The printed catalogues sometimes are interlaced with blank leaves on which
additions could be recorded. This type of catalogue is difficult to produce and update; it‘s very difficult to
interpolate new entries and maintain correct sequence in it. Again, its portability can be a disadvantage to
other users because when a single volume is taken to nearby table to be used by a particular user, it
becomes difficult for the other user to consult and there is no guarantee that the user will keep the volume
in the proper place. The British Museum catalogue of printed books is an example of this kind of
catalogue.
ii) Guard Book Catalogue: This type of catalogue is also known as paste down catalogue. In paste down
catalogue, the base is a bound volume of thick blank sheets; each typed or printed entry is pasted in the
correct sequence on the successive right hand pages, leaving space for at least five more entries to be
inserted between any two consecutive pages. The left hand page is left blank for pasting down any new
entry not finding its due place vacant on the right hand page, in the corresponding position. In case a
given portion of the catalogue becomes too crowded, the stripes are lifted and redistributed. This is similar
to a printed catalogue except that additional new entries can be pasted in and also new pages can be
inserted. It is sometimes used in conjunction with a printed catalogue and used prior to its production,
bringing a new edition or in producing a supplement for making addition, deletion, amendment and so on.

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iii) Sheaf Catalogue: This type of catalogue is also known as loose leaf book form catalogue. It contains
about six entries on a single paper slip with holes or slots at one edge so that they can be fastened into
binders. Each binder has a locking / releasing mechanism to allow the insertion of new entries when
required yet ensures that the slips remain securely in place when the catalogue is consulted. Owing to the
fact that more than one entry was included on a single leaf sometimes a break-down in sequence occurs.
iv) Card Catalogue: In card catalogue the size of leaf is reduced so that each leaf containes one entry only
and as the small leaf is inconvenient to handle so it has been replaced by the card. Each card is of 125 mm
X 75 mm. The cards are arranged in trays and held in their relative position by a rod passing through
holes near their bottom edge. The trays are all built into a cabinet. The specification for the catalogue
cabinet is given by the Indian Standards Institution. The card catalogues allow much more flexibility.
v) Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC): The card catalogue was a familiar sight to library users for
generations, but the computerization of library activities has led to rethinking regarding the form, purpose
and function of a library catalogue. Now the card catalogue has been effectively replaced by the OPAC or
Web OPAC. Some libraries with OPAC access still have card catalogues on site, but these are now
strictly a secondary resource and are seldom updated. Some libraries have eliminated their card catalogue
in favour of the OPAC. The other form of catalogue can be easily obtained as an output from OPAC.
Based on source where cataloguing is done catalogue can be grouped into the following types-
i) Individual Cataloguing: Cataloguing done by individual libraries, institution, people to serve their own
need and purpose or for their own sake are known as individual cataloguing.
ii) Cooperative Cataloguing: Cooperative cataloguing refers to a situation where a number of independent
libraries share the work of producing a catalogue for their mutual benefit. It is done in two or more
libraries for the benefit of each participant and the results may or may not be made available to other
libraries. One of the important outputs of cooperative cataloguing is Union catalogue.
iii) Centralized Cataloguing: Centralized cataloguing is defined as the cataloguing of documents by some
central organization for the benefit of other libraries. This form of cataloguing can take place within one
library system or within a number of library systems. Sometimes centralized cataloguing may be done by
another agency. Some of the forms of centralized cataloguing services are Card or shelf service,
Cataloguing in source, Cataloguing in publication, and Prenatal cataloguing.
The term ―Prenatal cataloguing‖ was used by Dr. S.R. Ranganathan. In this process the
cataloguing work has been done by the National Central Library of a country on each book before its
release by the publisher. This is done with the help of a copy of the form proof of each book sent by each
publisher. The National Central Library prepares a muster stencil of the catalogue cards for each book
before its release. The catalogue cards are later made available for distribution to libraries on order along
with the release of books themselves, Call numbers are also printed on the back of the title pages and
tooled on the binding as well. According to Ranganathan, this type of process leads to saving 79% in the
technical manpower of an intra National and inter National Library System.
Based on the type of entry catalogue can be divided into the following-
i) Author Catalogue: A formal catalogue, sorted alphabetically according to the authors' or editors' names
of the entries.
ii) Title Catalogue: A formal catalogue, sorted alphabetically according to the title of the entries.
iii) Keyword Catalogue: It is a subject catalogue, sorted alphabetically according to keywords. The
keywords are derived by using some system.
iv) Mixed Alphabetic Catalogue: It is a mixture of author / title, or an author / title / keyword catalogue.

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v) Systematic Catalogue: A subject catalogue, sorted according to some systematic subdivision of
subjects is called systematic catalogue.
vi) Shelf List Catalogue: It is a formal catalogue with entries sorted in the same order as bibliographic
items are shelved on the stack.
d) Based on Scope: Based on the scope of a catalogue unit, cataloguing can be divided into i) Individual
catalogue and ii) Union catalogue. When a library catalogue lists holding or part of holding of two or
more libraries then it is called a union catalogue.
e) Based on Purpose: Based on purpose catalogue can be classified as Library Catalogue, Book Sellers
Catalogue, Publisher Catalogue, Dealers Catalogue, etc.
4. Criteria for Selection of Library Catalogue: In selecting the forms of catalogue to be adopted by the
librarian, he / she may consider the following factors-
i) Economic to produce and handle: The production and its subsequent maintenance cost and labour of
the catalogue should be minimal.
ii) Compact in size: It should not occupy much space in the library.
iii) Bring together like entries: It should have the provision to bring together entries with the same
heading or leading section.
iv) Updating: The selected catalogue should have the provision to insert or withdraw entries easily as and
when required.
v) Reproduction: It should have the provision to produce duplicate copies.
vi) Durability: The catalogue should be durable.
vii) Accessible: It should be reasonably accessible (within approach) to both users and staff members of
the library.
viii) Easy to handle and consult: To enable a user to find entries with ease. It should be easy to handle and
consult.
ix) Speed of searching: It should be amenable to fast speed of search.
x) Portability: It should be easily portable to enable the user / staff to consult it from inside or from
outside the library. The user should be able to take it home and consult it there.
5. Cataloguing Rules: Cataloguing rules have been defined to allow for consistent cataloguing of various
library materials across several persons of a cataloguing team and across time and space. Users can use
them to clarify as to how to find an entry and how to interpret the data in an entry.
Cataloguing rules prescribe which information from a bibliographic item is included in the entry;
how this information is presented on a catalogue card or in a cataloguing record; how the entries should
be sorted in the catalogue. Currently, most cataloguing rules are similar to, or even based on, the
International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a set of rules produced by the International
Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) to describe a wide range of library materials. These rules
describe an item in terms of: title and statement of responsibility (author or editor), edition, material-
dependent information (for example, the scale of a map), publication and distribution, physical description
(for example, number of pages), series, note, and standard number (ISBN).
A catalogue code is a set of rules for the guidance of cataloguers in preparing entries for
catalogues so as to ensure uniformity in treatment. These codes may also include rules for subject
heading, filling and arranging of entries. Classified catalogue code by S. R. Ranganathan and Anglo-
American Cataloguing Rules, 2nd edition (AACR-II) are examples of such catalogue codes. In June,
2010, the Resource Description and Access (RDA) was published, which will completely take over the
place of AACR-II. AACR-II was the most commonly used set of cataloguing rules in the English

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speaking world. The AACR-II has been translated into many languages for use around the world. AACR-
II provides rules for descriptive cataloguing only and does not touch upon subject cataloguing.

5.1 Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules – II: AACR-II was jointly prepared by American Library
Association, The British Library, The Canadian Committee on Cataloguing, The Library Association,
UK, and The Library of Congress. The code was edited by Michael Gorman and Paul W. Winkler. It was
published in 1978 by the American Library Association and Canadian Library Association.

There are two parts and four appendices in AACR-II. An index was also provided at the end of the
code and it has been compiled by KG B Backwell.

Part I: Description

1. General Rules for Description

2. Books, Pamphlets and Printed Sheets

3. Cartographic Materials

4. Manuscripts

5. Music

6. Sound Recordings

7. Motion Pictures and Video Recordings

8. Graphic Materials

9. Machine-Readable Data Files

10. Three-Dimensional Artifacts and Realia

11. Microforms

12. Serials

13. Analysis

Part II: Headings, Uniform Titles and References

14. Choice of Access Points

15. Headings for Persons

16. Geographic Names

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17. Headings for Corporate Bodies

18. References

Appendix A: Contains instructions for Capitalization

Appendix B: Contains list of Standard Abbreviations

Appendix C: Deals with Numerals

Appendix D: Glossary

AACR-II prescribes three levels of details in the description depending upon the nature and the
size of the library. The first level provides a brief cataloguing description just to identify a particular
document. It is recommended for a small library. The second level description is recommended for a
medium size library, whereas the third level of description includes all the elements prescribed in the
AACR-II and is recommended for the highly specialized libraries or national and research libraries. Here,
we will concentrate only on the second level of description.

5.2 Card Catalogue: In most of the libraries of India the entries are written on card. The standard size
of the card is 12.5 X 7.5 cm or 5‘‘X 3". The catalogue cards which are used for preparing entries may be
ruled, semi-ruled or plain. The ruled cards are very convenient if the entries are prepared by hand, and if
the matter is typed then plain cards are more suitable and used. There are different lines on the card,
which may be of the following types:

First Indention: It is the first vertical line that lays nine (9) spaces from left margin. This line is in red
ink.

Second Indention: It is the second vertical line that lays thirteen (13) spaces from left margin or four
letters space from first indention. It is also indicated in red ink.

Third Indention: Beyond the second vertical line there is also a third indention which is an imaginary
line. It lays fifteen (15) spaces from left margin. In a reference, referred-from heading continues from
third indention.

Horizontal Line: The card has also one horizontal line in the upper section of the catalogue card. It is a
bold line and is also indicated in red ink.

Hole: The card also contains one hole at the bottom portion at equal distance from both the vertical cores
of the cards. A rod of iron or brass is used to support all the cards in the tray through this hole.

5.3 Types of Entries: Each library prepares various unit records for each document in its holding. These
unit records are prepared to meet the various need and approach of the library user to the document. These
unit records are called as entries.

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 AACR-I regards the main entry as ―the complete catalogue record of a bibliographical entry,
presented in the form by which the entity is to be uniformly identified and cited. The main entry normally
includes the tracing of all other headings under which the record is to be represented in the catalogue‖.

An added entry is ―an entry, additional to the main entry, by which an item is represented in a
catalog‖ (AACR-II, p. 563). The additional entries supplement the main entry by providing an additional
approach to the documents listed in the catalogue.

a) Type of Information Needed for Cataloguing: The cataloguer needs the following information about
a document for cataloguing.

Name of the authors

Name of the collaborators

Title, subtitle or alternative title of the document

Edition

Name of the series

Editor of series

Name, place and year of publication

Size and number of pages of the document

Copyright year

ISBN/ISSN

The call number (class number and book number) of the document. It can be found at the verso of
the title page that will be provided by the classifier.

The accession number of the document. It also can be found at the verso of the title page. The accessionist
will provide this number.

b) Sources of Information Needed for Cataloguing: The prescribed source of information for the
preparation of the card catalogue is the title page. It provides most of the information about the book. It is
the next printed page to the cover of the book. Please note here that the cover page of the book is not the
title page. The page leaving one or two pages from the beginning and on which the description mentioned
bellow is printed is called the title page. The title page, in upper most part of it, contains the title and
subtitle (if any) of the book. The names of authors and collaborators with their working institutions are
given in the middle of the page. In the lower part, the name of the publisher, place and year of publication
and price etc are given. If there is no title page, one can consult the cover caption or the half title page of
the book. In the half title page of the book, only the title of the book, but no author and publication

115
statements, is printed. Sometimes, the name of the series is also printed on this page. The verso / back of
the title page contains copyright year, print and reprint, edition, name and address of the publisher, the
price, and so on.

Besides the title page, we can also collect information about the book (in order of the following
preference)

i) Accompanying material

ii) A container

iii) Another published description of the book or

iv) Any other available sources.

AACR-II recommends the following types of entries

i) Main Entry: The Main entry is an author entry in AACR-II. If the authorship is diffused or not known
the main entry is prepared under the title. The Main Entry is the complete catalogue record of an item. It
also includes the tracing of all other headings under which the record is to be presented in the catalogue.

ii) Added Entry: An added entry is a secondary entry, additional to the Main Entry, by which an item is
represented in a catalogue. S R Ranganathan calls it ―entry other than the main entry‖. There are different
types of added entries. i.e. Joint author(s), Editor(s), Translator(s), Compiler(s), Subject, Title, Series, etc.
The number and kind of added entries required by a document depends upon the nature of a particular
document and also on the nature of the catalogue used in a library.

iii) Reference: Reference is a direction from one heading or entry to another. There are different types of
references in AACR-II. They are See Reference, See also Reference, Name title Reference, Explanatory
Reference, etc. Out of all the references ―See‖ and ―See also‖ type of references are frequently used.

* See Reference: It directs the user of a catalogue from a form of the name of a person or a corporate
body or the title of a work to the form that has been chosen as a name heading or a uniform title.

Examples:

Md. Syed Ahmed Khan

see Syed Ahmed Khan

Dhanpat Rai

see Prem Chand

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* “See Also” Reference: The function of a ―See also‖ reference is to direct the user from one name
heading or uniform title to another that is related to it. If the works of one person or corporate body are
entered under two different headings a ―see also‖ reference is prepared from each heading.

Example:

Home Science

See also Interior decoration

5.4 Rules for Description of Monograph: The elements to be included in the catalogue entry are divided
into the following areas:

a) Call Number: Call number is the combination of class number and book number. It is the first item
which should be recorded in the upper left hand corner of the catalogue card with pencil.

b) Accession Number: It should be recorded on the seventh line from the top of the card or fourth line
from the bottom.

c) Author: ―Author‖ in the entry is indicated by writing the surname first which is followed by a comma
―,‖ and the remaining parts of the name (i.e. forenames) are given after leaving one space which is
followed by the date of birth and / or death of an author in full, if any, and a full stop. This is written from
the first indention and continued from the third indention on the next line.

d) Title and Statement of Responsibility: The title proper should be recorded exactly as the wording,
order and spelling as it is found in the title page of the document. Capitalization and punctuation should
be avoided.

i) Alternate Title: Use the first part of the title with commas, and then the alternate title. Examples:

Another world watching, or The riddle of the flying saucers

Indian song of songs, or Gita govinda

ii) Abridge Title: Abridge a long title proper only if this can be done without any loss of the essential
information. Indicate the omission by the mark of three dots ―…‖.

iii) Initial and Acronyms: If a title proper includes separate letters or initials without full stops between
them, record such letters without spaces between them. If such letters or initials have full stop between
them, record them with full stops. Example:

―ALA Rules for filling catalog cards‖ and ―A.L.A. Rules for filling catalog cards‖

iv) Parallel Title: Record parallel title in the order indicated by their sequences. If the title appears in two
or more languages, choose one of these as the title proper and record the other titles as parallel title. The

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parallel title appearing outside the chief source of information should be noted in the note section of the
catalogue card.

v) Title in Numerals: If the title of a document appears in numerals, record it in letters and endorse it in
the square brackets. Example:

―20 [Twenty] – point programme‖.

vi) Other Title Information: Record other title information (subtitle, etc) appearing in the chief source of
information. Use space colon space ― : ― between the title proper and other title information. Example:

―Cataloguing : theory and practice‖.

e) Statement of Responsibility: Record statement of responsibility in the form in which they appear in
the chief source of information. The statement of responsibility should be preceded by a diagonal slash. If
there is more than one statement of responsibility, record them in the order indicated by their sequence on
or by the layout of the chief source of information. If the statement of responsibility is taken from outside
enclose it in square brackets. Example:

―Cataloguing practice / by S R Ranganathan‖.

f) Edition: This area should be preceded by a full stop, space dash space ―. – ―. The statement of
responsibility should be preceded by a diagonal slash, and then each subsequent statement of
responsibility should be preceded by a semi-colon. The standard abbreviations and numerals in place of
words should be used. Example:

―2nd ed‖, ―3rd ed‖, ―New ed‖, ―Rev ed‖, ―Rev and enl ed‖.

g) Place: If a publisher has many offices in more than one place, always prefer the name of the first place
and omit all other places. If the place of publication, distribution, etc is uncertain, give the probable place
with a question mark in square brackets. Example:

―[Delhi?]‖.

If, no place or probable place can be given, put the abbreviation sl (Sine loco) in square brackets ―[s.l.]‖.
―Sine loco‖ means ―no place‖ in Latin. Example:

―[s.l.]: Vikas, 2001‖.

h) Publisher: After the place of publication, use the shortest form of the publisher in which it can be
understood and identified internationally. If the book has two or more publishers, record the first named
place and publisher. If the name of the publisher is not known, the abbreviation sn (sine nominee) is given
in square brackets. Example: ―[s.n.]‖.

i) Date of Publication: Give the year of publication in Arabic numerals preceded by a comma. Example:

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―, 2001‖.

If there is no date, the copyright date is given. Example:

―, c 1999‖.

If the date of publication is not known then n.d. (no date) is written in square brackets. Example:

[n.d.].

j) Physical Description Area: This paragraph starts from the second indention and continues from the
first indention. This area consists of pagination, illustrative matter and size of the document expressed in
cm.

If the volume is without pagination, ascertain the total number of pages and give the number in
square brackets. The sequence of describing page information is

―Preliminary pages, Roman pages, Arabic pages.‖. Example:

―xii, 786 p.‖.

When preliminary pages are not numbered it should be in the form of : ―[xii], 786 p.‖.

The connecting symbol between pagination and illustrative matter is a colon ―:‖. The illustrated
printed monograph is described as ―Charts‖, ―Maps‖, ―Music‖, ―Plans‖, ―Portraits‖, ―Samples‖, or simple
as ―ill‖. Example:

―786 p. ; ill.‖.

The connecting symbol between the illustrative matter and the height of the document is semi
colon ―;‖. The height of the document is written in cm. Example

―786 p. : ill.; 18 cm.‖.

k) Series: The series are preceded by a full stop space dash space ―. - ―. Series statement is recorded in
circular brackets. The series statement may consist of name of the series, statement of responsibility
relating to series and number of series. Example:

―. - (Ranganathan series in Library Science; 4)‖, ―. - (Research monographs / Institute of Economic Affairs;
3)‖.

l) Notes: Notes may be given to explain the nature, scope or artistic form of the item, language of the
item, sources of the title proper, variation in title, accompanying material, contents, etc.

m) Standard Number: If the item contains ISBN / ISSN, record International Standard Book Number
(ISBN) or International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) for the item. Example: ―ISBN : 0-910608-70-9‖.

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n) Tracing: Tracing is the record of the heading under which an item is represented in the catalogue. The
information about the added entries should be recorded in a paragraph starting from the second indention.

Before going for tracing, the subjects of the document need to be determined. In the main card, the
added entries for subject should be numbered in Arabic numerals (Example ―1‖, ―2‖) whereas, the other
entries should be numbered in Roman numerals (Example ―I‖, ―II‖). Another point to be noted is that, in
the added entries for subject, the names of the subject are written in all capital letters. Example:
―LIBRARY SCIENCE‖.

6. Sorting: In a title catalogue, one can distinguish two sort orders-

a) Grammatic Sort Order: In the grammatic sort order, the most important word of the title is the first
sort term. The importance of a word is measured by grammatic rules; for example, the first noun may be
defined to be the most important word.
The most important word of the title is also a good keyword and it is the word most users
remember first when their memory is incomplete. This is an advantage in favour of grammatic sort order.
However, it has the disadvantage that many elaborate grammatic rules are needed, so that only expert
users may be able to search the catalogue without help from a librarian.
b) Mechanic Sort Order: In the mechanic sort order, the first word of the title is the first sort term. Most
new catalogues use this scheme. Still, the mechanic sort order includes a trace of the grammatic sort order
as they neglect an article (A, An, The etc.) at the beginning of the title.
c) Alphabetic Sorting: Here entries are arranged alphabetically.
In a subject catalogue, one has to decide on which classification system to be used. The cataloguer
will select appropriate subject headings for the bibliographic item and a unique classification number
(class number).

7. Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC): The catalogues which are available for searching online
are known as OPAC. Such OPAC may be searched from a terminal within the originating library or at a
terminal elsewhere in the organization or remotely via national or international telecommunication
network. Now the scenario is that these databases are available over web. OPAC has two different
meaning-

a) Access to library housekeeping especially circulation (primarily for library staff use) and which could
also serve as rudimentary catalogue for the library user.

b) Access to machine readable bibliographic records from which card and computer output in Microform
(COM) can be generated.

a) Definition: The A. L. A. Glossary defines OPAC as ―a commuter based and supported library
catalogue (bibliographic database) design to be accessed via terminal so that library user may directly and
effectively search for and retrieve bibliographic records without the assistance of a human intermediary
such as a specially trained member of the library staff‖.

b) Types of OPAC: OPAC can generally be viewed being of two types-

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i) First Generation OPAC: First generation OPAC has been derived from traditional catalogues or
computerized circulation system. They are also referred to as phase – indexed or pre-coordinated OPACs
and it demands exact matching between the search term and pre-coordinate phrase. The number of access
keys is limited and they are similar to that of manual catalogue i.e author, title, class number and possibly
subject heading.

ii) Second Generation OPAC: Second generation OPAC originated from common bibliographic
information retrieval system and so there is a growing similarity between second generation OPAC and
traditional information retrieval system. This generation OPAC provides key word searching that is post
coordinate searching together with phrase searching or pre-coordinate subject heading.

c) Components of OPAC: There are three main components of OPAC. They are-

i) Computer and Terminal: The hardware requirement for OPAC i.e computer terminal and server from
which databases can be accessed.

ii) Software Enabling Networking: The network enabling software which will be able to manage the
entire database.

iii) Database: The database of books, serial, dissertation, etc can be generated by two different ways. One
is developing database by direct entry and the other is developing database through retrospective
conversion process.

d) Searching and Browsing OPAC: When the searcher knows precisely what he wants i.e. when user
information need is fairly well defined he/she can use word truncation, range search, field level search,
Boolean combination, word adjacency / proximity operator, etc. which are of generally two types.

i) Phrase Searching: Phrase searching is done on pre-coordinate subject heading.

ii) Keyword Searching / Post Coordinate Searching: When a query is formulated using Boolean
expression.

iii) Browsing: Browsing is used when user‘s information needs are not precisely defined. By browsing
one can determine the exact forms of entry of a subject heading or author name.

e) OPAC Vs Card Catalogue: The difference between OPAC and card catalogue are represented in
the following table.

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 Characteristic OPAC Card Catalogue
Time OPAC allows rapid retrieval. It is a time consuming job.
Access point It provides multiple access to the Access is only through entry point
database and helpful for Boolean and a build in cross reference
searches structure.
Indexing techniques Support both pre-coordinate and post Support only pre coordinate
coordinate searching. searching.
User Friendliness It is more user friendly and guides the The user has to decide himself how
user in a step by step manner to find the to find the required card.
information.
Current Status OPAC provides the current status of the It does not provide current status of
item being search i.e whether a the document.
document is on the shelves, on loan, on
reservation or at binders or the
document is lost.
Enhance Feature OPAC provides acquisition of titles, to Such types of facilities are not found
reserve material and to send in a card catalogue
personalized SDI, overdue/ recall /
collect notices and messages by Email.
Union Catalogue Helps to develop centralized database and It is very difficult to achieve resources
resource sharing among different libraries. sharing through card catalogue

f) OPAC vs Information Retrieval System: The difference between OPAC and Information Retrieval System are

Characteristic OPAC Information Retrieval System

Coverage OPAC database includes one Its coverage is limited in subject scope
or more than one library‘s either to a single subject or to a range of
collection; hence its coverage discipline linked to a particular mission.
is on wide variety of discipline
and subject areas.
Abstract Records in the OPAC mostly Information retrieval systems records are
lack abstract and subject well indexed and are supported usually
descriptor is inadequate. with abstract.
Indexing System OPAC provides pre-coordinate Information retrieval system mostly
phrase searching and browsing provides post coordinate searches.
option.
Underlying Assumptions The most searches will be on Searching will be for document
known document i.e searches containing information of a particular
for document whose subject.
bibliographic details are known
at least partially.
Skill OPAC is designed for end-user It is not designed for end user and
and so menu driven and required the skills of information
provides facilities like on-line professional. The search negotiations are
help message, on-line index carried out by the librarian. He/she should
with different approach points interact with the user to know their
(author, ISBN, class number, information need then formulate search
etc.) strategy using vocabulary control devices
and modify the search if required.

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g) Advantages of OPAC: The main advantages of OPAC are -

i) OPAC searching is speedier and user friendly than that of manual cataloguing.

ii) Provides multiple access to the database and more or less designed as an information retrieval system.

iii) Guides the user in a step by step manner for retrieving the specific information.

iv) Supports the post coordinate searcher, Boolean operation, etc.

v) Provides the current status of the item being search i.e. whether a document is on the shelves, on loan,
on reserved for some one, at the binder or whether it is lost.

vi) Designed as an integrated library management system.

vii) Helps to develop centralized database and resources sharing among different libraries.

h) Limitation of OPAC: Different in user and system vocabulary is a major reason for user
dissatisfaction with OPAC.

According to UNESCO / Library of Congress Survey, bibliographic control means ―the mastery over
written and published records which is provided by and for the purpose of bibliography‖. Effective
bibliographic control should be made at subject and national level.
A) National Bibliographic Control: The national library ensures the bibliographic control of all the
books or book-like documents published in that particular country. It has the provision of legal deposit
by a host of different programs such as a cataloguing in publication service or similar mandatory
practices. By cataloguing in publication service, the Library of Congress gives a complete catalogue
entry of a book to any publisher who sends a final draft or some form of galley proof of a book currently
in production.
B) International Bibliographic Control: One of the main goals of a national library is fulfilling their
nation's part of the common international goal of universal bibliographic control. The International
bibliographic control is done by the exchanges and also by fostering the creation of standard conceptual
tools such as library classification systems and cataloguing rules. The most commonly used of these tools
is the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD). It applies to books and periodicals, but
also has variants for other book-like material such as the ISBD (ER) for Electronic Resources or digital
documents or the ISBD (A) for Antiquarian documents.

C) Conclusion: New ideas are generated in each and every branch of human activity from time to time.
Apart from new ideas we give new interpretation to old ideas, at times we also borrow ideas from other
discipline and try to apply them in a new content. As a result more and more information are produced in
a variety of forms leading to information explosion. There is a need to keep track of this information
explosion by way of bibliographic control.

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INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLIOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION (ISBD):
Introduction: In 1961, at the International Conference on Cataloguing Principles held in Paris, stress was
laid on the need of standardization in bibliographic description. To solve the problem, International
Meeting on Cataloguing Expert (ICME) was sponsored by IFLA and held in Copenhagen in 1969. The
meeting formed a committee to study the problem of standardization in bibliographic description. The
committee submitted its report at a meeting held in Liverpool in 1971 which is known as International
Standard Bibliographic Description (Monograph) {ISBD (M)}. In course of its application many
ambiguities and lack of details in some areas were discovered. To resolve the problem, IFLA conference
was held in Grenoble in 1973. After the conference two documents- ISBD (M) and ISBD (S) were
published. In 1975, the General International Standard Bibliographic Description [ISBD (G)] was
developed. It serves as a single framework for the description of all types of publications in all types of
media. The ISBD (G) was later on incorporated into AACR II as a general framework for bibliographic
description.

The ISBD (G) acted just as some guiding principles. It was not intended for use as a working tool
for the cataloguer. So, IFLA brought out the following ISBDs on the basis of ISBD (G) as working tool.
Their names are:

ISBD (M): Monograph

ISBD (S): Serial

ISBD (CM): Cartographic Material

ISBD (AV): Audio Visual

ISBD (CF): Computer Files, etc.

As ISBD has so many numbers they are called ISBDs.

A) Elements of ISBD (M)

i) Title and Statement of Responsibility

i) Title proper

ii) Parallel title or alternative title

iii) Statement of authorship

b) Edition

i) Edition statement

ii) Statement of authorship related to edition

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c) Imprint

i) Place of publication

ii) Name of publisher

iii) Date of publication

iv) Place of printing

v) Name of printer

d) Collation

i) Number of volumes and / or pages

ii) Illustration matter

iii) Size and accompanying material

e) Series

f) Notes

g) International Standard Book Number, binding, price

i) ISBD

ii) Binding

iii) Price

B) Punctuation: ISBD also suggested proper punctuation mark for each and every item for making
machine readable format.

[] : If information is not available in the proper place;

() : To denote omission;

/: Before the statement of author;

:: It proceeds the name of publisher / sub title;

=: Parallel title;

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-: Place of publication;

,: Year of publication, etc.

C) Capitalization and Abbreviation: The first letter of the first word in each area is given in capital.

s.l. (Sine Loco), used when place of publication is not known;

s.n.: (Sine Nomina), used when name of publisher is unknown;

ill.: Illustration;

cm.: Centimetre;

D) Information Sources for ISBD: Generally the maximum required information for ISBD is available
in the title page of the document itself.
Besides the above, we may mention Rovert Broadus‘ Selecting Materials for Libraries, 2nd ed.
New York: H.W. Wilson Co, 1981 and Building Library Collections: 6th Ed. By: Arthur Curley, Dorothy
M. Broderick, and Published: January 1985 as important books on book selection.

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INFORMATION SYSTEM
Information System: ―An information system or information grid is a network of information centre at
different levels working in perfect harmony and close co-operation with each other with the objectives of
storing and dissemination of information usually of a specific type or a specific community‖. In simple
form an information system is a group of components that interact to produce information for a specific
group of users.

The Information providers on the other hand are organization that collect the information, select
appropriate document and convert the materials into machine readable form. They are the creator and
access providers to the databases.

The Information vendors are persons / organization who are the retailer of online searching
services, bibliographic databases, etc. They own the computer and software for information retrieval.
They develop a set of instruction or command for searching the databases and then obtain a number of
machine readable databases through licensing agreement with various databases producers and load these
databases on their computer system and provide access to information to the end users, i. e libraries,
information centres, etc. Information vendors are on business. Eg. DIALOG.

Types of Information System: Information network are comprised of group of individuals or

organizations that exchange information in various form in a regular and organized basis. Before
establishing information network a formal agreement between members of the network and a common
procedure than need to be followed are established. The information network can be a decentralized
structure where all the members can communicate with each other directly, or it can be a centralized one
where the members communicate through centers. The structure can also be a mixed one combing the
above two where certain communication will take place directly while some other may take place through
the center.

Based on the geographical areas covered, an information system may be an International; regional,
national or local one while based on the subject consideration, an information system may be of general or
sectoral. It can be noted that the sectoral information sytem are generally the international or regional one,
while the general information system are of national and local one.

a) International Information System: The International information system is also known as global
information system. The Global Information System is the information system that collects, process and
provide access to the information globally.

An International Information System is a network of information centre that covers the whole
world or parts of the whole world i.e when a group of regional and national information system work in
perfect harmony and close co-operation with the object of providing new services for identified gaps, so
coordinated as to reinforced and enhance the activities of the individual units and thus enable specific
categories of user to receive the information relevant to their needs and abilities then it is called as
International Information System. In respect of its geographical coverage, International Information
System is at the top of any information system. Eg. ENVIS.

b) Regional Information System: A Regional Information System is a network of information centre

within a region or area. The area cover includes two or more nation, whose components of information
system work in perfect harmony and close co-operation with the object of providing new services for
identified gaps, so coordinated as to reinforced and enhance the activities of the individual units and thus
enable specific categories of user to receive the information relevant to their needs and abilities.. In
respect of its geographical coverage it is in between International Information System and National

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Information System. Eg. SAARC.

According to International Society for Telemedicine and eHealth (www.isft.net/cms/index.php) a regional

information system is an ―information system providing access to information stored in cf. operational
systems of a region‖.

