COURSE GUIDE MTH 112

COURSE
GUIDE

MTH 112
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Course Developer Dr. Nelson Ogbonnaya

Ebonyi State University
Abakaliki

Course Writer Dr. Nelson Ogbonnaya

Ebonyi State University
Abakaliki

Course Co-ordinator Mr. B. Abiola

National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

Programme Leader Dr. Makanjuola Oki

National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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COURSE GUIDE MTH 112

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006

ISBN: 978-058-315-7

All Rights Reserved

Printed by ……………..
For
National Open University of Nigeria

iii
COURSE GUIDE MTH 112

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction………………………………………………... 1-2
What you will learn in this course………………………… 2
Course aim………………………………………………… 2
Course objectives…………………………………………. 3
Working through this course……………………………… 3
Course materials………………………………………….. 3
Study units………………………………………………… 4
Textbooks and References………………………………… 4
Assignment Files………………………………………....... 4-5
Assessment………………………………………….……. 5
Final Examination & Grading………………………….…. 5
Course Marking Scheme…………………………………... 5
Strategies for Studying the Course………………………… 5
Tutors and Tutorial……………………………………. …. 5
Summary………………………………..…………………. 6

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Introduction

This course calculus I, which is also known as differential calculus, is

the first of the two calculus courses that will be offered by all 100 level
students wishing to have a Bachelor's degree in mathematics, chemistry)
physics, mathematics education, physics education, chemistry education,
social sciences, computer science and computer science education. This
course could serve as a reference course for all who wish to model real
life situations that will involve optimization or predication of resource or
commodities.

A vary good starting point is to ask you to attempt to provide an answer

to this question "what is calculus" calculus is the word used in the
Roman empire to describe a little pebble that was used in counting. But
today the word is used to describe that branch of mathematics that
extends the basic concept of elementary algebra and geometry into a
new tool used in solving a variety of real-life problems. Calculus is now
one of the important mathematical tools in solving most work of life.
For example you could use it in the prediction of the orbit of earth
satellites, in study of inertial navigation systems and radar systems.

In the modeling of economy, social and psychological behavior calculus

is widely used. Calculus is useful in solving problems in the field of
business, biology, medicine, animal husbandry and political science.
The history of discovery of differential calculus could be traced back to
2nd half of the seventeenth century, when Sir Isaac Newton (1642 -
1727) was able to explain the motion of the planets about the sun as a
consequent of the result known today as the Law of gravitational
attraction. In 1675 a German Mathematician Gottfried Whilhem Leibniz
(1646 - 1716) introduced the famous and basic notation dx andds which
you will use in this course and the second course respectively. Other
mathematicians since then have contributed to the growth and
development of differential calculus among such are Bernoulli of Busel,
Taylor, Lagrange and Maclaurin.

This course will consist of ten units divided into 2 modules. In the first
module you shall be introduced to basic mathematical concepts such as
real numbers functions, units and continuity. Differentiating a function
from first principles is shield in the first module. In the second module
you will acquire techniques of differentiation of functions such Sin x,
Cos x, Log x, ex, Cosh x, Sinh x, arc sinh x, arc cosh x, and arcsinh x.
you will also apply these techniques in sketching the graph of curves,
solving problems of minimization and maximization of values of
functions, finding rates at which quantity vary deriving the formula for
the equation of tangent and Normal to curves at a given point and
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

evaluation of the velocity and acceleration of a moving body in a give

interval of time.

In this course you would be required to do correctly every exercise

given within and end of the units. The course has been designed for you
in such a way that your proper understanding of unit 1 will make it very
easy for you to study unit 2 and so on. Do not forget to study all
definition properly and explain the definition. This is because it will
make you overcome unnecessary difficulties in the study of calculus as a
course. Finally in this course emphasis is placed on the technique
application and problem solving rather than theorems and proofs this
course on your own with minimum fusses through continuous practice
of solved examples and exercises.

What You Will Learn In This Course

In this course you will learn how to use the limiting process to find the
derivation of a function. You will combine the properties of numbers
and functions to find the derivatives of special functions. You will
extend these laws to finding derivatives of sum, difference, product,
quotient and composite of differentiation to find the derivatives of
transcendental functions such as sin x, cos x, ex, cu x, sin hx, cos hx etc.

You will also be required to apply the skills acquired in techniques of

differential to the following (i) Sketching graphs of curves (ii) Solving
minimum and maximum problem (iii) finding approximate value of a
quantity (iv) finding the equation of tangent and normal lines (v) finding
velocity and acceleration of a moving body.

Course Aims

This course aims to position you to a level of competence in the

techniques or skills in solving any type of problem on differentiation.

This you will be able to achieve by aiming to:

i) Review properties of real numbers

ii) Define properties of limit of a function
iii) Define basic properties of a continuous function both at a point
and within an interval of points
iv) Define basic concept of derivatives of a function
v) Acquire special skills in techniques of differentiation
vi) Relate differentiation of functions to real-life problems.
vii) Know rules of differentiation
viii) Apply the rules of differentiation to solving physical problems.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Course Objectives

On successful completion of this course you should be able to:

i) List all the properties of Real Numbers

ii) Define and identify a function
iii) Identify the type and characteristic of a given function
iv) Determine if the limit of a given function exists
v) Define and give example of a continuous function
vi) Calculate the derivatives of any given function
vii) Recall the rules of differentiation
viii) Sketch the graph of a function using differentiation as a tool
ix) Calculate the maximum and minimum values of any given
function within an interval
x) Determine the rate at which a given quantity changes
xi) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of a moving body within
an interval of time
xii) Derive the equation of a tangent and normal of a curve at a given
point
xiii) Find an approximate value of a quantity or function

Working through this Course

To successfully complete this course you need to read this course guide
and study all the units sequentially. You need not jump any unit. The
course has been prepared in such a way that knowledge gained in a
previous unit will be needed to understand any unit under study. Each
study unit is divided into sections. All sections of any unit should be
studied. Each section has self assessment questions with answers. Each
unit have tutor marked assignments. These are assignment that will be
submitted to your tutors at your study center. The course should take
you about 34 weeks to complete. How you will spend your time in each
section of each unit will be given to you below in the course materials.

Course Materials

You shall now be given list of materials; you will need to successfully
complete the course. They are as follows:

i) Course guide for MTH 114

ii) Study units for MTH 114
iii) Recommended Textbook

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

iv) Assignment file

v) Dates of Tutorials, Assessment and examination.

Study Units

There are ten study units in this course. It is given to you as follows:

Module 1

Unit 1 Basic Properties of Real Number

Unit 2 Functions
Unit 3 Limit
Unit 4 Continuity
Unit 5 Differentiation

Module 2

Unit 1 Rules of Differentiation

Unit 2 Higher Derivatives and Implicit Differentiation
Unit 3 Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Function.
Unit 4 Differentiation of Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Function
Unit 5 Application of Differentiation

Textbooks and References

The following are recommended textbooks you could borrow or

purchase them:

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Thomas G.B and FINNEY R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational

Books, Nigeria

Assignment File

Assignment File and Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) are assignments.

There are at least 10 assignments at the end of each unit. You are to
make sure you do at least six of them in each unit and submit to your
tutor at the study center attached to your answer. You will find these
assignments in your assignment files.

Assessment

Final Examination & Grading

The final examination for these courses MAT 114 will be between 2 to 2
% hours durations.

Course Marking Scheme

Assessment Marks
Assignment 25 out of which the best 3 from
unit will be chosen so the mark
expected is15 x 3 = 45

BONUS

Five-bonus mark will be given for attempting all the assignment in the
assignment file.
Final exam: 50% of overall course mark
Total = 45 + 5 + 50 = 100.

Strategies for Studying the Course

The course has been presented with less theory and more practice.
Therefore self - test exercise have been provided at the end of most
sections in the unit. A careful study of the solved examples will be a
useful guide to the exercises provided at the end of each section of a
unit. Also working through the exercises at end of each section will help
you to solve the assignment files. With several worked examples you
will not find it difficult to solve and achieve the objective of the course.

While reading through this course makes sure that you check up any
topic you are referred to in any previous unit you have studies. These

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

references were given so that you use them to understand the topic under
study.

Tutors and Tutorials

To be supplied by NOUN.

Summary

In this course you have studied

i) The basic properties of real numbers

ii) Types and characteristics of functions
iii) Properties of limits and Algebra of limits of functions
iv) Continuous and discontinuous function
v) How to apply differentiation of functions to solve real life
problems and evaluate target and normal to a curve at a given
part.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

COURSE
GUIDE

Course Code MTH 112

Course Title Differential Calculus

Course Developer Dr. Nelson Ogbonnaya

Ebonyi State University
Abakaliki
.
Course Writer Dr. Nelson Ogbonnaya
Ebonyi State University
Abakaliki

Coursrse Co-ordinator Mr. B. Abiola

National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

Programme Leader Dr. Makanjuola Oki

National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006

ISBN: 978-058-315-7

All Rights Reserved

Printed by ……………..
For
National Open University of Nigeria

viii
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 …………………………………………………… 1

Unit 1 Basic Properties of Real Numbers ………..……… 1 -16

Unit 2 Basic Properties of Real Numbers ………..……… 17-28
Unit 3 Characteristics of Functions ………………..…… 29-43
Unit 4 Limits ………………………………………..…… 44-56
Unit 5 Algebra of Limits ……………………………..…. 57-70

Module 2 …………………………………………………… 71

Unit 1 Algebra of Limits ……………………………….. 71-86

Unit 2 Differentiation …………………………………… 87-108
Unit 3 Rules for Differentiation I ………………………. 109-119
Unit 4 Rules for Differentiation II ……………………… 120-132

Module 3 …………………………………………………… 133

Unit 1 Further Differentiation ……………………………

133-152
Unit 2 Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions
and Exponential function …………………………
153-171
Unit 3 Differentiation of Trigonometric 41 Functions ……
172-186
Unit 4 Differentiation Inverse Trigonometric Functions
and Hyperbolic Functions …………………………
187-208

Module 4 …………………………………………………… 209

Unit 1 Cur ve Sketching ………………………………….

209-222
Unit 2 Maximum – Minimum and Rate Problems ………
223-242
Unit 3 Approximation, Velocity and Acceleration ………
243-257
Unit 4 Normal and Tangents ………..……………………
258-264

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

MODULE 1
Unit 1 Basic Properties of Real Numbers
Unit 2 Basic Properties of Real Numbers
Unit 3 Characteristics of Functions
Unit 4 Limits
Unit 5 Algebra of Limits

UNIT 1 BASIC PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Set
3.2 Real Numbers
3.3 Basic Axioms of Real Numbers
3.4 Individuals and Absolute Value
3.5 Bounded Sets
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will be introduced to the basic concepts of real numbers.
Basics properties of real numbers is the first topic or concept you are
required to study in this course. There are reasons among others why
real numbers should be the first topic to study in this course.