When Regional Information System work as part of International Information System its objectives is to be

i) Maintain Union Catalogue of monograph, serials and non-book materials held in the libraries and
information centres of the region.

ii) Maintain the copies of union catalogue of other region so that union catalogue enquiries relating to the
entire countries holding can be handled at the regional level itself, thereby reducing the traffic of
international information centre, etc.

c) National Information System: A National Information System is basically a network of existing

information resources within a nation together with new services for identified gaps, so coordinated as to
reinforced and enhance the activities of the individual units and thus enable specific categories of user to
receive the information relevant to their needs and abilities. The national information system exists at
national level but accessibility is international eg. INSDOC.

d) Sectoral Information System: Sectoral Information System is based on subject specialization. It

maintains a rich collection of materials in the specialized areas only to which it is intended but with
international scope. Eg. Agricultural Information System (AGRIS).

INFORMATION SOCIETY
Information Society: The society has created various institutions. These social institutions make a person
part of the society. Each institution serves one or few needs of the society. A library is a social institution
and it has been created to fulfill all the needs of the society. In the library, the people are exposed to books
or a variety of documents that give knowledge, bring to surface one‘s latent aesthetic talents, stimulate
one‘s intellect, inculcate values and learning skills, provide one with recreation and so on. Therefore, of all
the institutions formed by society it is the library and its modern cognates that are the most potent in
meeting the multifarious needs of different users of modern society. A public library provides free service
irrespective of status, age, religion, colour or creed, and sex. It may extend service to the neo literates and
even to the physically handicapped people.
A society is composed of people working together to achieve common ends and to satisfy common
needs. It is a body of individuals that is outlined by the bounds of functional interdependence, consisting
of different characteristics or conditions such as national or cultural identity, social solidarity, etc. It is
characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive culture and
institutions.
A society is an economic, social or industrial infrastructure, made up of a varied multitude of
individuals who may or may not be from different ethnic groups. Modern society is heading towards an
information society in which the central instrument of change, the force and direction of change are
knowledge and information.
All information societies, ancient, medieval or modern, have functioned and prospered on the basis
of proper utilization of information and knowledge in their various stages of development. The term
information society is said to have been coined in Japan for the first time. The two Japanese cognates
―Joho Shakai‖ when normally translated into English means ―Information Society‖. The American Society
for Information Science (ASIS) in 1970 organized its annual meeting around the theme ―The information

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conscious society‖, where the concept of information society was explicitly used.
1. Definition: William J. Martin defined information society as ―a society in which the quality of
life as well as prospects for social change and economic development depends increasingly on information
and its exploitation‖. In such a society, living standards, patterns of work and leisure, the education system
and the market place are all influenced markedly by advances in information and knowledge. This is
evidenced by an increasing array of information intensive products and services that communicate through
a wide range of media, many of them being electronic in nature.

According to Blaise Cronin, ―an information society is one in which labour has been
intellectualized, one in which the expression to earn one‘s daily bread by the sweat of one‘s brow sounds
decidedly anachronistic‖. Employment in the information sector of the economy is growing fast. Soon,
terms such as information worker, knowledge engineer, ideas processor will be as common as weaver,
miller, electrician, carpenter, etc.

G. P. Sweeney defined information society as one ―in which the creation of economic wealth is
based on information and in which key economic activities are enquiring, communicating and deciding‖
for good or ill. Martin is of the view that ―the concept of an information society has now gained a fair
degree of acceptance‖. As a concept it is certainly viable.

2. Criteria of an Information Society: William J. Martin has noted the following criteria for the
development of information society.

a) Technological Criteria: Today‘s age is the computer age in which computers and telecommunication
are behind every other change in the society. Communication technologies such as teleeducation,
teleconferencing, teleshopping, telecommuting, e-government, e-commerce have converted the world into
a global village and its impact can be felt at every level of our society.

b) Economic Criteria: This is the age of knowledge in which knowledge capital would predominate over
material capital. The internet is fundamentally changing the way the companies operate. The internet is
turning the business upside down and inside out. The e-commerce goes far beyond the buying and selling
over the internet. The information workers are replacing productive worker as the biggest sector in the
economy. Information is turning out as the key economic factor as resource, service, commodity, a source
of added value and employment. In the information society most of the information will be cheaper, would
occupy less space and can be communicated with greater speed.

c) Social Criteria: In information society, information is the enhancer of the quality of life. The
information society will be conscious towards the value of information and its use and will become
increasingly centred on information handling, processing, storage and dissemination using micro
electronic based technologies. Globally the society has got divided into two parts, i.e information rich
society and information poor society.

d) Political Criteria: In information society there would be more interaction between the government and
the governed through citizens‘ participation by way of electronic polling, their access to public
information under the concept of freedom and equality of access to information. There will be better
interaction with fellow citizens through wired networks, telephone, teleconferencing, etc. The information
superhighway will change the whole world.

e) Cultural Criteria: The information society recognizes the cultural value of information through the
promotion of information values in the interest of national or individual development.

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 In an information society, it is said, a majority of the people will spend their time doing tasks
which relate to information, expressing, gathering, storing, retrieving and disseminating it. People in an
information society will manipulate information for the purposes of travel, entertainment, instruction,
control and so on.

INFORMATION AS A RESOURCE / COMMODITY

Information as a Resource / Commodity: The concept of information as commodity is wider than that
of information as resource, as it incorporates the exchanges of information among the people and related
activities as well as its use. The notion of information as a commodity is tied closely to the concept of
value chains. With commoditized information gaining in value as it progresses through the various steps
of creating, processing, storage, distribution, and use.

a) Information is a Resource / Commodity: Information possesses many characteristics that are the
same as those of some other commodities. When we consider such characteristics, information can be
termed as a resource and a commodity in a broad sense and people at large have accepted this view.

i) Information is a Natural Resource: Many resources were earlier taken for granted as common for all.
For example, clean air and water. Information has also been similarly understood. Whoever is interested
can get enough information for his daily needs through institutions established for that purpose. But
specialized information is made accessible to those who have special needs and can legitimize its claim by status or
by money. Just like the maintenance of clean air and water, the proper information demands some cost.

ii) Information is a Vital Resource: Information is looked upon as a resource like manpower, material
and money. Information is a resource created by ingenuity of man to be used by man for the benefit of
man; it can be used for the opposite also. According to K. J. McGarry, information becomes a resource by
analogy with the classic resources of labour, capital and material. Management of these classic resources
(man, material and money) now mutates to the ―management of information‖. It is easy to see how
information can be depicted as a resource as essential to productive success as are raw materials and
skilled staff. But information needs to be controlled, manipulated and managed.

According to W. L. Saunders, information is that type of resource which is not scarce. It has also
economic value as when company uses the information effectively, the level of trade and revenue are
maximized. Information and knowledge become the principal generators of wealth in the form of
educational institutions of research and development establishment and science laboratories.

No national development programme can succeed fully without proper information support. As
such, it is regarded as a national resource like energy, coal, water, etc. vital for national development. It is
an important input for nation building. The impact of fast, reliable and inexpensive information would be
as great as that of electricity in national and international economy. IBM, the giant computer company,
says that information is like an inexhaustible and renewable source of energy.

iii) Information is a Major Criterion: Information is vital for national development. The backwardness
or forwardness of any county nowadays is mainly due to the use of adequate information, especially in the
field of science and technology. Presently the world is divided on economic consideration into
economically developed and economically developing countries. According to Herbert I. Schiller, in
future the division will be based on possession of information into information rich or data rich nations
and information poor or data poor nations.

iv) Information as a Thing: Buckland points out that in order to communicate knowledge it must be

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expressed or represented in some physical way as a signal, text or communication. Any such expression
would, therefore, constitute information as a thing. The notion of information as resource attracts
information economics and spreads to such diverse disciplines like management, transport and
communication, consolidation and repackaging, pricing, marketing, distribution, exchange, etc.

v) Satisfies the Economic Principle: Information satisfies the economic principles of generation or
gathering, processing, storage, dissemination, etc.

* Demand / Market: Information has a wider market. All people need information for some purpose or
the other. There is a heavy demand for information from all around the world, so to get profit out of it, its
production rate must increase.

* Information Generation: Information is generated mainly through research activities and research
activities are highly price consuming business, which is just like other product whose production or
manufacture involves a high cost.

* Protection: Information as a resource has been well established which is evident from the profusion of
national and international laws and policies relating to storage, transmission and information related
services including trans-border data flow. Just as in the case of various commodities or products,
information is also protected by copyright and patent. However, the property right of information is
weaker than the property rights of other goods we possess.

* Consumption: Information does not always flow across market. Within some private sectors information
produced is entirely consumed within the organization itself, which is in the same line of other goods.

* Different Forms of Products: For the different categories of users, different forms of information are
released into the market. In this regard it is just like any other services provided in the market place.
Information is provided through books, magazines, business, news, investment, advice, legal advice,
medical advice, consulting services, formal education through school, colleges and universities, etc. So,
we do have markets for information and people buy it depending on its perceived value. In this respect
information is like other goods and services.

* Transportation / Communication: High cost is involved when we use the information technology for
communication and transportation of information just like any other product.

* Storage: If information is stored for a long period just like other consumable products it loses its value
because particularly in case of science and technology, historical information is generally less valuable.

b) Information is not a Resource / Commodity: Judith Jordet complains about the notion that
information is a commodity. According to him, this notion will not only interfere with real knowledge
creation, it will unravel what knowledge we have! When information is seen as a commodity, the users
are seen as customers consuming a commodity identified as information. Users define usefulness. If it is
not used, it is not useful. But in reality, how many users use all the information that are the product of
large research investment, is itself a question. Again, against the view of information as a resource /
commodity, the following arguments can be offered-

i) Shareable and not Exchangeable (Public Good): Most of the goods and services have the property
that more for you means less for me; but in case of information, more for you does not mean less for me.
Passing of information is not losing it.

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ii) Assigning Value: It is very difficult to assign values to ideas because different people need
information in different depth.

iii) Tax: Tax is not levied on information generation or its consumption; so it is not a commodity.

iv) Publicity: Before buying any other product or goods people know ahead of time what they are going
to buy, but in case of information one will not be able to know the whole thing before buying it. If one
knows the whole thing, then they may not feel the need to buy it.

v) Expandable and Compressible: Information increases with use, it can be expanded and compressed
i.e it can be summarized, integrated, etc.

vi) Non Materiality Problem: The non-materiality of information creates several problems in respect of
measurement, appropriateness, ownership, impact, costing, etc.

Information does not possess each and every property of other general resources or commodities
but at the same time we also should not expect it to be. The people at large are favouring the view that
information is a resource and a commodity.

INFORMATION TRANSFER CYCLE

Information Transfer Cycle: Cycle means a series of events that are regularly repeated in the same
order. Transfer of information from its generation to its end user becomes possible through many
processes. These processes are also regularly repeated in the same order. These processes complete a
cycle, which is called Information Transfer Cycle (ITC). The ITC comprises generation, collection,
storage, communication and retrieval.

a) Information Creation / Generation: Information is created with the happening of incidents and
activities of humans. If an activity or an incident does not happen, no information is created. Information
is mostly created by research and development programmes, government activities, survey and census of
population, business and industrial organizations etc. and presented in format by author, scientist,
researcher, editor, writer, poets, novelists, dramatists, etc. Over the web, information is produced by the general
people irrespective of their background and is not restricted only to academics such as scholars, scientists, etc.

b) Information Production and Dissemination: It is the mass production of knowledge through

publishing companies or others that will help the mass distribution of knowledge in some physical or
electronic form. Previously the information had been disseminated in the form of book. Many
conventional and non conventional, printed and non printed sources of information are nowadays
available which are different in shape, size, type and format. Over the web, the production is accelerated
by posting the information electronically over some kind of websites. It speeds up the transfer of
information globally at a rapid rate instead of taking months or years to get published on paper.

c) Information Storage, Organization, Retrieval and Communication: The storage is the process by
which the information described and presented in the documents are stored. Information is collected and
stored by libraries, documentation centers, information analysis centers, data banks, data centres, etc.
Computer has been accepted as a boon for storing of information. It can store a huge amount of
information in the form of database. Besides, the computer, disks and CDROMs are the newly developed
and very significant tools of storing information.

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i) Organization is how that representation of knowledge is found among others of its kind. In the library
environment, the classification and catalogue, shelf list, various kinds of guides, etc facilitate the retrieval
function. All these tools are equipped with controlled vocabularly. In the computer environment,
organization is facilitated by databases, search engines, etc. Knowledge is individual and the users
determine its usefulness; so keyword and natural language searching in computer environment is more attractive .

ii) Retrieval is a process of getting information from the collection of a library, for providing answer to
the queries of the users, etc.

iii) Communication is the process of transmission of information from one place to another, from the
creator of information to its users. It is necessary for the best use of the same. It is the process of social
exchange. In the library environment, communication of information can be made through telephone,
CAS services, SDI services, teleconferencing, e-mail, etc. Sometimes the publisher also brings different
kinds of information sources to the notice of the user community.

d) Information Diffusion and Utilization: Diffusion is viewed as a more targeted flow of information to
a particular segment of society. The diffusion of information should find its way to people who actually
need it instead of targeting the people who will use it for their own benefit.

Utilization is the adoption and implementation of the knowledge by the user. Information is
needed by each and every person of modern society for some purpose or the other. When information is
consumed by one person it gives new dimension to his knowledge. This knowledge when he applied to
some other purposes it gives birth to new information. Thus the information cycle is continuum in nature.

e) Information Preservation and Destruction: The different kinds of libraries, archives are trying to
preserve information in different format. Over web, the Internet archive and the cached page of search
engines are serving some purpose in this regard.

The information that is less frequently accessed or has met its assigned retention periods may be
considered for relocation to an archive. Then from the archive, it needs to be weeded at some time or
other by means of appropriate procedure for the content.

The meaning of information cycle relates to that unit of knowledge from where the information is
generated and then transmitted to the users with the state of various processes. The whole process of
information from its creation to its use is called the information cycle.

ROLE OF INFORMATION
Role of Information: From the primitive days of human civilization to the present day information has
always been a component of growth and development and improvement of the living standard. Nowadays,
the information has come to occupy the central position to be reckoned as the driving force for all human
development. It is clearly interlinked with the growth and development in economic, political, social,
occupational, cultural and other sectors of the society. Information and knowledge have become the
principal generator of wealth in the form of educational institutions, research and development
establishment, scientific and technological centres and other similar knowledge oriented bodies.

The impact of information and knowledge is seen in a number of human activities centering on
information. Some of these which will give a cursory account of societal changes taking place in a few
sectors are as follows:

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a) Education: Education is the process of acquiring general and specialized knowledge by means of
study and learning that develop intellectual power of reasoning and judgment. At no point of time in the
life of a person does education really terminate and in real sense it is a continuous process. While IT
provides easy and effective access to the different types of educational kits, information is the life blood
of education. It is the essential ingredient in new ideas, in course content and curriculum development,
and in the creation of material and methods of technology and learning. Students need information for
pursuing academic studies; teachers need information for teaching their students.

b) Research and Development: Research is a never ending spiral activity. It aims to provide solution to
problems. The inputs as well as the output of research are information. So information is the life blood for
research and development. The quality of information content alone will determine the success or growth
and development of research. Researchers need information on a continuous basis for conducting research
works.

c) Management and Decision Making: We are living in a world of change. We face complexities,
uncertainties and risks unknown to our predecessors. The list of activities in our private life and its
associated problems are virtually endless. In each of these personal activities decisions are required to be
taken and information is needed to support the decision. People need information to make the best
possible decision. People with information are likely to have better career opportunities and to be better
equipped to make personal decision.

Information provides a means of improving the management of enterprises and services of all
kinds. Information is needed by the decision makers in organizations. A common need basic to all
decision makers is an understanding of the purpose of the organization, that is, its policies, programmes,
plans and goals. The decisions to be made in an organization do vary and the information needs also vary.
A manager needs information to choose the possible alternatives presented in terms of ranges of values of
particular attributes. Information provides a wider knowledge base for the solution of any problem; it
gives new alternatives and approaches to the solution of technical problems and opinions for minimizing
future fault. It improves effectiveness and efficiency of technical activities in the production and service
sector. So information is used for better decision making in all sectors and at all levels of responsibilities.

Governmental officials of different levels need information for decision making. They need
census, weather and other related information. Legislators need information of different types to argue a
point on the floor of the legislature.

d) Daily Life of a Person: Naturally, living today is quite different from what life was about a generation
ago. Nowadays people in different situations require information on a subject in different forms and with
different emphasis and different depth of explanation. An ordinary person in his daily life needs to have
access to information on many of his daily activities. It may pertain to the quality, availability or cost of a
number of things like articles of foods, health care, education, entertainment, travel, social security, etc.
One may need information on cooking, gardening, house decoration and maintenance, and a host of other subjects.
In private life one needs information to organize vacation activities, to make intelligent purchases, fertilize a lawn,
soup up an engine, prune a shrub, groom a pet, select a garment, vote for a candidate, choose a doctor or lawyer,
protest a tax increase, evaluate career opportunities, pick an investment, select a course, make a trip, plan meals and
so on. The list of activities in a private life is virtually endless.

e) Business and Industry: Information and knowledge are getting their appropriate place in enterprises
that are not static, because it is increasingly being recognized today that external information on market,
competitors, social and political environment, government regulations and trade and tariffs etc. are
invaluable if an enterprise is to thrive. It is only due to the central role of information that business and
industries are day by day inclined to invest in R & D to generate new knowledge which would ultimately

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provide them an edge over their competitors.

In business sector, information helps in telemarketing, better financial management, customer

service, training, sales, product development, market intelligence, looking for customers, etc.

In industry, the types of information needed are not limited to production, but cover all aspects of
industrial activity. The major types are: identification of product, determination of technical and economic
feasibility including the potential for use of indigenous resources; outlets for disposal of waste either as
saleable by-products or for further processing, market or marketing, etc.

f) Scientific Development: The increase in population has resulted in mounting social pressure for
increased production, but as population increases, natural and near natural commodities start depleting. So
there is an urgent need for exploitation of new resources, creation of artificial commodities. All these
developments are impossible without the use of proper information and immediate use of new scientific
discoveries.

Air transportation, the concept of global village, satellite communication, nuclear energy,
exploitation of outer space, improvement in agriculture, health, environment, etc are some of the results
due to exclusive use of information in the field of science and technology.

g) Government: Information improves the capacity of a country to take advantage of the existing
knowledge and ―know how‖ to achieve success in various fields. So, the governments of almost all the
countries of the world are the largest consumers of information and knowledge. In their commitment and
responsibility to create a welfare state, they need information and knowledge on every conceivable
subject. They collect, organize and disseminate statistical data on all its activities which constitute the
most important and vital information resources for their planning and later implementation and execution.

All ministries of the government need up to date and timely information on the overall
management of the country‘s resources and general administration. Management Information System
(MIS), Decision Support System (DDS) are widely used in planning and policy making.

h) Socio-Economic Development: The role of information in socio-economic development can be

viewed from the following angles

i) Entertainment: With the viewer‘s complete control over programmes, interactive television (watch a missed
TV show).

ii) Health Care: With information sharing and even diagnosis and treatment by means of interactive video link-up.

iii) News: With consumers able to point and click to select information for personally tailored news items.

iv) Home Shopping: With a 24 hours a day, virtual global mall accessed by two way video and digitized sales.

v) Security: Electronic fingerprint, retina scanning, voice recognition, DNA finger print, signature dynamics.

Today, information has become a great source of power as a principal driving force for the acquisition of
wealth, political strength and more knowledge etc. Information-rich countries of today are becoming even more
powerful than the colonial powers of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, on account of their expertise in
creating new information and knowledge and exploiting them for their advantage. Information is not only the
source of power but also an effective power in itself if released in appropriate time.

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COMMUNICATION
Communication: The term ―communication‖ comes from Latin word ―communis‖ meaning common.
When we communicate with someone we try to establish a certain degree of commonness with the
communicate. Eg. By sharing some information, an idea or an attitude. Communication therefore refers to
transmission or exchange of information, message, etc. Communication takes place when people send or
receive message of various kind. So information and communication are two interlinked term in the sense
that without information communication is not possible.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as ―the imparting, conveying or exchange
of ideas and knowledge whether by speech, writing or signs‖.

The Columbia Encyclopaedia of Communication defines it as ―the transfer of thought and

message as contrasted with transportation of goods and person‖.

In ordinary usage the verb ―to communicate‖ means

i) To exchange thoughts, feelings, information;

ii) To make known;

iii) To make common;

iv) To have a sympathetic relationship.

In the noun form ―communication‖ refers to

i) The exchange of symbols, common message, information;

ii) The process of exchange between individual through a common system of symbols;

iii) The art of expressing ideas and

iv) The science of transmitting information.

In the popularly understood sense of the term communication refers to anything from a face to
face conversion between two persons, conversion over the telephone, and correspondence between
friends. The transmission of programmes on live television are broadcast via communication satellite i.e
received by millions of people.

1. Elements of Communication: The communication process requires at least three elements.

a) Source: The source is a point at which message originates. It can be an individual or an organization, a
human being or a machine.

b) Channel: The message may be in audible, visual, or tactile form as any signal capable of meaningful
interpretation.

c) Destination: The destination or recipient, which again can be a person or a group of person, is in the
final link of the communication chain. Destination is the interceded target of the message.

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2. Media and Forms of Communication of Information: There is a distinct difference between
communication of information and communication of commodities, energy, heat, etc. i.e one‘s own stock
of information or knowledge is not going to diminish by communicating to others. Thus the ownership of
information may multiply but not change hands like a physical commodity. Further one can communicate
information which he does not have, eg. about one‘s own behaviour.

Quite often two or more channels may be used together for effective communication and the channels of
dissemination may form a series of alternative routes, through the total communication system.

Communication is a process of transferring message from one point to another. The four element
of any communication process are the reader, the medium, the receiver and the feedback. In Library and
Information Science several models of communication are used in the dissemination of information
through e-mail, post, telephone line, through oral verbal communication, videoconferencing etc.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPR)

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Like other forms of property, intellectual property is also an asset
which can be bought, sold, exchanged or gratuitously given away. Owners of intellectual property also
have the right to prevent the unauthorized use or sale of their property.

According to The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) <http://www.wipo.int/>,

―Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and
symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce‖.

Intellectual property is divided into two categories: Industrial property, which includes inventions
(patents), trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications of source; and Copyright, which
includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays, films, musical works, artistic works
such as drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs. Rights related to
copyright include those of performing artists in their performances, producers of phonograms in their
recordings, and those of broadcasters in their radio and television programmes.

According to The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) <http://www.wipo.int/>

―Copyright and related rights protect the rights of authors, performers, producers and broadcasters, and
contribute to the cultural and economic development of nations. This protection fulfils a decisive role in
articulating the contributions and rights of different stakeholders and the relation between them and the
public. The purpose of copyright and the related rights is twofold: to encourage a dynamic creative
culture, while returning value to creators so that they can lead a dignified economic existence, and to
provide widespread, affordable access to content for the public.‖

Copyright is basically the individual right of an author to dispose of his / her work in return for
remuneration. According to Christopher Scarles, ―subject to certain exception, it is ownership of and right
of control over all possible ways of reproducing a work‖.

1. International Context

a) Berne Convention: The international convention for protection of literary and artistic works was first
signed at Berne on 9th September, 1886, which later on came to be known as ―Berne Convention‖. It
guaranteed protection for the life of the author plus fifty years after his death. The convention was revised
and amended more than seven times.

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 Berne remained essentially European. It could not attract the U. S. A. So, most civilized states
except the U. S. became signatories to it.

b) Universal Copyright Convention (UCC): In the early 1950s UNESCO set about devising a union
that would combine Berne and Montivideo convention and the outcome was the establishment of
Universal Copyright conventions in 1952. U. S. joined it in 1955.

Paris Revision of 1971: In 1971 both Berne and UCC was revised. This is what goes by the name of
Paris revision of 1971. This has made some realistic concession to the developing countries with regard to
reproduction and translation of material having great educational value.

c) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO): The World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It is dedicated to developing a balanced and
accessible international intellectual property (IP) system, which rewards creativity, stimulates innovation
and contributes to economic development while safeguarding the public interest. WIPO was established
by the WIPO Convention in 1967 with a mandate from its Member States (Till 2009 there were 184
Member States, i.e. over 90 percent of the countries of the world) to promote the protection of IP
throughout the world through cooperation among states and in collaboration with other international
organizations. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland.

2. Indian Context: The earliest statutory law in India concerning copyright was the Indian copyright of
1847 which was passed by the Governor General of India. In 1911 the law of copyright was codified in
England and was made applicable to all Majesty‘s dominions including India. The Governor General of
India enacted the Indian Copyright act of 1914 to make some modification to the provision of the 1911
Act. The copyright of 1914, granted copyright to an author for the whole of his life and fifty years after his death.

The provision of the copyright act of 1914 were again modified after independence and the
copyright act which is in force even today was passed in the Indian Parliament in 1957 and known as
Copyright Act, 1957. The copyright act of India of 1957 had been amended in August 1983 with the
specific purpose of incorporating the provisions of the Paris text of 1971 of the Berne convention
concerning the grant of compulsory licenses for translations and reproduction of foreign work for
educational purposes. The copyright was further amended in 1984 in order to overcome the problem of
wide spread piracy in India. The act was further modified in 1992 and 1994 (No. 38 of 1994). The
Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1999 officially published in: The Gazette of India, 30/12/1999, No. 49. In
accordance with the copyright act of 1957, a copyright office and a copyright board were set up in New
Delhi under the auspices of the Government of India of which the copyright board serves as a civil court
with the power of adjudicating disputes arising out of claims and counter claims. The copyright board
serves as a civil court and its judgment can be challenged only in the high court of the area and in no other
lower court.

The legislation covering intellectual property right in India are

i) Communication: Communication Bill, 2000;

ii) Copyright: The Copyright Act of 1957 (last amended in 1994);

iii) Designs: The Design Act 1911;

iv) Information Technology: Information Technology Act 2000;

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v) Patent: The Patent Act 1970 (changes bought in 1994);

vi) Trade Mark: The Trade Merchandise Mark Act 1958, etc.

India signed the Berne convention in 1886 when it was part of the British Empire. India also
signed the Universal Copyright convention in 1952 of its own choice as a free country.

3. Intellectual Freedom: According to American Library Association, every individual has the right to
both seek and receive information from all points of view without restriction. It provides for free access to
all expressions of ideas through which any and all sides of a question, cause or movement may be
explored. Intellectual freedom encompasses the freedom to hold, receive, and disseminate ideas.

According to Canadian Library Association, the fundamental right is to have access to all
expressions of knowledge, creativity and intellectual activity, and to express their thoughts publicly.

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION POLICY AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL

Library and Information Policy at the National Level: A Policy is a statement of commitment to a
generic course of action necessary for the attainment of a goal which in our case is library development. A
policy is conditioned on the political, economic, social, and cultural milieu. Policies are value in a number
of ways such as they standardise activities, facilitate decision making, minimise confusion, coordinate the
activities of various units, conserve time in training etc. Policy statements are to be formulated at the
institutional, regional, state, national and international level. It comprehends a set of basic issues which
are infrastructure development, information services development, utilisation of new technologies,
manpower development and other general recommendations. Many countries have adopted a library
policy which helped them undertake library development with a certain commitment and assurance.
Policies in certain sectors of the national economy have also had their implications for library
development.

1. Meaning and Definition: The concept of Library and Information Policy is new. Here, we are going
to discuss, how the concept of ―Policy‖ originated in the field of Library and Information Science.
Today‘s society is known as an Information Society which require information at every step. In modern
society, information is treated as a very important source in all areas of development whether it is social,
political, economic, cultural etc. The progress of any nation depends on the information generation,
disseminating it to the users, and putting it to work. Lack of information is going to adversely affect the
development. It is because of the ever increasing demand for information from all walks of life that the
need of a policy is felt. And since, this information is being imparted or disseminated via the Libraries,
Documentation Centres, Information Analysis and Consolidation Centres etc. they are the means for
collecting, storing, and organizing information. Thus, the policy had to be formulated on Libraries and
Information Systems. In almost all countries, national governments are the major investors and
disseminators of information. As such, each country should evolve a national policy of its own taking into
consideration the developments at national and international level.

In the context of India, a National Information Policy must necessarily be governed by and form
an integral and harmonious part of the social, economic, educational, research and development and other
related policies, which get formulated at various stages of our national development. Further, the
Information Policy needs to be properly made compatible with the Five Years National Plans of the
country.

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 ―A National Information Policy is a set of decisions taken by a government, through appropriate
laws and regulations, to orient the harmonious development of information transfer activities in order to
satisfy the information needs of the company. A National Information Policy needs provision of necessary
means or instruments such as financial, personnel, institutional for concrete implementation‖. (UNISIST:
II Main Working Document).

A National Information Policy would ensure access to professional and specialized knowledge at
the global level as the development of any country directly depends upon the planning and policies
followed by the government of the country.

2. Library Information Policy at National Level for India: Libraries in our country function under a
variety of ownerships and jurisdiction. There is generally no coordination in their development. The
progress of libraries has been very slow because of the following factors:

a) Neglect of library services during the British period

b) Resource constraint in the post-Independence era

c) Sole dependence on Government funds for library development.

Due to above said reasons and many more, the need for an integrated library system or policy for
India was felt and in this direction, first step was taken by Dr. S. R. Ranganathan, Father of Library
Science, in 1944. He suggested that ―library edifice of postwar India should be so planned that primary
libraries are attached to regional centres, regional centres to provisional central libraries, these again to the
national centre libraries of other countries and international centres‖.

The Government of India made various attempts to improve library services. Under the National
Library of India Act, 1948, the Imperial Library was renamed to National Library. In 1951, Delhi Public
Library was set up. Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC) was established in 1951.
Five Year Plans included funnels for their improvement. In 1957, the Advisory Committee suggested
library services ―free to every citizen of India.‖

National Policy on Library Information System was formulated by the Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Library Foundation (RRRLF) which was set up in 1972 and also by Indian Library Association.

The Department of Culture, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India,

appointed a Committee of senior library scientists and other specialists with Prof. D. P. Chattopadhyaya
as Chairman, to prepare a draft document on the National Policy on Library and Information System in
October 1985. The Committee completed its assignment and submitted a draft document to the
Government on May 31, 1986. The draft policy document consists of 10 chapters.

To implement the recommendations of the committee, Government appointed an Empowered

Committee under the chairmanship of Prof. D.P. Chattopadhyaya, in October 1986. The committee
submitted its report in March 1988.

The recommendations of the committee are:

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a) Constitution of National Commission on Libraries.

b) Creation of All India Library Services.

c) Active role of Central Government in Public Library Development in State.

d) Public Library Development has also to be supported by agencies involved in education, social and
rural development.

e) National Library of India, Calcutta should be strengthened.

f) Development of system of national libraries.

3. Salient Features: A number of features that constitute the National Information Policy are given
below:

i) To establish, maintain, and strengthen the free public libraries. A network of libraries would result with
a district library being the apex library in district, with public libraries at city, town and village levels.
These would, then be part of the national network with each state having its own library legislation.

ii) Every school or college established should have a library and a qualified librarian. The policy states
that science libraries are essential part of education. There must be a state level agency for proper
development of school libraries of the state and a national agency for coordination at the national level.
The policy gives University Grants Commission, the authority for college and university libraries and
suggests that all these institutes form a network and share the resources by signing Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU).

iii) Expansion of national, regional, sectoral, and local levels of NISSAT (National Information System
for Science and Technology). The policy recommends that national, regional, sectoral, and local levels of
NISSAT scheme should be further strengthened and expanded.

iv) Similar systems are organized in Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages.

v) Development of information system and data banks in different fields.

vi) Parent bodies should be committed to provide support and infrastructure for libraries.

vii) The policy recommends for a system of national libraries consisting of The National Library at
Calcutta, National Depository Libraries, National Subject Libraries and National
Documentation/Information Centres, National Databases of Manuscripts, etc. A National Library Board
should be set up by the National Library of India for effective inter-relation among all these national
libraries and also between libraries, archives and museums.

viii) Manpower, planning and development. The policy also recommends specialized information
personnel who could apply modern management techniques to Information Services.

ix) Library legislation and regulation of information flow. To meet effectively, with the changing
information needs of society, the policy recommends a national library act to be enacted and
supplemented by model library legislation at the state level.

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x) Use of technology. Information revolution is undisputably caused by the unprecedented advances in
technology. These advancements have made accessibility to world information and knowledge possible,
almost from any part of the world. All these developments in information technology have far reaching
implications for National Information Policy. It recommends the access and use of technology for
enhancing the existing services and to exploit and utilise the available resources to its optimum.

xi) Removal of communication barriers. Information, being an important resource, any barrier in its free
flow should be removed for easy access and maximum use.

xii) National network of libraries. The National Information Policy recommends the setting of a National
Commission for Libraries and Information System by the Government. This would take charge of the
national network of libraries, within which, would be accommodated libraries of different levels from the
rural society to the modern society, from the school to the research organisations. The policy states that
the necessary financial support 6 to 10% of the education budgets for systems will be made available by
the Government of India and state of governments.

4. Other Library and Information Policies: UNESCO has been advocating the adoption of a National
(Science) Information Policy by all the countries of the world. In this connection, UNESCO held some
regional meetings and seminars in India. NISSAT, which is the focal point in India for the
UNISIST/UNESCO programme, is expected to take interest in framing information policy. The Society
for Information Science in India has done considerable spade work for preparing the National (Science)
Information Policy.

Even, in India or other nations, there are various Associations formulated at state and district
levels for e.g. Library Association for Chandigarh and so on, contributing in formulating and
implementing the Library and Information Policies for the betterment of the Nation as a whole.

The policies which have been adopted by Government in a few other sectors have direct impact on
Library field such as National Policy on Education 1986, National Book Policy 1986, Scientific Policy
Resolution 1958, Technology Policy 1983, Information (Communication) Policy, National Knowledge
Commission, 2005.

The primary objective of a national policy is to achieve a progressive upliftment of the

socioeconomic development of the country through the provision of access to and availability of
information and knowledge with speed and efficiency to all those who are involved in activities for
national development. Planning and programming endeavours are essential to aim at a systematic and
assured development. The formulation of a National Policy on Library and Information System are epoch-
making measures in the library movement in the country. If the policy recommendations are faithfully
implemented, a new phase in library development in India towards a far better performance and
achievement is sure to come about. A National Library Policy is also necessary to have a commitment to
provide library service to all the people as it is suggested by the Advisory Committee. The Five Year
Plans have given a great deal of attention to library development and informatics and the Ninth Plan has
made appropriate provision. If implemented rigorously library development will get assured success.

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LIBRARY RESOURCE SHARING AND NETWORKING
Library Resource Sharing and Networking: The sharing of library resources started with the concept
of inter library loan, under which a library can get a document from another library on loan for a certain
period. It was followed by the term ―Library Cooperation‖, but now in its revised and improved form it is
called as ―Resource Sharing‖. Today, it is called ―Library Network‖ or ―Library Consortia‖, which is one
of the cooperative ways of sharing online resources. The inter library loan means sharing of the resources
of one library by the other libraries on demand, when they are needed by its user i.e sharing one‘s assets
with others.

Library Cooperation / Resource Sharing / Networking / Consortia all denote a mode of

cooperation among a number of libraries whereby the library collection, function or services are shared by
a number of libraries. According to Allen Kent the goals are to provide a positive net effect on the library
user in terms of access to more material or services and or on the library budget in terms of providing
level service at less cost, increased service at level cost or much more service at less cost than if
undertaken individually.

1. Library Cooperation: Library cooperation is a social phenomenon by which libraries are mutually
engaged to increase the service capabilities of a single library and by which the librarians extend their
option to serve clients. It includes sharing materials or function or services that constitute a library
system. A material includes both documentary and non documentary forms. The function covers the
activities concerning the acquisition, processing, storage, etc.; services include techniques, activities and
procedures employed to establish contact between the document and its consumer i.e. lending, reference,
documentation, translation, etc. Library cooperation also can be looked upon as a broader term than
resource sharing or networking or consortia.

2. Types of Library Cooperation: Based on the geographical area covered, library cooperation may be of

i) International Level: E.g. Universal Availability of Publication (UAP) programme introduced by IFLA,
Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC)];

ii) National Level: E.g. National Social Science Documentation Center (NASSDOC);

iii) Regional Level and

iv) Local Level.

Based on the functional area covered Library Cooperation may be

i) Sharing of documentary resources (cooperative acquisition, cooperative processing, cooperative storage

for the documents which are less used, cooperative delivery system ie inter library lending, development
of network, developing consortia).

ii) Sharing of manpower resources (arrangement for the cooperative staff training and such).

ii) Sharing of other library facilities or equipment (for eg. sharing of the computer and reprographic
equipment that cannot be afforded by small libraries due to their high cost), and sharing of finance.

Based on subject basis it may be general or subject based.

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3. Kinds of Library Cooperation: Following are some of the kinds of library cooperation.

i) Co-operative Acquisition: The process of acquisition involves selecting, placing orders to vendors,
passing of bills, payments, etc. All these activities can be minimized by cooperative acquisition. This will
also result in saving the cost, earning of a larger discount, saving time and clerical labor.
The INSDOC, New Delhi, initiated Centralized Acquisition of Periodicals (CAP) through which it
is acquiring foreign periodicals for about 30 CSIR laboratories.
ii) Cooperative Processing: If each library, within the network of resources sharing, processes a book through the
computer then the job of cataloguing can be shared by all the libraries within the network in the form of-
- Printed Catalogue Card Service: In this process some libraries, usually of national status, undertake the
responsibility of producing printed catalogue cards which are available on a payment basis for other
libraries. The Library of Congress and BNB are producing printed catalogue card service.
- Prenatal Cataloguing / Cataloguing In Publication (CIP): The term prenatal cataloguing was used by Dr.
S. R. Ranganathan. Prenatal technical work involves completion of technical work by the national central
library of a country on each book before its release by the publisher.
The Cataloguing in Publication (CIP) programme was initiated by Library of Congress (LOC),
USA in 1971 with 27 participating publishers. The process of classification and cataloguing of a
publication is done before the book is released. The cataloguing data provided by the LOC is printed on
the reverse of the title page which helps the individual libraries in copying down the data on their
catalogue card.
- Centralized Classification and Cataloguing: Centralized classification and cataloguing service of Online
Computer Library Centre (OCLC), and Machine Readable Catalogue (MARC) project of the Library of
Congress are remarkable in this direction. Online cataloguing, retrospective conversion using databases
also lead to economy with quality.
iii) Cooperative Storage: Every library has limited space for storage of books. So the old and less used
books are weeded out regularly to provide space for new acquisition. Moreover, the maintenance of the
unused or little used books not only consumes valuable space of the library but also involves money and
labour. So, by resources sharing a centralized cooperative storage of less used books can be achieved.
The material which is not in active use may be stored on a cooperative basis at a central dormitory.
With the initiative of NASSDOC (ICSSR), New Delhi and Jawarharlal Nehru University, Delhi an Inter
Library Resource Centre (ILRC) was established in New Delhi in 1975. Some 38 libraries
of Delhi deposited their less used serial and government documents at the centre.

LIBRARY MOVEMENT IN INDIA

Library Movement in India: The first libraries were only partly libraries, and stored most of the
unpublished records, which are usually viewed as archives. The archeological as well as literary evidence
(written by Chiness travellers in India) make it clear that writing and reading of manuscripts were
regularly practiced in ancient period since the fourth century B.C. to the sixth century after Christ. This
must have led to the growth and development of collection of manuscripts in important centers of
learning. The important library of that period was that of Nalanda University of Bihar in the fourth
century AD. The library was said to be in three grandest buildings, the area of which was called ―Drama
Ganja‖ meaning mast of religion. The other important academic library of that period was Vikramsila,
Odantapuri, Somapuri, Jaggadal, Mithila, Vallabhi, Kanheri, etc. During that period there was a
considerable activity in South India too, and there was a tradition about the libraries in that period known
as sangam age.
The Buddhist of India laid special emphasis on the writing of manuscripts and maintaining their
collection. The Jains and Hindus also made immense contribution in the field of learning. They patronized
education and literary activities, established innumerable institution called Upasrayas
and Temple College.

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 Acharya Nagarjuna, the founder of Mahayana Buddhism is known to have maintained a library on
the top floor of the university building. It was also said that Taxila has a rich library.
a) Medieval Period: The medieval cycle may be roughly taken to have ended with the seventeenth
century. It was during the ascending phase of this cycle that the giant intellectual and spiritual leaders
such as Sankara, Ramanuja and Madheva flourished.
i) Personnel Libraries: From the earliest times the kings and nobles of India patronized education and
encouraged writing of manuscripts and their preservation. Even the princes of small states maintained
their manuscripts libraries. The tradition was continued till the nineteenth century. The emperors of
Timuride dynasty were patrons of learning. With the exception of Aurangzeb all the early Mughal rulers
extended their support to art, music and literature. The libraries also made remarkable progress during
their times. Humayun converted a pleasure house in purana quila in Delhi into a library. Akbar maintained
an ―imperial library‖; he was also instrumental in introducing reforms in the classification and storage of
books. Jahangir is said to have maintained a personnel library which moved with him wherever he went.
ii) Public Libraries: In the seventeenth and the eighteenth century, the development of libraries received
an impetus due to rise of European settlement in India. From 1690, Calcutta began to develop as one of
the principal English settlement, when a large number of British began to settle there. Subsequently, the
circulation and subscription libraries came into being.
The East India Company established the Fort St. David library in 1707 at Cuddalore. In the year
1709, the society for promotion of Christian Knowledge sent out a circulating library to Calcutta, the first
of its kind in India. Subsequently, a number of such libraries were established in India, the notable among
them were Fort St. George library (1714), East India Company‘s library, Bombay (1715), John Andrews
circulating library at Fort William, Calcutta (1770), The Calcutta Circulating library (1787), etc.
b) Period of Modern Cycle (till Nineteenth Century)
i) Public Libraries: The role of Mughal rulers and missionaries in establishment of some libraries also
find their way to modern cycle. Some of the scattered manuscripts of the early periods have been
collected and preserved in many modern manuscripts libraries. These are found in many states in India.
Those of Baroda, Banaras, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Mysore, Poona, Tanjavur and Trivandrum are well
known.
The year 1808 is considered an important period during which the then government
of Bombay initiated a proposal to register libraries which were to be given copies of books published
from ―funds for the encouragement of literature‖. This has been the first attempt to register the libraries
and assist them with literature by the government.
In the early 19th century John Andrew‘s circulating library at Fort William, Calcutta (established in
1770) was converted into a public library. A few public libraries started appearing sporadically here and
there during the same period in this country. The notable among them are Asha Granthalaya, Waltair
(1800), Calcutta Literary Society‘s Library (1818), United Services Library, Poona (1818), Raghunandan
Library, Puri (1821), Bombay General Library (1830), etc.
In August 1835, the Calcutta public library was established. It was meant to serve the needs of all
ranks and classes without distinction. In 1860, a small library was established by Jean Mitchel
in Madras as a part of the Museum. It was opened to the public in 1896. It was named Connemera Public
Library, this library can be claimed to be the first true public library, only a nominal refundable deposit
was required. In 1948, it becomes State Central library.
In 1867, the Government of India enacted the Press and Registration of Books Act (XXV) under
which the publisher of a book was supposed to deliver free, to the provincial government concerned, one
copy of the book and one or two more copies, if the provincial government so desired, to be transmitted to
the central government.
In 1876, Khuda Baksh Oriental public library (Patna) was established. Maulvi Muhammod Baksh
Khan, on his death left a collection of 1500 manuscripts. It formed the nucleus of the library. In 1891, the
library was opened to the public.
The imperial library was also established at Calcutta in 1891. Lord Curzon, the viceroy

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of India promulgated the imperial library act 1902, which is based on Registration of books act of 1867,
amalgamating Calcutta public library with imperial library. Soon after independence the Government of
India passed the National Library Act in 1948 following which the imperial library was renamed as the
National library of India.
By the end of nineteenth century, all the provincial capitals as well as many of the district towns,
especially in the three presidencies (Bombay, Calcutta and Madras) had so called public libraries. Even
princely states such as Indore and Travancore-Cochin had public libraries in their capital. However, the
masses in general did not take full advantage of these institutions.
ii) Academic Libraries: The first college to be started in this country is the Fort William College in
1800. Sir John Colville in 1857, introduced the bill to establish universities in India. In the same year
Lord Delhousie, then the Governor General of India, gives immediate consent to this bill. As a result, the
first three modern universities were started at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857 based on the patterns
of London University.
* Calcutta University Library: Calcutta University was the first to be established on January 24, 1857.
On February 24, 1869 Mr. Joy Kissen Mookherjee of Uttar para donated Rs. 5,000.00 to the University
for purchasing books for the library. The senate in the year 1872 succeeded in constructing a beautiful
building at a cost of Rs. 4, 34,697.00. This is the first and oldest university library that was established
in British India. In 1874, the library also started a collection of periodicals. In 1876-
77, Calcutta University library had a good collection of books with printed catalogue service to the user.
In 1934, a new library building was set up in the Calcutta University. In 1937, the Calcutta University
Library appointed the professionally qualified librarian, Dr. Nihar Ranjan Roy. He, for the first time
in India introduced the DDC and AACR rule for providing effective library services to the user.
* Madras University Library: The Madras University Library was opened in 1907. The government
of India gave a special grant of Rs. 1,00,000.00 to the library to develop its book collection. In 1924, Dr.
S. R. Ranganathan joined the Madras University Library as librarian. He was the first professionally
qualified librarian in Indian history. Due to his active involvement he was able to receive Rs. 6,000.00
and Rs. 10,00,000.00 in the year 1926. This was the first grant to be received from the government in the
history of the university libraries in India. As a result of this grant, the University Library that was in-
house at the Connemara Public Library since 1908, was shifted to the new location in 1936. Again five
well-trained reference librarians were appointed to provide special reference service to the user. This was
done for the first time in the Indian history.
* Bombay University Library: The Bombay University library was established very lately due to the
lack of donation. It was the university authorities of Bombay that offered a donation of Rs. 20,000.00 for
construction of library building. In 1931, a very special grant of Rs. 10,000 was given by Kikabhai and
Meneklen the sons of late Premchand Roy Chand. In 1939, the Central government provides a special
grant of Rs. 50,000.00 to the University of Bombay library to strengthen its collection.
* Punjab University Library: Punjab University was established in 1882 and in the year 1908 Punjab
University Library was opened.
* Banaras Hindu University Library: Banaras Hindu University was established in 1916. In 1926-27
the construction of the library was made by the handsome donation of Rs. 2,00,000.00 by the late Sir
Siyaji Rao, the Maharaja of Borada.
iii) Research Libraries: The Asiatic society of Bengal that was established at Calcutta in 1784 started
building up a good research library since its inception. The Asiatic Society of Bombay, founded in 1804,
also developed a good library. The first technical library to be founded in this country is the Victoria
Technical library at Nagpur in 1806. The Madras Literary Society had founded its library in 1812.
c) Twentieth Century
i) Role of Individual: The development of public libraries as a movement may be said to have started by
Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III, the ruler of Baroda state in 1906. During his visit to USA he was
impressed by the public libraries system in that country. In order to organize libraries along modern lines,
the Maharaja appointed an American librarian by name William Allenson Borden as curator of libraries of

146
his state. During his tenure of office that is in between 1910-13, Borden could organize a very good
network of free library services in the state. However, this example did not set a pace in the later
development due to lack of interest on the part of the state government. But the contribution made by
Maharaja Sayajirao III would be written in golden letters in the history of public library movement
in India.
The library movement in Baroda originated as the peoples movement under the leadership of
Motibhai Amin (a public leader) in the form of Mitra Mandal (Society of Friends) as early as 1906 which
received state patronage in 1960. Newton Mohan Dutta, curator of libraries at Baroda also did good work.
There has been a number of pioneers who made contribution to the library movement in Andhra
Pradesh. Out of them Sir Iyyanki Venkata Ramanayya holds a place of pride. From Bengal we have the
name of Monindra Dev Rai Mahashaya. Master Motilal (1876-1949), by his own effort and meagre
resource established Shri Sanmati Pustakalaya (a public library) in Jaipur in 1920. From Punjab we had
Sant Ram Bhatia, who played an important role in promoting the cause of public libraries in Punjab.
In Assam, the library movement at its true spirit was led by Late Kumudeshar Barthakur (1893-
8th November 1966), a retired Secondary School teacher under the brand name of Assam Library
Association.
The contribution of S.R. Ranganathan is unique and remarkable. He is regarded as the father of
Indian library movement. The idea of an integrated library system was first introduced by him at the first
―All Asia Educational Conference‖ held at Benerai in 1930. There he presented a model library act that
form the basis of the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka library legislation and as a whole the
subsequent library legislation in India.
ii) Role of Library Association and Organization: Library association also played a vital role in the
progress and development of library movement in India.
The Andhra Desa Library Association, founded in 1914, is the first of its kind in India. It started
the first full fledged professional periodical in 1925 under the title ―Indian Library Journal‖.
All Indian Library Association was also set up in 1920, but it could not do anything for libraries
and their development. By Dr. S. R. Ranganathan‘s effort Indian Library Association was set up in 1933
in its present form with its head quarter in Calcutta (Kolkata). The association published a quarterly
periodical named ABGILA.
Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF) was set up in 1972, on the occasion of the
bicentenary of Raja Rammohun Roy who raised the banner of revolt against obscurantism in the society
and devoted his life to fight against injustice. RRRLF is an autonomous organization of Dept of Culture,
Govt of India and it provides different types of grant to different public libraries.
Bengal Library Association (1925), Madras Library Association (1928), Punjab Library
Association (1929), Assam Library Association (Sadau Assam Puthibharal Sanga) (1938), etc. played
vital roles for the growth and development of public libraries in the respective states of origin.
iii) Role of Union and State Government
* First Five Year Plan (1951-56): The government of India in its first five year plan of educational
development includes the scheme of ―Improvement of Library Service‖. This scheme envisaged a
network of libraries spread all over the country. The proposal of setting up a National central library
at New Delhi was also made. During the first five year plan nine state governments i.e. Assam, Madhya
Pradesh, Punjab, etc. decided to set up state central libraries.
* Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961): Under the second five year plan the government
of India allocated about Rs. 140 lakhs for setting up a country wide network of libraries in 320 districts.
Under this plan, the ―Institute of Library Science‖ at University of Delhi was also established. The
refresher course on ―The public library and national development‖ on March 2, 1959 also started.
* Third Five Year Plan: During the third plan period besides the Institute of Library science, University
of Delhi other universities also upgraded the facilities for training library personnel and enhanced the
facilities for research in library science.
* Fourth Five Year Plan: The government of India announced on July 16, 1964, appointment of a 16

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member education commission to make a compressive review of the entire field of education and advice
the government on evolving a national pattern at all stages of education. The commission has formed
various sub committees to prepare report on various aspect of education including the libraries, which
plays a great role towards the betterment of libraries in India. During the fourth five year plan, the
government of India set up the Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation in 1972 to make the bicentenary
of the birth of Raja Rammohan Roy, the father of modern India.
iv) Role of UGC: The UGC gave a new life to the university and college libraries. It gave librarian a
status, prestige and a better life. The major commission and committees formed by UGC for the growth
and development of college and university libraries are

* Library Committee (1957): The UGC programme (Commission) appointed a committee under the
chairmanship of Dr. S. R. Ranganathan to advise on a wide range of subjects including the standards and
principles for the designing of library building, fitting and furniture, administration of university libraries,
training of librarianship etc.
* Review Committee (1961): In order to consider the question of improving and coordinating the
standards of teaching, and conducting research in the department of library science in Indian Universities
under the chairmanship of Dr. S. R. Ranganathan a review committee was formed in July 1961. The first
meeting of the committee was held on 15th July 1961, in which a questionnaire was finalized on the basis
of data supplied by the Indian Universities. In response to this questionnaire a note was prepared by the
UGC, which form the back bone of many developments in the subject of library science.
Other mentionable Committees and Commissions are
* Education Commission (1964): Chairman D. S. Kothari.
* Pal Committee (1970): Chairman A. B. Lal.
* Mehrotra Committee (1983): Chairman R. C. Mehrotra.
* Committee on National Network System for Universities (1988): Chairman Yash Pal.
* Curriculum Development Committee on LISc (1990).
* Work Flow Seminar: UGC organized a seminar on ―work flow‖ in libraries in New Delhi from March
4-7, 1959, Dr. C. D. Deshmukh, the then chairman of UGC, extended assistance to libraries for
constructing building and furniture as well as for the engaging the staff on a scale which is, relatively
speaking, larger than found in many other countries. The recommendations of the seminar were circulated
to the universities and colleges all over the country. These comments were considered by the commission
and were accepted.
* Revision of Pay Scale: Another great improvement in the history of universities and college libraries is
the revision of salary scales of professionally qualified librarian under the third five year plan.
v) Role of UNESCO: The great contribution of UNESCO towards the library profession in India is that it
gave it an international status. UNESCO for the first time started the first pilot project by establishing the
Delhi Public Library in October 1951. The main aim of this project was to provide information on the
problem of public library services for the parts of India in particular and for Asia in general.
The Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC) was set up in 1952 by the
government of India with technical assistance from UNESCO. In 1964, UNESCO assisted INSDOC again
in setting up its regional centre in Bangalore.
The second eminent step that the UNESCO took in this direction was the holding of a seminar on
the development of public libraries in Asia in Delhi from October 6-26, 1955. It was the first international
meeting on this subject to be organized in an Asian country. On the whole, the seminar was a great
success for the library profession in India.
Another UNESCO seminar which had far reaching effect on library profession in India was the
―Regional seminar on library development in South Asia‖. It was held in the University of Delhi library
from 3-14 October 1960. The most significant achievement of this seminar was the ―grading of staff‖,
―salary scales‖ and ―status of librarian‖.
Besides these, the UNESCO honored the Indian librarians by inviting them to advice on various

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library projects meant for the member country. The prominent among those are Dr. S. R. Ranganathan, B.
S. Kesavan, S. S. Saith and a few others.
Indian National Commission is the official agency of UNESCO, the National Information System
for Science and Technology (NISSAT) in Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) is the
focal point for UNISIST (PGI) and is also the coordinating centre for ASTINFO programme. NASSDOC
of ICSSR is the focal point for UNESCO supporting APINESS programme.

LIBRARY EXTENSION SERVICES

Library Extension Services: Extension work is defined as those activities which are undertaken with the
objective of reaching the group of people who might otherwise be unaware of the library services and
book stocks. Mc Colvin considers it as means ―to increase the number of readers and the volumes of work
and later to make the library more useful to more people‖. ALA Glossary of Library and Information
Science 1983 defines it as ―the provision by a library of materials and services (including advisory
services) to individuals and organizations outside its regular service area, especially to an area in which
library service is not otherwise available.
1. Objectives: The main objectives in providing extension services are
i) To convert a library into a social, cultural and intellectual centre;
ii) To convert non reader into reader, non user to user.
iii) To bring books and readers together.
iv) To inform those who do not use the library services and to attract them to those services.
v) To inform the reader of all the facilities offered by the library.
vi) To remind both the reader and the non reader of the library and its resources.
vii) As a means of publicity to enlist financial support or otherwise for the libraries.
2. Prerequisites for Extension Services
i) The library should have a good collection to support all extension activities.
ii) The trained and experienced staff is obligatory.
iii) The library should have a lecture hall, an exhibition hall for holding meeting of different groups.
iv) The library should possess audio-video equipment i.e. LCD projector, slide projector and mike
arrangement.
v) The librarian should be a good organizer, should understand the needs of the different categories of the
community and be knowledgeable about the collection of the library.
3. Forms of Extension Services: The Library extension services may be of internal or external type. The
internal extension service includes orientation programmes and the external extension service includes the
mobile library service, publicity programmes etc. Some of the main forms of extension services are as
follows
i) Library Orientation / Library Tour: Many potential library patrons do not know how to use a library
effectively. This can be due to the lack of early exposure, shyness, or anxiety and fear of displaying
ignorance. These problems led to the emergence of the library instruction movement, which advocated
library user education. Libraries inform the public of what materials are available in their collections and
how to access that information. The reference staff may orient the user either in formal way or informally
into the library system.
ii) Reading Circle, Study Circle: Persons with common interest may be bought together by the library to
a reading circle. Each reading circle should be given necessary facilities regarding the materials and a
suitable place to hold the meeting.
iii) Forming Friends of the Library Group: The Library can also think of forming ―Friends of the
Library Group‖; such group can assist the library through fund raising, volunteering, and advocacy. They
also hold book sales at the library.
iv) Reading to Illiterates: Reading hours for adults who cannot read should be arranged by public
libraries. Once they become neo-literates the public library then should take upon itself to see to it that

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they do not lapse into illiteracy again.
v) Meeting, Public Lectures and Talks: A library should organize public lectures and talks by eminent
persons and also by library staff.
vi) Celebration of Festival and Events and Arranging Cultural Programmes: It is a good idea to
arrange popular festivals and events in the library which may also arrange a drama, a puppet show, a
music concert, a film show, a magic show etc. Such cultural programmes can prove great attraction for the
community. On such occasions a book exhibition related to the programme should be arranged.
vii) Book Fair and Exhibition: At the time of talk, festival, fair, drama, etc. a book exhibition on the
relevant topic may be arranged. Exhibition on local history, local festivals, art, photograph and painting
can offer great opportunity to attract the attention of the community.
Periodical exhibition of books which have a bearing on topical theme enhances the chances of
books finding their readers. Occasional exhibitions of unused books might prove useful for the reader in
getting interested in books and using them.
viii) Mobile Service: Introduction of mobile library services to provide service to citizens without access
to central or branch libraries has devised an interesting variety of delivering methods. For offering this
service, the time for each locality is to be fixed and notified earlier.
ix) Publicity/ Propagenda: Propaganda through the newspaper, radio, television can be introduced.
x) Book by Mail and Telephone Request: The public library should also provide library lending service
through mail and Dial a book and Dial a fact method. A public library can also think of delivering books
to any home bound person on a request. Introduction of library website is also a good form of extension
service.
xi) Publication: Publications like annual report, reading guide, library magazine / bulletin and other
similar publications are also helpful.
* Library Bulletin: The library bulletin should not only list fresh books and some important articles
published in current issues of journals but should also give brief annotations wherever the content of new
material needs. The library bulletin can take the form of indexing or abstracting service or table of content
of periodicals received in the library or the list of recent publications or acquisition.
* Annual Report: The annual report is the official document of the library for recording the annual library
activities in totality. It is the statement of assessment and evaluation of all the departments of the library.
It is the survey of works carried out during the preceding year with summarization of the activities and
achievements of the library.

Libraries are the democratic institutions for the profit and enjoyment of all. So, in the recent years
much thought has been given to the best methods of popularizing the use of libraries. How does one
attract readers to libraries? How were it extend to all classes the facilities for using them? How can one
render the maximum amount of help to those who desire to use libraries and how to save the time of the
reader and library staff alike are some issues to be addressed.

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LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE EDUCATION IN INDIA
Library and Information Science Education in India: In the early 19th Century, young people learned
librarianship by working under the more experienced practitioners. But, gradually the tasks performed by
librarians became more complex and more dependent on technology. As a result, the study of library
science has moved from the work-setting to professional schools in Universities. The first ever library
school was started by Melvil Dewey in USA in 1887 at Columbia College (now Columbia University). In
1889 the programme moved to the New York State Library in Albany when Dewey became the Director
there. The success of Dewey‘s training programme and the publication of Training for Library Service, a
book by the economist Charles Williamson in 1923, led other universities, institutes of technology, and
large public libraries to establish their own professional degree programmes in library science.

1. First Course of Library Science in India: In India the existence of in service training was initiated by
John Macfarlane, the first librarian of the Imperial Library (Now National Library) at Calcutta from 1901-
06, as mentioned in some reports. In subsequent years, the training programme was opened to the staff of
other libraries and even those interested in librarianship who deal with books and other documents.

i) Baroda School: In 1911, Siyaji Rao Gaikwad (1862-1939), the ruler of Baroda state called the
American librarian Mr. William Allenson Borden (1853-1931), a disciple of Melvil Dewey to create a
cadre of men for the newly established libraries in the state library system. In 1912, he initiated the first
training school in library education in India. In 1913, another training class for working librarians of town
libraries was started. These classes continued even after the departure of Borden.
2. Certificate, Diploma, and Training Courses
i) Lahore School: In 1912, the Punjab University called another librarian Mr. Asa Don Dickinson (1876–
1960) from USA. He started the second educational course of three month duration in library science in
the year 1915. This happens to be the first university course in India. Mr. Asa Don Dickinson later
become the Librarian of Panjab University, Lahore (now Pakistan) during 1915–1916.
ii) Andhra Desa: The Andhra Desa Library Association (founded in 1914) started conducting ―training
classes for the library workers‖ at Vijayawadain 1920. The classes covered a module on running adult
education classes in addition to library technique.
iii) Mysore State: In 1920, a course for the training of librarians was conducted at Bangalore under the
―program of library development‖ initiated by the then Dewan of Mysore Mr. M. Visweswaraya.
iv) Madras Library Association: A summer school for college librarians and lecturers in charge of
college libraries in Madras was held in 1928 and repeated in 1930. The Madras Library Association also
organized a regular certificate course in library science from 1929. Then in 1931,
University of Madras took up the training course of MALA in 1931 and started offering the course on a
regular basis.
v) Andhra University: Andhra University started a certificate course in 1935, which was leter
abandoned.
vi) Imperial Library, Calcutta: The Imperial library, Calcutta started a training class under the
supervision of its librarian Mr. K. M. Asudulah in 1935. It was a full time regular Diploma course in
librarianship at the Imperial Library, Calcutta (now National Library, Kolkata). It continued till 1946.
3. Post Graduate Diploma
i) University of Madras: University of Madras, in 1937, introduced a one year Post Graduate Diploma
course in place of the certificate course of three month duration. This was the first P G Diploma in library
science in India.
ii) Banaras Hindu University: The second university to start a post graduate diploma course was
the Banaras Hindu University in 1942.
iii) Bombay University: University of Bombay initiated a diploma course similar
to Banaras Hindu University in 1943.
iv) Government of India‟s in-Service Training Course: A training course for the staff working in

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various government organizations was started in 1953. This course was recognized as equivalent to the
university diploma courses.

4. Degree Courses
i) Aligarh Muslim University: In 1947, Aligarh Muslim University started B.Lib. Science Course for the
first time in the country.
ii) University of Delhi: University of Delhi was the first university to establish a full fledged Department
of Library Science in 1946. It also instituted the first post diploma degree course in 1948. In 1949, the
structure was changed. The programme of Master of Library Science was introduced as a two year course
with the first year leading to Bachelor of Library Science.
In between 1956-59, six new LIS departments were established at Aligarh Muslim University, MS
University of Baroda, Nagpur University, Osmania University, Pune University and Vikram University.
iii) Madras University: In 1960, Madras University replaced its full time one year diploma course to
B.LibSc. Degree course. By mid 1960, many other universities had fallen in the line
of university of Madras following the recommendation of Review Committee Report of UGC in
introducing different degree courses.
iv) Government Polytechnique for Women: The Government polytechnique for women,
Ambala, Bangalore, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jullandhur, Rourkela started post matric (class X) diploma
courses of two years duration in late 1960s.
v) Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC): In 1962, Dr. S. R. Ranganathan established
Documentation Research and Training Centre at Bangalore. Previously DRTC courses were of 14 month
duration which was later on moved to two years programme.
vi) Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC): INSDOC conducted a short term
course for Asian Documentalists in 1963. In 1964, it started a one year post graduate course in
Documentation and Reprography leading to ―Associateship in Documentation and Reprography‖. In
1977, the programme was renamed as ―Associateship in Information Science (AIS)‖. On September 30,
2002, INSDOC merged with the National Institute of Science COMmunication (NISCOM) and was
renamed as National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR). At
present, it is conducting ―Courses in Information Science‖.
The DRTC and NISCAIR in Delhi concentrate on the training of professionals for special and
industrial libraries and information centers. Their course contents are biased toward information science
and technology. The programme of these two institutes is a class apart from other similar programmes
offered by various institutes.
In India advanced professional education has remained attached to universities, though there are
some regional library associations conducting certificate courses of a few months duration and women
polytechnics offering post-masters two year diplomas in library science to train paraprofessionals. At
present, about 107 institutions, mostly university colleges and polytechnics, have library science
education courses. Out of these, the M.Lib.I.Sc. course is being offered by more than 75 universities.