Firstly numbers are very important in all calculations, a fact you are
already familiar with

Secondly, the properties of numbers is very essential to the development

of calculus.

Lastly, all the topics in mathematics that you will be required to study
during your programme will involve the use of some properties of real
numbers.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

In view of the above you should endeavor to carefully study all the
topics covered in this unit and as well as complete all assignment
Materials learnt in this unit will help you in understanding all other
topics you will learn throughout this course.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading through this unit you should be able to:

1. List correctly all types of numbers

2. Recall 3 basic axioms of a real number system
3. Identify all types of intervals
4. Define 4 properties of absolute value of a real number
5. Define a bounded set.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Sets

When you collect items of similar characteristics or functions together,

you could say that you have a ‘set of such items’. For example, you can
have a set of books, a set of furniture, a set of dissecting instruments etc.

Therefore you could define a set as a collection of distinct (definite

distinguishable) objects which are selected by means of certain rules or
description. Hence a set is a mathematical concept used to describe a
list, collection or a class of objects, figures etc.

The objects in the list or collections are called elements or members of

the set

Example of Sets

1) The students of national Open University

2) {1,2,3,4...... }Set of Natural Numbers
3) The set of stalls in a market

Sets are denoted by single capital letters A, B, C etc. or by the use of

braces, for example, {a, b, c} denotes the set having a, b, and c as
members or elements.

You will now be introduced to some specific sets, and symbols

associated with them which you will likely use throughout this course

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Specific Sets Symbols Statements

1.Null or Empty set ø It is a Set which has no

member.

2. An element of Set α∈A a is an element of A

3. Not an element of b∉A b is not an element of A

4. Universal Set પ largest Set containing all elements

under considerations (largest Set
containing all Sets).

5. Subset A⊂B A is a subset of B

or BcA (each element of A also belong
to B).

Specific Sets Symbols Statements

6. Proper Subset A⊂B A is a proper subset of B

(A is subset of B)
A\B B has at least one element
Which is not in A.
7. Union of Sets A∪B This is the set of all
elements which belong to
A or B i.e: AVB = {x : x E A
or x(=-BI

8. Intersection of Sets A∩B This is the set of all element

which belong to A and B both
i.e; A(V= {x:xcA and xEB}

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Look around where you are right now identify 10 different objects.
Group each one that could be used for:

l. Eating
2. Sleeping
3. Cooking
4. Sitting
5. Decoration etc.

Classify each of the identified objects.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.2 Real Numbers

You will continue the introduction to the course for differential calculus
with the study of real numbers. You are already familiar with the
following types of real numbers.

i. Natural Numbers

The set of positive whole number/1,2,3,4,....., are called natural

numbers. The letter N is used to denote the set of natural
numbers. These numbers are used extensively for counting
processes. For example, they are used in counting elements of a
set. You can represent this numbers as N= {X:X =1,2,3,...) set of.

ii. Integers

Next in line to the set of Natural Numbers is another set that

makes subtraction possible i.e, it allows you to find the solution
to a simple equation as x + 2 = 6.

This set is derived by adding the set of negative numbers and

zero to the set of Natural numbers.

It is called the set of integers and it is denoted by the letter Ζ or I.

Hence the set of integers is given as

Z = {x:x = ..., -3 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ---}

iii. Rational Numbers

You can see a gradual building up process in the various stages of

development of numbers. That is, in order for you to be able to
carry out division and multiplication correctly, you need to enrich
or add a new set of numbers to the set of integers. So that you
will be able to find a solution to equations like 2x = 3.

Therefore if we add the set of Negative and positive fractions to

the set of integers we get a new set of numbers called the set of
Rational Numbers.

The word `rational' is from the word ratio. Since 2:1 = 2/1 and
1:2 = ½. Set of rational numbers could be given as that number
that can be expressed as the ratio of two integers of the form p/q,
where p and q are relatively prime integers, i.e; p and q have no
common division other than 1. The set of rational number is
denoted by the letter Q.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

iv. Irrational Numbers

A number which is not rational is irrational. Irrational numbers

are not expressible as p/q. The set of irrational is denoted by the
letter IQ

Examples of such numbers are √2,√3, √7 log Π, etc. The above

number can be written as infinite decimal i.e; or decimal that
does not repeat itself.

Rules Governing Addition of Number

Given that a,b, and c belong to the set R of real numbers then;

A1. R is closed under addition

a+b ∈ R ( This implies that the sum of any two real number must
be a real number)

A2. Addition is commutative

a+b = b+a

A3. Addition is associative

(a+b}+c= a+(b+c)

A4. Existence of additive identity

0+a= a+0 = a (i.e; 0 is the additive identity)

A5. Existence of additive inverse

a+b = b+a = 0 (i.e; corresponding to each a∈R there is b∈R such
that a+b = 0 → b = -a)

similar to the rules for addition you have those for multiplication,
still assuming that a, b and c R the.

MI. R is closed under multiplication.

If as ∈ R (i.e the product of any two real numbers is a real
numbers)

M2. Multiplication is commutative

cb = bc

M3. Multiplication is associative

(bc) = (ab) c

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

M4. Existence of multiplicative identity

-a. 1 = 1.a = a (1 is the multiplication identity)

M5. Existence of multiplication inverse

ab = ba = 1 (i.e; corresponding to each a∈R a 0, there is
b∈R
b=a-' such that b=a-1

D1 Multiplication is distributive over addition

a(b+c) = a.b + a.c

The set of real numbers combined by means of the two band

operations namely addition (+) and multiplication (.) as expressed
above forms a field. The above rule Al-A5, M1M5 and D1 are
known as the field axioms. Because of the field axioms satisfied
by elements of the set of real number, the set R is a field.

Question: Is the set of rational numbers a field?

The third axiom possessed by the set of real numbers is the axiom
of order. Thus there exist an ordering relation between any two
elements of the set of real number. The relation is denoted by the
symbol > or < which is read as `greater than' or `less than'.

If a-b =0 then a=b or b=a. If a-b then a>b or b<a.

The properties of the order axiom will be stated based on `>' (the
ones based on < are implied)

v. Real Numbers
The union of the set of rational (Q) and irrational (IQ) form the
set of real number. It is denoted by the letter R.

You can visualize the development of real numbers system in a

flow chart below:

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

REAL NUMBER
R

Rational number Irrational

Number Q IQ

Integer Z

Natural Number
N

In symbols we have this relationship

NCZ - CQ, Q ∩ I Q = O and Q ∪ I Q = R

N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q, Q ∩ I Q = ∅, Q U I Q = R

From the above relationship what can you say about the
following statements?

1. All integers are natural numbers

2. All rational numbers are real numbers
3. Some rational numbers are natural numbers
4. Not all real numbers are rational numbers
5. All natural numbers are irrational numbers.

3.3 Basic Axioms of Real Numbers

You are already familiar with the four arithmetic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of real numbers. From the last
section you noticed that each arithmetic operation is directly or
indirectly involved in the stages of the built-up of the structure of real
numbers. This built up is derived from a set of fundamental axioms or
truths which is turn are used to deduce other mathematical results or
formulation. Such axioms are categorized into the following.

For example; The extend axiom says that the set of real numbers has at
least two distinct elements

Next is how any two or more elements of the set of real numbers could
be added. You must be familiar with addition. You will now see that
addition of two or more real numbers is carried out under some specific
rules.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

i. If a, b and c belong to R then the law of trichotomy holds.

Either a>b, a=b or b>a

ii. If a>b and b>c then a>c

(i.e.; `>' is transctive)

iii. If a>b then a+c > b+c

(i.e; addition is monotone)

iv. If a>b and c>o then ac>bc

(i.e.; multiplication is monotone)

Remark: If a∈R and a>o then a is said to be positive. If on the

other hand a<o then a is said to be negative. If a = 0 then a is to
be non-negative.

* So far you have studied.

Open Interval If a < b

3.4 Interval and Absolute Value

In this section you will continue the study of properties of real number
by reviewing the concept of the real number line. After which you will
be introduced to what an interval is and how a solution set of an
inequality could be represented as a set of point in an interval.

Real numbers can be represented as points on a line called the real axis
or number line. There is one-to-one correspondence between the
members of the set of real numbers and the set of points on the number
line. Commonly known to you is the fact that the set of real numbers to
the right of 0 is called the set of positive numbers, while the set of real
numbers to the left of 0 is called the set of negative numbers. 0 is neither
positive nor negative.

√2
I I O I I I
-4 -1 1 3

Figure 1: Showing the number line.

Remark: The one-to-one correspondence between the real

numbers and the points of the number line makes it possible for
us to use point and members interchangeably.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Definition of an Interval

Let ab∈R and a<b then the set of all real numbers contained between a
and b is called an interval, these two real numbers a and b, Bare, referred
to as the end points of the interval .

Open Interval

If a<b then the set of real numbers specified by the inequalities{x: a<x
<b} is called an open interval and is denoted by (a, b) have a and b are
not member of this set of real number.

Closed Interval

If a<b, then the set of real numbers specified by the inequalities (x:
a≤x≤b} is called a closed interval and is denoted by [a,b]. All points
between a and b as well as a and b belong to this set [â;b].

Half Open or Half Closed Interval

The set specified by the inequalities.

{x:a≤x<b} or {x:a<x≤b} is called half open or half closed

interval and is denoted by [a,b) or (a,b].

Infinite Interval

The set of all numbers less than or equal to a given number c or the
set of numbers greater than or equal to a given number c is called an
infinite interval

i.e the set {x:a≥c} = [c, α)

{x:x≤c}= [-α, c)

{x:x∈R}= [-α, α)

{x:x>c}= [c, α)

{x:x<c}= [-α, c)

3.5 Bounded Sets

You will now learn about bounded sets and use it to identify intervals
that are bounded or unbounded Upper Bounds.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Upper Bound

Lets S be a non-empty subset of R. If there exist a number K∈R such

that x≤k, for all x∈S then the set S is said to be bounded above. And K
is known as an Upper bound.

Supremum

If there is a least member among the set of Upper bounds of the set S,
this member is called Least Upper Bound (LUB) or Supremum of the set
S and is denoted as Sup. S.

Example: Given that, S={1, 3, -1, -2, 4, 10}

i) List 4 Upper bounds for S

ii) Identify the Supremum for S

Solution

From the definition above any number K such that xc-s and x≤k, is an
Upper bound i.e. K= {10,11,12, 13,)

The least among the k's is 10 therefore the Sup S = 10

Example let (i) S={x:x = 2} Then Sup. S = 2 why?

Lower Bounds

Let S be non-empty subset R. if length of Interval

The number (b-a) is called the length of the interval (a,b), and [a,b]

You are familiar with inequalities and you could recall that to solve an
inequality is to find the set of numbers that satisfy it. Inequalities play
such an important role in calculus, that is imperative that you know how
to use the concept of interval to represent the set of solutions that satisfy
a given inequalities.

Example:
Solve the inequality 2-2x≥4

Solution:
2 (1-x)≥4 (divide by 2)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

1- ≥2 (subtracted 1)
x≥- 1 (multiplied by - 1)

Solution in set is given in the interval [ -l, α )

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Solve the following inequalities:

i. 3x -3 ≥ 9
ii. 4x – 8 ≥ 10
iii. 4x – 7 ≥ -10

Absolute Value

You are familiar with the distance between zero and a point on the
number line. You are equally aware that length or distance cannot have
a negative value.

Let the distance between 0 and a be denoted by the symbol. a

x = distance between 0 and x
a-b= distance between a and b or b and a
therefore a>0. You can define the absolute value of a number x
as the distance between the point x and zero which satisfy the
following conditions:

i. x = x if x > 0.
ii. x = x if x < 0
iii. x = 0 if x = 0

Example:

-3 = 3

3 = 3

0 = 0

The relation

k = x, x>0

is equivalent to the relation

-x ≤k≤x

⇒ k∈[-x, x]

11
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Some properties of Absolute value:

l. a = a = -a
2. ab =  a  b
3. a2= a 2
4. a+b≤a+btriangle inequality
5.  a- b ≥ 1a - b1

*Remark Properties 3 and 4 imply that the sum of the length of

two sides of a triangle is always greater than the length off the
third side.

Example: Show that:

i.  a+b ≤a+b
ii.  a+b ≥  1a- b1

Solution:

l. ( a + b)2= a2+2 a b+ b2

a2 + b2 2ab (since a>a)

⇒ ( a + b)2 (a+b) (taking square root of both sides)

a + b  a+b (sine a2 =a2)

Hence the required result

ii.  a-b  1a - b1

Let c = a-b then a = c+b

a= c+b c+ b

= a-b + b
a - b a-b which is the required proof.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Show that a-b c a - b

There exists a number k∈R such that x k for all x∈s then the set S is
said to be bounded below and k is known as a lower bound of S.

12
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Infimum

If there is a greatest member among the lower bounds of the set S, then
that member is called Greatest Lower Bound (GLB) or infimum of the
set.

*Remark: The supremum of a set if it exists is unique. The same applies

to infimum of a set in other wards there cannot two distinct elements
called the Sup S.

Examples: given the set s = (-4, -3, -1, 0, 2)

i. list 5 lower bounds of set S
ii. identify the infimum

Solution:
i. let k be the set of lower bound of s then k = (-10, -6, -8, -5,
-4)
ii. the greatest member of set k is -4. Therefore inf S =-4.

Bounded Set

Let S be a non-empty subset of R. if there exist a number k∈R such that

x=x for all x ∈s then the set S is said to be bounded.

In other words a set S is said to be bounded if it is bounded below and

above

Example:

Given the following sets of number identify

i. bounded sets
ii. unbounded sets
iii. infimum
iv. supremum

Given the following sets of numbers

A = {-1,-2,0,1,2,3,4,)
B = {x:-2<x 5}
C = {x:x>-1}
D = {x : x ∈ (-α,α)}
E = {x : x ∈ (-α, 0}

Identify (i) bounded sets

13
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Determine which of the sets that are bounded or unbounded, for

the bounded set, identify the supremum and infimum

Solution:

Set A is bounded
Sup A=4, and Inf A = -2
Set B is bounded
Sup B = 5 and Inf B = -2
Set C is unbounded
Set D is unbounded
Set E is unbounded

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have been able to learn about properties of real numbers
and the development of real number system. You have observed that
using the axioms you have studied you see a gradual and logical build
up of the set of real numbers starting from the set of natural numbers.

You have studied how a set of real numbers could be represented using:

i) the concept of interval

ii) the concept of absolute value
iii) Inequalities

You have studied that a set of numbers represented by an interval can be

bounded or unbounded.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied fundamental concepts of a set:

1. Extend axiom, Field axiom and order axiom of a set of real

numbers

2. The gradual extension of the set of natural numbers to the Real

number
3. The definition of absolute value of a real number as:
x ={x if x 0
{-x if x < 0
4. Types of intervals of set of real numbers namely
a. Open interval (a,b) = {x : a < x < b }
b. Close interval [ajb] = {x : ax b}
c. Half-closed or half open interval
[a,b)={x:a x b}

14
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(a,b] _ {x : a < x b}
where a1b ∈R
5. That a bounded set is that set that is bounded below and above
i.e. there is a number of K∈R such that
x k for x∈s then set S is said to be bounded

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1. Define a bounded set.

2. Determine if the following sets are bounded:

i. S=(x : x∈= [0,I]}
ii. S=(x : x∈ (0,1) }
iii. S=(x : x∈ (0,1]j
iv. S=(x : x∈ [0,1)}
v. S=(x : x∈ (-α,1]}
vi. S=(x : x∈ [-2, α)}

3. Given examples to illustrate the following:

a. A set of real numbers having a supremum
b. A set of real numbers having an infimum
c. A set of real numbers that is bounded

4. Determine if the set of Natural numbers is bounded below. What

is the infimum if any

5. List elements of the following sets of integer:

i. S=(x : x∈- (-4,I)}
ii. S=(x : x∈ [-2,4]}
iii. S=(x : x∈ (-1,3]}

6. State whether the following are true or false in the set of real
numbers:
a. 2 ∈ ( - 2, 2)
b. -1 ∈ (-00,0)
c. 4 ∈ [4, 0o )

7. Show that x - y ≤ x-y

8. Give a precise definition of:

i. The supremum of a bounded set
ii. The infimum of a bounded set

15
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and FINNEY R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

16
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

CONTENTS

2.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions of a Function
3.2 Representation of Function
3.3 Basic Elementary Functions
3.4 Individuals and Absolute Value
3.5 Transcendental Functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The concept of functions and its corresponding definition as well as its

properties are very crucial to the study of calculus. Simple observation
of any physical phenomena has made it imperative for us to be
interested in how variable objects are related. For example, you are
familiar with how distance traveled by a body freely falling in a vacuum
is related to the time of the fall or how the concentration of a medicine
in the blood stream is related to the length of time between doses, or
how the area of a circle is related to the to the radius of the circle.

The types of relationship between two variables in this unit will be

considered, also the study of the concept of a function is very important
since the properties of functions -are what you will use whenever you
want to find the derivative of a function. It is important you study
carefully and diligently all the various types of functions and their
characterization.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to

1. Define a function
2. Identity all types of functions
3. State the domain and range of a function
4. Combine functions to form a new function.

17
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions of a Function

You will start the study of this unit with the definitions of a function and
its various forms of representation.

Definition 2.1

A function is a rule which establishes a relationship between twosets.

Suppose X and Y are two sets, a function f from X to Y is a rule which
attributes to every member x∈X a unique member y∈ Y and it is written
as

f : X→ Y (which reads `f is a function from X to Y)

The set X is called the domain of the function, while the set Y is called
the co-domain of the function.

Another definition of a function is given below as:

Definition 2.2

A variable y= f (x) (in words f (x) reads f' of x) is to function of a

variable x in the domain X of the function if to each value of x∈X there
corresponds a definite value of the variable y∈ Y.

Basically every function is determine by two things:

(1) the domain of the first variable x and

(2) the rule or condition the set of ordered pairs (x,y) must satisfy to
belong to the function.

You will have a better understanding of the definitions above after going
through the following examples.

Example 1

Let the domain of x be the set X={-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}

Assign to each value of X the number;

Y= 2x The function so defined is the set of pairs (-2, -4), (-1,-2), (0,0),
(1,2) and (2,4)

18
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example 2

f : N→Z, defined by f (x) =1-x is a function since the rule f (x)=1-x

assigns a every member x∈ N to a unique member of the set Z.
Z is a set of integers.

Example 3

If to each number in the set x∈ (-1, 2) we associates a number y = x2 +1

then the correspondences between x and x2 +1 defines a function.

3.2 Representations of Function

In the above definition of a function you were introduced to the concept

of a domain .From the definition of a function ,the domain of a function
could be defined as the set of value for which a function is defined. The
independent variable x is a member of the domain. The dependant
variable y that corresponds to a particular x-value is called the image of
the x-value. The set of value taken by the independent variable y is
called the range of the function. The range is the image of the domain.

Any method of representation of function must indicate the domain of

the function and the rule that the ordered pairs (x,y) must satisfy in order
to belong to the function> In this unit you will study two basic methods
of representing a function namely:

1. Analytical method (i.e.; representation by means of a

mathematics formula)
2. Graphical method

1. Analytical Representation

This is given by a formula which shows you how the value of the
function corresponding to any given value of the independent
value can be determined.

Example refer to example 5.5. in Unit 5.

The formulas y=x2 +1 and y = 3-x specify y as a function of x. In

the above example the domain of the function is assumed to be a
subset of R for which the formula, representing the function
makes sense.

19
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2. Graphical Representation

A function is easily sketched by studying the graph of the

function. In unit .... you would be required to plot the graphs of
certain function so materials of this section will be useful to you
then. Let us define what a graph of a function is

Definition 4. The graph of the function define by y= f (x) is the

set of points in a rectangular plane whose co-ordinate pairs are
also the ordered pairs (x,y) or [x, f(x)] of the function.

Another way you can view the above definition is to look at the
steps of describing or drawing the graph of the function y = f (x) .
To do this you choose a system of coordinate axes in the x-y
plane. For each x∈ X, the ordered pair [x, f (x)] determines a point
in the plane (see fig. 1)

[x,ƒ(x)]
,ƒ(x) O

Fig. 1.

You will come across graphs of each type function that will be
considered in this unit, the role each graph plays in understanding
their respective functions will then become clearer to you.

3.3 Basic Elementary Functions

You will continue the study of function by considering the various types
of functions and their graphs

20
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

1. Constant Functions

The simplest function to study is the constant functions. A

constant function have only one constant value y for all values of
belonging to the domain. i.e. ,ƒ(x)= a for all x∈X where X is the
domain of the function (see fig 2)

You noticed that the graph of a constant function is a straight line

parallel to the x- axis.

a , ƒ(x) =
a
*

X
O
Fig. 2

In fig.2. ,ƒ(x) =a is a graph parallel to the x-axis at a distance a units

from the x-axis.

2. Polynomial Function

1. Any function that can be expressed as

. ,ƒ(x)) = aoxn + a1 xn-1+ a2xn-2 + -----+

xn-1+ an (A)

where a1, ,,, a1........ an, are constant coefficients is called a

polynomial function of n degree.