5. Five Year Integrated Course in LIS: In 2010, University of Calcutta introduces five year integrated
course in Library & Information Science and thus becomes the first university to launch such course in
LIS domain. The entry qualification for this course was set at Higher Secondary (10+2) in Arts / Science
or Commerce. Launching of this course will force the learners to choose the LIS by choice and not by
chance. It will again help the students to grasp and understand the contents for LIS in a better and
exhaustive way.

6. Present Status of LIS Education in India: A few departments and associations provide Certificate
Courses in Library and Information Science (CLIS) and Diploma in Library and Information Science
(DLIS). The others provide BLISc and MLISc courses. In most of the universities, the prerequisite for
admission into the Bachelor or Master degree course in Library and Information Science is 10+2+3 years

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of education from any faculty (arts, science, commerce etc). The majority of the universities generally
conduct two separate courses for the Bachelor‘s degree followed by the Master of Library and
Information Science of one year (or two semesters) duration each. In recent years, some institutions have
offered two years of integrated courses of four semester duration. The University of Calcutta went a step
ahead and introduced five years integrated course in LIS with entry qualification as 10 +2.

Specialization: Students in most schools of library and information science have the opportunity to
develop at least some degree of specialization. Some may take advanced courses in particular library
functions, such as reference work, while others may take courses related to a particular type of library,
such as a course in medical librarianship or public librarianship or academic librarianship. In simple, there
are many different courses available in LIS. It makes the professionals available to work at all levels of
library irrespective of type, structure and function.

Syllabus: The University Grants Commission (UGC), from time to time recommended the broader
outlines of courses of Library and Information Science. The latest effort has been through a UGC
Curriculum Development Committee (1993). The UGC and other higher bodies now give emphasis to
semester system rather than annual system, and credit-based rather than marks-based system. Every university
being autonomous is free to frame its own course of studies, and syllabi of many universities / schools are quite
modernized.

All programmes to educate librarians share certain characteristics. Programmes typically offer
courses in the history of books and librarianship to give students a background in the profession‘s past. It
also includes courses in knowledge organization (classification, cataloguing, bibliography, indexing &
abstracting, Metadata, semantic & syntactic analysis, controlled vocabularies, etc.), collection
development (acquisition), information seeking behaviors of users, search strategies, library services
(dissemination of the acquired library materials, reference), and management of the collection
(preservation & conservation of documents). It also includes contents related to scholarly communication
(bibliometrics, informetrics, scientometrics, webmetrics), digital libraries and ICT.

* ICT as an Integral Part: Technology is entering in a very big way to LIS where it has been used
extensively to store and retrieve information in different forms and structures. This new dimension is
reflected in the course structure of almost all universities that provides courses in LIS. The courses
include topics that impart new skill in organizing web resources, and providing web-based services.

* Practical Exposure: All courses provide scope of practical knowledge rather than restricting to only
theory. Even some universities make it compulsory for their learners to undergo some apprenticeship
courses before practicing the librarianship.

Problems with Present LIS Education and Research

* Limited Accommodation Capacity: All universities which provide Library and Information Science
courses witness a great flow of learners. But they are able to accommodate only a limited number of such
desired students.

* A Very Competitive Entrance Examination: In most of the universities, students desire to study the
LIS has to go through a very competitive entrance examination for admission.

* Limitation as a Professional Subject: LIS is a professional course and so it has the limitations of any
other professional courses. The non-inclusion of Library and Information Science in UPSC, Civil Service

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/ State Public Service Commission examination, SET / SLET is a very common.

The other problems include lack of a standard cohesive syllabus of LIS and low level of awareness
among the general people about this course.

7. LIS Research in India: The LIS research briefly means the collection and analysis of original data on
a problem of librarianship, done within the library school according to scientific and scholarly standard.
Research in this connection broadly includes investigation, studies, surveys, academic work at the
doctoral, post doctoral and research staff level, It also includes in house or action research by practicing
librarians, information personnel and documentalist, etc. The aim of research in LIS, like any other
discipline is to contribute towards the advancement of subject and contribution to the existing knowledge.

a) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan‟s Effort: The era of LIS research in India started with S. R. Ranganathan. He
has done individual research for several years. His works that lead to some of the fundamental and
theoretical principles have dominated the research activities for five decades. His idea of classification
and cataloguing becomes the area of research in different library schools all over the world. The library
and academic community of those days, even today also respect him as a pioneer researcher in LIS. Some
of his worth notable contributions are
a) Five laws of library science
b) Colon Classification
c) Prolegomena to library classification
d) Classified Catalogue Code
e) Documentation and its facets
f) Library administration, etc.
b) M. Phil Programme
i) University of Delhi: University of Delhi was the first to introduce M. Phil programme in Library and
Information Science in 1980. Today more than 11 universities offer the M.Phil programme. The duration
of M. Phil programme in almost all universities in this country is one year.
c) Ph.D. Programme
i) University of Delhi: The credit for introducing the doctoral degree programme in library science
in India goes to Dr. S. R. Ranganathan (1892–1972). In 1951, he started the same in Delhi University in
1958. The university offered first doctoral degree in Library science to D. B. Krishan Rao for his ―Facet
Analysis and Depth Classification of Agriculture‖ under the guidance of Dr. S. R. Ranganathan. In
1977, Panjab University, Chandigarh offered the second Ph.D. Today more than 35 Universities
in India have Ph.D. research facilities.
ii) Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC): In 1962, Dr. S. R. Ranganathan established
Documentation Research and Training Centre at Bangalore. Since its inception, it has been carrying out
research studies on documentation and related areas.
iii) Library Associations: The contribution of library association of India towards research activities is
negligible. They restrict their activities in the field of publication of journals, organization of seminars,
conferences and workshop, etc. only. The ILA, IASLIC are the mentionable among them.
iv) Funding of LIS Research in India: The University Grant Commission (UGC) is promoting LIS
research by awarding different kinds of fellowship to the students. Indian Council of Social Science
Research (ICSSR) and Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Centre (DESIDOC) are also
promoting LIS research programme by awarding scholarship to doctoral students.
Till March, 1997, 350 theses have been awarded under various Indian universities.
d) D.Litt Programme: In 1992, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar awarded D.Litt. to Dr. B. B. Shukla. It
claimed to be the first such degree in library science all over the world.

8. Let Us Sum Up: The library and information science deals with all aspects of information and

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knowledge which includes acquisition of materials, classification and cataloguing, searching tools,
information retrieval, preservation and conservation of documents and so on.

The library and information science closely related to all other subjects. It forms its own
foundation by taking the help of some other subjects.

Dr. S. R. Ranganathan in a pionner in the field of Library and Information Science in the world as
a whole and India in particular. He contributed almost to all aspects of the library science. Nowadays
many university and colleges provides different courses in Library and Information and its related
subjects. It ranges from certificate course to PhD.

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE AS A PROFESSION

Library and Information Science as a Profession: In modern usage, professions tend to have certain
qualities in common. A profession is always held by a person, and it is generally that person's way of
generating income. Dalton E. Mc Farland in ―Management Functions and Practices‖ mentions some
characteristics of a profession. Along with the characteristics, necessary arguments are given below to
justify whether librarianship is a profession or not.

a) Entrance is Competitive: All professions maintain rigid rules and high standard of qualification for
the new entrants into the profession. As entrance into professions is highly competitive an entrant
typically has to have above-average mental skills.

When we consider the employment aspect in libraries, at junior professional level, the entry is
direct, but even before that proper orientation into the system, service and professional ethics is provided
in many organizations. At the senior professional level the entry is by selection among the experienced
professionals.

b) Body of Specialized Knowledge and Technical Skill: A specialized knowledge of the concerned
field is needed by the professional. Those persons who are engaged in a library should have the required
academic background although; some of them may not possess a LIS degree. To practise librarianship
also requires extensive knowledge and technical skill such as an extensive knowledge of classification or
cataloguing without which one may find it difficult to run a library.

c) Formal Training and Experience: Professions also require rigorous training and schooling beyond a
basic college degree for acquiring the needed skill and methods to put the knowledge into work.
Nowadays there is a large body of growing literature on library and information science for training and
educating the professionals to acquire specialized knowledge and skill in the field of library science.
Specialized journals have also started coming out in recent years. It has also its own indexing and
abstracting services.

d) An Ethical Code or Standard of Conduct: A set of principles, a social code or ethics is needed for
the professional. Many organizations have codified their conduct, often designated ―code of ethics‖, and
what they require for entry into their organization and how to remain in good standing. Some of these
codes are quite detailed and make strong emphasis on their particular area or expertise; for example,
journalists emphasize the use of credible sources and protecting their identities, psychologists emphasize
privacy of the patient and communications with other psychologists, anthropologists emphasize rules on
intrusions into a culture being studied. Most of the codes do show an overlap in such concepts as, ―do no
harm‖, ―be honest‖, ―do not use your position for private gain‖, etc. In different parts of the world
different professional bodies of Library and Information Science codified such rules. In India also Indian

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Association of Special Libraries and Information Centre (IASLIC) has evolved a code of conduct and
ethics for special librarians in India.

e) A Commitment to Public Service: A professional needs to work with the prime purpose of rendering
a public service rather than for monetary gain. It has also been suggested that some professionals feel an
obligation to society, beyond their client relationship. Doctors may not merely sell their service if a
procedure is medically inappropriate, however much the client may want it undertaken; architects may
refuse to work on a project that would be detrimental to its surroundings, and lawyers may refuse to take
cases which are merely exploitative. The obligation to educate the client is often seen as a key part of the
definition. Librarianship is a service oriented job and the user of a library is regarded a king.

f) Guarantees of the Service Rendered: The concepts of professionalism may be inferred from
guarantees. But these are inferences only. The idea behind a guarantee is that the person offering the
guarantee is accountable to the extent of damages that will be compensated. One thing these sources hold
in common, implicit or explicit, is the idea of accountability. Those who are members of these
organizations or professions are held accountable for what they do.

g) Formal Organization: An organization generally binds all the members of a group, calling or vocation
together for concerted opinion, to achieve high standard in performance, and to act as a force to achieve
common goal.

The formal organization of librarianship started with the establishment of the American Library Association in
1876. At modern times library association are there at different levels i.e. international, regional, national, state and
local. Many associations covering specialized interest have also come into being. For example, Indian Association
of Special Library and Information Centre (IASLIC), Medical Library Association of India (MLI), Indian
Association of Teachers of Library and Information Science (IATLIS), etc.

h) Licensing of Practitioners: Membership in the profession is usually restricted and regulated by a

professional association. For example, lawyers regulate themselves through a bar association and restrict
membership through licensing and accreditation of law schools. Hence, professions also typically have a
great deal of autonomy, setting rules and enforcing discipline themselves. Professions are also generally
exclusive, which means that laymen are legally prohibited from practising the profession. For example,
people are generally prohibited by law from practising medicine without a license and would be likely be
to practice well without acquiring the skills of a physician.

Generally, professional library jobs require an academic LIS degree as certification. In the United
States, the certification usually comes from a Master's degree granted by an ALA-accredited institution.
In the United Kingdom, however, there have been moves to broaden the entry requirements to
professional library posts, so that qualifications in, or experience of, a number of other disciplines have
become more acceptable. Library Association (LA), UK maintain the professional register of chartered
librarians (professionally qualified members are known as chartered librarians and are of two categories

i) Associates who are fully trained and professionally educated librarians and ii) Fellow (FLA) who have
successfully completed additional work at an advanced level to prove their ability in special areas of
librarians.

Librarianship is as old as the book itself. However, librarianship started assuming some of the
characteristics of a profession from 1876 onwards. This was the year when American Library Association
was established, the American Library Journals was launched, and the first edition of the DDC and the C.
A. Cutter‘s Rules for making a dictionary catalogue were published.

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LIBRARY ASSOCIATION (LA)
Library Association (LA): The Library Association (U.K) was founded in October 05, 1877 during the
first international conference of librarians held at Brussels. The name of the association was changed from
―Library Association of the United Kingdom‖ to Library Association in 1896. It receives a Royal charter
in 1898. The L.A. becomes a wholly professional Association in 1962 when new bye laws come into
operation. The headquarters of L.A. is located at 7 Ridgmount street, store street, London.

a) Objectives: The L.A. has the following objectives.

i) To unite all persons engaged or interested in library work by holding conferences, seminar etc.

ii) To promote the better administration of libraries.

iii) The promotion of legislation.

iv) The encouragement of research.

v) The better training of librarians.

b) Organization: The association is controlled by a 60 member council elected by the members. The
L.A. has a number of departments devoted to various aspects of librarianship and library service. The
association is advised by four committees.

i) Executive coordinating.

ii) General purpose.

iii) Library service and

iv) Professional development and education.

c) Membership: Membership is not confined to any country or to library profession. It is open to

individuals and institutions interested or engaged in library work.

d) Source of Finance: Main financial support for programmers comes from the membership subscription
and publication of the association. However grants for specific projects are also received from other
sources.

e) Functions and Activities

i) Conferences and Seminars: L.A. holds annual conferences regularly. In addition to this, its branches
and groups also arrange their own seminars, conferences etc.

ii) Continuing Education: L.A. organizes continuing education programmers. It also organized short
courses, workshop and seminar to up date members regarding recent development in the profession.

iii) Library Legislation: L.A. took active initiative in enacting the public library act of 1892 and 1919
and revising the bye-laws of the public libraries and museums act of 1964. It has been active in clarifying
issues arriving from legislation. It has kept a watchful eye on censorship and copyright.

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iv) Standards in Libraries: It has promoted a code of ethics for the library profession. It has taken
interest in evolving standards and guidelines of techniques, procedures, equipments etc and has been
working for the betterment of salary, status and service conditions of library personnel. The association
also approved and published standards for hospital libraries in 1965.

v) Professional Registry: L.A. maintains the professional register of chartered librarians (professionally
qualified members are known as chartered librarians and are of two categories

* Associates who are fully trained and professionally educated librarians and

* Fellow (FLA) who have successfully completed additional work at an advanced level to prove their
ability in special areas of librarianship.

Now in U.K. L.A. in the main body which is authorized to conduct the examination in librarianship.

vi) COMLA: In 1971 the L.A. was approached by the commonwealth foundation to assist in setting up a
commonwealth Library association (COMLA). COMLA was inaugurated at Lagos, Nigeria in November
1972 with full support from W.A.

L.A. also plays a role in the establishment of British Library in 1973.

vii) Research Programme: It sponsors numerous projects on its own initiatives and resources.

viii) Awards: The L.A. has a scheme of instituting awards to recognize excellence and outstanding
performance in library and information science. Some of such programmes are

* Wheat ley medal for outstanding index.

* Besterman Medal for outstanding bibliography and

* Mecoliven Medal for best reference book.

ix) Publication: Some noteworthy publication of LA are

* Library association record (Monthly)- official journal.

* Library and information science abstract (Bi-Monthly).

* Journal of librarianship (Quarterly).

* Information Science (Quarterly). * Current research in library and information science (three issues)

* Wetland‘s guide to reference material (An important publication of WA)

* British Humanities index (Quarterly). * Current Technology index (Monthly)

x) Co-operation: L.A. makes bilateral contacts with the A.L.A., supports the work of IFLA and Co-
operate. The Library Association (LA) and the Institute of Information Scientists (IIS) unite to form the
Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) on 1 April 2002.

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INDIAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION (ILA)
Indian Library Association (ILA): In 1933 some of the government of India Librarians, especially those
in Calcutta, under the leadership of K. M. Asadullah organized the first All India Library Conference. It
was at this conference that the Indian Library Association was founded on 12 September, 1933. The ILA
Headquarters is in Delhi.

a) Objectives: ILA was formed with three fold objectives. In 1935 two more objectives were added. An
amendment to the constitution of the ILA in 1970 added another four objectives. Another amendment in
1987 added three more objectives. Some of the objectives of ILA are:

i) Promoting library movement in the country, ii) Developing Library and Information Science education,

iii) Training and research, improvement of library personnel, iv) Cooperation at the national and
international levels,

v) Promotion of standards, norms, services and guidelines, and vi) Providing a forum for professionals
and publication of materials.

b) Organization: The Council of the association acts as the governing body. The executive committee is
constituted by the council in its very first meeting.

c) Functions and Activities

i) Act as a Driving Force: ILA takes up with the state governments the issue of enacting library legislation
in order to develop the public library system.

ii) Development of the Profession: ILA has been pursuing with the government, UGC and other
concerned bodies at all levels on matter relating to better salary, grades, service condition and status of the
library professionals.

iii) Undertaking of Projects: ILA undertook compilation of ―Union catalogue of Periodicals in the
Libraries of South Asia‖. Two other projects were allocated to ILA by the UNESCO. They are
―Rendering of Asian Names‖ and ―Directory of Asian Periodicals‖.

iv) Publication: Library Bulleting (1942-46), Journal of Indian Library Association (1955-64), ILA Bulletin, ILA
Newsletter, etc some of the publications of the ILA. ABGILA (1949-52), was another publication, which was an
intionym, a confluence of three journals in one periodical that is Annals, Bulletin, Granthalaya of ILA.

v) Seminars, Conferences, Workshops and Training: ILA holds All India Library Conference Annually; in 1995
Regional Conferences were started. Besides, the Association also arranges lectures, round table discussion
etc. mostly in Delhi. Several training programmes in computer application (in Delhi from 2-7th June 1986), use of
CDS/ISIS software etc were also organized with support of NISSAT.

vi) Fellowships, Funds and Grants: Vedanayaki Fellowship for MLISc students; Dr. Umapati Fellowship for LIS
students; P. V. Verghese Prize for the best article contribution to ILA Bulletin, etc are some of the fellowship and
award programmes of ILA for promoting librarianship.

vii) Cooperation: The ILA has cooperation with international organizations such as IFLA, UNESCO, COMLA, etc.
It has also been playing an important role in the JOCLAI, RRRLF, Good Office Committee (GOC), National Book
Trust (NBC), etc.

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INDIAN ASSOCIATION OF SPECIAL LIBRARIES AND INFORMATION CENTRES (IASLIC)
Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres (IASLIC): Three leading librarians
from Calcutta, J. Saha, A. K. Mukherjee and G. B. Ghosh convened a meeting of librarians and
documentalists on June 25, 1955 at Indian Museum, Calcutta. This meeting resulted in the formation of
IASLIC <http://iaslic1955.org> on 3rd September 1955. Dr. Sunal Lal Hora was unanimously selected as
its first president and Jibananda Saha was the general secretary. IASLIC headquarters is located at P-291,
CIT Scheme No 6M, Kankurgachi, Kolkata – 700 054.

a) Objectives: The objectives of IASLIC are to

i) Promote the quality of Library and Information Services;

ii) Coordinate the activities, and

iii) Foster mutual cooperation and assistance among the special libraries, scientific, technological and
research institutions, learned societies, commercial organizations, industrial research establishments as
well as centres of studies in social sciences and humanities;

iv) Improve the technical efficiency of the professionals;

v) Act as a centre of research and studies in special librarianship and documentation techniques;

vi) Act as a centre of information in scientific, technical and other related fields of LIS in pursuance of the
aforesaid objects.

b) Organization: The general body of the members of IASLIC biennially elects 14 office-bearers and 20
members of the Council, which is the highest organ to formulate the policies and programmes of work.
The Council appoints from among its members the Executive and Finance Committee consisting of 8
office-bearers and 4 members to manage the regular activities. Six Divisions are also constituted by the
Council for each term. They are

i) Documentation Services;

ii) Education;

iii) Publication & Publicity;

iv) Library Services;

v) Documentary Reproduction and Translation;

vi) Cooperation and Coordination of Libraries.

c) Membership: IASLIC is composed of four kinds of members, namely Honorary Membership, Donor
Membership, Institutional Membership, Individual Membership (Donor, Ordinary Membership, and Life
Membership).

d) Functions and Activities

i) JOCLAI: To bring about mutual co-operation and unified action on matters of common interests,

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IASLIC mooted the idea of forming the Joint Council of Library Associations of India (JOCLAI)
especially of those at national level. The JOCLAI meetings take place during the national meets of each
IASLIC and ILA. It has formulated a Code of Ethics for the library profession in India.

ii) Documentation, Documentary Reproduction & Translation Services: The IASLIC undertakes
compilation of bibliographies and English translation of documents from Russian, German, French,
Chinese, Japanese, etc. and also undertakes imaging of documents for archiving. All these services are
provided on non-profit basis.

iii) Library Consultancy Service: The Association undertakes consultancy services like creation of
computerized bibliographic databases, retrospective conversion of records, preservation & conservation of
documents, cataloguing, classification and stock verification in public and private organizations on non-
profit basis.

iv) Publication: Its publications include IASLIC Bulletin, IASLIC Newsletter, Different books,
Monographs, Directory, IASLIC Proceedings, IASLIC Annual Report, etc.

v) Seminars, Conferences, Workshops and Training: The Association in its continuing education
programmes conducts short term courses, workshops, round tables, seminars etc. It holds a biennial
seminar and a conference in alternate years.

vi) Mailing Lists and Forum: IASLIC Council created Special Interest Groups (SIG) to bring together persons of
common interests. SIG Group meetings are held during IASLIC Conference of common interests. The SIG includes
SIG on Industrial Information; SIG on Social Science Information, SIG on Computer Application, SIG on
Humanities Information, SIG on Informetrics, and SIG on Library & Information Science Education.

vii) Others: The IASLIC conducts study circle meetings for discussion on various issues of interest
concerning LIS. It also conduct Ranganathan Memorial Lecture which has been held since 1993 on any
topic of Library, Information and Communication science by leading personalities of the profession.
Besides, it also conducts Annual Special Lecture and celebrates the Librarian‘s Day every year.

INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS

International Library Associations: Several professional organizations and private foundations around the world
work to promote international cooperation in establishing new libraries and in improving services at the existing
libraries. These organizations provide the librarians with information about the international forums in which they
can exchange ideas, develop networks for sharing resources, and create compatible standards and protocols for
various library procedures.
Some of the most prominent international library programmes are those sponsored by the International Federation
of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) <http://www.ifla.org/>; the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) <http://portal.unesco.org/en>; the International Council on Archives (ICA)
<http://www.ica.org/>; the British Council <http://www.britishcouncil.org/new/>; the International Association of
School Librarianship (IASL) <http://www.iasl-online.org/>; the U.S. Department of State, through its Office of
International Information Programs and the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP)
<http://www.cilip.org.uk/>.

Organization like the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), World Trade Organization (WTO),
the International Publishers Association (IPA), the International Council of Museums (ICOM), the International
Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), the International Committee of the Blue Shield (ICBS) also play
important role in library and information science activities.

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ASSOCIATION FOR INFORMATION MANAGEMENT (ASLIB)
Association for Information Management (ASLIB): An exploratory conference held at Hoddesdon,
Hertfordshire in 1924 resulted in a decision to form the Association of special Libraries and Information
Bureau (ASLIB). In 1983, name of the Association was changed to ―Association for information
Management‖, but as the association is well know as ASLIB, its acronym retained.

a) Aim and Objectives

i) To facilitating the co-ordination and systemic use of sources of knowledge and information in all public
affair and in industry and commerce and in all the arts and sciences.

ii) To increase the contribution of information to the economy, social and cultural life of community management.

b) Membership: The membership of ASLIB is largely composed of bodies including industrial and
business organizations, profession and learned societies, public, academic and national libraries publishers
and database providers.

c) Activities: The main activities of ASLIB are discussed bellow

i) Conference and Seminars: Each Annual Conference of ASLIB takes up a specific theme for
deliberations. Besides, ASLIB and its various specialist group regularly organize conference seminars and
professionals meetings to discuss issues confronting the library and information specialists.

ii) Training: ASLIB organize short term courses and training programmes for both members and non
members.

iii) Information Service: ASLIB through its outline information centre provide enquiry service
concerning the availability of databases on specific subjects, coverage of data, search strategy and
equipment and telecommunication.

iv) Library: There are more than 30,000 volumes in the ASLIB library. Most of the books are related to
Information Science and Documentation.

d) Publication: Some of the publications of ASLIB are

i) ASLIB Newsletter (Monthly) ii) ASLIB Proceeding (Monthly)

iii) ASLIB Booklist (Monthly) iv) ASLIB Directory

v) Journal of Documentation (quarterly)

vi) Program : News of computers in libraries (Quarterly)

vii) Forthcoming International scientific and technical conference (Quarterly)

viii) The hand book of special librarianship

ix) Index to theses.

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THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS
(IFLA)
The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA): IFLA is an
independent association that represents libraries and library associations around the world. At an
international conference of librarians and booklovers in Prague in 1926 a proposal to set up an
international committee with representatives of national library associations was accepted. This was acted
upon during the British Library Association conference in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1927, when an
international library and bibliographic committee was created by the representative associations from
fifteen countries. IFLA was registered in the Netherlands in 1971. The name was changed to International
Federation of Library Associations and Institutions in 1976. Its headquarter is located at The Royal
Library, the national library of the Netherlands, in The Hague. IFLA‘s website, formerly known as
IFLANET is available over web at <http://www.ifla.org/>.

a) Objectives: The federation is an independent non-governmental and non profit making professional
organization. In 2004, the Governing Board decided to endorse a new model for IFLA's operations, the
three pillars that are supported by the infrastructure offered by the Federation's governance structures, its
website and its Headquarters (HQ) in The Hague. These three pillars are- Society Pillar, Professional
Pillar, and the Members‘ Pillar.

i) The Society Pillar: It focuses on the role and impact of libraries and information services in society
and the contextual issues that condition and constrain the environment in which they operate across the
world. Those issues are addressed currently through FAIFE, CLM, Blue Shield, and the advocacy in the
World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) and other arenas.

ii) The Profession Pillar: It focuses on the issues covered by the long established Core Activities - ALP,
ICADS (webmaster: formerly known as ICABS), PAC, UNIMARC - and the Sections and Divisions.
They lie at the core of our professional practice and help libraries and information services to fulfil their
purposes and to shape responses to the needs of the clients in a rapidly changing global environment.

iii) The Members Pillar: It is of course central to IFLA. It includes the services they offer to members,
management of their membership of IFLA, conferences and publications. We must work together to make
IFLA more vibrant and attractive and beneficial for members throughout the world.

b) Organization: The governing structure of IFLA has been revised and came into force in 2001. The
General Council of Members is the supreme governing body, consisting of delegates of voting Members.
It normally meets every year during the annual conference. The Governing Board is responsible for the
managerial and professional direction of IFLA within guidelines approved by Council. The Governing
Board meets at least twice every year, once at the time and place of the annual World Library and
Information Congress. The Executive Committee has executive responsibility delegated by the Governing
Board to oversee the direction of IFLA between meetings of this Board within the policies established by
the Board. It is the duty of the Professional Committee to ensure coordination of the work of all the IFLA
units responsible for professional activities, policies and programmes (Sections, Core Activities, Special
Interest Groups).

c) Membership: Till 2009 IFLA have 1600 Members approximately in 150 countries around the world.
IFLA has two main categories of voting members: Association Members and Institutional Members.
Besides these, it has also Honorary Members (Honorary Presidents, Honorary Fellows, IFLA Medal).
Over the years the membership has been expanded to include individual libraries, library schools and
other appropriate institutions as well as personal affiliates.

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d) Functions and Activities: The issues common to library and information services around the world
are the concern of the IFLA Core Activities. Directed by the Professional Committee, the objectives and
projects of the Core Activities relate to the Federation's Programme and the priorities of the Divisions and
Sections. Some of the major core programmes are given below.

i) Action for Development through Libraries Programme (ALP): The ALP Programme was launched in
1984 at the IFLA Conference in Nairobi, Kenya, and was the subject of intensive discussion between
1987 and 1989. It was further developed and defined during 1990 and 1991 as a special project and is
fully operational ever since. The name of the Programme was originally "Advancement of Librarianship
Programme", but in 2004 it was changed to "Action for Development through Libraries Programme".
However, the acronym still remains as "ALP". The mission of ALP is to further the library profession,
library institutions and library and information services in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and
Oceania, Latin America and the Caribbean.

ii) Preservation and Conservation (PAC): IFLA Core Activity on Preservation and Conservation (PAC)
was officially created during the IFLA annual conference in Nairobi in 1984 to focus efforts on issues of
preservation and to initiate worldwide cooperation for the preservation of library materials. The PAC
programme was effectively launched in Vienna during the 1986 Conference on the Preservation of
Library Materials co-organized by the Conference of the Directors of National Libraries, IFLA and
UNESCO.

iii) IFLA-CDNL Alliance for Digital Strategies (ICADS): ICADS is a joint alliance of IFLA and the
Conference of Directors of National Libraries (CDNL). The alliance was established in August 2008 as a
successor to ICABS (IFLA-CDNL Alliance for Bibliographic Standards) which was established as a
national libraries initiative in 2003.

iv) IFLA UNIMARC: Succeeding to the IFLA UBCIM Core Activity, the IFLA UNIMARC Core
Activity (UCA) was established in 2003 with the responsibility for the maintenance and development of
the Universal MARC format (UNIMARC).

IFLA‘s previous programme includes Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC) launched in 1973,
International MARC Programme (IMP) established officially in 1983, Universal Availability of
Publication (UAP) taken up in 1973, etc. Some other programmes and activities of IFLA are:

v) Publication: Each issue of IFLA Journal (Quarterly) covers news of current IFLA activities and
articles, selected to reflect the variety of the international information profession, ranging from freedom of
information, preservation, services to the visually impaired and intellectual property.

Council Report (biennial) records IFLA's achievements in five key areas: access to information,
the electronic environment, preservation and conservation, services and standards and professional
development. The IFLA publications series include such titles as Intelligent library buildings, and
adapting marketing to libraries in a changing worldwide environment. The IFLA Professional Reports
series feature reports of professional meetings and guidelines to best practice. Recent reports include
Proceedings of the IFLA/UNESCO pre-conference seminar on public libraries and Guidelines for easy-to-
read materials.

Besides the above, many IFLA groups (Divisions, Core Activities, Sections and Special Interest
Groups) have their own newsletters. Some are produced regularly, others only appear sporadically. Each
year the proceedings of the World Library and Information Congress, IFLA General Conference and
Assembly are made available on the IFLA website. It also publishes International Cataloguing and

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Bibliographic Control (ICBC) Journal, IFLA Directory, International cataloguing, world directory of
administrative libraries, world directory of map collection, LIBRI- Library journal.

vi) Seminars, Conference and Workshop: IFLA regularly holds ―World Library and Information
Congress: IFLA General Conference and Assembly‖ and Regional Meetings. IFLA‘s general conferences
are large scale conference. In 1961 IFLA holds the international conference on cataloguing principles in
Paris.

vii) Fellowships, Funds and Grants: IFLA administers a number of Grants and Scholarships to enable the
aspiring library and information professionals from all over the world to enhance their training and to
provide funding for new and exciting projects in the field of librarianship. Such programmes include
Guust Van Wesemael Literacy Prize, IFLA International Marketing Award, Jay Jordan IFLA/OCLC
Early Career Development Fellowship, Margreet Wijnstroom Fund, Dr Shawky Salem Conference Grant
(SSCG), etc

viii) Cooperation: IFLA is now quite an active international organization. It has Formal Associate
Relations with UNESCO, observer status with the United Nations, associate status with the International
Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and observer status with the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In 1999, it established
observer status with the World Trade Organization (WTO). It has also offered consultative status to a
number of non-governmental organizations operating in related fields, including the International
Publishers Association (IPA). It is also a member of the International Council on Archives (ICA),
International Council of Museums (ICOM), the International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS), and the International Committee of the Blue Shield (ICBS). Again, till 2009 more than 25
corporations in the information industry have formed a working relationship with IFLA under its
Corporate Partners scheme.

ix) Standardization: IFLA has standardized international loan request form in 1935 and has been
progressively revising it since then. IFLA developed and published in 1974 the International Standard
Bibliographic Description for Monographic Publication [ISBD(M)] as the basis for rules of description of
monographic material in AACR-II. In 1975 IFLA and the Joint Steering Committee for the revision of
AACR - (JSC/AACR) jointly developed General International Standard Bibliographic Description
[ISBD(G)]. It serves as a framework for the description of all types of publication.

x) Mailing Lists and Forum: Sympa software provides web access to IFLA‘s lot of mailing lists. IFLA
also serves as an international forum for librarians and advises international bodies relating to library and
information science. It provides expert advice and assistance in the planning and development of library
services.

IFLA advises libraries on matters such as interlibrary loan practices, copyright laws, library
building design, and development of legal deposit regulations that entitle national libraries to receive
copies of every work registered for copyright in their respective countries. It also stimulates cooperation
among writers, scholars, publishers, and libraries, and it assists librarians in promoting literacy and
universal access to knowledge. In addition, IFLA advocates the formation of a worldwide information
network.

India is represented in the Executive Board of IFLA. In October, 1985 ILA organised the IFLA‘s
regional seminar on UAP in New Delhi. ILA also hosted 58th General Conference of IFLA in New Delhi
from August 30-Septermber 5, 1992

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INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION FOR INFORMATION AND DOCUMENTATION (FID)
International Federation for Information and Documentation (FID): FID was founded in 12
September 1895 in Brussels, Belgium, by bibliographers Henri LaFontaine (1854-1943) and Paul Otlet
(1868-1944) as the ―Institut International de Bibliographie‖ (IIB) or International Institute of
Bibliography. It was popularly known as the Brussels Institute. It has gone through a number of changes
in name that reflect changes of conceptualisation of the field in which it operates. In 1931 the IIB became
the Institut International de Documentation (IID) or The International Institute for Documentation. In
1938, it became the Federation Internationale de Documentation (FID) or the International Federation for
Documentation. In 1986, the word ―information‖ was added to the name but the acronym is retained.
Thus it become Fédération Internationale d'Information et de Documentation (FID) or the International
Federation for Information and Documentation.
FID was one of the world‘s oldest and most influential international library organizations. It was
maintaining its headquarters in The Hague, Netherlands after 1934. In 2002, FID dissolved. Over the
years, FID was responsible for creating standards for microfiche reproduction; conducting research on the
theoretical aspects of information; and promoting research on the impact of information, communications,
and knowledge on national economies and society. One of the publications of FID was FID
Communications

INTERNATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR THE AGRICULTURAL

SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY (AGRIS)
International bibliographic Information System for the AGRicultural Sciences and technology
(AGRIS): AGRIS is the International bibliographic Information System for the AGRicultural Sciences
and technology. It was created by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in
1974, to facilitate information exchange and to bring together world literature dealing with all aspects of
agriculture. It become operational in 1975 as an international initiative aiming to build a common
information system for science and technology in agriculture and related subjects, based on a
collaborative network of institutions. AGRIS uses computer configuration and software packages located
at the Vienna, the INIS centre.

a) Organization: AGRIS is a cooperative system in which participating countries input references to the
literature produced within their boundaries and, in return, draw on the information provided by the other
participants. The bibliographic references forwarded by participating countries are collected and
processed in the AGRIS Processing Unit Vienna, which is hosted by the Division of Scientific and
Technical Information of the IAEA. AGRIS is managed centrally by the WAICENT/FAOINFO
Dissemination Management Branch of the Library and Documentation Systems Division (GIL) of FAO,
Rome.

b) Members: To date 159 national and 31 international and intergovernmental centers participate and
submit about 14.000 items per month. To date, 240 national, international and intergovernmental centres
participate.

c) India‟s participation in AGRIS: The Agricultural Resources Information System (AgRIS) is the
Central Sector Scheme for Strengthening / Promoting Agricultural Information System in the Department
of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. AgRIS is ―a Needed
Domestic Strategy for Sustainable Agricultural Production and Sustainable Rural Livelihoods in India‖. It
is an e-Government Programme for fostering agricultural growth, poverty reduction and sustainable
resource use in India at grassroots level and also ―a step towards establishing a location-specific e-

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Government model for the poor‖. The implementation of component AgRIS will facilitate development of
typology specific agriculture development plan in the country. This Project is being executed by
Agricultural Informatics Division of National Informatics Centre.

In July, 1974 India formally decided to participate in AGRIS programme on a national basis
through Agricultural Research Information Centre of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
After an initial experiment carried out in November, 1974 the Agricultural Research Centre of ICAR has
been participating in the AGRIS programme since 1975. From May 1975 the Agricultural Research
Information Centre (ARIC) began sending bibliographic data on AGRIS on a regular basis. The database
is maintained in Viena. On an average India passes on about 4000 bibliographic entries to AGRIS every
year. Previously the input was sent on Optical Character Recognition (OCR) sheets but now for economy
and speed the input is being sent on Worksheet only. In return, India receives every month updated
AGRIS Magnetic Tape, and AGRINDEX- a printed monthly service.

i) Objectives of AGRIS: The major objectives of AgRIS will include among others:

* ―Development of Decision Support Systems (DSS) on Production Practices and Systems‖. It facilitate
farmers in adopting appropriate agricultural production practices;

* ―Creation of Metadata‖ to become the Country‘s initiative of ―National Spatial Data Infrastructure
(NSDI) on Agriculture‖, and

* Preparation of Guidelines on standardized methodology/best practices to be used for building

Agricultural Resource Information System in similar districts of the Country.

ii) Services: The Indian Centre of AGRIS provide the following services

* Training on AGRIS methodology, indexing, abstracting and AGRIS Classification Scheme.

* Provides training for the use of AEROVAC.

* Provides training to information and documentation personnel from developing countries.

* SDI services.

* Retrospective services.

d) Conclusion: The AGRIS network of Centres formally has 201 participating centres. Of these, over half
have contributed material to the central database at some point in the last 6 years, but only 35 contributed
in all of the last 6 years. Some AGRIS centres in developing countries have already expanded from the
original role of centralised ―Input Centres‖ for an entire national system, to focal points for a more
decentralised system. Some are also covering not only the documentation of scientific and technical
literature, but are working in the development of agricultural information management more generally.
More than 60 of the centres participating in AGRIS already have their own website, and many of them
publish their bibliographical databases on the web.

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INTERNATIONAL NUCLEAR INFORMATION SYSTEM (INIS)
International Nuclear Information System (INIS): INIS is an international co-operative information
system on the peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology. INIS is operated by the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in collaboration with its 116 Member States and 22 co-operating
international organizations. The IAEA, based in Vienna, Austria, is an autonomous organization within
the United Nations System.

a) Members: Currently, 116 countries and 22 international organizations participate in INIS.

b) Functions: INIS processes most of the world‘s scientific and technical literature that falls within its
subject scope.

i) Bibliographic Database: INIS maintains a bibliographic database which currently contains over 2.7
million abstracted and indexed records.

ii) Information Reference Service: INIS provides a comprehensive information reference service for
literature on the peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology.

iii) Full Text: The full text INIS NCL collection includes about 650,000 full text documents from 1970 to
the present.

iv) Annotated Web Directory: INIS maintains a growing database of annotated links to Web sites on the
Internet that are related to various fields of nuclear science and technology and the IAEA's work.

Additionally, INIS also maintains a unique collection of full text non-conventional (grey)
literature that would be difficult to obtain elsewhere.

THE UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

(UNESCO)
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): The
representatives of 37 countries mt in London to sign UNESCO‘s Constitution which came into force on
November 4, 1946 after ratification by 20 signatories. It is an inter-governmental specialized agency of
the United Nations. The UNESCO‘s permanent Headquarters is in Paris, France. UNESCO‘s website can
be found over <http://portal.unesco.org>

a) Objectives: UNESCO deploys its action in the fields of Education, Natural Sciences, Social and
Human Sciences, Culture, Communication and Information. UNESCO works on a number of priorities
that require a trans-disciplinary approach alongside the traditional focus of its five programme sectors.
Here in this discussion we will only deal with Communication and Information.

The main objective for UNESCO is to build a knowledge society based on the sharing of
knowledge and incorporating all the socio-cultural and ethical dimensions of sustainable development.
UNESCO‘s priorities in the field of Communication and Information include:

i) Empowering people through access to information and knowledge with special emphasis on freedom of
expression;

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ii) Promoting communication development;

iii) Advancing the use of ICTs for education, science and culture.

b) Organization: The General Conference consists of the representatives of the Member states of the
Organization. It meets every two years, and is attended by Member States and Associate Members,
together with observers for non-Member-States, intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs). Each country has one vote, irrespective of its size or the extent of its contribution
to the budget.

The Executive Board, in a sense, assures the overall management of UNESCO. It prepares the
work of the General Conference and sees that its decisions are properly carried out. The Secretariat
consists of the Director-General and the Staff appointed by him. As of January 2007, the Secretariat
employed around 2,100 civil servants from some 170 countries. The staff is divided into Professional and
General Service categories. Under a recent decentralization policy, more than 700 staff members work in
UNESCO's 58 field offices around the world.

c) Membership: In short, UNESCO promotes international co-operation among its 193 (As of October
2009) Member States and six Associate Members in the fields of education, science, culture, and
communication.

d) Functions and Activities: The aim of UNESCO in the field of Communication and Information is to
Empower people through the free flow of ideas by word and image, and by access to information and
knowledge. The Communication and Information Sector (CI) was established in its present form in 1990.

i) UNISIST: It is an international project sponsored by UNESCO to foster and coordinate international

bibliographical services being provided by various organizations. It is an inter-governmental programme
to encourage and guide voluntary cooperation in the exchange of information at national, regional and
international levels.

ii) National Information System (NATIS): NATIS is a brain-child of UNESCO. It implies that
governments at different levels (national, state and local) should maximize the availability of all relevant
information.

iii) General Information Programme (PGI): PGI is the initials of its French name Program General d‘
Information. It was established in 1976 combining both the NATIS and UNISIST programmes. The
primary role of PGI is to promote computer application and communication technologies in library and
information services, information network and provision of on line facilities for sharing and exchanging
information between different countries all over the world.

iv) Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC): For compilation of bibliographies UNESCO has launched
an ambitious project in cooperation with IFLA known as UBC.

v) ASTINFO and APINESS: In 1984 UNESCO established Regional Network for Exchange of
Information and Experience in Science and Technology in Asia and Pacific (ASTINFO) to promote
regional cooperation, better understanding and socio-economic development in Asia and Pacific region.
Later in 1986 another network called Asia Pacific Information Network in Social Sciences (APINESS)
was established.

vi) Others: New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO), Intergovernmental

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Programmes for the Development of Communication (IDDC), International System in Research in Documentation
(ISORID), Science and Technology Policies Information Exchange System (SPINES), Data Retrieval System for
Documentation in the Social and Human Sciences (DARE), International Bureau of Education Documentation and
Information System (IBEDOC) are some other programmes of the UNESCO. The ISORID was established for
collection and dissemination of information on research activities in documentation, libraries and archives.

vii) Publication: In 1980 the first two volumes of UNESCO‘s General History of Africa was
published. UNESCO also brought out a publication namely ―Public Library Manifesto‖ 1949, revised in
1972, which gives a new image and a wider scope to the principles upon which the documentation and
library services are based. Other publications include UNESCO Courier (monthly), Copyright Bulleting
(Quarterly), Impact of Science in Society, Index Treanslationum, World guide to Library Schools and
Training courses in Documentation, 1981. Public Libraries and their mission (1961) by Andre Maurios etc.

viii) Seminars, Conference and Workshop: UNESCO has supported library conferences, seminars and
meetings. In 1952 an intergovernmental conference convened by UNESCO adopted the Universal
Copyright Convention. In the decades following World War II, the Convention served to extend copyright
protection to numerous states.
ix) Fellowships, Funds and Grants: The UNESCO Fellowships Programme, through the award and
administration of fellowships, study and travel grants provide various opportunities for librarians.
UNESCO is also responsible for sending a large number of experts as consultants and advisors to
developing countries for the purpose of initiating and expanding library services. UNESCO also helps its
member states to rebuild their libraries during the Second World War. It also gives a huge grant to IFLA
and FID (it was dissolved in 2002). UNESCO initiated the pilot public libraries at New Delhi (India),
Enugu (Nigeria) and Medellin (Colombia) which demonstrates UNESCO‘s Faith in public libraries.
UNESCO also sponsored research on librarianship especially for the developing countries.

x) Cooperation: UNESCO maintains healthy cooperation with IFLA, International Council on Archives
(ICA), Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CoDATA) established by International Council
of Scientific Union (ICSU), etc.

xi) Standardization: The Common Communication Format (CCF) was published by UNESCO in 1984
and a second edition was published in 1988. CCF is a structure format for creating bibliographical record
and exchange of records between groups of information agency and libraries.

xii) Mailing Lists and Forum: The WebWorld Portals Discussion forum is the place to discuss various
topics related to Libraries, Archives, Information Society, Free and Open Source Software. It also
provides feedback on and discusses all aspects of WebWorld Portals. WebWorld, the website of
UNESCO's Communication and Information Sector, offers a daily news service to its users. The news
articles mainly cover UNESCO's activities in the area of communication and information, both at
UNESCO's Headquarters and its field offices.

The UNESCO Libraries Portal gives access to websites of library institutions around the world. It
serves as an international gateway to information for librarians and library users and international co-
operation in this area. The UNESCO Archives Portal gives access to websites of archival institutions
around the world. It is also a gateway to resources related to records and archives management and
international co-operation in the area. The Observatory on the Information Society monitors the impact of
globalization on knowledge societies through the collection of pertinent information and by observing the
trends. The UNESCO Free Software Portal gives access to documents and websites which are references for the
Free Software/Open Source Technology movement. It is also a gateway to resources related to Free Software.

India became a member of UNESCO on 4 November 1946. UNESCO for the first time started the

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first pilot project in library in India by establishing the Delhi Public Library in October 1951. This later on
developed into Delhi Public Library. The main aim of this project was to provide information on the
problem of public library service for the parts of India in particular and for Asia in general.
The Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC) was set up in 1952 by the
government of India with technical assistance from UNESCO. In 1964 UNESCO assisted INSDOC,
again, in setting up its regional centre in Bangalore. Now Indian National Scientific Documentation
Centre (INSDOC) has merged with National Institute of Science Communication (NISCOM) to form
National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR) on 30 September 2002.
The Indian national commission is the official agency of UNESCO and National Information
System for Science and Technology (NISSAT) in the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
(DSIR) is the focal point for UNISIST (PGI) and is also the coordinating centre for ASTINFO
programme. NASSDOC of ICSSR is the focal point for UNESCO supporting APINESS programme.
Besides the above, the UNESCO honoured the Indian librarians by inviting them to advise upon
various library projects meant for the member country. The prominent among them were Dr. S. R.
Ranganathan, B. S. Kesavan, S. S. Saith and a few others.
India also organized a few conferences and regional seminars of UNESCO. Notable among them
are Seminar of the development of public libraries in Asia held at Delhi from October 6-26, 1955; Ninth
General conference at Delhi in 1956; Regional seminar on library development in South Asia, University
of Delhi library, 3-14 October, 1960; Seminar on Handling and Retrieval of Chemical Information, Delhi, 1986.

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (ENVIS)

Realising the importance of Environmental Information, the Government of India, in December, 1982,
established an Environmental Information System (ENVIS) as a plan programme. ENVIS is a
decentralised system with a network of distributed subject oriented Centres ensuring integration of
national efforts in environmental information collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination to
all concerned. Presently the ENVIS network consists of Focal Point at the Ministry of Environment and
Forest and ENVIS Centres setup in different organizations / establishments in the country in selected
areas of environment. These Centres have been set up in the areas of pollution control, toxic chemicals,
central and offshore ecology, environmentally sound and appropriate technology, bio-degradation of
wastes and environment management, etc.
ENVIS India has already established Eighty One partner nodes, which include thirty government
departments, Thirty Six Institutions and Fifteen NGOs. These nodes are supposed to create websites on
specific environment related subject areas.

1. Aims and Objectives: ENVIS focal point ensures integration of national efforts in environmental
information collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination to all concerned.

1.1 Long-term objectives

a) To build up a repository and dissemination centre in Environmental Science and Engineering;

b) To gear up the modern technologies of acquisition, processing, storage, retrieval and dissemination of
information of environmental nature; and

c) To support and promote research, development and innovation in environmental information technology.

1.2 Short-term objectives

a) To provide national environmental information service relevant to present needs and capable of development to

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meet the future needs of the users, originators, processors and disseminators of information;

b) To build up storage, retrieval and dissemination capabilities with the ultimate objectives of
disseminating information speedily to the users;

c) To promote, national and international cooperation and liaison for exchange of environment related information;

d) To promote, support and assist education and personnel training programmes designed to enhance
environmental information processing and utilization capabilities;

e) To promote exchange of information amongst developing countries.

2. Functions:

i) EMCBTAP: ENVIS has started implementing the World Bank assisted Environment Management
Capacity Building Technical Assistance Project (EMCBTAP) since January, 2002 which aims at
structuring the ENVIS scheme by extending its reach through involvement of Institutions / Organizations
in State Governments, academia sector, corporate sector, NGO sector, etc.

ii) ENVIS-Nodes: To strengthen ENVIS in disseminating information pertaining to environment and

sustainable development, ENVIS India establishes different ENVIS Nodes by involving Organizations,
institutions, Universities and Government departments working in diverse areas of environment.

3. Conclusion: ENVIS due to its comprehensive network has been designed as the National Focal Point
(NFP) for INFOTERRA, a global environmental information network of the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP). In order to strengthen the information activities of the NFP, ENVIS was designated
as the Regional Service Centre (RSC) of INFOTERRA of UNEP in 1985 for the South Asia Sub-Region
countries.

SOURCES OF DOCUMENTARY INFORMATION

Sources of Documentary Information: A document constitutes embodied thought which is a record of
work on paper or other material fit for physical handling, transport across space and preservation through
time. It may include manuscripts, handwritten and engraved materials including printed books, periodical,
microform, photograph, gramophone records, tape records, etc. The recent advances in science and
technology helps originate another kind of document i.e. computer readable forms that includes C.D.,
DVD, pen drive, hard disk, web resources etc. All documents are the records of human observation and
thought and in its creation direct human intervention is necessary. They provide some information to its
readers or users. A library as a gateway of knowledge provides access to a variety of such documentary
sources of information.

The sources of documentary information can also be termed as an information product. It is

generated out of a service to be provided to the user. It is a kind of consolidation and presentation process
giving tangibility to information.

1. Classification of Documentary Sources of Information: Different authors classified the documentary

sources of information into different categories. Some popular classifications are listed bellow
a) C. W. Hanson Classification: C. W. Hanson (1971) in the article ―Introduction to science Information
work‖ published in ASLIB (previously Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureau but now
known as Association for Information Management) divides documentary sources of information into two

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categories i.e. primary and secondary.
i) Primary: The primary documents exist of their own and usually contain original information on the first
formulation of any new observation, experiment, ideas, etc. Thus, according to C. W. Hanson, a
monograph, an article in periodical, text book, and encyclopaedia are all primary documents. An article in
encyclopedia or text book may not contain any new information on the subject but it presents the
information in the particular form for the first time. The articles concerned are not a condensation or
rewriting in any way of any existing document but has been written specifically for the text book or the
encyclopedia.
ii) Secondary: All secondary publications present the contents of primary document in a condensed form
or list them in a helpful way so that the existence of a primary document can be known and access to it
can be made.
iii) Primary / Secondary Sources of Information: Conference proceedings, theses and dissertations,
monographs, etc. have the characteristics of both primary and secondary sources of information. Those of
documents representing new facts can be regarded as primary publication and those having the character
of reviews can be grouped as secondary publication. As a result of such mixing of primary and secondary
sources of information some expert doesn‘t consider this division to be much practical utility.
b) Denis Grogan Classification: Denis Grogan, on the basis of level of reorganization, has classified the
documents into three categories. They are: primary, secondary and tertiary.
i) Primary Sources: Primary publications are those in which the author for the first time supplies
evidence, describes a discovery, makes or drives a new proposition or brings forward new evidence about
previous proposition. It was created at or near the time being studied, often by the people being studied. It
is a fundamental, authoritative document related to a subject of inquiry, used in the preparation of a later
derivative work. Thus, the primary sources of information are basic sources of new information which are
not passed through any filtering mechanism like condensation, interpretation or evaluation and are the
original work of the author.
UNESCO (1968) defines a primary publication as “original scientific paper describing new
research, techniques or apparatus.” Primary does not mean superior. It refers to the creation by the
primary players, and is distinguished from a secondary source, which is a historical work, like a scholarly
book or article, built up from primary sources.
Primary sources may include periodicals, patent, standard, report, reprint, trade journal, classic
book, letters, diaries, and other personal papers, photographs, interviews and transcripts, government and
historical records, newspaper clippings, and other original sources. The significance of primary
publications is as follows:
a) A subject becomes a discipline in its own right when independent primary sources begin to be
produced in that area. The progress and development of a country directly depend on the primary
literature that reports a new discovery.
b) The information published in primary sources are newly generated, recent, current, full and up-to-date
for all other investigators working in the same field.
c) When any research or investigation or its any concept is first published in primary sources only it
becomes the basic and original sources of communication of information and reports quickly to be used
by other users.
d) Publication of primary sources of information avoids doubling and duplication in the research, thus
saves time, money and labour to be spent on it. It also acts as a guide to the researcher engaged in the
same field by pointing out what has been done? And up to what level? etc.
e) The primary sources of information help in the compilation of secondary and tertiary sources of
information. Often primary sources of information may be the only sources of information in existence.
There are certain primary sources of information, which remain unpublished. Very often these
may be consulted for historical interest. Such materials include laboratory note book, memoranda, diaries,
letters to and from a particular individual, company, etc. The library also tries to procure such type of
material if it comes within its scope of area or is relevant to its purpose.

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ii) Secondary Sources: A document concerning a particular subject of inquiry which is derived from or
based on the study and analysis of the primary source of information is called the secondary source of
information. In the secondary source of information the original information is selected, modified and
arranged in a suitable format for the purpose of easy location by the user. The secondary sources of
information thus provide digested information and also serve as bibliographical key to primary sources of
information. Secondary publication includes text book, reference book, review of the literature, etc.
iii) Tertiary Sources: The tertiary sources of information are last to appear and mostly do not contain
subject knowledge. It is designed to provide information about information and so acts as a guide to the
primary and secondary sources of information. The main function of tertiary sources is to aid the user in
using primary and secondary sources of information. The tertiary sources of information are bibliography
of bibliographies, guides to libraries, other organizations, indexing and abstracting periodicals, list of
accession, list of research in progress, directories, etc.
Eventually there is no rigid line of demarcation between primary, secondary and tertiary sources of
information.
c) S. R. Ranganathan Classification: Based on the physical characteristics of documents S. R.
Ranganathan classified documentary sources of information into four categories. These also reflect the
chronological order of their development. They are:
i) Conventional: Books, periodicals, Map etc.;
ii) Neo Conventional: Standards, specification, patent etc.;
iii) Non Conventional: Audio visual, microcopy etc.;
iv) Meta Document: Direct records unmediated by human mind.

2. Types of Documentary Sources of Information: The documentary sources of information can be of the
following types

a) Newspaper: Newspapers are usually published as dailies or weeklies. The type of paper they are printed
on, called newsprint is not meant to last. They are usually preserved on microfilm for this reason.
Libraries usually keep paper copies of newspapers until the microfilm copies arrive. Nowadays many
newspapers are available on the Internet, some for free, and others by subscription.
b) Periodical: Periodicals are issued at intervals and numbered consecutively. They are given volume
designations, several issues making up a volume. Periodicals include journals and magazines.
i) Journal: Journal is a scholarly publication devoted to disseminating current information about research
and developments in a specific field or subfield of human knowledge. Journal is usually regularly
published at interval. Most journal articles are long and include a paragraph at the beginning, called an
abstract which summarizes the main points of the article and at the end a bibliography or list of works
cited. The writings of the journals are most often peer-reviewed.
ii) Magazine: The magazine usually refers to the non-scholarly publications written for an educated
audience and contains popular reading.
c) Reprint: Once an article is published in a journal additional copies are taken out separately and
provided to the author. A fixed number is generally supplied free of charge. Additional copies are
supplied at a cost; these copies are known as reprints and used for exchange with other scientists working
in the same field.
d) House Journal: It is a publication issued by an organization to inform the public of its performance and
style of function and also to know the reaction, opinions of its public. Generally house journals are of two
types:
i) External House Journals: The external house journal is meant for the external audience of an
organization. The external audience of an organization refers to those who do not work under the roof of
the organization, but are interested in it.
ii) Internal House Journal: Internal house journals are meant for the employees under the roof of an
organization. Broadly speaking, it aims to inform and educate the employees of all levels about the

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organization‘s activities, functions, etc.
e) Newsletter: Newsletter is a publication issued by an organization often simple in format and crisp in
style to provide speedy information for a definite audience. Newsletters are always issued regularly and
have a short life span. It is a modest publication containing limited pages say four to eight and a few
pictures and illustrations. Generally, the organizations that do not go for house journals find a good
substitute in newsletters. While some newsletters are intended for the employees, others are meant for the
external public.
f) Patents: A patent presents a detailed account of a new manufacturing process or improvement of an
existing process, a new product, a new method of testing and control etc. Generally, when some kind of
invention is made the manufacturer wants to protect his invention and the patent offices in various
countries on the request of the manufacturer generally issue the patent, which provides an exclusive right
to the manufacturer on the invention. It takes the form of an official document having the seal of the
government attached to it, which confesses an exclusive privilege or right over a period of time to the
proceeds of an invention.
g) Standards: Standards are units or measures in terms of weight, size, length, quality, composition,
process of production, etc., established by National and International Organizations. Standards are often
finalized through testing, research, and study and prescribe the accepted quality or performance value of a
product.
h) Research Report: Research reports are published as part of the annual report of an organization or as a
separate report published at periodical intervals by individual and agencies that obtain research grants and
have to produce them as a condition of such grants. The research reports are generally produced in limited
number of copies and the distribution is also restricted and controlled.
i) Trade and Product Bulletin / Journal: Trade journals contain primary articles but of the nature of
applied research. It contains the particulars of goods manufactured by or sold by a firm. Frequently
illustrated and containing prices, it also often contains application oriented description rather than
theoretical description. These are published by Research and Development Organizations, Trade
Associations etc. The original objectives of all trade journals are product advertisement. The complete
description, principles and working of a newly developed and highly sophisticated instrument may for
quite time be available only in the manufacturer trade journals. Eg.: International Product
Finder. Bombay: Business press.
j) Conference Proceedings: Many conference proceedings present new findings or results of work for the
first time or at least months before they are published in scientific journals. Some times, conference
proceedings also include questions from participants and answers and clarifications from the authors of
the papers. The conference proceedings generally contain the statement of objectives, opening address or
presidential address, list of participants or conference‘s who‘s who, resolutions or recommendations, etc.
k) Thesis and Dissertation: Thesis and dissertation are the results of purely academic pursuit. It reports
some original work in a specific field. Among all the primary sources of information thesis and
dissertation are probably least used mainly because their existence is not known in many cases and also
due to the limited number of copies of the document.
l) Treatise: A treatise provides an exhaustive treatment of a broad subject. It is encyclopaedic in coverage
of the subject but different in its treatment. It presents in a systematic and consolidated manner the result
of work and research in the field with full reference to the primary sources.
m) Monograph: The scope of a monograph is narrower than that of a treatise. Monograph is on a single
topic whereas a treatise is on a broad subject. Research monographs are separately published reports on an
original research that is too long, too specialized or otherwise unsuitable for publication in one of the
standard journals. Each monograph is self contained which frequently summarizes the particular existing
theory or practice along with the author‘s original work.
n) Review: A review is actually a narrative account or critical synthesis of the progress of a particular
field of study prepared by an expert in the field. It shifts, evaluates and puts each significant contribution
into its proper perspective. It indicates interrelationship of ideas, significance and possible areas of

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application and so on, so that one can easily get an expert view of the subject without having to go
through the mass of literature.
o) Text Book: A text book is made of continuous exposition, sentences mount into paragraph, paragraphs
into chapter, chapters get woven into a single swelling exposition in the continuous pursuit of a single
idea, simple or complex, and text books are read consecutively for inspiration, enjoyment or information.
There is a link at each stage. There is an element of continuity. According to Grogan, ―a text book is a
teaching instrument; its primary aim is not to import information about its subject but to develop
understanding of it. It concentrates on demonstrating principles rather than recounting detail‖.
p) State of the Art Report: These are types of reviews which do not have all embracing scope and
historical orientation. These present information assembled from various sources and subjects to the
operation of analysis, consolidation, extraction and evaluation in a formal presentation representing the
most advanced degree of technical achievement in its field at the present time. Some owe their existence
to a specific query while others are issued on a regular basis, in many cases once in a year. State of the Art
report emphasizes on the recent and up-to-date ideas.
q) Trend Report: Trend report gives an account of the general direction of research in the subject based on
a review of the documents on current development.
r) Technical Digests: A digest service is directed to executives, engineers, technical worker, etc. working
in industries. It provides up to date technical information. It presents descriptive text of information in a
condensed form and on the core ideas in brief and orderly form.

REFERENCE SOURCES
Reference Sources: A reference work / book / source is a compendium of information, usually of a specific type,
compiled in a book for easy consultation. The entries are disjointed but arranged in such a way that the intended
information can be quickly found when needed or referred to, the sequence of which is determined by the scheme
of arrangement chosen for that purpose. It might be alphabetical, classified or some other type of arrangement.
Even then the connection between consecutive entries is not as compelling and continuous or as free from jerks as
between the paragraphs in an ordinary book. The writing style used in these works is informative; the authors avoid
use of the first person and emphasize facts. Indexes are commonly provided in many types of reference work.
Updated editions are published as needed, in some cases annually. Sometimes reference sources are also described
as approach material. Broadly speaking, any book can be called a reference book provided the information
contained in it is so organized that it becomes readily accessible. It may consist mostly of formulae, statistics,
diagram, tables, maps, charts or list of documents with or without abstracts or annotations or other features. All
reference sources are also documentary sources of information.
According to ALA Glossary, a reference book has been defined as ―a book designed by its arrangement and
treatment to be consulted for definite item of information rather than to be read consecutively‖. Most of the
reference book anticipates a particular need and approach to information. Generally a reference source bears the
following characteristics

i) Consulted for Definite Item of Information: They are not meant for continuous i.e. cover to cover reading. They
are consulted from time to time (occasional) for particular pieces of information.

ii) Miscellany of Information: It is miscellany of information or facts and consists of disjointed entries of varying
length which are collected from a vast number of sources. One entry in sources may or may not have any
relationship with the other entry.

iii) Bird‘s Eye View of the Topic: The books provide only the bird‘s eye view of the topics and rarely deal with
them in depth.

iv) Item can be Randomly Located: The arrangement of information is such that it can be conveniently and quickly
recalled.