You can derive various forms of functions with different

graphs by varying the value of n.

21
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example 1 - If you substitute n =1 into expression (A)

above you get a linear function i.e., . ƒ(x) = aox + a1
The graph is in Fig. 3a.

2. If you put n=2 in expression a you get a quadratic

functions.

i.e. ƒ(x) = aox2 + a1x + a2

See Fig 3b.

3. If you substitute n=3 into expression (A) you get a cubic

function

i.e. ƒ(x) = aox3 + a1x2 + a2x + a3

You could continue this process as much as you want.

ƒ(x) = x2
ao = 1
(a1= a2) = 0)

ƒ(x) = x - 1
(ao = 1 )
(a1 = -1)
Y

22
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

-1

1 X
-1

get equate for MathCAD

3. Identify Function

There is a function that assigns every member of the set domain

to itself.

Let X be domain of the function then ,ƒ(x) = x for all

x∈X. In some other textbooks identify function are
denoted as Ix. The graph of an identity function is a
straight line passing through the origin
(see Fig 4)

Fig 4

4. Algebraic Function

23
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

When two polynomial are combined together to construct a

function of this form.

P(x) = aoxn +.....+ an

Q(x) boxm +.....+ bm

The above function is called a rational algebraic function.

Example ,ƒ(x) = 2x
x-1

3.4 Transcendental Function

This is a. class of functions that do not belong to the class of algebraic

functions discussed above. They are very useful in describing or
modeling physical phonemic. Therefore you need to study them because
they will be needed in the subsequent units.

1. The Exponential Function

A function ,ƒ(x) = ax where a > 0 and a ± 1 is called an

exponential function.

A special case of an exponential function is where a = e i.e.

x
,ƒ(x) = e this function is know as the natural exponential
function. Its graph is shown in Fig. 5

Y
Y =℮X
3-
`
2-

1-

O
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

Fig. 5.

2. Logarithm Function

24
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Any function ,ƒ(x) which has the property that:

fƒ(x, y) =,ƒ(x) + ,ƒ(y) for all x, y > 0

is called a logarithm function

Example: Let ,ƒ(x) be a logarithm function then

ƒ(1) = ƒ(1 . 1) = ƒ (I) + ƒ (1)= 2ƒ (1)

⇒ ƒ (1) = 2ƒ (I)
⇒ ƒ (I)=0

for x > 0 ƒ (l) = ƒ (x .1/x ) = ƒ (x) + ƒ (1/x) = 0

⇒ ƒ (1/x) = - ƒ (x).

Let x > 0 and y > 0 then

,ƒ(y/x)= ,ƒ(y-1/x)= ƒ (y) + ƒ (1/x)

Since ,ƒ(1/x) = - ,ƒ(x) then

,ƒ(y/x) = ,ƒ(y) - ƒ(x)

Let ,ƒ(x) = log x.

Then log (x/y) = log x - log y.

And log (y/x) = log y - log x.

Log (1/x) = - log x.

2. The Natural Logarithmic Function

The ,ƒ(x) = Ln (x) where x ± 0

Is called the natural logarithmic function.

Its graph is shown in fig. 6. (this function derived its definition

from calculus see unit...)

25
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

X
0
1 2 3 4

3. The Trigonometric Function

The function define as:

,ƒ(x) = Sinx, ,ƒ(x) = Cos x,,ƒ(x) = tanx.

,ƒ(x) =Cot x, ,ƒ(x) = Cosec x, and ƒ(x) =Sec x.

are called trigonometric functions.

4. Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The function define as

ƒ(x) Sin -1-x, ,ƒ(x) =Cos-lx, ,ƒ(x) = tan-lx.

are called inverse trigonometric functions.

5. Hyperbolic Functions

There are classes of function that can be form by combing the

exponential function.

For example:

,ƒ(x) =℮ X +℮ -X = Cosh x
2

,ƒ(x) =℮ X - ℮ -X = Sinh x
2
These functions are very useful in computing the tension at any
point in high-tension cables you see in some of the highways
across the country. They are also important in solving some

26
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

classes of problems in calculus. The rules governing them are like

that of the trigonometric functions.

The functions: Cosh x = 1/2(℮ X +℮ - X ) (cash reads gosh x) and

Sinh x = 1/2 (℮ X +℮ - X ) ( sinh reads cinch x)

may be identified with coordinates of point (x,y) on the unit

hyperbola x2-y2 = A

Recalled that the functions sin x and cos x with the point (x, y) on
the unit circle x3 + y2 = 1 in some text trigonometric functions are
called circular functions. So the name hyperbolic is formed from
the word hyperbola. Other hyperbolic functions like tanh x, Coth
x, Sech x, and Cosech x can be derived from cosh x and sinh x.

6. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

The functions Y= sinh-l x, Y = Cosh-Ix, are called inverse

hyperbolic functions.

Others are Y= tanh-l x, Y= Cech-lx, Y=Cosech-lx,

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have studied the definitions of a function. You have
studied two ways a function can be represented. You have studied types
of functions - elementary and transcendental functions.

5.0 SUMMARY

You have studied to:

i. State the definition of a function of one independent variable.

ii. Use graph to describe types of functions, quadratic, sin etc.
iii. Recall various types of function.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Give precise definitions of the following:

1. Domain of a function
2. Function of an independent variable.
3. Exponential functions.
4. Logarithmic functions
5. Give two ways a functions can be represented.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

27
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

28
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 3 CHARACTERISTIC OF FUNCTIONS

CONTENTS

3.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Functions
3.2 Inverse Functions
3.3 Composite Function
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Investigation of function are carried out by observing the graph of the

function or the value of the function as the independent variable changes
within a given intervals. In other words a function is investigated by
characterization of its variation (or its behaviour) as the independent
variable changes. The classification of the variety of function is very
vast. The following types defined in this unit is by no means this unit
you continue the study of functions by considering special features that`
characterize a function.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly:

i. Identify basic characteristics of functions such as monotonic

property boundedness etc.
ii. Define an inverse function.
iii. Define a composite function
iv. Combine functions, to form a new function.
v. Determine whether a given function has an inverse or not.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Types of Functions

Zero of a function: The value of x for which a function vanishes, that is

for which f(x) = 0 is called The Zero (or root) of the function.

29
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example la.

The function ,ƒ(x) = x2-3x+2 has two roots i.e.; x=2 or 1.

One of the roots of the function.

,ƒ(x) = x3-2x2 - 5x + 6 is 1.
i.e., ,ƒ(1) = 13 - 2.12 - 5.1 + 6 = 0

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Find other roots of the above function.

1. Even and Odd Functions

A function y =,ƒ(x) is said to be even, if the changes of the

sign of any value of the independent variable does not affect the
value of the function.

F(-x) _ F(x) .
i. e, ƒ(-x) = ,ƒ(x) ∀x∈X

A function y = ,ƒ(x) is said to be odd if the change of sign of any

value of the independent variable results in the change of the sign
of the function

i.e. ; ƒ(-x) = -,ƒ(x)

Example

The function y = x2 is an even function while the function y = sin

x and y = x3 are odd functions.

Remark: Arbitrary functions such as y = x +1, y = 2 sin x + 3 Cos

x can of course be neither even nor odd.

2. Periodic Function

A function y = ,ƒ(x) is said to be periodic if there exists a

number n ≠ 0 such that for any x belonging to the domain of the
function the values x + n of the independent variable also
belonging to the domain of the function and the identity.

,ƒ(x + n) = ,ƒ(x) holds where n is called

the period of the function. 1

30
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example

If ,ƒ(x) is a periodic function with

period n the ƒ(x + n) =,ƒ(x + 2n) = ,ƒ(x)

Generally for any periodic function ƒ (x) with period n.

ƒ (x + nk) = ƒ (x)for any x∈Z, k∈N,

A simple example of a periodic function is the function ƒ(x) =s i

nx or ƒ(x) Cosx.

See Fig. 9.

Y = Sinx

0
2π 4π

Fig. 9a.

Y = Sinx

0
2π 4π

Fig. 9b

3. Monotonic Functions

A function is said to be monotonic if it is either increasing or

decreasing within a given interval.

The study of monotonic function is an important concept in the

application of calculus, this will be treated in the last two units of
this course.

You will now consider explicit definitions of a monotonic

increasing function and monotonic decreasing function within a
given interval.

31
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Definition l: A function ƒ(x) is said to be monotonic

increasing in an interval.

If x1 < x2 ⇒ ƒ (x1) < ƒ(x2)

for any two points x1, x2∈I,
If ƒ (x1) < ƒ (x2) then the function ƒ(x) is said to be strictly
increasing.

Definition 2: A function ƒ (x) is said to be monotonic decreasing

in an interval I

If x1 < x2 ⇒ ƒ (x1) > ƒ(x2)

for any two points x1, x2∈I

If ƒ (x1) > ƒ (x2) then the function ƒ(x) is said to be strictly

increasing.

Example

The function y = x2 is monotonic decreasing in the interval (- ∞ ,

0] and monotonic increasing in the interval [0, ∞ ). See fig. 10

ƒ(-2) ƒ(2)

ƒ(-) ƒ(1)

-∞ -2 -1 1 2
∞

Fig. 10.
-1,-2 ∈ (-∞,o] and -2< -1 but ƒ(-2) > ƒ (-1)
1,2 ∈∈ [o, ∞), 1<2 and ƒ(1) < ƒ(2)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Determine whether the function ƒ (x) = 2x is monotonic increasing or

decreasing in the interval I = (-∞, ∞ ).

32
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Determine whether the following functions are monotonic increasing or

decreasing in the interval (o, ∞ ):

i. ƒ (x) = 2x
ii. ƒ (x) = 2-x
iii. ƒ (x) = 23
iv. ƒ (x) = 2

4. Bounded Functions

Recall the definition of a bounded set defined in Unit 2. You will

now use the same concept to define a bounded function. If a
function ƒ(x) assumed on a given interval I a value M which is
greater than all other values ( i.e.; ƒ(x) < M for all x∈I) then the
function f (x) is said to be bounded above. The M is called the
greatest value of the function ƒ(x) at that interval I. Similarly, if
there is a constant M such that all other values of the functions is
greater than (i.e.; ƒ (x) >M for all x∈1) then we say that ƒ (x) is
bounded below and the value M is called the least value of the
function ƒ (x) in I.

Definition of a Bounded Function: A function f (x) is said to

be bounded in an interval 1. If there exists a number k∈R such
that

ƒ(x) K for all x∈I y Lvle

alternatively, if given M, ƒ (x) > M in the interval I we say

ƒ (x) in bounded, below

Example 1

The function ƒ (x) = 2x+1 is bounded in the interval [-2,2]

i.e ƒ(-2) ƒ(2) is bounded in the interval (-2, 2).

2. The function ƒ(x) = 2x2-3x+2 is bounded in the interval
x∈ [o,2]

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

33
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Determine whether the following function are bounded in the given

intervals.

i. ƒ (x) = x2 – 4x + 4 x∈ (-∞, ∞ ).
ii. ƒ (x) = x2 – 4x + 4 x∈ (2, 10).
iii. ƒ (x) = 2 + x + x2 x∈ (-1, 2 ).

3.2 Inverse Function

Domain and Range: since the domain and range will be useful in the
study of inverse of a function you have to briefly review the concept as
you have studied the fact that one of the ways a function can be
determined is through the domain of the function i.e. the set containing
the first variable for which a function makes sense. You shall consider
some few examples of domain of a given function.

Example

i. Given the function

ƒ (x) =X2, x is a real number.

Here the domain of ƒ is the set of all real numbers. The range is
therefore R+ = [o, ∞ ). In symbols you write.

D= {x: x∈R} and R = [y; y∈R+}.

ii. Given the function

ƒ (x) =x -1 , x is a real number.

Here the domain of ƒ is the set of all real numbers greater than

1. i.e.; D = {x: x >1 } Since any other value of x will result to the
square root of a negative number which does not make sense in
the set of real numbers. The range R = {y : y∈ R+}

iii. Given the function

ƒ (x ) = ___1___ = _____1__ the domain

x2-1 (x-1) (x+1)

D = { x : x∈R, x ≠ - 1 or 1}. If x = -1 or 1 the value of the

function will be meaningless.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

34
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

1. Find the range of example (iii) above.

2. Let the function f assign to each state in Nigeria its capital city.
State the domain of f and its range.

You will continue the study in this section by giving definitions of

certain features of functions. (there have been kept purposely for this
moment.)

1. Onto Functions

Let the function y = ƒ (x) with domain of definition X {i.e. the

admissible set of values of x) and the range Y (the set of the
corresponding values of y). Then a the function y = ƒ(x) is
an Onto function if to each point or element of set there
corresponds a uniquely determined point (or element) of the set
Y, i.e., if every point in set Y is the image of at least one point in
set X.

Example: consider the function shown in fig 11

ƒ ƒ
a x
a y

b y

b
c y

(A) (B)
Fig 11.

The function Fig. (A) is an Onto function. The function in Fig.

(B) is not an onto function

Example: The function ƒ (x) = x2 is an Onto function

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Give reason why the function in the Fig. (a) above is an onto function
and the other one in Fig(b) is not.

35
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2. One-to-One Function

Let the function y = ƒ(x) be an onto function. If in addition each

point (or element) of set X corresponds to one and only one point
(or element) of set Y then the function y = ƒ(x) is said to be one
to one function.

Example

The function y =x2 is an onto function and not a one to one

function. Whereas the function y = x3 is an onto function as well
as a one to one function
(see fig 12)
y

y = x3

0 x

Fig 12. (a)

Y = x2

36
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

X
O
Fig. 12. (b)

In fig. 12 (a) no horizontal line intersect to the graph more than

once thus the function.

Y = x3 is one to one function.

In Fig. 12. (b) the horizontal lines intersects the graph in more
than one point thus the

ƒ(x) = x2 is not a one to one function.

3.3 Composite Functions

Generally functions with a common domain can be added and

subtracted. That is, if the functions ƒ (x) and g(x) have the same domain.
Then:

(f ± g) (x) = ƒ(x) ± g (x)

Example:

Let ƒ (x) = x2 and g(x) = 3x - 2

Then ƒ (x) + g(x) = x2 + 3x - 2

The above concept can be extended to the case of multiplication. i.e.;

given that ƒ (x) and g(x) have the same domain then

ƒg (x) = ƒ(x) g(x).

Using the above example we have that:

ƒ(x) g(x) = x2 (3x - 2) = 3x3 -2x2

Division is also allowed between functions having the same

domain.

Let ƒ (x) = 2x and g(x) = x - 1

37
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Then; ƒ (x) = 2x
g(x) x-1

There is another way function can be combined which is quite different

from the ones described above. In this case two function ƒ (x) and g(x)
are combined by first finding the range of ƒ (x) and making it the
domain of g(x).

This idea is shown in fig 13.

g ﴾(x)

ƒ(x) g(x)
X Y Z

The function you get by first applying ƒ to x and then applying g to ƒ (x)
is given as g ﴾(x) and called the composition of g and ƒ and is denoted
by the symbol

g o ƒ ( which reads g circle ƒ )

i.e.; (go ƒ) (x) = g ﴾(x))

Example

1. Given that ƒ (x) = 1/x and g(x) = x2 + 1

ƒog= ƒ ﴾g(x)) = ____x___
x2 +1

goƒ= g o ﴾ (x)) = 1/x2 + 1. = __x2 + 1___

x2

2. Given that ƒ(x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 1

goƒ = g ƒ﴾(x)) = x2 + 1

38
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

ƒog = ƒ﴾g (x)) = (x + 1) 2 = x2 + 2x + 1

In the two examples above you can easily conclude that goƒ ≠ ƒog
The composition of functions can be extended to three or more
functions.

Example

Let ƒ (x) = x - 1, g(x) = x2 + 1, h(x) = 2x.

Then hogo ƒ = h (go ƒ) = h ﴾g ﴾(x)) )

=2 (x- 1)2 + 1) = 2x2 – 4x +4

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Give that ƒ (x) = x, g(x)=x-1, h(x) = √x -1

Find the following composite functions.

1. ƒ og
2. go ƒ
3. ho ƒ
4. hog
5. ƒ ogoh

You will now use materials discussed above in this section to study and
define the inverse for any given function. A function that will have an
inverse must fulfill the function, since the inverse function is a unique
function in respect of the original function.

Definition of Inverse. of. a Function: If a function y= ƒ (x) is a one to

one function, then there is one and only one function x = g(y) whose
domain of definition is the range of the function y = ƒ (x). such that;

ƒg ( ƒ (x ) ) = x and g(x) = ƒ -1 (x)

Examples

1. If given that ƒ (x) = x3 then ƒ-1(x) =3√ x

2. Use the above and illustrate the fact that ƒ-1 o ƒ = ƒ -1 o ƒ

39
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Given that ƒ-1 (x) = g (x) =3√ x = x ⅓

And ƒ (x) = x3

ƒ-1 oƒ =goƒ=g ﴾(x) ) = (x3) ⅓ = x

And ƒoƒ-1- = ƒog = ƒ ﴾g(x) ) = ((x ⅓)3 = x

Find the inverse of the following function.

1. 2x-4
2. 6x -5
3. ƒ (x) = x5
4. 2x3 -1
Solutions:

1. Let y =2x-4
Then y+4=2x
⇒ x = y + 4 (solving for x)
2
then ƒ (x) x + 4 (interchanging x and y)
-1

2
2. Let y = 6x -5
Then y + 5 = 6x (solving for x)
x = y+5
6
ƒ-1(x) x+5
6 (interchanging x and y)

3. Let y = x5

then x 5 √y (solving for x)

ƒ-1(x) = 5 √x (interchanging x and y)

4. Let y = 2x3 -1
y + 1= 2x3
y+l = x3
2

x=3 y+1 (solving for x)

2

ƒ-1 (x) = 3 x+1 (interchanging x and y)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

40
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

1. Show that ƒ-l oƒ = ƒoƒ-1 = x in example 1 to 4 above.

2. Given the following functions
a. ƒ (x) = 6x - 3
b. ƒ (x) = x7
c. ƒ (x) = mx =b
d. ƒ (x) = 1/1 -x
e. ƒ (x) = __1__
x3 -1
d. ƒ (x) = __1__
1+x

i. State the domain of each function.

ii. Derive the inverse of each function.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have studied characteristics of functions You have used
graphs to represent functions and identity some characteristics exhibited
by these functions. You have studied how to form a new function by
combining two or more functions.

Furthermore, you have studied how to determine whether a function has

an inverse or not.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have:

a. Defined a function
b. Discussed various types of functions
c. Use graphs to describe the characteristics of functions such as
periodic, monotonic, one to one onto and transcendental
functions.
d Defined domain and range of a function
f Formed new functions by combining two or more functions -
composition of functions.
g Discussed the inverse of a one to one function.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1. Give a precise definition of the following unit examples

a. domain of a function
b. inverse of a function

41
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

c. composition of functions
d. bounced function
e. an even function
f. a periodic function
g. a monotonic decreasing function in an interval
h. maximum value of a function is an interval.

2. Given the following functions.

a. ƒ (x) = __2x__
x -5
b. ƒ (x) = __1__
x3 – 1

c. ƒ (x) = 27x3 - 2

d. +ƒ (x) = __x__
(x – 1) (x+2)

1. State the domain of definition for each function

2. Find the inverse of each function if it exists.

3 Given the following function ƒ (x) = x2, g(x) = 2x-1, h(x) =

x+1
Find the:

a. ƒg
b. ƒ/g
c. ƒog
d. ƒogoh
e. (g-h) oƒ

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)

42
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational

Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

43
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 4 LIMITS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions of a Limit of a Function.
3.2 Properties of Limit of a Function
3.3 Right and Left Hand Limits
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the last units, you have been adequately introduced to the concept of a
function In this unit you will be indorsed to the concept of the limit of a
function. This is one of the most important concept in the study of this
course calculus. Generally, it is believed that calculus begins with the
idea of a limitations process. The history behind the study of limits of
function is an interesting one and it will be nice if you hear some of the
story.

A French mathematician by name Joseph Lious Lag range

(1736 - 1813) was among the first mathematicians that
initiated the concept of limits. This was followed by
another French mathematician Augustine-Lious Cauchy
(1789-1837) and a Czech priest by name Bernhard
Bolzono (1781-1848).

However the present day definition of limit is largely due to the work of
Heinrich Edward Heine and Karl Weiestrass. In this unit an attempt to
be a bit expansive in the study of the limit of functions will be made.
Therefore you should be more patient when studying the materials of
this unit. Bear in mind that discussions on the concept of limit of a
function will easily be re-introduced into the concept of continuity of
function in unit 4 and 5.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly;

1. define a limit of a function

44
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2. show that the limit of a function is unique

3. evaluate the limit of a function
4. to evaluate the right and left hand of a function.
5. use the "∈, δ" method to prove that a number ℓ is the limit of a
function at a given point.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Limit of a Function

In this Section; you will begin the; concept of limit shall be studied by
first presenting it in an informal and intuitive manner. You are familiar
with the word "limit". It gives you the picture of a restriction or
boundary. For example consider a regular polygon with n sides
inscribed in a circle. As you increase the sides of the regular polygon
then each side of the n-side regular polygon gets closer to the
circumference of the circle. Here if you consider sides of the polygon as
the independent variable denoted by n and the shape of the regular
polygon as the dependent variable then the shape of the n-sided regular
polygon approaches the shape of the circle as n approaches infinity (see
fig 13)

Fig. 13.