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 In the library, reference collections are shelved together in a special location separately from circulating
items. Ordinarily, the reference collections are not lent out (circulated) or checked out from the library because they
contain brief information about the topic in hand and, if needed, can be photocopied and, therefore, do not need to
be borrowed by the users. Its availability in the library assures the provision of making it accessible on demand to
any user to answer questions immediately. Reference books are also too valuable to permit the borrowers to take
them out.
It may be added that the boarder line of demarcation between a reference book and others is not always
sharp. The decision as to whether or not to regard a given book as a reference book will some time differ from
library to library.
1. Classification of Reference Sources: William A. Katz divides the reference sources into two large categories-
i) Control Access Directional Type: It itself does not contain the required information but directs the user to the
documents which contain the information. It includes bibliographies, catalogue, indexes, abstracts etc.
ii) Work of Sources Type: It itself contains the information. For example, Encyclopedia, Dictionary etc.
2. Types of Reference Sources: We may generally recognize the following kinds of reference sources based on the
internal characteristics.
a) Dictionary: A dictionary contains the words of a language or the terms of a subject, profession or vocation
arranged according to some definite order usually alphabetical, giving their meanings, pronunciation, spelling,
significance and use. Some times synonyms, antonyms, derivation and history of the words or terms are also given.
Many dictionaries also provide grammatical information, etymologies (origin and development of the4 meaning of
the word), usage guidance and examples in phrases or sentences. The word "dictionary" comes from neoclassical
Latin word ―diccio‖ meaning simply "word". Therefore, primarily it deals with words and it is produced by
lexicographers. A pictorial dictionary includes illustrations of the objects represented by the words listed; some
other types of dictionary may also list out characters with their glyphs, or an alphabetical list of words with
corresponding words in other languages. It is most commonly found in the form of a book. However, in recent
years some dictionaries are also found in electronic portable handheld devices. Some examples of English language
dictionaries are Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Oxford English Dictionary (descriptive), The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language, Webster's Third New International Dictionary (descriptive).
i) Lexicon: A dictionary of some ancient language that generally provides more grammatical analysis is known as
lexicon.
ii) Concordance: A concordance is an alphabetical list of the principal words used in a book or body of work
showing location in the text with immediate contexts. Because of the time and difficulty and expense involved in
creating a concordance in the pre-computer era, only works of special importance, such as the Bible, Qur'an or the
works of Shakespeare, had concordances prepared for them.
iii) Glossary: A list of difficult terms along with some explanation or definition in a special field. The glossary is
sometimes also referred to as word book.
b) Thesaurus: It is designed for drawing distinctions between similar words and assisting in choosing exactly the
right word. So entries in a thesaurus should not be taken as a list of synonyms and antonyms. It also does not define
words. That work is left to the dictionary. A formal definition of a thesaurus designed for indexing is: a list of every
important term (single-word or multi-word) in a given domain of knowledge arranged in a systematic order and
manifesting various types of relationship existing between the terms; and a set of related terms for each term in the
list. The word ―thesaurus‖ more commonly means a listing of words with similar, related, or opposite meanings
(this new meaning of thesaurus dates back to Roget's Thesaurus). For example, a book of jargon for a specialized
field; or more technically a list of subject headings and cross-references used in the filing and retrieval of
documents (or indeed papers, certificates, letters, cards, records, texts, files, articles, essays and perhaps even
manuscripts), film, sound recordings, machine-readable media, etc. Some examples of thesaurus are Thesaurus of
English Words & Phrases (ed. P. Roget); The Synonym Finder (ed. J. I. Rodale); Webster's New World Thesaurus
(ed. C. Laird); etc.
c) Encyclopaedia: The word encyclopaedia or encyclopaedia is derived from two Greek words ‗Enkyklios‘ which
means ‗circle‘ and ‗Paideia‘ which means ―of learning‖. The word encyclopaedia itself is synonymous with
cyclopedia which means compendium of information or knowledge or a circle of knowledge, a work which
represents synthesis of knowledge. It contains comprehensive written information on all branches of knowledge or
a particular branch of knowledge, with the entries arranged in alphabetical order. Multi-volume encyclopedias often
include an index in the last volume.
The Oxford English dictionary has defined an encyclopaedia as ―a literary work containing extensive
information on all branches of knowledge usually arranged in alphabetical order‖. ALA Glossary of Library Terms

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define encyclopaedia as ―a work containing information articles on subject in every field of knowledge usually
arranged in alphabetical order or a similar work limited to a special field of subject‖.
Four major characteristics of an encyclopaedia are its subject matter, its scope, its method of organization, and its
method of production. It attempts to bring some order to the knowledge reflecting the state of knowledge as it exists
during the period of its compilation. The included knowledge is related to kind of readership which an encyclopedia
intends to serve. There have historically been two main methods of organizing printed encyclopedias: the
alphabetical method (consisting of a number of separate articles, organized in alphabetical order), or organization
by hierarchical categories. The former method is the most common by far, especially for general works. The
encyclopedias are written by a number of employed text writers, usually people with an academic degree but some
modern encyclopedia‘s articles are collaboratively written by the experts on the subject.
The fluidity of electronic media, however, allows new possibilities for multiple methods of organization of
the same content in the encyclopedias. Further, electronic media offer previously unimaginable capabilities for
search, indexing, and cross reference.
Encyclopaedias can be general, containing articles on important topics in every field that describe the total
accumulated knowledge on each topic or all that came before them. The general encyclopedias are larger
compendia and often contain guides on how to do a variety of things, as well as embedded dictionaries and
gazetteers. Every general encyclopaedic work is, of course, an abridged version of all knowledge discussed in depth
However, the discussion of the included topic represents the opinions and worldviews of a particular time and the
target audience is kept in view while discussing the topics. For example, New Encyclopædia Britannica,
Encyclopedia Americana, Collier‘s encyclopaedia, and German Brockhaus. The encyclopaedia can also specialize
in a particular field such as an encyclopedia of medicine, philosophy, or law, Encyclopaedia of library and
information science, International encyclopaedia of social sciences, McGraw Hill encyclopaedia of science and
technology, etc.
i) Supplement to Encyclopedia: It is an annual or periodical publication issued by the publisher of the
encyclopaedia. The purpose of encyclopedia supplement is to provide up-to-date information about the articles in
the basic set and to bring out a summary of the major events, which have taken place during a year. But in reality it
only serves as general reading and browsing and for summarizing the significant events. It is extremely useful to
determine the trend of development in a particular field during the previous year. Examples: Britannica Book of the
Year, Americana Annual, etc.
d) Bibliographical Sources: The term ―bibliography‖ was first used by Louis Jacod de Saint Charles in his
Bibliographia Parisiana. It is a technique of systematically producing descriptive list of written or published records
or in simple writing and transcription of books. A bibliography is a systematic listing of the records of human
communication. In its most general sense it is the study and description of books or other multimedia material.
Bibliographical works are almost always considered tertiary sources of information. They differ from library
catalogues by including all relevant publications rather than the items actually found in a particular library.
However, the catalogues of some national libraries also serve as national bibliographies, as they contain almost all
the publications of the concerned country. Standard citation formats are used in writing the bibliographies. The
main advantages of bibliographic entries are that they contain enough information for readers to locate the materials
and are presented in a consistent format. In many cases bibliography is the end result of any literature search. For
example, Indian National Bibliography, Indian Books in Print, etc.
i) Bibliography of Bibliographies: A bibliography of bibliographies lists the bibliographies which direct the reader
to useful bibliographies through subject, place, institution, etc. The bibliographies refereed to may be in the form of
a separately published book or part of the book or part of the periodical article or some other type of document.
Bibliography of bibliographies is highly selective in nature. For example, Bibliographic Index.
e) Indexing and Abstracting Periodicals: An index is a systematic guide to i) item contained in or ii) concept
derived from a collection. These items and derived concepts are represented by entries arranged in a known or
stated searchable order. According to Allen Kant, ―an abstract is a summary of a publication or articles
accompanied by an adequate bibliographical description to enable the publication or article to be traced‖.
The indexing and abstracting periodicals present a condensed form of the literature of the subject and
provide a scientific or specialist bird‘s eye view of the progress and development of the subject so that the inquirer
can select the most relevant documents relating to his work in the hand. An indexing and abstracting periodical
helps to find out specific information in the literature of a subject.
i) Citation Index: A citation index is an index of citations between publications. It allows the user to easily establish
as to which later documents cite which earlier documents. It is an ordered list of cited articles each of which is
accompanied by a list of citing articles. The cited articles are identified as references and the citing articles as

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source. In a simple way it can be said that cited articles are ancestors and the citing articles are descendents and this
descending relation of subjects is reflected through the citation index. Citations provide a further reading list
besides paying homage to the pionners and giving credit for their work; sometimes it also criticises, corrects and
disputes the previous contributions. The first citation indices were legal citators such as Shepard's Citations (1873).
In 1960, Eugene Garfield's Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) introduced the first citation index for papers
published in academic journals, starting with the Science Citation Index (SCI), and later expanding to produce the
Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) and the Arts and Humanities Citation Index (AHCI). Examples include ISI
citation indexes (available online under the name ―Web of Science‖), Scopus published by Elsevier publishers
(available online only), CiteSeer system publish, Google Scholar (GS), etc.
f) Geographical Sources: Geography is the study of the Earth‘s surface and its lands, features, inhabitants, and
phenomena, people's responses to topography and climate, and soil and vegetation. Geographical sources of
information can be of the following types:
i) Gazetteer: A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary, an important reference for information about places and
place-names, used in conjunction with an atlas. It typically contains information concerning the geographical
makeup of a country, region or continent, the social statistics and physical features, such as mountains, waterways,
or roads. It also includes information about the location of places, dimensions of physical features, population,
GDP, literacy rate, etc. World gazetteers usually consist of an alphabetical listing of countries, with pertinent
statistics for each one, with some gazetteers listing information on individual cities, towns, villages and other
settlements of varying sizes. Examples include The World Gazetteer, Worldwide Index, etc.
ii) Guides: According to ALA Glossary of Library Terms, a guide book has been defined as handbook for travellers
that gives information about a city, region or country or a similar handbook about a building, museum, etc.
A guide to the literature assists a user to use literature of a specific subject. It helps to evaluate and
introduce literature. It lays emphasis on the literature of a subject rather than its content and covers secondary and
tertiary sources. It presents a detailed account of the bibliographical apparatus and tools, basic literature, agencies,
etc. through which it is possible to follow the development, status and progress of a subject. It gives the broadest
bibliographical view of the subject. A guide to the professional organization gives the address and a brief
description of the organizations engaged in a particular field at the national or international level. Guides generally
include guides to the literature of a subject, guides to the libraries, guides to organization etc.
iii) Map: A map is defined as ―a representation of a part or the whole of the surface of the earth or a celestial body
delineated on a plain surface, earth points in the drawing intended to correspond to a geographical or a celestial
position‖. It represents the outer boundaries of a part of the earth or the earth as a whole on a plain surface. In
simple, it is a simplified depiction of a space which highlights relations between components (objects, regions) of
that space. Most usually a map is a two-dimensional, geometrically accurate representation, normally to scale, of all
or a portion of the three-dimensional earth's surface or of the heavens, or another celestial body. More generally,
maps can be devised to represent any local property of the world or part of it. Maps are usually stored in specially
designed cases which allow them to lie flat.
iv) Atlas: An atlas is a collection of maps, traditionally bound into book form, but also found in multimedia
formats. It gives geographic features, political boundaries and some time geopolitical, social, religious and
economic statistics. ALA Glossary defines atlas as ―a volume of map, plates, engraving, tables, etc with or without
descriptive letterpress‖. It may be an independent publication or it may have been issued to accompany one or more
volume of text. Some cartographically or commercially important atlases include Times Atlas of the World (United
Kingdom, 1920-present); Atlas Mira (Russia, 1937-present); National Geographic Atlas of the World (United
States, 1963-present); Historical Atlas of China (China). Some other atlases are thematic. Example: The Times
Atlas of World Exploration.
v) Globe: A globe is a three-dimensional scale model of Earth (terrestrial globe) or other spheroid celestial body
such as a planet, star, or moon. It may also refer to a spherical representation of the celestial sphere, showing the
apparent positions of the stars and constellations in the sky (celestial globe).
g) Biographical Sources: A biography is a description or account of the series of events making up of someone's
life, which is usually published in the form of a book or an essay, or in some other form, such as a film. An
autobiography is a biography of a person's life written or told by that same person. The biographical information
also can be obtained from almanacs, biographical dictionary, directories, encyclopedias, etc. Examples include
International Who‘s Who, Dictionary of National Biography, etc.
h) Current Sources: Current sources of information are brought out on annual basis that depicts some important
happening in the previous year. It may take the form of the following:
i) Year Book: A year book is an annual compendium of current information which may be sometimes restricted by

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subject or country or region. It is mostly used for answering questions involving the recent trends and current
developments. J. K. Cates defines a year book as ―a publication which is issued annually for the purpose of current
information in narrative, statistical or descriptive form‖. According to ALA Glossary, a yearbook is ―an annual
volume of current information in descriptive and or statistical form, sometimes limited to a special field‖.
ii) Almanac: The word almanac (also spelled almanack) is an annual publication containing tabular information in a
particular field (mostly covering information about rising and setting of moons, periods of low and high tides,
climate or weather related information) often arranged according to the calendar. According to the ALA Glossary,
an almanac is a) an annual publication containing a calendar frequently accompanied by astronomical data and
other information or b) An annual year book of statistics and other information sometimes in a particular field. It
records most of the astronomical data and various statistics, such as the times of the rising and setting of the sun
and moon, eclipses, hours of full tide, stated religious festivals, terms of courts, etc. Contents also include
discussions of topical developments and a summary of recent historical events. Major topics covered by almanacs
(reflected by their tables of contents) include: geography, government, demographics, agriculture, economics and
business, health and medicine, religion, mass media, transportation, science and technology, sport, and
awards/prizes. Sometimes almanac is grouped with yearbooks as this is also an annual publication giving current
events, developments, statistics, etc. Example: World Almanac and Books of Facts, Whitaker's Almanack,
Information Please Almanac, The Old Farmer's Almanac etc.
i) Directory: A directory is a list of names and addresses of persons, organizations, manufacturers or periodicals. It
may list information in a way which best serves the requirements of its user so as to enable them to get the required
information readily. S. R. Ranganathan defines a directory as ―a book containing the names, address, occupation,
etc of the inhabitants of a town or a district, a list of the user of a telephone system or of the members of a particular
profession or trade or a descriptive list of institution, enterprises or trade‖. ALA Glossary of library terms defines a
directory as ―a list of persons or organizations, systematically arranged usually in alphabetical or classified order
giving address, affiliation etc. for individual and address, officers, functions and such data for organization‖. In a
wider sense, even a list of periodicals or newspapers or places may also be termed a directory. Example: Times of
India Directory and Yearbook including Who‘s Who, Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information,
World of Learning, Universities Handbook, etc.
j) List of Research in Progress: A list or directory of research in progress covers the research activities of a single
institution, a laboratory or a group of institutions i.e. universities. The information content usually is a short
description of projects, names of investigators, period of investigation, and names of funding agencies and, in some
cases, reference to sources where preliminary results have already been published or likely sources of publication of
results.
List of research in progress helps an individual information seeker to get in touch with the investigation, to
get additional information about the work or can anticipate as to when and where to get the full report or results of
an investigation and thus to avoid duplication in research. Example: Current research project in CSIR Laboratories,
1972 and 1976 compiled by INSDOC, R and D Projects in Documentation and Librarianship of FID.
k) Notification of Forth Coming Conferences: The knowledge of forth-coming meetings, conferences, symposia,
seminar, etc. on a specific field should be notified to the members belonging to that specific domain. Keeping this
purpose in view some organizations publish small booklets giving essential general information about forth-coming
seminar, conference and workshop in a specific field. Example: Forthcoming International Scientific and Technical
Conference, Quarterly published by ASLIB.
l) Handbook: The term ―hand book‖ literally comes from the German word ―handbuch‖ i.e. a book which can be
held in the hand comfortably. It is a compilation of miscellaneous information in a compact and handy form. It is a
small manual, reference work or other collection of instructions, intended to provide ready reference regarding
procedures, principles, etc. table, graph, diagram and illustration are also provided. Louis Shores has defined
handbook as ―a reference book of miscellaneous facts and figures on one or many subjects assembled for ready use
in response to popular interest or to a specific need for concise handy information‖.
m) Manual: The word ―manual‖ is derived from the Latin term ―manualis‖ which means a guide book or instruction
book to pursue an occupation, art or study. The term ―manual‖ in common parlences refers to instruction to do
something with the aid of very explicit step by step directions. It gives instruction by means of specific and clear
direction. Louis Shores opined that ―manuals are sources that contain instruction for doing‖. ALA Glossary defines
a manual as a) a compact book, a handbook b) a book of rules for guidance or instructions in how to perform a task,
process etc. or make some physical subjects. Example: Fay, G.S. (1972). Rockhound‘s Manual. New York: Harper
and Row.
n) Statistical Sources: The statistical information is distributed in other reference sources. The dictionaries may

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contain population statistics. The encyclopedia may provide socio-economic data about large geographical areas,
which may be updated by their yearbook; the statistical yearbook may provide some other kinds of statistics over a
longer period of time, and so on. Example includes Demographic Yearbook, Statesman‘s Yearbook, etc.
o) Mathematical Table: In early days before calculators were cheap and plentiful, people were using mathematical
table i.e lists of numbers showing the results of calculation with varying arguments to simplify and drastically
speed up computation. The most common are multiplication tables, which most people know from their early
mathematics classes. Nowadays, peple use logarithm tables and so on.
Some of the reference sources overlap. For instance a supplement to an encyclopedia can be considered as a
part of encyclopedia or separately. Similarly, the sources of statistics can be considered under yearbook or as a
separate category.
Many of the above sources are now available in audio- visual format or as an online publication but still
they can be included under their respective categories. Besides, the traditional reference sources, Search
engine, Meta search engines can also be considered as reference sources of modern times.

UNION CATALOGUES
1. Definition: A union catalogue list in one sequence the holding or part of holdings of two or more
libraries. According to William A. Katz, a union catalogue is an ―inventory common to several libraries
and listing some or all of their publications maintained in one or more orders of arrangements.‖ Union
catalogues generally uses some location symbol for each and every libraries whose collection are included
in the union catalogue for easy location of documents.

2. Types: We may recognize local, regional and national union catalogue. Further division may be done
on the basis of the kinds of material include i.e. book, periodical, film, etc.

3. Functions: The functions of union catalogues are

i) Union catalogue serves as a locating tool for the document.

ii) It helps in identifying a given document for which bibliographic information is provided.

iii) It helps in interlibrary loan. iv) It helps in selection of documents.

v) It helps to achieve coordination in the acquisition and selection programme of a group of libraries. It
helps to avoid unnecessary duplication of material like periodicals, etc.

vi) It serve as a list of total document resource of libraries in a given geographical region.

4. Example: IndCat: Online Union Catalogue of Indian Universities, INFLIBNET, Available over:
http://indcat.inflibnet.ac.in/indcat/book.jsp

E-DOCUMENTS
E-documents: The term e-document or e-text is a broader term that includes the document in ASCII text
format. It may be content from a website, blog, wiki, discussion forum, discussion group, online journal
and so on.

The salient features of electronic documents are:

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i) They can be delivered to the desktop (although the desktop needs a computer)

ii) They can be read by more than one person at a time.

iii) The text can be searched.

iv) They can include multimedia and graphics, in color, at marginal cost.

v) They can be published more quickly than paper publications.

vi) They can be interactive; that is, they can foster an online exchange of ideas by e-mail.

vii) Have the ability to make hyperlinks, both internally and to other publications. This means that readers
can link directly to references cited in an article and also, with additional effort on the part of publishers
and indexers, to later articles that cite the article they are reading.

viii) Articles can be retrieved directly through links from abstracting and indexing databases.

ix) The content can be reproduced, forwarded, modified leading to possible problems with copyright
protection and preserving authenticity.

The main disadvantage is that, unless they are also printed on paper, they require specialized
equipment for reading.

a) E-journal: E-Journal is an all-electronic, peer-reviewed periodical in a specific field or in a general field

of interest. In the E-Journal environment the creation, transmission, storage, interpretation, alteration and
replication of electronic "text" including "display" takes place in electronic form. Some electronic
journals are online-only journals; some are online versions of printed journals, and some consist of the
online equivalent of a printed journal, but with additional online-only material.
Some journals are subscription-based, or allow pay-per-view access. An increasing number of
journals are now available as open access journals, requiring no subscription. Most working paper
archives and articles on personal homepages are free, as are collections in Institutional repositories and
Subject repositories.
Most electronic journals are published both in HTML and Portable Document Format (PDF)
formats, but some are available in only one of the two. Some e-journals are available over the internet
while some others are distributed on CD-ROMs, or by way of e-mail.
b) E-book: An e-book also called eBook, ebook, electronic book, is an electronic (or digital) equivalent of
a conventional printed book and is a proprietary file formats.
Some e-books are produced simultaneously with the production of a printed book, though in many
instances they may not be put on sale until later. Often, e-books are produced from pre-existing hard-copy
books, generally by document scanning, sometimes with the use of Robotic Scanners, having the
technology to quickly scan books without damaging the original print edition. Scanning a book produces
an image file, which must then be converted into text format by an Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
program. Occasionally, an e-book may also be produced by re-entering the text from a keyboard. As a
newer development, sometimes only the e-book form is produced by the publisher; it is usually possible
technically to convert this to a printed book by short-run printing.
A writer or publisher has many options when it comes to choosing a format for production of e-

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book. Formats available include, but are by no means limited to image file (.png, .jpg), Microsoft Word or
plain text files (.doc or .txt), Rich Text Format (.rtf), Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) (.html),
Open Electronic Book Package Format (OPF), Portable Document Format (.pdf), etc.
The hardware device used to read books in digital format is known as an e-book device or e-book
reader. The e-book reader includes FlipViewer, Haali Reader and FBReader, Plucker, Acrobat
Reader or Adobe Reader, Mobipocket (.prc), Cybook (Bookeen), iRex iLiad (based on eInk), Sony
Reader (based on eInk), eBookwise-1150 (based on former Gemstar technology), Jinke Hanlin
Reader (based on eInk), DNL Reader (http://www.dnaml.com/), eReader (formerly Palm Digital
Media) (.pdb), etc.
Among the first Internet-only publishers of new e-books were Boson Books, Hard Shell Word
Factory and Online Originals, all founded in the mid-1990s. Online Originals was the first e-book
publisher to win mainstream book reviews (in the London Times) and a nomination for a major literary
prize (the Booker Prize). Some of the free notable e-book repositories that are available over the web are
i) Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/).
ii) Facsimile Books & other digitally enhanced Works from: The University of Georgia Libraries
(http://fax.libs.uga.edu/).
iii) The Internet Public Library Online Texts Collection
(http://www.ipl.org/div/subject/browse/hum60.60.00/)
iv) ManyBooks.net (http://manybooks.net/)
v) Econlib (http://www.econlib.org/)
vi) Higher intellect project (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_intellect_project)
vii) epalm.org (http://www.epalm.org)
viii) Explorion (http://explorion.net/).
vix) PocketPCBooks.net (http://www.pocketpcbooks.net/)
The main advantages of e-books are
i) Searching: Text can be searched, except when represented in the form of images.

ii) Take up Little Space: Hundreds (or thousands) may be carried together on one device, Approximately
500 average e-books can be stored on one CD (equivalent to several shelves' worth of print books).
iii) Royalties Generation for Authors: E-books can be offered indefinitely, with no ―out of print‖ date,
allowing authors to continue to earn royalties indefinitely, and allowing readers to find older works by
favorite authors.
iv) Zooming Facility: Type size and type face may be adjusted.
v) Backup Copy: A backup can be kept in a remote place, so cannot be lost by fire, etc.
vi) Low Cost: Can be distributed at low cost since coloring copy also does not cost much.
vii) Speedy Distribution: Distributed instantly, allowing readers to begin reading at once, without the need
to visit a bookstore.
viii) Sharing: Can be simultaneously shared with many readers.
ix) Environmentally Viable: Economically and environmentally viable by cutting down on paper and
lumber production, economically viable by cutting down on ink production
x) Preservation: Does not wear over time, no risk of damage, vandalism, etc. on the pages.
Some of the disadvantages of e-books are:
i) Can be incompatible with the development of new hardware or software.
ii) To avoid damage or loss care must be taken in handling and storage of the books.
iii) Continuous reading can be harmful to the eyes. iv) Always need some equipment to read the book.
Since the late 1990s, the many newcomers to e-book publishing have included most major print publishers.
At the same time, many established e-publishers started to offer print versions of some of their titles. Thus the line
between the two is fast blurring.
E-books have their own bestseller lists, including those compiled by IDPF and Fictionwise. They even have
two yearly awards for excellence in e-books. The longest-standing and most inclusive of these is the EPPIE award,
given by EPIC since 2000. The other is the Dream Realm Award, first awarded to speculative fiction e-books in

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2002.

REFERENCE AND INFORMATION SERVICE

Reference and Information Service: The library is a service institution. The library services fall into two
main categories - information in anticipation and information on demand. Information in anticipation
relates to the current awareness / selective dissemination of information service. The information on
demand relates to the past information sought by a user and for which there is the provision of reference
and information service known as retrospective searching.

The provision of information in anticipation aims to keep the users well informed and up to date in
their field of specialization and also in the related subjects. The service in anticipation can be divided into
three broad categories - technical services, public services, and public relation and extension services.

Technical services are vital for all other services provided by the library. Any library would find it
impossible to provide public service for their patron without the work performed in ―the backroom‖ by
technical staff. The Card Catalogue or in a modern library OPAC is the result of the library technical
services. Other technical work includes classification, preparation of shelf list, preparation of various
other kinds of guides, etc.

Previously, people used to differentiate the reference service from that of information service, but
in reality there is no borderline between the two. The two services cannot be differentiated based on the
fact whether the librarian is referring the user to the sources of information or is directly providing the
information himself. Even, referring the user to the sources of information itself may serve the function of
information service for a particular user. The emergence of web has further changed the whole scenario.
Now the reference and information service goes side by side and they cannot be differentiated as it was
done earlier. If one however likes to differentiate then the information service can be treated as an
extended form of reference service. Infact, the information service is a relatively new term for reference
service. Characteristically, information service denotes the ultimate existence of the reference work to all
kinds of answers to questions which are based on all sources and which requires the service of the library
staff. However, the library services can be differentiated based on the user approach into two i.e service
on demand and service in anticipation. In case of service on demand, the staff waits for the users to
approach and make a request. The user gets the answer to their specific inquiries pin pointedly,
exhaustively and expeditiously. In the reference and information service in anticipation, the staff goes to
the user and the user waits for the staff / document / information. The information provided is of general
type mostly referred to the document rather than providing exact information.

Reference service in the early years of the twentieth century was limited in general to the
instruction and guidance. The implied policy was of minimal assistance and emphasis on the librarian as
instructor. Librarians, however, soon found themselves increasingly drawn into ―fact finding‖ and
providing direct information service. The need for librarians to become more expert in diverse fields led
eventually to a growing trend towards subject specialization in reference.

The Reference and Information Services Section addresses all aspects of reference works, in all
types of libraries, in all regions of the world. Current interests encompass the new electronic environment
and the resulting changes in reference work, role of the reference librarian, and the quality of reference
services.

1. Definition: According to Ranganathan, reference service is personal service to each reader in helping
him to find the document answering his interest at the moment pin pointedly, exhaustively and
expeditiously. It is the process of establishing ―contact between the right reader and right book at the right

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time and in the right personal way‖.
According to James I Wayer, reference work is ―that part of library administration which deals
with the assistance given to readers in their use of the resources of the library‖. This definition is too
narrow because in these days, the reference librarian assists the readers to use resources outside his/her
own library.
Samuel Rothstein defines reference service as ―the personal assistance given by the libraries to
individual readers in pursuit of information‖.
According to Hutchins, ―reference work includes the direct, personal aid within a library to
persons in search of information for whatever purpose and also various library activities especially aimed
at making information as easily available as possible‖.
ALA Glossary states, ―reference service is that phase of library work which is directly concerned
with assistance to readers in securing information and in using the resources of the library in study and
research‖.
2. Need and Purpose: The demand for reference and information services in libraries grew exponentially
with the end of World War II and the tremendous growth in higher education that followed. In general,
the need and purpose of reference service arises from the following facts
a) Complex Nature of Library Tools and Techniques: In order to facilitate the use of the library, the
librarian provides various tools like classification numbers, library catalogue (OPAC), shelf list, written
guides of various kinds, bibliographies, indexing and abstracting of journals / books, etc. But all these
tools are based on complex rules and practices and the users are not supposed to be aware of the ways by
which they can be operated. So, there need to be a reference librarian in the library who can serve as a sort
of canvassing agent for these tools.
b) Increase Volume of Information: A variety of information sources emerged in large numbers. It is so
large that it is impossible for the reader to keep track of its variety and its location. So, there is a need of
reference service for the selection of the right kind of document at less possible time.
c) Peculiarities of Sources of Information: Each kind of information source follows its own practices in
the arrangements of entries, provision of subject headings, preparation of indexes, etc. So, it is not always
easy to get the desired information out of some sources of information (indexing and abstracting journals,
bibliographies, encyclopedia, etc) without the help of the reference librarian.
d) Lack of Time: Information has a value only if they are received in time and put into practice. But
many research teams and others do not have the time required to search for information in their parallel
development. It is also not desirable to expect from a highly paid research scientist to spend time in search
for the literature in libraries. It is also unprofitable for the parent organization. So, the trend is to seek the
help of a reference librarian to get the information in time, for the preparation of bibliographies, indexes,
abstracts, and for arranging for translation etc.
e) Personal Psychology: The users may be of shy nature, gentle, aggressive, and meek; they may be less
educated or highly educated and so on. They need to be taken care of by a person when they come to a
library for the first time. Otherwise, they may feel utterly lost or confused with the result that they may
not come again. Even those who come regularly to the library would need occasional personal assistance.
All these call for an arrangement for reference and information service on demand.
f) Promote and Support Library Service: A good reference and information service is bound to
encourage the use of the library. The satisfied users serve as a friend of the library and can lead to greater
library support. After all, the reference service is treated as the hub of all the activities of the library. It
may be considered as the ultimate manifestation of the laws of library science.
g) National Economy: Sometimes the questions on a subject or topic are repetitive in nature in the event of some
local function. If each answer seekers goes to find the answer on their own, a lot of man – hours will be wasted. So,
in this regard reference service helps the national economy by saving the time for the users.

3. Strategies in Establishing a Reference and Information Service: For establishing the reference and
information service, or to provide the reference and information service, the librarian needs to go through

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the following steps:

a) Determining Aims and Objectives of the Library: The kind of reference service being provided
would vary from library to library. The service being rendered would depend upon the type of library, its
aims and objectives, its collection, the objectives of the reference section and the philosophy of the chief
librarian. The librarian should not waste much time in providing answers to the questions that do not
come within the scope of the parent organization, and his library.

b) Staffing: Library and information science professionals should be appointed to look after the on-
demand reference and information service.
c) Facilities Organization: In addition to an extensive research/reading room, there is also the need of a
multimedia room equipped with high-speed computers with Internet and multimedia capabilities, phone /
fax machine in the reference section so that the Reference Librarian can instantly provide the answers
sought.

d) Building Reference Collection: The maintenance of the print reference collections including
dictionaries, directories, and encyclopedia is a must for any kind of reference service. Compiling
bibliographies, establishing and maintaining vertical files, preparing displays, bulletin boards, and
exhibits also often fall within the scope of the reference staff. Some fugitive materials consisting of
newspaper-cuttings, magazine clippings, folders and collection of some similar kinds of materials should
also be included in the reference section.

e) Gathering Knowledge of the Subject: The librarian should have a sound knowledge about all the
reference collections in his library. He should also know about the search engine, subject directories and
so on.

f) Marketing/Visibility: The library reference services should be marketed extensively to get the
attention of the library users.

g) Origin of the Query: Queries to the Reference Librarian can be made by the library user himself
physically, by post, through phone calls, email, online chat, and so on. The Reference Librarian should be
in a position to answer the queries in a mode suitable for the user. He should be able to provide answer to
the fact-finding question on phone / chat instantly.

h) Reference Interview: A user will feel the need for information. He may approach the Information /
Reference desk and make a request for information in the form of a specific query. In the first attempt the
Reference Librarian should determine the readers‘ problem. He should be able to state clearly what the
reader wants.

i) Initiating the Search: The Reference Librarian should pick up the keywords to search in
bibliographies, indexes, online databases, subject search engines and so on. By using the prior knowledge
he/she should be able to decide the order in which each of the various sources available should be
consulted and then should follow the possible short-cut method.
j) Solving the Query: The reference librarian finds out and provides the answer to a specific question
raised by the library user. The information sought by the enquirer, its quality and level will depend on the
query and type of the question. It may take the form of delivering the specific information itself or direct
him to appropriate sources of information. The librarian may also get the concerned information
translated and provide the translated version of the document. He may provide a self prepared subject
bibliography, delivering the result of the literature search and so on. In all cases the reference librarian‘s
answer should be user-centric.