In this case we say that the limit of inscribed n-sided regular

polygon is the circle as n tends to ∞.

Now consider the function ƒ (x) = x2 -1 what is the value of ƒ (x)

when x is near 1 ? In table 2.

X 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

ƒ (x) 1. .99 .96 .91 .84 .75 .64 .51 .36 0.19 0

Table 1

45
 MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

X 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

1.9 2
ƒ
0 .21 .44 .69 .96 1.25 1.56 1.89 2.24 2.61 3
(x)

Table 2

You can see that as x gets closer and closer to 1 ƒ (x) approaches 0. so
the value of ƒ (x) can be made to get closer to 0 by making x get closer
to 1. This is expressed by saying that as x tends to l, the limit of ƒ (x) is
0.

Another way is to start by noting that a function ƒ (x) could be observed

to approach a given number L as x approaches a known value x o. That is
once a number ℓ is identified as x approaches x, without insisting that ƒ
(x) must be defined at xo then we can write that

Lim ƒ (x) = ℓ

In other words we say that the limit of the function ƒ (x) as x approaches
or tends to x,, is the number ℓ or as x tends to xo , ƒ (x) tends to ℓ or for
x approximately equal to xo ƒ (x) is approximately equal to ℓ

In the above definition you will observed that there are two important
things to note namely.

1. the existence of the unique number ℓ , and

2. the fact that the function need not be defined at the point xo.

What is more important is that the function is defined near the number
xo

Consider the following example that will further explain the concept of
limit.

ƒ (x) (x)

=ℓ

ƒ (x)

46
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Fig. 14.
In fig(14), the curve represent the graph of ƒ (x) . The number xo
appears in the x-axis, the limit ℓ appears in the y-axis. As x approaches
xo from either side (i.e.; along the x-axis). ƒ (x) approached ℓ along the
y-axis.

Examples: Find the limit of the functions as x 1

1. ƒ (x) = ___1__
x-1
2. ƒ (x) = __1___
x- 1 

3. ƒ (x) = x 2 -1

x-1
Solutions:

1. ƒ (x) =__1__ in the graph of ƒ (x) as x approaches 1. (see graph

below
x-1

X
I

From the right ƒ (x) becomes arbitrary large. Larger than any
pre-assigned positive number. As x approaches curve from the
left ƒ (x) becomes arbitrarily large negative-less than any pre-

47
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

assigned negative number. In this case ƒ (x) cannot be said to

approach any fixed number. The above gives a clear picture
where the limit of function does not exist as x approaches a given
point for a fuller understanding, you will consider two more
examples.

1. ƒ (x) =__1__ (see fig. 16)

x- 1 

Fig. 16.

In fig. 16, as x approaches 1 from the left and the right 2. ƒ

(x) becomes arbitrary large. In this case 2. ƒ (x) becoming
arbitrary large cannot approach any fixed number ℓ .

Therefore ƒ (x) =__1__ does not have a limit as x tends to 1.

x- 1 

2. ƒ (x) =_x3 - 1__ (see table A & B below)

x- 1

X 0 .1 .2 .5 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
ƒ (x) 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

Table A

X 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

ƒ (x) 0 .21 .44 .69 .96 1.25 1.56 1.89 2.24 2.61 3

Table B

At a first glance ƒ (x) is not defined at the point x = 1, since

division by zero is impossible. Recall that in finding the limit of

48
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

function at a given point xo it is not required that ƒ (x) must be defined

at xo. The above is a clear example of functions having limits at points
where they are not defined. You will meet other examples of such
function as you progress in this course.

In tables A & B the limit of the function as x tends to 1 is 2.

By direct evaluation you can simplify:

ƒ (x) =_x3 - 1__ as
x- 1

ƒ (x) =_(x – 1)(x +1) = x + 1

x- 1

Therefore lim. as x- 1 of ƒ (x) = x + 1 is 1 + 1 = 2.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Determine whether the function

1. ƒ (x) =_x2 - 4 2. ƒ (x) = 1__

x- 1 x- 2

have limits as x approaches 2. If so, find the limits.

3.3 Properties of a Limits of a Function

A formal definition of limit is hereby given.

Definition : The number ℓ is said to be the limit of the function y = f(x)

as x tends to xo if for any positive number ∈ > o (however small) we
can find some positive number δ such that:

fx- ℓ  < ∈ whenever o < x- xo  < δ

Using the above definition it can be shown that the limit of the function
f(x) = 3x -1 is equal to 2 as x tends to 1.

To prove the above insufficient to show that for ∈ > o you can find δ >
o such that the inequalities:

(3x- 1) - 2  < ∈ ⇒ o < x- 1  < δ is satisfied equivalently.

3x- 1 - 2  = 3x- 3  = 3 x- 1  < ∈

49
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

⇒ x- 1  < ∈/3

Since x must be near 1 as much as possible we chose δ = ∈/3.

Hence:
x -1 < δ = ∈/3 , which is the required proof.

Remark: The definition above implies that the distance between f

(x) and L must be small as much as the distance between x and x o
is. Recall that the absolute value of a number 1.1 is a distance
function (see unit 1) The method of the proof used above is called
the "∈, δ proof'” in this course you will get a better view about
the definition if you go through another example when the graph
of the function is shown with the limit indicated

Examples: show that the limit of f (x) = x2 as x approaches (tends

to ) 2, is ℓ=4 (Use the ∈, δ proof)
Solution:
In finding the solution to the above you have to show this: For
any positive number ∈ > o you look for another positive number
δ > o such that the inequalities

 x2 - 4  < ∈ whenever o <  x- 2  < δ is satisfied

Note that:

 x2 -4  =  (x -2)(x+2)  =  x -2   x+2 

is the product of a factor  x +2  that is near 4 and a factor  x

-2  that is near 0 when x is near 2. If x is required to stay
within, say, 0.2 of 2 then you will have a situation like this:

2-0.2 < x < 0.2+2

= 1.8 x < 2.2 and

3.8 < x + 2 < 4.2.

As a result

 x2 - 4  4.2  x -2 

Now 4.2  x -2  < ∈ proved  x-2  < ∈/4.2

50
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Therefore you could choose δ, as the min {0.2 ∈/4.2 } if you do

then you will have that:

 x2 -4  < ∈ when 0 <  x -2  < δ

See Fig. 17.

4+ ∈

4- ∈

1 2- δ 2 2 +δ

3.4 Right And Left Hand Limits

A function f (x): could have one limit as x approaches xo from the right
and another limit as x approaches xo from the left. Recall that in the
above definitions of limits of function the word "arbitrarily close" was
loosely used, to describe the approach of x to xo without indicating how
x should approach xo how x should approach xo. If x approaches xo
from the right-hand side:

i.e., for values of

x > xo you write that: x-3 xo

and for values of

x < xo you write x xo

and say that x approached xo from the left hand side.

Definition: If lim f (x) = ℓ and

x xo

where ℓ + is called the right hand limit of the function f (x) and L- is the
left hand limit of the same function f (x) .

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Remark: If the limit of a function exists as x xo then

lim f (x) = lim f (x)

x xo+ x xo+

Example: Investigate the limit of the function defined by

f(x) = -1.x < 0

1.x > 0

as x approaches 0.

Solution

From the above f (x) = -1 for x<0

⇒ x 0o f(x) = -I and
x 0∞ f(x) =1

Thus lim f(x) does not exit.

Hence lim f(x) does not exist x xo .

An interesting function you would not like to miss when dealing

with one-sided limits is the greatest - integer function defined as;

[x] = greatest integer x0

Example: Investigate the limit of the function F defined by:

f (x) = [x] as x approaches

(see Fig. 18)

Y

X
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
5

52
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Fig. 16.
In fig 16, the function is 0 at 0 and remain 0 to 1 jumps to 1 remain 4
throughout the interval [1,2). At 2 the function jumps to 2 remain 2 in
the interval [2,3) at 3 jumps to 3 and remains 3 in the interval [3,4) and
so on.

To investigate the limit we take values less than 3 and values greater 3.

f(x) = [x] = 3 ∀ x ∈ [3, 4)

f(x) = [x] = 2 ∀ x ∈ [2, 3)

Therefore:

Lim f(x) = 2

x 3.

Lim f(x) = 3

x 3+.

Since lim f (x) ≠ lim f (x)

x 3- x 3+

Then the lim f (x) does not exist

x 3

Generally for the greatest -integer function:

lim [x] =xo and lim [x] = xo - 1

x xo+ x x0 +

Example:

g(x) x2 x>0
√x x < 0 investigate the limit as x 0

Solution

lim g(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, hence lim g(x) = 0

x x0+ x x0 + x x0

53
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

You shall now look at one of the most important properties of the limit
of a function. This is the uniqueness property.
Uniqueness: If the limit of a function f (x) exists as x approaches xo it is
unique.

The above property is a theorem which you will be required to give the
proof.

Example: Proof that if the limit of a function f (x) as x approaches x0

exists it is unique.

Proof:
Let lim f (x) = ℓ1
x x0
Another one for the same function f (x) be given as:

lim f (x) = L2
You will be required to show that:
L2 = ℓ1 by providing that the assumption L2 ≠ L1 leads to absurd
result that:

 L2 - L1   L2 – L2 

By definition of limit: for any positive

∈1 > 0 there is δ1 > 0

 f (x) - L1  < ∈1

when 0 <  x – xo  < δ1

and for ∈2 > 0 there is δ2 > 0

such that  f (x) - L1  < ∈2

when 0 <  x – xo  < δ2

Let 0 <  ℓ1 – ℓo  = ℓ2 - f (x) + f (x) - ℓ L2

  ℓ2 – f (x)  +  f (x) - ℓ L2  (By triangle

inequalities)

< ∈1 + ∈2 ) by definition above

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

∈1 = ½  ℓ1 – ℓ2  and ∈2= ½ ℓ1 - ℓ2 

Then ½  ℓ1 – ℓ2  < ∈1 + ∈2

= ½  ℓ1 – ℓ2  + ½  ℓ1 – ℓ2  =  L1 – L2 

 L1 – L2  <  ℓ1 – ℓ2  which is absurd or

contradictory. Hence he assumption that ℓ1 ≠ ℓ2 is false.
Therefore ℓ1 = ℓ2 which is the required result.

4.0 CONCLUSION

You have studied the informal and formal definitions of the limit of a
function, which is a major starting point for the study of the subject
called calculus. You have studied the important properties like
uniqueness of the limit of a function. You have used the δ and ∈
method to prove that a given number ℓ is the limit of a function as
x xo for a function f (x).

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied how to

1. State an informal definition of the limit of a function f (x) as x

tends to xo

2. State the formal definition of the limit ℓ of a function f(x). as x

xo using the δ and ∈ symbols. i.e.; If  x – x -1  < δ > 0 then
ƒ(x), ℓ < ∈ > 0
3. To show that if lim f (x) = ℓ exists then ℓ is unique.
x xo

4. To determine whether the number ℓ is the limit of a function f

(x) as x xo

5. The left hand and right hand limits and thus

The lim f(x) If lim f(x) = if f(x) x xo

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

1) Define a limit of a function

2) Show that the limit of a function is unique
3) Evaluate the limit of the following:
(a) limit f(x)=x2+3x-6,as x2
(b) limitf(x)=3x5 +7xe x -56,as x-3

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 5 ALGEBRA OF LIMITS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sum and Difference of Limits
3.2 Products and Quotient of Limits
3.3 Infinite Limits
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You have studied properties of a limit of a function in the previous unit.

In this unit you will conclude the study of limit of a function with the
following; Algebra of Limits i.e.; Sum and Difference of Limits as well
as Products and Quotient of Limits. This has a direct link to the rules of
differentiation that will be studied in unit 7 and 8.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this write, you should be able to correctly:

1. State the theorem on limits sum, product and quotients theorem

2. Evaluate limits of functions using the Sum, Product and Quotient
theorem s on limits of a function.
3. Evaluate limits of function as x ∞ and x -∞

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Sum of Limits

In the last section we applied the “δ proof” to prove a more general

cases involving the algebra of limits.

You will begin by considering the following theorems on limits of

functions

Theorem 1: If lim ƒ(x) = ƒ and lim g(x) =g

x xo x xo

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

then

1. lim [ƒ(x) + g(x)l = ƒ + g

x xo

2. lim [x ƒ(x) = x ƒ
x xo

The proof of the (1) of the theorem will follow the pattern used in
proving the uniqueness property.

Proof. Let ∈ > 0. To prove (1) above you must show that you can find δ
> 0 such that:

If 0 < x- xo  < δ then [ƒ(x) + g(x) – ([ƒ( + g)

Note that:

ƒ(x) + g(x) – (ƒ + g) = {ƒ(x) - ƒ) + (g(x) – g) ≤

ƒ(x) - ƒ + (g(x) – g) (by triangle inequality)

You will make ƒ(x) - g(x) – (ƒ + g) less than ∈ by making

ƒ(x)- ƒ and g(x)- g each less than ½ ∈>

0

Since ∈> 0 this implies that ½ ∈> 0

Since by the statement of the theorem

lim ƒ(x)- ƒ and lim g(x)- g

x xo x xo

therefore there will exist two number δ1>0 and δ2>0 such that

If 0 < x- xo  < δ1 then ƒ(x)- ƒ < ½ ∈

and If 0 < x- xo  < δ2 then ƒ(x) - ƒ  < ½ ∈ and g(x)- g >
½ ∈

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Now set δƒ = minimum of δ1 and δ2

Therefore ƒ(x) - g(x) – (ƒ + g) = ƒ(x)- ƒ + g(x)- g

< > ½∈+ > ½∈

Thus it is shown that if:

If 0 < x- xo  < δ2 ƒ(x) + g(x) - (ƒ+g) < ∈

Which is the required proof.

2. To prove that
lim k ƒ (x) = k ƒ
x xo

Let ∈ > 0. You must find δ > 0 such that:

If 0<1  x-xo  < s then  k ƒ (x) = k ƒ  <s

There are two cases to consider:

1. when k = 0
2. k≠0

If k =0 then 0- 0  < ∈ when 0< x- xo  < δ

From the above any value for δ > 0 will do.

To prove the case k ≠ 0.

Since lim ƒ (x) = ƒ
x xo
then there is δ > 0 such that ∈
If 0 < x- xo  < δ then ƒ(x) - ƒ < k

From the last inequalities you have that

k  ƒ(x) - ƒ < ∈
⇒  k ƒ(x) - ƒk < ∈ which is the required proof.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

If lim ƒ (x) =ƒ and lim g(x) =g

x xo x xo

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Show that:
lim ƒ (x) - g(x) = ƒ- g
x xo

The result of the last two theorems can be extended to any finite number
of function.

Example: If lim ƒ1 (x) =ƒ1, lim ƒ2(X) =ƒ2 ...

x xo x xo

lim fo(x) = fn then

x xo

lim ( k1, ƒ1 (x) + k2 ƒ2(x) +........+ kn ƒn (x)) = kl ƒ1+ k2 ƒ2

+ ....... k3 ƒ3
x xo

3.3 Products and Quotients of Limits

You shall now consider further theorems on limits (the t proof are
beyond the scope of this course).

Theorem2: If lim ƒ (x) = ƒ and lim g(x) =g

x xo x xo

Then (I) lim ƒ (x) = ƒ and g(x) = f g

x xo

(II) lim 1 = 1 g(x) ≠ 0, g≠0

g (x) g
x xo

(III) lim ƒ(x) = ƒ ƒ(x), ≠ 0, g≠0

g(x)
x xo

Theorem3. Let ƒ(x), g(x) and h(x) be functions defined on an

interval I containing a o, except possible the functions are not
necessary defined at xo, such that:
ƒ(x) g(x) h(x) for all x ∈ I
and lim ƒ (x) = lim h(x) = ℓ

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

x xo x xo

then = lim g(x) = ℓ

x xo

From the above theorems it easy to conclude that every polynomial

ƒ (x) = an xn + a1 xn + a1 xn-1 +........ + a1 + ao

satisfies lim ƒ(x) = ƒ(xo).

x xo

Examples

Evaluate the following, limits:

i. lim (2x2 -5x + 1) = 2(2)2-5(2) + 1 = 2.4 -10+1 =

x 2
ii. lim (3x5- 6x4 - 3x2 + x + 10) =
x 0

iii. lim (x5- x3 – 4x2 + x +1) = (1)5 - (1)3 - 4(1)22 + 1  = -2

x xo

As consequence of theorem 2 you can see that if P and Q are two

polynomials and Q (xo) ≠ 0 then

lim p(x) = P(xo )

Q(x) Q(xo)
x xo

if Q(xo) = 0

then lim p(x) = does not exist.

Q(x)

Examples

Find the limits of the following functions.

i. 2x-1 = 4-1 = 3 = 3
x2 -3 4-3 1
x 2
ii. lim x2+x +1 = 1 + 1 = 3 = 1
x2 + 2x 1+2 3
x 1
iii. 2 - x = 2 - 4 = -2 = -1

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

4x 8 8 4
x 2
iv. lim ( 3x – 2x + 1) = 3 – 6 + 1 = -2

3.5 Infinite Limit

In this section you will be studying about functions whose limits tends
to infinity as x approaches a given number.

If a function ƒ(x) increases or decreases without bound as x tends to

certain point xo we say that ƒ(x) diverges. That is for a function ƒ(x) if
corresponding to every number K∈R there is δ > 0 such that

if o< x- xo  < δ then ƒ (x) > k

Then ƒ (x) is said to approach + ∞ as x tend xo in symbols you

write it as
lim ƒ(x) = + ∞
x xo

It is possible to have a situation whereby point ℓ< ∞ as x increases or

decreases without bound. In other words a function ƒ(x) is said to tend
to ℓ as x +∞ as if to each there is a number k ∈ R such that:

If x > k then ƒ (x) - ℓ  < ∈

symbolically this could be represented as:

lim ƒ (x) = ℓ
x x0

In a similar manner ƒ(x) is said to tend to L as x - ∞ , if to each

∈>0 there K∈R such that

x <k ⇒ ƒ(x) - L  < ∈

In symbols you write

lim ƒ(x) = ℓ
x xo
Example
1
Take a look at the graph of the function ƒ(x) =x,x>0
(see fig.(3.3))

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Fig. 17.

The function is a decreasing function. As x gets longer and larger

ƒ(x) gets smaller and smaller. This suggest that
1 = 0
Lim x

x a

also as gets smaller and smaller the function ƒ(x) gets bigger and
bigger the value 0 ~(x) takes arbitrary large value. In this case
1 = +∞
Lim x
x a

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Draw the graph of ƒ(x) = 1 x > 0 investigate the limit as

x
1. x tends to 0.
2. x tends to - ∞

Finally it could be possible that ƒ(x) increases or decreases without

bound just as x also increases or decreases i.e. given an arbitrary number
k, there exists k2∈R such that x > k, ⇒ ƒ(x) > k2. In that case you write
symbolically:

Lim ƒ(x) = ∞
x a -∞

For the case x<kl and ƒ (x) > k2 you write

Lim ƒ (x) = ∞

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

x a -∞

and for the case of x < kl

and ƒ (x) < k2 you have Lim ƒ (x) = ∞

x -∞

For each of the following function.

Given the following function.

1 ƒ (x) = . 1 .
x-1

2 ƒ (x) = . 1 .
x2 - 1

3 ƒ (x) = 1 .
x2 - 4

Find the limits as (1) x 1+, (ii) x - ∞ (iii) x +∞

Sketch the graph in each case. Consider the following functions

and their graphs and

Limits of each:

1 lim = . 1 . = + ∞
x-1
+
x 1

2 lim = . 1 . =-∞
x-1
-
x 1

3 lim = 1 . = 0
x-1
x ∞

4 lim = 1 .
x-1
x ∞

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

ƒ (x) = . 1 .
x2 - 1

-1 1
-1

- +2

-4
- -6

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

0 1

-1

-2

a (I) lim ƒ(x) = + ∞ (II) lim ƒ(x) = 0

x 1+ x ∞

(III) lim ƒ(x) = -∞ (IV) lim ƒ(x) = 0

x 12 x ∞

(ii) Investigate the limits of the function

ƒ (x) = . 1 .
x2 - 1

(I) x 1+ (II) x 1- (III) x -1+ (IV) x

-1-
(V) x -∞ (VI) x +∞

(d) (a)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(f)
(e)
O
-1 1
-1

(c) (b)

a (a) lim ƒ(x) = + ∞ (b) lim ƒ(x) = -∞

x 1+ x 1-

(c) lim ƒ(x) = +∞ (d) lim ƒ(x) = 0

x -1+ x - 1-

(e) lim ƒ(x) = +∞ (d) lim ƒ(x) = 0

x ∞ x -∞

From the above you can easily see that: lim ƒ(x) does not
exist.
x 1
Since the left hand limit ≠ Right hand limit

i.e.: lim ƒ(x) = + ∞ ≠ - ∞ = lim ƒ(x)

x 1+ x 1-

Also , lim ƒ(x) does not exist

x -1

Because lim ƒ(x) = -, ∞ ≠ - ∞ = lim ƒ(x)

x 1+ x -1-

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

4.0 CONCLUSION

You have seen how arithmetic operation on limits is used in evaluating

limits of various functions especially polynomials. You have seen how
the graph of a rational function could aid in evaluating infinite limits.
You will see how the limiting process that we have studied in this unit
will continue to serve as a reference point in subsequent units of this
course