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k) Ethics and the Provision of High Quality Service: The library users have different psychological
temperaments, some are meek and inert, some have a superiority complex while some are not articulate
enough to express their wants or needs correctly or in a precise manner, and some others may be of
limited patience. The reference librarian should follow some basic ethics to deal with every one. He
should not share his personal experience about the users with others.

l) Assimilation: In the reference service experience is the most important thing. The librarian should
periodically be able to absorb information and learn from his experience so that in near future if same type
of problem arises his movement should directly lead him to the path most likely to provide the
information he wants.

m) Sharing Experience with Others: A reference librarian should try to share his experience with his
colleagues in the reference section. During his work, he would discover certain weakness in the
collection, in the library catalogue, in the arrangement of documents, etc. He should make suggestions to
his colleagues in various sections of the library to bring about the necessary improvement in the
functioning of the library.

The reference librarian would also be dealing with the indexing and abstracting services prepared
by outside organization, bibliographies, national and international document service. He should also share
and point out the shortcoming of such tools to respective authorities.

n) Continuing Education of Reference Librarians: The reference librarian should be regularly sent for
training. For him training is essential to find the information he needs. Besides, the emergence of the
digital information sources and the rapid changes in technologies make it necessary for the librarians to go
for training periodically.

CANONS OF CATALOGUING

1. Conon of Ascertainably: We have to make the choice of the headings. The choice and rendering of
main entry and specific added entries, and the heading and every other elements in either entry should
be determined by the information found in the title page of the documents and its over flow pages; in
extreme cases the information may be taken from the other pages of preliminary; but it is not desirable
to go beyond the preliminary pages.
2. Cann of Prepolence: The potency to decide the position of an entry among the various entries in a
catalogue should, if possible, be concentrated as much as possible, in the entry element. If total
concentration in the leading section is not possible, the minimum possible potency should be allowed
to over flow beyond it, to later section, and even this should be distributed in the later section in
decreasing order of intercity.
3. Canon of Sought Heading: The decision whether an entry with a particular type of heading, or with a
particular choice of that heading, or with a particular rendering of that choice. Or a with a particular
added entry arising out of it, should be based on the answer to the question;. ―It‘s or library staff likely
to look for a book under the particular type of choice or rendering of headings‖.
4. Conon of Context: The rule in a catalogue should be determined in the context of: The nature of the
cataloguing features of a book, prevalent in the mode of the book production; the nature of the
organization of the libraries prevalent in regard to mode and quality of library service; and the coming
into existence of published bibliographies and particular bibliographical periodicals.

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 The rule should also be changed from time to time to keep steps with changes in context.
5. Conon of Permanence: No element in an entry and the heading in particular entry should be
subjected to change by the rules of a catalogue codes except when the rules themselves are changed in
response to the canon of context.

INFORMATION NEEDS OF USERS

Introduction: Libraries endeavour to provide what the users require. These requirements are expressed in
terms of needs for specific piece of information or document. Libraries serve a large community of users
and make efforts to organize all their resources so that maximum information needs of maximum number
of users can be satisfied. But information needs depend upon a number of factors and differ depending
upon individuals‘ own functions, their interest as well as on the breadth and depth of their interest profiles
and upon the hierarchical position of the individuals.

The basic components of this system are (1) Problem (2) problem solving process and (3) Solution. The
problem is analyzed to determine the information needs. Solution results in resolving of the situation by
filling the gap in knowledge.

Kinds of Information Needs: There are four kinds of information needs:

1. Current Information Needs: In order to keep the users up to date in their respective fields of
development, the necessity of current information is intended to make available right information in
the right format of the seeker of the earliest possible. This need become more and more essential in
the field of research and development institutions where development is take place in many areas such
as new activities, new services rendered, new products and processes, new methods and techniques
etc. with the help of modern information technologies.
2. Exhaustive Information Needs: This is required when a particular information user needs particular
information exhaustively. Detailed information on a particular field helps the users to draw a suitable
conclusion for the purpose.
3. Everyday Information Needs: As day today activity vary from person to person, different kind of
users need different type of information at different point of time. Everyday information is expected to
be fast, reliable and up to-date.
4. Catching up Information Needs: Brief and precise information is the characteristics of catching up
information needs of the users. The information should be simple, so that users can easily catch it.
This is an easy approach, which gives the complete picture of that area in a precise form.

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INFORMATION SEEKING BEHAVIOR

Introduction: Behavior is normally associated with the psychological and emotional status, dynamics
and paradigm of an individual or organization in relation or reaction to internal or external situation.

Information seeking behavior refers to any activity of an individual that is undertaken to identify a
message that satisfies a perceived need. In other words, information seeking behavior can be said a
manner in which a user conducts himself in relation to a given information environment.

Elements of Information Seeking Behavior: Information seeking behavior is a matter more or less
related to the sense making in which the individual chooses an item of information that best fits to his
needs. Following are some important elements of information seeking behavior:

1. To conception of information as objective versus subjective.

2. Information passive recipient or object information purposive self controlling and sense making
beings.
3. Use of information on behavior applied across situation versus behavior understood as the result of
dialogue between systems.
4. User centric approach versus holistic approach.
5. Focus on external versus internal behavior.
6. Individual behavior versus information needs.

Categories of Information Seeking Behavior: People seek information in different ways for different
purposes. Thus the method of information seeking varies from person to person and situation to situation.
Longitude has identified the existence of two types of information seeking:

a. Specific information with equation acquaintance of the scholar.

b. Dependents information seeking when the subject is new and the scholar is not aware of it.

Approach of Information Seeking: Ellis David have enunciated the following six basic approaches of
information seeking:

1. Research Approach
2. Awareness Approach
3. Like-Dislike Approach
4. Community-profile approach
5. Interest, activities and group membership approach

Model of Information Use & Information Seeking Behaviour: Identification of information have no
doubt given meaningful results for meeting the information needs of the users and developed various
models of information systems. Various scholar gave some important of information seeking behavior.

Comparison of Models of Information Seeking Behavior:

Kuhlthan: Initiation → Selection → Identification → Exploration → Formulation → Collection →

Presentation

Dervin: Situation in Time & Space → GAP → (Intervening factors) → Bridging → Outcome

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Ellis: Starting → Chaining → Browsing → Differentiating → Monitoring → Extracting →
Verifying → Ending

Wilson: Context of needs → Activating Mechanism → Intervening Variables

Peter Brophy: Formulate → Locate → Request (Browse object) → Authenticate → USE → Return &
Release

Kuhlthu‟s (1994) model of information is not only a search process but it is a phenomenon. It is more in
context of students who select their research topic after initiation. This may not be applicable to other
categories of users who normally begin their search with pre-conceived implicit or explicit need preset in
their cognitive state.
[Initiation Selection → Identification → Exploration → Formulation → Collection → Presentation]

Kuhlthau also proposed a model of individual information search process identifying following 7 stages:
(1). Task initiation, (2). Topic selection, (3). Previous exploration, (4). Focus formulation, (5).
Information, (6). Search closure and (7). Start writing
1. Initiation: Before information needs earlier there is something which creates problem. When any
problem occurred then the information needs raised.
2. Topic Selection: The way or phenomenon a user looks. If someone has choose primary sources, there
should be some material / relevant things for selection.
3. Exploration: What is available, deciding what we need, where the information systems and searching
techniques. Before going to library a user has to know how many things are available on a particular
problem.
4. Formulation: To give exact terms
5. Collections: To collect the information
6. Presentation:
Dervin‟s Model of Information Seeking Behavior: Dervin‘s Model of ISB has basically four
components: [Situation in Time & Space → GAP → (Intervening factors) → Bridging → Outcome]

1. Situation in Time & Space: Where is a user- with the situation, environment and circumstances the
information need of the users changes. For the study purpose our needs is different.
2. GAP: A gap between contextual & desired need. What is the gap between information need and the
availability of information. If a user has the information, there is no problem, if not, a user will try and
desire will increase. .
3. A Bridge:
Situation

Gap Outcome
Bridge
S – Situation → Time / Space → Out

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4. An Outcome: Consequences and sense making results. A user will take decision after sense making
ultimate result. What a user actually did for getting the information. Sometimes an information user
succeed in getting information very easily, sometimes an information user has to work hard
Ellis‟s Model of Information Seeking Behavior: Ellis‘s Model of ISB is based on scholarly and
empirical studies.

[Starting → Chaining → Browsing → Differentiating → Monitoring → Extracting → Verifying →

Ending]

1. Starting: The steps that an information user applies or any initiation of an information user for
seeking his / her information needs.
2. Chaining: First of all look at journals, within a journal an information user look index, abstract,
citation links, bibliographical links to one another.
3. Browsing: What are and how many things are available, advance searches, direct search. What are
key words, structure, semi-structure. Direct or indirect search depends upon knowledge.
4. Differentiating: Filtering the information. Try to know which information is ore important to an
information user‘s requirements as far as his / her need is concerned. Try to know the authenticity of
available information in terms of author, publisher.
5. Monitoring: Up to date, changement according to the time, space or requirements.
6. Extracting:
7. Verifying: Again try to know the authenticity, reliability, accuracy, clarity, objectivity and relevancy
of accessed and retrieved information. Many things are available on a particular problem. What will a
information user choose.
8. Ending: Overall steps in whole process, what steps an information user has taken, to overview the
whole system for looking anything is missed or not. To look again the done work for correction.

Wilson Model of Information Seeking Behavior: Wilson describes a model of information behavior as
framework for thinking about a problem and differentiated between information seeking and information
searching behavior.

In Wilson‘s Model of ISB there are two theories: Information need is not a primary need. Before
information needs earlier there is something which creates problem. When any problem occurred then the
information needs arises.

The efforts discovering the user meet with information barriers. When information user start information
need searching, he has to face a lot of problems, psychological, cognitive (what he wants to study), and
affective (environmental force to do something in the searching of information.

[Context of needs → Activating Mechanism → Intervening Variables]

1. Context of Information Needs: Passive attention Scanning

Passive search Information Processing and use
Active search
Organized search

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2. Activating Mechanism: Stress / Copying theory
3. Intervening Variables: There are some factors which create hurdes in getting information needs such
as psychological, environmental, related to money, space, circumstances, fear of losing something or
someone place, going one place to another place for getting information. Information user knows his
destination but doesn‘t know how to reach there. Social responsibilities also affect the process of
information seeking behavior. Source characteristics also important in the process of information
seeking behavior such as a student has to write an assignment but the library is not opening or the
particular document is not available in the library.

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LIBRAMETRICS, BIBLIOMETRICS, SCIENTOMETRICS, INFORMETRICS,
CYBERMETRICS AND WEBOMETRICS
Introduction: Universe of knowledge is a complex output of man‘s intellect in the form of documented
literature. Now a days the division of subjects, in the universe of knowledge into sciences, humanities or
arts is known as information explosion or white plague, posed many problems and challenges among
libraries and information professionals. Identification and selection of documents is an example for such
challenges. So there is a need of special techniques or efforts to face these challenges.

Bibliometric/Scientometric study is one such useful technique which helps to solve the problems,
challenges posed by so-called information explosion. Over the years, several new terms have appeared,
represented quantitative studies in library and information science. They were known as ‗Librametrics‘ in
1940‘s, ‗Bibliometrics‘ in 1960‘s, ‗Scientometrics‘ in 1970‘s and ‗Informetrics‘ in the width of 1980‘s.
And now with the advent of information technology two new concepts namely ‗Cybermetric‘
Webometrics‘ are emerged in 1990‘s.

Librametrics: The term Librametrics has two roots: Libra and Metrics. The word ‗Libra‘ cannotes
‗library‘ and ‗Metrics‘ means measurement. The term librametry was formally used by Ranganathan in
the year 1948 at the ASLIB Annual conference held in Leamington Spa. Ravichandra Rao defines
bibliometric as ―Information process and information handling in libraries and information centres by
quantitavely analyzing the characteristics and behavior of documents, library staff and library users‖.

Bibliometrics: The study made by Cole and Eale on ―The History of Comparative Anatomy Part-I: A
Statistical Analysis is considered to be the first bibliometric study, where for first time in 1917, the
expression of statical analysis has been used in literature. Hulme was the frist to use the expression
‗statistical bibliography‘ in 1923 and later many others used it. After Hulme this term used by Henkle in
1938 in his article ―The Periodical Literature of Bio-Chemistry‘, by Gosnell in his dissertation in 1943.
Fusscler in 1948, 1949 and 1962, Berker in 1966 and Pritchard in 1968 and 1969 have used the term
statistical bibliography in their works.

Bibliometric Laws: The quantitative analysis of Bibliometrics developed three basic Bibliometric Laws
and that is Lotk‘s Law (1926) predicting the productivity distribution of various authors. Zipf‘s Law
(1933) describing the word-frequency ranking and the Bradford‘s Law of Scattering (1934) expalaining
‗distribution of documents (usually journals) in specific discipline or problem areas‘.

Lotka‟s Inverse Square Law: In 1926, Alfred J. Lotka proposed his inverse square law correlating
contributors of scientific papers to their number of contributions. His law provided fundamental
theoretical base for bibliomertic studies involving authorships. He was interested in determining ―the part
which men of different caliber contribute to the progress of science.‖for this he checked the decennial
index of ‗Chemical Abstracts‘ 1907-1916 and counted the number of names against which appear 123,
etc. he tabulated the data for 6, 891 names beginning with letter ‗A‘ and ‗B‘. Similarly the data from the
Auerbach‘s Geschieftafeth der Physik was also collected for the 1325 physicist.

For every 100 authrs contributing one article, 25 will contribute two articles, about 11 will contribute 3
articles and 6 will contribute 4 articles.

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Bradford‟s Law: Samuel C. Bradford first formulated his law in 1934 but it did not receive wide
attention until the publication of his book ‗Documentation‘ in 1948. He, while searching for papers in two
journals, ‗Applied Geophysics‘ and ‗Lubrication‘, noticed that the scatter of such papers among the
scientific journals had a common pattern. He described it as ―If a large collection of scientific journals are
arranged in order of decreasing productivity of papers relevant to a given subject then they may be
divided into three zones so that each zone produces 1/3 of the total relevant papers. The first, the nucleus
zone, contains a small number of highly productive journals, say n1; the three zones contains a larger
number of moderately productive journal, say n2; and the outer zone containing a still larger number of
journals of low productivity say n3.

Zipf‟s Law of Word Occurrence: Zipf developed and extended an empirical law of least effort. He said
that there is a relation between the rank of of a word and its frequency of occurrence in a long text. In a
long textual matter if the words are arranged in their decreasing order of frequency then the rank of any
given word of the text will be inversely proportional to the frequency of occurrence of the word i.e. If ‗r‘
is the rank of a word and ‗f‘ is its frequency, then mathematically zipf‘s law can be stated as follows: rank
( r ) al / frequency ( f ) or rf = C, where ‗c‘ is a constant.

Thus, these three laws are respectively based on number of authors contributing in discipline or other
field; distribution of articles in a set of journals; and ranking word frequently in a particular set of
documents.

Informetrics: According to Brookes, the term ‗Informetrics was first proposed by Otto Nacle of West
Germany in 1979. An FID Committee with broadly defined objectives in the provision of research and
technical data subsequently given this name. However, the term was not widely adopted until 1987 when
B.C. Brookes at the First Conference on Biblometrics and Theoretical Aspects of Information Retrieval
held at Diepenbeek, Belgium suggested that the term ―Informetrics‖ is the most appropriate term to cover
bibliometrics, scientometrics and other quantitative studies related to Information Science and it should be
included in the name of Second International Conference on the subject. Egghe and Rossueau also stated
in the proceedings of the conference that the term ‗Informetrics‘ was favored besides the terms
‗Bibliometrics‘ and ‗Scientometrics‘. The Third International Conference on Informetrics, held in
Banglore in 1991. ‗Informetrics‘ was used as a generic term to mean ―The use and development of a
variety of measures to study and analyse several properties of information in general and documents in
particular‖. Obviously, Informaetrics comprises of Bibliometrics and Scientometrics.

Tague-Sutcliffe defined the term as ―The study of the quantitative aspects of information in any form, not
just records or bibliographies, and in any form, group, not just scientists‖…. It can incorporate utilize, and
extend the many studies of the measurement that lie outside the boundaries of both ‗Bibliometrics‘ and
‗Scientometric‘.

Informetrics involves studies in: The growth of literature in subjects; How much literature is contributed
by various individuals, groups, organizations, countries, How much exists in various languages; How the
literature on a subject is scattered viz., over documentation types, language, periodicals. And, how quickly
the literature on some subject becomes out of date, i.e. studies of obsolescence. Which authors are most
cited, which journals are most cited is very important group of informetrics studies.

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Scientometrics: The term Scientometrics originated as a Russian term for the application of quantitative
methods to the history of science. This term was introduced by T. Braunin 1977, originally published in
Hungary and currently from Amsterdam.Scientometrics used to mean communication process in science
including socio cultural aspects and appears to most synonymous to science of science with more stress
on quantitative aspects. The term ‗Scientoetrics‘ is a field which applies quantitative methods to the study
of science as a process. It is a scientific discipline, whichperfors reproducible measurements of scientific
activity and reveals its objective quantitative regularities. ‗Scientometrics‘ also include statistical and
thesaurus methods, and indicators as to the number of citations, terms, etc.

According to Pouris, ‗Scientoetrics‘ is for science what econometrics is for economics‘.

According to Tague-Sutcliffe, ‗The study of the quantitative aspects of science as a discipline or

economic activity‘. Thus Scientometrics involves studies in:

 Sociology of science.
 History of science.
 Growth of science and scientific institutions.
 Behaviour of science and scientists.
 Science policy and decision.

Cybermetrics: ‗Cybermetrics‘ gained musc popularity since the mid 1990s with the advent of
Information Technology. As it is mainly concerned with the computer-science based approaches, it has
superseded all other metric studies in this Internet Era.

Cybermetrics is propsed as a generic term for ―The study of the quantitative aspects of the construction
and use of information resources, structures and technologies on the whole Internet drawing on
bibliometric and informetric approaches. It is defined as ‗quantitative study of Internet-related
phenomena. Cybermetrics thus encpasses statistical studies of discussion groups, mailing lists and other
computer-mediated communication on the Internet including www. it also covers quantitative measures of
the Internet backbone technolog, topology and traffic.

A range of such approaches has emerged since the mid 1990s with names like Web Ecology, 1998, Web
Intelligence, 2001, Web Mining, 1996, 2000, and 2004, and Web Graph Analysis, 1999.

Webometrics: Webometrcs and Cybermetrics are currently the two most widely adoptedterms as
synonyms. Webometrics is the study of the quantitative aspects of th construction and use of information
resources, structures and technologies on the www during on bibliometric and informetric approaches.. it
covers quantitative aspects of both the construction side and the usage side of the web embracing the four
main areas of present webometrics research: (a). Web age content analysis; (b). Web link structure
analysis; (c). Web usage analysis; (d). Web technology analysis (including search engine performance).

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BERLO‟S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

While the Aristotle model of communication puts the speaker in the central position and suggests that
the speaker is the one who drives the entire communication, the Berlo‘s model of communication takes
into account the emotional aspect of the message. Berlo‘s model of communication operates on the
SMCR model.

In the SMCR model

 S - Stands for Source

 M - Message
 C - Channel
 R – Receiver

Let us now study the all the factors in detail:

S - Source
The source in other words also called the sender is the one from whom the thought originates. He is the
one who transfers the information to the receiver after carefully putting his thoughts into words.

How does the source or the sender transfer his information to the recipient ?

It is done with the help of communication skills, Attitude, Knowledge, Social System and Culture.

 Communication Skills

An individual must possess excellent communication skills to make his communication effective
and create an impact among the listeners. The speaker must know where to take pauses, where to
repeat the sentences, how to speak a particular sentence, how to pronounce a word and so on. The
speaker must not go on and on. He should also make a point to cross check with the recipients and

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 listen to their queries as well. An individual must take care of his accent while communicating. A
bad accent leads to a boring conversation.

 Attitude

It is rightly said that if one has the right attitude, the whole world is at his feet. There is actually no
stopping for the person if he has the right attitude. A person might be a very good speaker but if he
doesn‘t have the right attitude, he would never emerge as a winner. The sender must have the right
attitude to create a long lasting impression on the listeners. An individual must be an MBA from a
reputed institute, but he would be lost in the crowd without the right attitude.

 Knowledge

Here knowledge is not related to the educational qualification of the speaker or the number of
degrees he has in his portfolio. Knowledge is actually the clarity of the information which the
speaker wants to convey to the second party. One must be thorough in what he is speaking with
complete in-depth knowledge of the subject. Remember questions can pop up anytime and you
have to be ready with your answers. You need to be totally familiar with what you are speaking.
Before delivering any speech, read as much you can and prepare the subject completely without
ignoring even the smallest detail.

 Social System

Imagine a politician delivering a speech where he proposes to construct a temple in a Muslim

dominated area. What would be the reaction of the listeners ? They would obviously be not
interested. Was there any problem in the communication skills of the leader or he didn‘t have the
right attitude ? The displeasure of the listeners was simply because the speaker ignored the social
set up of the place where he was communicating. He forgot the sentiments, cultural beliefs,
religious feelings of the second party. Had it been a Hindu dominated society, his speech would
have been very impressive.

 Culture

Culture refers to the cultural background of the community or the listeners where the speaker is
communicating or delivering his speech.

M - Message
When an individual converts his thoughts into words, a message is created. The process is also called as
Encoding.

Any message further comprises of the following elements:

 Content

One cannot show his grey matter to others to let him know what he is thinking. A thought has to
be put into words and content has to be prepared. Content is actually the matter or the script of the
conversation. It is in simpler words, the backbone of any communication.

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 Ted to Jenny -―I am really exhausted today, let‘s plan for the movie tomorrow evening‖.

Whatever Ted has communicated with Jenny is actually the content of the message. It is very
important for the speaker to carefully choose the words and take good care of the content of the
speech. The content has to be sensible, accurate, crisp, related to the thought to hit the listeners
bang on and create an immediate impact.

 Element

It has been observed that speech alone cannot bring a difference in the communication. Keep on
constantly speaking and the listeners will definitely lose interest after some time. The speech must
be coupled with lots of hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body movements
to capture the attention of the listeners and make the speech impressive. Hand movements,
gestures, postures, facial expressions, body movements, gestures all come under the elements of
the message.

 Treatment

Treatment is actually the way one treats his message and is conveys to the listeners. One must
understand the importance of the message and must know how to handle it. If a boss wants to fire
any of his employees, he has to be authoritative and can‘t express his message in a casual way.
This is referred to as the treatment of the message. One must understand how to present his
message so that the message is conveyed in the most accurate form.

 Structure

A message cannot be expressed in one go. It has to be properly structured in order to convey the
message in the most desired form.

 Code

Enter a wrong code and the locks will never open. Enter a wrong password, you will not be able to
open your email account. In the same way the code has to be correct in the communication. Your
body movements, your language, your expressions, your gestures are actually the codes of the
message and have to be accurate otherwise the message gets distorted and the recipient will never
be able to decode the correct information.

C - Channel
Channel - Channel actually refers to the medium how the information flows from the sender to the
receiver.

How does one know what the other person is speaking ? - Through Hearing.

How does one know whether the pasta he has ordered is made in white sauce or not ? - Through Tasting.

How does one know that there is a diversion ahead or it‘s a no parking zone? - Through Seeing.

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How will an individual come to know that the food is fresh or stale ? How do we find out the fragrance of
a perfume? - Through Smelling.

How will you find out whether the milk is hot or not ? - Through Touching.

All the five senses are the channels which help human beings to communicate with each other.

R - Receiver
When the message reaches the receiver, he tries to understand what the listener actually wants to convey
and then responds accordingly. This is also called as decoding.

The receiver should be on the same platform as the speaker for smooth flow of information and better
understanding of the message. He should possess good communication skills to understand what the
speaker is trying to convey. He should have the right attitude to understand the message in a positive way.
His knowledge should also be at par with the listener and must know about the subject. He should also be
from the same social and cultural background just like the speaker.

There are several loopholes in the Berlo‘s model of communication. According to the berlo‘s model of
communication, the speaker and the listener must be on a common ground for smooth conversion which
is sometimes not practical in the real scenario.

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SHANNON AND WEAVER MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Shannon and Weaver model is the most popular model of communication and is widely accepted all over
the world.

Peter is working as Vice president - Marketing with a reputed multinational firm. He is currently heading
Mike who in turn is taking care of a small team. Peter wanted Mike to prepare an exhaustive report on
marketing strategies which can be employed to achieve the goals of the organization. He also wanted a
detailed study on the competitor‘s activity by end of the day. While he was speaking, the company peon
interrupted to take the lunch order. Finally when Mike got the complete information, he in turn delegated
the responsibility to his team members. He tried his level best to convey what Peter actually expected his
team to prepare. At the end of the day, the team did prepare the report and submitted to Peter but there
were few errors which they rectified later on.

Who is Peter ?

Peter is actually the person who thought of preparing the detailed report for better output of the
organization. He is actually the one from whom the thought came. It was Peter‘s brain who came up with
this idea of preparing marketing strategies for the organization. Thus Peter is actually the source of
information.

Had Peter kept the idea in his mind only without sharing it with his team the organization would have
never been benefited out of it. It is very important for the individual to share his ideas as well as
information with others to make the best possible use of the information. Do you think, Mike and his team
would have come to know about Peter‘s idea if he had stored it in his brain only? Obviously NO. Peter
had to convert his thoughts into words and bring out the information through his mouth. Here mouth is
actually working as a transmitter which helps in transmitting the information, message from the brain to
the mouth after carefully putting the thought into words. Peter spoke about some reports which he wanted
from his team, the words or Peter‘s voice is actually the signal being sent to Mike about what he is
expected to do. Without signal or without content how will Mike know what he is supposed to do? Go
through the example once again. The conversation was interrupted by the peon who came for the lunch
order. In the same way signals get interrupted by various noises and distractions while traveling from the
sender and finally reaching to the recipient. Horns at crowded streets, hustle bustle of the market place,
babies wailing, people screaming are all various types of noises which get coupled with the signal or in
other words the information. Finally Mike could gather all the information from Peter after ignoring what
the peon spoke and downloaded it to his team who were supposed to prepare the report.

Shannon and weaver model simply proposes that a message actually originates from the person who gets
the thought or has the information. The sender is also called the Source of information or the Information
Source. The information then gets transmitted from the brain to the mouth and comes out as a signal
which then reaches the recipient after joining hands with several noises and other disturbances. The
recipient then further passes on the message to its final destination or other minds of other individuals.

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 Information Source (Thought / message)

Transmitter (Brain to mouth) [Along with noise and distractions-external barriers]

Signal

Recipient (Receives the signal)

Final Destination (Finally gets the message)

Let us go through the above example once again. The team did prepare the report but there were some
errors which got rectified later. This is the loophole of Shannon Weaver model. The message while
reaching the final destination might get distorted sometimes as different people interpret messages in a
different way. For Mike marketing strategy could be branding strategy but for the team marketing
strategies could be simple sales techniques to increase the output. Thus even a simple message can get a
different meaning after finally reaching its destination.

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SCHRAMM‟S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

After learning the Shannon weaver model, let‘s find out about Schramm‘s model of communication
which has its roots from the Shannon weaver model itself.

Wilber Schramm proposed the model of communication in 1954.

Information is of no use unless and until it is carefully put into words and conveyed to others. Encoding
plays a very important role because it initiates the process of communication by converting the thought
into content. When the information reaches the recipient his prime responsibility is to understand what
the speaker intends to convey. Unless and until the second party is able to understand or decode the
information what the sender wants to communicate, the message is actually of no use. Thus encoding
and decoding are two most important factors of an effective communication without which information
can never flow between two individuals. Schramm‘s model also revolves around the above principle.
According to the Schramm‘s model, coding and decoding are the two essential processes of an effective
communication.

He also emphasizes that the communication is incomplete unless and until the sender receives a feedback
from the recipient. Imagine a person sharing his thoughts with his friend and his friend not responding to
him. Is the communication complete? NO.Schramm believed that communication is actually a two way
process between the first party and the second party.

Let us understand more with the help of an example

Jennifer to Sam -―Will you accompany me for a movie?‖

Sam kept mum and did not respond and hence the communication between Sam and Jennifer was not
complete. If Sam was not interested for the movie, he could have responded or given the feedback to
Jennifer about his unwillingness. According to Schramm‘s model, whenever the information reaches the
recipient, it becomes his responsibility to give the feedback and let him know if he has downloaded the
message in exactly the same manner the speaker wanted. If he is not clear with anything or has any
doubts, it must be cleared with the speaker. Thus when the speaker conveys any message to the listener,
the listener, decodes the message and once again passes the message to the speaker after understanding it
and completing the full circle.

Sender

M↓ ↑M

Receiver

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M - Stands for message

Schramm believed that an individual‘s knowledge, experience and cultural background also play an
important role in communication. Individuals from diverse cultures, religion or background tend to
interpret the message in different ways.

Billy to Servant - ―Please bring something hot for me to drink as I am suffering from sore throat.‖

The servant brought him a glass of lukewarm water but Billy actually wanted a cup of hot chocolate
coffee. Hence different interpretation by the servant. He was not on the common grounds with Billy and
failed to understand his master‘s information. It was neither Billy‘s nor the servant‘s fault but actually the
differences in both their backgrounds which was to blame.

Go through another example

John to Teddy -―I get late for my office, please buy me a clock‖

Teddy went to a local market and gifted a clock to John and John was never late to office after that. He
could have also misinterpreted the message, then how come he could understand his friend‘s desire? A
Clock is always a clock whether Teddy has to bring it or any other individual has to bring it. A clock can
never be confused with a wrist watch or for that matter something else. There are some messages which
are more or less same for everyone. They are called as messages with a Denotative meaning which are
almost the same for all individuals and in such cases chances of misinterpretation and misunderstanding
gets nullified.

Please once again refer to the above situation of John and Teddy and slightly modify the situation. When
John wanted a clock, Teddy brought two clocks for him as he was two concerned for John and didn‘t
want him to get late. In this case John actually wanted a single clock but Teddy brought his emotional
quotient and personal affection in between. Such meanings are called Connotative meaning which are
affected by emotional factors. A message can also get distorted due to wrong body movements, gestures,
facial expressions and many other factors.

To conclude according to this model of communication when a sender passes on the information to the
receiver, the receiver must interpret it in the desired form the sender wants and give him the feedback or
respond accordingly. Any communication where the sender does not get the feedback, the communication
is not complete and thus ineffective.

203
HELICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Another very important model of communication is the Helical Model of communication. The Helical
Model of communication was proposed by Frank Dance in 1967 to throw some more light on
communication process. Dance thought of communication process similar to helix.

What is a helix?
A Helix is nothing but a smooth curve just like a spring which if goes upwards also comes downwards.
The Helical model of communication was designed by Frank Dance keeping the simple Helix in mind.

Let us understand the model with the help of an example.

A child from the very moment he comes to this world starts communicating. When a baby is born, the
nurse rubs his back to make the child cry. If the child doesn‘t cry, it is an indication of a still born child.

What does crying in this case refer to?

It is actually a way the child is communicating to his parents that he is alive, absolutely hale and hearty
and ready to face the challenges of the world. As the child grows up, he cries whenever he is hungry or
expects something from his parents and sometimes simply for his parent‘s attention. It is again a child‘s
own way of conveying his message to the whole world. When the same child grows up and starts going to
school, he soon interacts with his parents, teachers, friends in the form of words. Now crying actually gets
replaced by words or his speech but one thing which is common is the process of communication which
existed since the child‘s birth.

Thus the child actually started communicating from the very first day of his life and has been
communicating all through till the present day. This explains one part of helical model of communication.

According to the Helical model of communication, the process of communication evolves from the very
birth of an individual and continues till the existing moment. All living entities start communicating from
the very first day of their origin. When seeds are planted, they convey the message to the gardener that
they need to be watered daily and should be treated well with fertilizers and manure. When a plant
emerges from the seed it also starts communicating its need for water, sunlight, manure and fertilizers,
thus supporting the Helical model of communication. The same also applies for animals, birds, fishes and
all living creatures.

An individual in his elementary classes learns to pronounce a particular word or react to a particular
situation. It has been observed that even though the child grows up, he continues to pronounce that
particular word in the same way as he did during his growing up days or for that matter, if the same
situation arises again he would under all circumstances react in the same way as he did in the past. The
fear of the child when suddenly the light goes off at night resulting in a complete blackout is present in his
younger days as well as when he grows up.

The above example again makes the Helical model of communication clear. According to the Helical
model as the process of communication moves forward it also comes back and is largely dependant on the
past behaviour of the individual. The model believes that communication process is just like a helix which

204
moves forward as well as comes backward and is dependent on the behaviour patterns of the past
definitely with some modifications and changes. As the child grows up, he does make slight changes in
his past body movements or past pronunciation or facial expressions. He makes certain changes,
modifications in his communication and tries to get rid of the communication errors. An individual will
definitely get less nervous in his teenage days as compared to his childhood days, thus a slight change in
his behaviour.

Child (Day 1) communication evolves

Communication continues

↓↑

(Communication depends on past activities)

(Current day) communication continues with modifications

The Helical model of communication understands communication in a broader perspective and considers
almost all the activities of an individual from day one to till date. It cumulates all the activities occurring
in the complete span of an individual that affects the process of communication, which in turn goes
forward and also depends on the past activities.

205
SHANNON–WEAVER MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
The Shannon–Weaver model of communication has been called the "mother of all models." It embodies
the concepts of information source, message, transmitter, signal, channel, noise, receiver, information
destination, probability of error, encoding, decoding, information rate, channel capacity, etc.
In 1948 Claude Elwood Shannon published A Mathematical Theory of Communication article in two
parts in the July and October numbers of the Bell System Technical Journal.[2] In this fundamental work
he used tools in probability theory, developed by Norbert Wiener, which were in their nascent stages of
being applied to communication theory at that time. Shannon developed information entropy as a measure
for the uncertainty in a message while essentially inventing what became known as the dominant form of
"information theory."
The book co-authored with Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, reprints
Shannon's 1948 article and Weaver's popularization of it, which is accessible to the non-
specialist.[3] Shannon's concepts were also popularized, subject to his own proofreading, in John Robinson
Pierce's Symbols, Signals, and Noise.[4]
The term Shannon–Weaver model was widely adopted into social science fields such as education,
organizational analysis, psychology, etc., however some critics have labeled it a "misleading
misrepresentation of the nature of human communication", citing its simplicity and innability to consider
context.[5] In engineering and mathematics, Shannon's theory is used more literally and is referred to
as Shannon theory, or information theory.[6]
Shannon's capacity formula applied to the additive white Gaussian noise channel gives the Shannon–
Hartley formula,

where C is channel capacity measured in bits/second, W is the bandwidth in Hz, S is the signal level in
watts across the bandwidth W, and N is the noise power in watts in the bandwidth W.

MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online, or MEDLARS Online) is a
bibliographic database of life sciences and biomedical information. It includes bibliographic information
for articles from academic journals covering medicine, nursing, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine,
and health care. MEDLINE also covers much of the literature in biology and biochemistry, as well as
fields such as molecular evolution.
Compiled by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM), MEDLINE is freely available on the
Internet and searchable via PubMed and NLM's National Center for Biotechnology
Information's Entrez system. MEDLINE uses Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) for information
retrieval. Engines designed to search MEDLINE (such as Entrez and PubMed) generally use a Boolean
expression combining MeSH terms, words in abstract and title of the article, author names, date of
publication, etc.
DATA FLOW DIAGRAM (DFD)
A data flow diagram is a graphical representation of the "flow" of data through an information system,
modeling its process aspects. A DFD is often used as a preliminary step to create an overview of the

206
system, which can later be elaborated.[2] DFDs can also be used for the visualization of data
processing (structured design).
A DFD shows what kind of information will be input to and output from the system, where the data will
come from and go to, and where the data will be stored.
Thesaurus of engineering and scientific terms: a list of engineering and related scientific terms and
their relationships for use as a vocabulary reference in indexing and retrieving technical information

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD SERIAL NUMBER (ISSN)

Introduction: The ISSN is the International Standard Serial Number, which allows the identification of
serial publications. It‘s a standard numeric code made up of 8 digits whose last digit is a control character
that may be the letter ―X‖.

Why ISSN?
The ISSN distinguishes a particular serial from others. The ISSN also helps library patrons, libraries, and
others who handle large numbers of serials to find and identify titles in automated systems more quickly
and easily.

207
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BOOK NUMBER (ISBN)
International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier based upon the 9-
digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at
Trinity for the booksellers and stationers WH Smith and others in 1965. An ISBN is assigned to each
edition and variation (except reprinting) of a book. For example, an eBook, a paperback, and a hardcover
edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN.[12] The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on
or after 1 January 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007. An International Standard Book
Number consists of 4 parts (if it is a 10 digit ISBN) or 5 parts (for a 13 digit ISBN):

The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN-13 and barcode. Note the different check digits
in each. The part of the EAN-13 labeled "EAN" is the Bookland country code.

1. for a 13-digit ISBN, a prefix element - a GS1 prefix: so far 978 or 979 have been made available
by GS1,[13]
2. the registration group element, (language-sharing country group, individual country or
territory)[14]
3. the registrant element,
4. the publication element,[15]and
5. a checksum character orcheck digit.[15]
The 13-digit ISBN separates its parts (prefix element, registration group, registrant, publication andcheck
digit) with either a hyphen or a space. Other than the prefix and the check digit, no part of the ISBN has a
fixed number of digits.
The 10-digit ISBN also separated its parts (registration group, registrant, publication and check digit)
with either a hyphen or a space.

208
India: The Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF), part of the Ministry of Culture, is
responsible for registration of Indian publishers, authors, universities, institutions, and government
departments that are responsible for publishing books.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC COUPLING:
Bibliographic coupling operates on a similar principle, but in a way it is the mirror image of co-
citation coupling. Bibliographic coupling links to papers that cite the same articles, so that if papers A and
B both cite paper C, they may be said to be related, even though they don't directly cite each other. The
more papers they been citing, the stronger their relationship is.

CO-CITATION COUPLING:
Co-citation Coupling is a method used to establish a subject similarity between two documents. If
papers A and B are both cited by paper C, they may be said to be related to be another, even though they
don't directly cite each other. If paper A and B are both cited by many other papers, they have a stronger
relationship.
WEB OF SCIENCE
Web of Science is an online academic citation index provided by Thomson Reuters: It is designed for
providing access to multiple databases, cross-disciplinary research, and in-depth exploration of
specialized subfields within an academic or scientific discipline. Moreover, as a citation index, any cited
paper will lead to any other literature (book, academic journal, proceedings, etc.) which currently, or in
the past, cites this work. In addition, literature which shows the greatest impact in a field, or more than
one discipline, can be selectively obtained. For example, a paper's influence can be determined by linking
to all the papers that have cited it. In this way, current trends, patterns, and emerging fields of research
can be assessed. Web of Science has indexing coverage from the year 1900 to the present.

209
 LIST OF SOURCES FOR EVALUATION

General Encyclopedias:
1. Encyclopedia Americana. International Edition. 2006. 30 Volume, Americana Corporation New York.
1829;
2. New Encyclopedia Britannica. 32 Volume 15 Rev. Ed. 2005. Encyclopedia Britannica Incorporation,
Chicago. 1768;
3. World Book Encyclopedia 22 V. 1999. World Book Incorporation, Chicago, 1917;
4. Chamber‘s Encyclopedia. New Rev Ed. 1973. 15 V. 1989 International Learning System, London
1859-68
5. Collier‘s Encyclopedia with Bibliography & Indexes, 24 V. 1989. MacMillan Educational Company,
New York;
6. ALA World Encyclopedia of Library & Information Science, Ed. 3, 1993, ALA, Chicago, 1980;
7. Encyclopedia of Library & Information Science, 35 V. 1998, Marcel & Dekker, New York, 1968-88
8. Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, 15 V. The MacMillan, New York, 1930-35
9. Mac-Graw Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, 20 V. Ed 8, 1997, Mac-Graw Hill Company,
New York, 1960;
10. India: An Encyclopedia survey, IV, S. Chand, New Delhi, 1975;
11. Encyclopedia of Religion, 16 V. 1987, MacMillan Publishing, New York, 1988;

Biographical Sources:

1. Chamber‘s Biographical Dictionary, 5th Ed., 1990, W & R Chambers Ltd. 1987;
2. Current Biography, 1999, H.W. Wilson, New York, Monthly except August;
3. International Who‘s Who, Rutledge London, 1935, Annual;
4. International Yearbook & Statement Who‘s Who, London, Burke‘s Peerage, Annual, 1953;

Indian:

1. India‘s Who‘s Who, 1998-99, 26th Ed. INFA Publications, New Delhi, Annual, 1969;
2. The Dictionary of National Biography, (India), 4 V, 1972-74, Institute of Historical Studies, Calcutta,
1963/ 64, (4 Supplements in 1986);
3. Who‘s Who in India (Bombay), 1986, Business Press, Pune.

UK:

1. The Directory of national Biography, from early times 1900, 22 V

2. Who‘s Who: An Annual Biographical Dictionary, Adams & Charles, London Annual 1849

USA:

1. Biographical Dictionary of Librarians in US & Canada, 5th Ed. Chicago, ALA, 1970

Dictionary:

1. The Random House Dictionary of English Language, New Rev. & Updated Ed. (Unabridged), 1993,
Random House Inc. New York, 1966

210
2. Webster‘s 3rd New International Dictionary of English, (Unabridged), 3 V. 1986, Merriam Webster
Inc., Massachusetts
3. Oxford English Dictionary 2nd Ed. 20 V 1989, Oxford University Press, New York, 1933;
4. Webster‘s Unabridged Encyclopedia Dictionary pf English Language, 1986, 3 v, Britannica Inc.
Chicago , 1928;

Special Purpose Dictionary:

1. Rogets International Thesaurus, 5th Rev. Ed. 1994, Harper Collins Publishers, Inc. New York, 1852;
2. Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, 4th Ed. 1992, London, Oxford University Press, 1941;

Subjects:

1. ALA Glossary of Library Terms, 1983, ALA Chicago, 1943;

2. Mc Graw Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 5th Ed. 1994, Mc Graw Hill, New York,
1974

Science

1. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 16 V. {1970-80}, New York, Charles Scribner, 1970- Supplement

Directories

1. Directory of Special and Research Libraries in India, Calcutta, IASLIC, 1962;

2. Commonwealth University Hand Book, 2 V. 76th Ed. 2001, Association of Commonwealth
Universities, London, 1914
3. Directory of Special and Information Centres, 1999, 24 Ed. 3 V Detroit.
4. Indian Library Directory (SR Ranganathan), 4th Ed. 1985, ILA, Delhi, 1938
5. MTNL, telephone Directory of Delhi, 3 V, 1999, MTNL, New Delhi.
6. Universities Hand Book, 31st Ed. 2006, New Delhi, AJU, 1952
7. World of Learning, 2007, 57th Ed. Rout Ledge, Annual, 1947.

Bibliographical Sources:

1. Indian National Bibliography, Central Reference Library, Calcutta, 1958, Monthly

2. British National Bibliography, 2009, British Library, London, 1950, Weekly

Trade Bibliography:

1. Indian Books in Print, 2005, 3 v. Indian Bibliographic Bureau, Delhi, 1967;

2. Books in Print, 2007, 57 Ed. RR Bowker, New York, 1948;
3. Cumulative Book Index, A World List of Books in English Language, 1999, H.W. Wilson, New
York, 1898, Monthly

Guides:

1. Ulrich‘s International Periodical Directory, 2008, 46th Ed. 4 V, Bowker, New York, 1938

211
Union Catalogue:

1. National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serials in India, 1988, 4 V, NISCAIR, Delhi, 1965,
2. Union List of Social Science Periodicals, Delhi, ICSSR
3. Union List of Current Scientific Serials in India, 1981, Union Catalogue Series, INSDOC, New Delhi,
1965

Gazetteers:

1. Chamber‘s World Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the World, Rev. Ed.
2. The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, New York, Columbia University Press, 1952 (Supplement
1962)
3. Gazetteer of India: Indian Union, 4 V 1984, New Delhi, Ministry of Education & Social Welfare,
1965-78
4. Imperial Gazetteer of India, New Ed. 21 V, Oxford Calendron Press, 1881-Maps
5. Webster‘s New Geographical Dictionary, Ed. 2, 1984, Massachusetts, Merriam Webster‘s Inc. 1949-
Maps

Guide Books:

1. India: A tourist paradise, 1984, Sterling, New Delhi

Atlas:

1. Britannica Atlas, 1984, Encyclopedia Inc. USA, 1768….

2. Times Atlas of World Comprehensive Edition, 10th Edition, 1999, Times Books, London, 1967;
3. National Geographic Atlas of the World, 7th Ed. 1999, National Geographic Society, Washington,
1963
4. Times Atlas of the World History, 1995, London, Times Book, 1978…;

News Paper Digest:

1. Asian Recorder: A weekly digest of Asian Events with Index, 2000, New Delhi, 1935…., weekly.
2. Data India, 2009, Press Trust of India, New Delhi, 1976, weekly, cumulated annually,
3. Facts on File: World News Digest with Index, 2002, New York, 1940… weekly,
4. Keesing‘s Record of World Events, London, Longman Group, 1983, monthly.

212
 Indexing and Abstracting Services

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE ABSTRACT

Edition : Edition2008

Volume : 18

Periodicity : Monthly

Responsible Body : CSA Journal Division (Cambridge Scientific Abstract)

Publisher : Library Association (CILIP)

Place of Publication : USA

ROGET‟S THESAURUS OF ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES

Bibliographical Detail:

Name of the Source Roget‘s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases

Prepared by Susan M. Voyer

Printed in Great Britain

Place of Publication Horton Essex

Publisher Longman

Year of Publication 1982

Edition 2005

Introduction: Roget‘s thesaurus is a well known towards words lover user as a collection of words and
phrases are arranged according ideas rather than alphabetically. This thesaurus contains a practical word
list which attracts the students for a foreign language.

Purpose: Roget‘s Thesaurus offers words to express a given meaning. Its aim is to enlarge scope for the
readers, offering a wide range of expression for which users can make their own choice. Its main purpose
is to illustrate every aspect of topic under consideration encourage the information of a letter style by
repetition and suggesting alternative ways of structuring sentences. It is conclusive to clarity of thoughts
and expression by making the user more aware of what he or she wished to say by offering several
alternatives representing every meeting.

Scope: This thesaurus contains practice words list, which intense the students for a foreign language. In
this more exclusive material arranged into comprehensive framework with a clearly visible structure in
which each topic or concept has its own logical place. The vocabulary offered in this thesaurus is wider
metaphor, extremism, catch phrases, poetic and library expression, illustration from history literature and
everyday life; all are first to the will of thesaurus.

213
Treatment: Students of English find the work helpful, especially in writing essays as the graining work
under such topic provide them with a ready source, a suitable expression of the ideas, linguistic finds
readymade semantic with a close reference.

Arrangement: Roget‘s thesaurus arranged according ideas rather than alphabetically. The thesaurus has
been divided into six classes. The first three classes cover external world.

Class One: Abstract relation deals with such ideas and number order and line.

Class Two: Space is covered with movement shape and size.

Class Three: Matter covers the physical worlds and human kind precipitation of it.

Last three classes deals with the internal world of human being.

Class Four: Deals with Intellectual and human mind.

Class Five: Violation of human will.

Class Six: Emotion, religion and morality of the human heart and soul.

These six classes are further subdivided into sections. Each section deals with a particular aspect of class
with in which it is found. The sections themselves are further divided into headings. Each heading is
numbered. The headings themselves are divided into paragraphic group together according to the parts of
speech.

Authority: Its publisher Longman is the responsible publisher today. It published by Dr. Roget, who
himself is the well known personality. Accuracy is essential in a book of this kind and the resources a
modern technology have been drawn into climate human error where possible.

Format: It is Hard bound, red color, title is written on spine in golden color, pages are simple typography
is small, but visible with black ink. Headings are written boldly in black color.

Up-to-Datedness: New refinements have been added, worm parts are replaced and advantages have been
taken from modern computers technology to ensure reliability and smooth working.

Special Features: The special arrangement and wide range of thesaurus made it available for anyone
where he or she, with language whether they are writing a speech, a vowel or a letter. Index made able to
readers to find their own ways round the book and this is certainly the most convenient method of using
this thesaurus. New readers and those in a hurry will probably prefer to use the index at the back of this
book. The index is also completely computerized.

214
 ALA-GLOSSARY OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

Bibliographical Detail:

Name of the Source ALA-Glossary of Library and Information Science

Place of Publication Chicago

Publisher American Library Association

Year of Publication 1983

Introduction: It is a special subject dictionary which provides information about all the terms which
come under library and information science or those which are related to the subject.

Purpose: The ultimate aim or purpose of this glossary is to include the definition of typical and common
terms related in libraries and to solve the queries of the users. More over it also being together the terms
related to functions and activities of those agencies are also given.

Scope: The scope of ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science in terminology for the users of
library and its staff. They can find to their problems related to complicated terms of library and
information science. Above all, it also gives definition of difficult and common terms related to the fields
of knowledge like computer science, micrographic and archives and administration users related to
different fields and user‘s queries related to typical terms.

Coverage: This glossary has good and important material forms the view point that it nearly covers all
definitions of import terns related to library science and more definitions of other branches of knowledge.
Definitions of terms are having appropriate position and are also reliable and can be written for headings.
Moreover it also covers the abbreviations of important terms which are mentioned in bold letters.

Treatment-Readability: The ALA Glossary of library and information science in which definitions of
terms related to library and other fields of knowledge has a very simple language, any individual or
scholar can understand the terms easily. Moreover the important terms are defined in such a way that user
can get easily. The definitions and explanation of the terms gives the impression of their subjects.

Style: The style of ALA Glossary is such as is satisfying each of the users by which they can go through
it. Any person of any age group can access to it and understand it easily. In other words, it has popular
style.

Arrangement: The definitions and terms mentioned in this Glossary are arranged alphabetically order.

Format: Glossary is a handbook which is little but larger in size. As it is a glossary, so it includes only
definitions of terms and includes diagrams, maps, tables etc. The binding of the glossary is very attractive.

215
 LIBRARY LITERATURE

Bibliographical Detail:

Name of the Source : Library Literature (An Index to Library and Information Science

Place of Publication : New York

Publisher : H W Wilson

First Publication : 1921-22

Editors : C.R. Chler and M.M. Brerton

Year of Publication : 1988

Scope: It is a broad source which appears only once in any annual completion period. It indexes 223
periodicals in library and information science, published all over the world. Besides its covers, selectively
non-library service periodicals

INB-INDIAN NATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY-1980-81

Name of the Source INB-Indian National Bibliography-1980-81

Publisher Central Reference Library,

Ministry of Development,

Department of Culture, India

Printed by The General Manager,

Government of India Press, Nasik, 1987

Introduction: The INB-Indian National Bibliography is a classified record of current publications

published in India. It is based on publications deposited at the National Library Calcutta under the
Delivery of Book Act of 1954, as amended by Act no. 99 of 1956. At present INB is brought out monthly
and then cumulated in annual volumes. The following categories of publications are excluded from its
purview:

i. Maps
ii. Musical scores
iii. Periodical publication (except the first issue of a new periodical and the first issue of
periodical under new title).
iv. Keys and guides to text books.
v. Ephemeral Material

INB is a subject list of books published in India, in English, Bengali, Assamese, Hindi, Gujarati, Oriya,
Kannad, Malayalam, Urdu Marathi, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telgu.

216
Purpose: The purpose of INB is to provide an authoritative bibliographical record of current publications
in the major language of India, received by the National Library, Calcutta , under the provision of the
Delivery of Books(Public Library) Act, 1954.

Scope: The scope of INB is national and wide. It is a bibliographical record of current publications of In
dia. It is a list of books published in India and shows intellectual productions in terms of quality and
quantity of the country.

Authority: The authority of INB lies with the general editor Aakash Jena; Librarian of Central Reference
Library while the editor of INB are grateful to all these colleagues who are responsible for preparing the
manuscript of this volume of the press. The editors are grateful to the general manager and assistant
manager of the Govt. of the India Press, Nasik and all concerned member of the staff of the Press for
carrying out the printing of editors from different languages.

Treatment: The INB is a very useful bibliographical source to all those who want quick and easy access
to books and any other materials which may be of interest to him. As it is a record of current publications
in the major languages of India, it is equally useful to students, professionals, administrators and
researchers. In libraries, it also seems as a tool for book selection for readers to known what is available
on a given subject.

Arrangement: The bibliography presented in three parts; the classified, author and title, and subject
index. In the classified part, the entries are arranged by subject according to 16th edition of the DDC. The
extension of the Dewey Class number is shown by (1). In square brackets the color number is assigned at
the right hand bottom corner of each entry. The language of a book is indicated by a symbol. This is
likewise noted at the left hand bottom corner. The entries in the classified part are arranged alphabetically
by the name of the author of books index of each subject. When only the author of a book known it can
traced from the index. If the information in the index entry is found inadequate a reference may be made
to the classified part for full information by referring to the decimal code number assigned at the end of
the author index entry.

Format: The book is bound, blue color. The title and other information including the year of publication
and printer‘s name is given only on the spine in gold color. The inside headings are bold enough to read
out clearly. The style of writing is clear and readable. In the preliminary pages often preface tables of
contexts of vol.-1, list of abbreviations, language symbols, outlines of DDC, main divisions colon
classification and a table of trans literature is also given , pages are one good quality and of normal size.

Up-to-Datedness: The INB is a current national bibliography. It is brought out monthly and then
circulated in annual volumes. That is why it is quite current and up-to-datedness.

Special Features: Full bibliographical information about a book is given in the classified part in the
following order. The class number, year of author‘s birth and death. It provides the full title, the place of
publication, the publisher, the year of publication, number of pages, nature of illustration, if any size, the
nature of binding, the price, the service, etc.

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 LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE ABSTRACT

Bibliographical Detail:

Name of the Source Library and Information Science Abstract

Edition : 2008

Volume : 18

Periodicity : Monthly

Responsible Body : CSA Journal Division (Cambridge Scientific Abstract)

Publisher : Library Association (CILIP)

Place of Publication : USA

Introduction: Library and Information Science Abstract is a guide to articles covering library science,
information science, management and subject disciplines which are likely to be of interest to librarian and
information workers.

Purpose: It is a well known abstract which is much useful for the students, researchers and teachers of
library and information science. The aim of this abstract is to give the information about recent research
and development which has been taken place in the field of library and information science.

Scope: The scope of library and information science abstract is worldwide. It takes information from
primary journals of different countries. The subject covered include library and information science fulfils
the needs of the students and researchers. It has international scope. So it gives comprehensive
information about library and information science of each country.

Arrangement: It is not arranged alphabetically. I has been arranged according to the accession number.
All the articles in this abstract are arranged as accession number, author‘s name, author‘s affliction,
untranslated titles, and title transactions, journal title, year, volume, issue date, pagination, and abstracts.
There have been three indexes in each issue as author, source and subjects sources.

Treatment: Several headings and subheadings along with class numbers are given. Author and Subject
indexes are cumulated on annual basis. The subject headings and scheme of classification used are
experiments bound to be successful. The quality of indexing and abstracting is high.

Format: Each print issue of LISA contains following :

1. Brief user‘s guide.

2. Table of contents.
3. Abstracts of Journal articles.
4. Indexing section.

The color of each issue is yellow and title is white in red bold letters with picture. The titles are written in
bold black headings and it is divided according to the sub subject of library and information science. The

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typography is understandable to the users. The quality of papers is good. Twelve issues are divided into
two parts, One bound considers six issues which is hard bound in brink red and color.

Authority: It is published by CSA journal division USA. The authority of LISA has a reputed status in
the fields of library and information science and it is reliable for the students, researchers, scientists and
teachers.

Special Features: The electronic version of LISA is available on Internet also.

CHEMICAL ABSTRACT

Bibliographical Detail:

Name of the Source : Chemical Abstract

Publisher : Chemical Abstract Society (CSA),

―A Division of the American Chemical Society‖

Volume : 150

Year : 2009 Website : @ cas.org.

Periodicity : Weekly Place : USA

Introduction: In the present form, Chemical Abstract back to 1907 as a continuation of the Review of
American Chemical Research. This review was published as a section of Journal of the American Society
from 1897 to 1906.

Authority: There is no doubt that in the field of Chemistry, CA is the most authoritative abstracting
Periodical. It covers a whole area of Chemistry interest including Chemical engineering. The abstract is
uncritical, highly accurate and informative.

Purpose: It is careful endeavor of Chemical Abstract to publish to publish adequate and accurate abstract
of all scientific and technical papers containing new information of Chemical or Chemical engineering
interest and to report new chemical information revealed in the patent literature, but the American
Chemical Society is not responsible for omission or for such mistakes as may be made in abstract and
index entries. Chemical Abstract provided for the reader access to the original literature, but they do not
replace that literature. They are expected to be accurate, clear, concise and complete original document.
They are neither critical nor evaluate reviews. They are not meant to serve as laboratory manuals or
chemical data hand books. Their primary purpose is to give the accurate, quick and enough information
on the chemical content of the documents. Abstract to allow him to determine whether he wants to consult
the entire original publication.

Arrangement: Each weekly issue contains two parts (I) abstract and (ii) issue index. The abstract are
classified according to chemical subject based on a hidden scheme of classification and are arranged in

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eighty subject groups or sections. The listing of the particular section dealt with in each issue is found on
the first page. It provides the list of abbreviations and symbols used in CAS publication.

Scope: Chemical Abstract is the most comprehensive abstracting service in the world including abstracts
from a worldwide list of periodicals. This service is used for more than any other abstracting service
because research on chemistry and chemical technology has a bearing research in a large number of
fields. Chemical Abstract is an indispensable service for locating current articles on topic in the fields
concerned.

Format: The color of each issue is white. The heading is written in bold blue color. The pages are thin
and facts are clear. Each abstract has an accession number.

Up-to-datedness: The value of collective index enormous because they are time saving and because
errors can be corrected. The information provided, is reasonably up-to-date.

Special Features: Out of 80 Chemical Abstract sections 40 are available in computers readable, magnetic
tape form as six individual topic oriented information services. A list of periodicals abstracted by
Chemical Abstract is published at an interval of five years. However the periodical list; additions and
corrections is given on the last pages. Copyright of the articles to which citation in this publication refer is
held by the publisher listed at the end of the bibliographic citation unless otherwise indicated in the
original publication.

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 sMEDICAL INDEX

Bibliographical Detail:

Name of the Source : Index Medicus

Periodicity : Monthly

Publisher : NLM, National Institute of Health

Volume : 45

Editor-in- Chief : Donald A. B. Lindberg

Associate Editors : Kotzen, Robert B. Mehnert

Year : 2004
Website : www. nebi.nlm.mich.govt/pubmed.
Authority: There is no doubt that in the field of medicine, this Index is the most authoritative indexing
periodical. It is published by National Library of Medicine and National Institute of Health. These
publishing houses have a well reputed position. This index is written by well known experts.
Purpose: Index Medicus provides access to the literature in medical service and related behavior. It is
much useful for students, researchers, teachers of medical service. The aim of this index is to provide
recent information about recent development in the field of research which has been taken place in the
field of medical science.
Scope: Index Medicus is the National Library of Medicine‘s monthly bibliography of the journal of the
literature of biomedicine. Some journals that are published in foreign language are also published in
English but Index Medicus cites only one source. It serves the interest of entire community.
Format: This index has been divided into two parts- A-Q and R-Z. A-Q is in green color and the title is
written in white bold color. R-Z is in blue color. They have hard indexing cover. The pages are of fine
quality and the fonts are clear. They are bulky.
Arrangement: Each article cited in index Medicus is printed under one, are more subject headings and
the entry appears in full under each citations listed in Index Medicus are arranged alphabetically by
subject headings.
Up-to-Datedness: 1960-2000 there was an annual cumulation known as Cumulated Index Medicus.
Annually new subject headings are added and old ones are deleted. The editions serve to provide logocal
place to look for newly emerging concept or they provide more specifits in expending subject fields.
Special Features: Its online version is available – www. nebi.nlm.mich.govt/pubmed.
Medline plus any thing we want to se. All Index Medicus references indexed since 1966 may be searched
in MEDLIE on the World Wide Web (www. .lm.min.govt.)

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 BIOLOGICAL ABSTRACT
Bibliographic Detail:
Name of the Source : Biological Abstract Periodicity : Semimonthly
Volume : 114, issue no. 18 Year : 2007
Publisher : Thomson Place of Publication : USA
First Published in : 1926 Website :scientific.thomson.com

Introduction: Biological Abstract is a famous abstracting periodical which is normally used in the field
of bio-science.
Purpose: Biological Abstract helps in identifying effectively literature in the bio-science and offers a
large data base. Biological abstract is a must for large libraries and libraries specializing in any one area
of biological sciences. However, libraries with limited resources can‘t offered to subscribe to this
abstracting service.
Scope: Biological Abstract is a famous abstracting periodical which reports the worlds bio-science
resources covering more than 9000 serial and non-serial publications, published all over the world. It
reports approximately 220,000 items. Biological Abstract emphasizes on basic research papers from
primary biological and biomedical journals.
Treatment: The abstract is a non-article, brief, informative digest of the significant contents and
conclusion of papers.

Format: It is a soft bound bulky source of information. It has dark green cover page on

Normative Principles: 1. Law of Parsimony

2. Law of Impartiality

3. Law of Interpretation

Canon of Cataloguing: 1. Canons of Ascertainibility; 2. Canon of Prepolence; 3. Canon of Sought

Heading; 4. Canon of Context; 5. Canon of Permanence; 6. Canon of Currency; 7. Canon of Consistence;
8. Canon of Recall Value; 9. Canon of Individualization

In CCC added entries are called as BIE and CIE: Book Index Entries (Author, Title, Editor, and Series);
CIE: Class Index Entries (Alphabetical Entries and Subject Entries)

Principle of Osmosis: This principle advocates for reclassify and re catalogue the old collection.

Law of Symmetry: Two entries are symmetrical counterpart of each other, if one of the entries or
situations is given weight in any particular context the other entity or situation should also be given a
corresponding weight.

Principle of Unity of Idea: This principle was given by G. Bhattacharya. A catalogue should have
position of following elements:

a. Definition of catalogue terms;

b. Interpretation of catalogue terms in different context;

c. Choice of information for section of the entry d. style of recording it and rendering of it.

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