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied:

1. That the limit of the sum of a finite number of functions is equal

to the sum of their limits.

i.e.; lim d1, ƒ1, (x) + ....+ lim dn ƒn(x) = 1im eƒ1(x) +.....+
dn f,)
x xo x xo x xo

2. The limit of the product of a finite number of the product of their

limits.

i.e.; lim ƒ1 (x) ....lim ƒn (x) = lim (ƒ1 (x) ƒ2 (x) ....... ƒn (x)
x xo x xo x xo

3. The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient

of their limits

lim ƒ(x) x xo lim ƒ(x) x xo

lim g(x) x xo lim g(x)
x xo

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Give a precise definition of the following with suitable example where

necessary:

1. The limit of a function ƒ(x) as x tends to xo.

2. The right-hand limit of a function as x tends xo
3. The limit of a function ƒ(x) as (a) x -∞ (b) x +∞
4. State the definition of the left and right hand limits. Hence give
examples of functions y- ƒ(x) possessing limits as x xo+ and
x xo- and having no limits as x xo
5. Find the limits that exists:

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Limits of each:

(i) lim = . x2 . (ii) lim . x2

x+1 x+1
+
x 1 x 1-

(iii) lim = . [x] = x. (iv) lim = x2 + 2x + -1

x 3x3+x+1
x 2 x 1

(v) lim = x + x2 . (vi) lim = 2x - 10

x+1 x2 – 8x2 + 17x - 10
x -1 x 5

6. Sketch the graph

ƒ(x) = x __
x2 - 9

Hence find the limits that exist as

(i) x -3+ (ii) x -3-

(iii) x -3 (iv) x 3-

(v) x 3+ (vi) x -∞

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

69
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

MODULE 2
Unit 1 Algebra of Limits
Unit 2 Differentiation
Unit 3 Rules for Differentiation I
Unit 4 Rules for Differentiation II

UNIT 1 ALGEBRA OF LIMITS

CONTENTS

4.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of a Continuous
3.2 Function
3.3 Properties of Continuous Functions
3.4 Algebra of Continuous Functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You would have been familiar with the word continuous ordinarily to
say that a process is continuous is to say that the process goes on
without changes or interruptions. In this section the word continuous
has almost the same meaning. That is a function is continuous in the
sense that you plot the graph continuously without lifting your pencil
from the graph paper. In calculus it is demanded that functions must be
continuous at points or interval of investigations that is why you must
study this unit with some care.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this you should be able to correctly:

1. define a continuous function at the part x = xo

2. recall properties of continuous function
3. state theorems on continuous function.
4. state the 3 conditions for continuity of a function at a given part.
5. identify parts of continuity and discontinuity of a function.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions of a Continuous Function

Consider The Graph shown in Fig. (21 a) and Fig (21b

.

●
●
O
a

Fig. 21 b.

In Fig 21a the function changes abruptly at the part a: whereas

the graph in Fig.21b is continuous.

Definition: A function f (x) is said to be continuous at the point x

= xo if and only if:

Lim f (x) = f (xo)

x xo

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

The above definition can be broken down into 3 main conditions

a function must satisfy for it to be continuous at the point x = xo

Definition: A function f(x) is said to be continuous at the point x

= xo if the following 3 conditions are satisfied.

1. f (x) must be defined at x = xo

2. lim f (x) = L must exist
x xo
3. f (xo) - L

Examples:

a. Is the function f (x) = x2 - 4 continuous at the point x

Solution:

Checking for the 3 conditions.

1. Let x =2, f (x) = 22 - 4 = 0

2. lim x2 - 4 = 0
x 2

3. lim x2 - 4 = f(2) = 0
x 2

b. Is the function f (x) = _ 1__ continuous at point x = 1

x-1
Solution:

i. let x = 1 f (x) _1_ = _1_

1-1 0

Since division by zero is not possible then f (x) is not defined at the
point x = 1. Needless to check for the remaining conditions you can
conclude by saying that

f (x) =__1__ is not continuous at the point x =1

x-1

Definition: A function f (x) which is not continuous at the point x

= xo is said to be discontinuous at that point.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example:

Determine the points of discontinuities of the function

f (x) =__x__
x2 - 9

Solution:

The same manner a function is said to be continuous (on the left)

at x = xo if. lim f (x) = f (xo)
x xo

Just as the case of limit, a function is said to be continuous at x = x o if it

is both continuous from left and from right at xo

1. Function that are Continuous on R

Every polynomial function is continuous on R.

i.e.; f(x) = an xn + an, x n-1 + ...+ an-1, x + an - 1

In unit I section 3.3 it was shown that

i. e. ; lim f(x) = f(xo) for all polynomial

Thus f (x ) is continuous.

2. The Trigonometric Functions

For examples f (x) = sin x and f (x ) = cos x are continuous on R

 sin x  <  x  and  cos x  < 1 for all x∈R

see the graph of sin x and cos x at Fig. 22a and 22b

Sin x

Fig. 22a

74
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Cos x.

Fig. 22b.

3. Removable Discontinuity

It has earlier been defined that a function that is not continuous at

a point x = x o is discontinuous at that point. However
there are basically two types of discontinuities.

If for any function f (x), the lim f (x) ≠ f (xo) initially, but x xo
by redefining the function f (x) is done in such a way that f (xo) =
lim f (x) x xo

then the point xo is said to be a point of removable discontinuity

of f (x).

Example:

Show that f (x) = x - 4

x-2

Has a removable discontinuity at point x = 2.

Solution:

Since f(x) is not defined at x = 2. But by appropriate factorization

the function.

f (x) = (x - 2)(x + 2) = x + 2
x–2

then lim x=2 = f(2) = 4

x 2

Hence at x = 2 is a point of removable discontinuity.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

A very simple way to solve this is to define the domain of the

function. You can easily see that the domain D is given as

D = { x; x ∈ R, x ≠ -3 or 3)

Therefore the points of discontinuity are -3 and 3.

Finally, another definition of limit will now be given using the

familiar ∈, δ+ symbol.

Definition: A function f (x) is said to be continuous at the point x

= xo if for ∈ > 0 there is δ > 0 such that

If  x - xo  < δ then  f (x) - f (xo)  < ∈

Remark:

The above definition is an extension of the definition of a limit.

In the above if we replace f (xo) with L and remove the restriction
that f (xo) must be defined you get back definition of a limit.

Example:

Show that the function f (x) = x2 is continuous at the point x = 2.

Solution;

Let ∈ > 0 if you can find a δ > 0

Such that

If  x - 2  < δ then  f (x) - f (xo)  < ∈

Note that f(2) = 0 and

 x2 - 4  = (x – 2(x + 2)  =  x + 2   x – 2 

By keeping x close to 2 we make the factor x - 2 as small as we

please and the second factor x + 2 gets close to 4.

If the domain D = [-2, ]say then we can be sure that the factor (x
+ 2) 4.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

If x ∈ [ -2, 2] then

X + 2 10 and  f( x) – f (2)  < ∈

When  x–2 < δµ

Provided that δ ≤ ∈/10

If ∈ > 0 then

 f( x) – f (2)  10  ( x – 2  < ∈ if  x – 2  < ∈ /10 = δ

In fact the function in the above example is continuous for all

points in the interval 1 = [ - 2, 2]. When such happens the
function f (x) is said to be uniformly continuous on the interval 1.

3.3 Properties of Continuous Functions

1. Uniform Continuity

A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval I. If for ∈ >

0 there is a δ > 0 (depending on alone) such that:

If  x1 – x2  < δ then  f( x1) – f (x2)  < ε

2. Continuity of Function From Left and Right of a Point

A function f (x) is said to be continuous (on the right ) at a point x

= xo
If lim f (x) = f (xo) x xo

With f (x) defined at x = 2. You can say that f (x) is now

continuous at the point x =2.

Type II: Non-Removable Discontinuity

If for a given function f (x) the right hand and left hand limits as
x xo exist but are unequal i.e.;
Lim f (x) ≠ Lim f (x)

x xo x xo

or if either the Lim f (x) or Lim f (x)

x xo x xo

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

does not exist then the function f(x) is said to have a non-
removable discontinuity x xo
Example

The function f (x) = sin ( 1/x ) is continuous except for x = 0. The

function has non-removable discontinuity at x = 0. Both right and
left hand limits do not exist.

Example

Determine whether the function f (x) = [x] (the greatest integer

function) is continuous at the point x = 3

Solution:

Lim [x] = 3
x xo

and lim [x] = 2

x 3

Since Lim f (x) ≠ Lim f (x)

x 3+ x 3-

Then the function f (x) has a non-removable discontinuity at x =

3.

See Fig 23.

Y

X
-3 -2 -1 0 2 3

Fig. 23.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

The above gives us a picture of a function that is one sided

continuous. In fig. 23. the function is continuous from the right
and discontinuous from the left.

5. Continuity on [a,b]

If a function f(x) is defined on closed interval [a, b) the most

continuity we can possibly expect is:

1. Continuity at each point xo of the open interval (a, b).

2. Continuity from the right at a, and
3. Continuity from the left at b.

Therefore any function that satisfies conditions 1 to 3 above is

said to be continuous on [a, b]

Functions that are continuous on a closed interval are of special

interest to mathematicians, because they possess certain special
properties which discontinuous function do not have.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Draw the graph of the above function.

1. Define any function that satisfies conditions 1 to 3 above is said to

be continuous on [a, b]

2. Fractions that are continuous on a closed interval are of special

interest to mathematicians, because they possess certain special
properties which discontinuous functions do not have.

Example

The function f(x) = √ 1 – x2 is on the in [-1, 1]

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Draw the graph of the above function.

3.4 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Recall the theorem, on limits you studied in the last Unit. You will now
do the same for continuous function. Using the following theorems it
can be shown that continuity is preserved through algebraic operations
on functions.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

That is:

Theorem 1:

If the functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous at the point x = xo then the
sum f(x) + g(x) is continuous at x = xo

Fortunately enough the proof of the above theorem is not complicated in

the sense that all that is required for a function to be continuous at a
point x = xo is that lim f(x) = f(xo)

From the theorems of limits (see Unit 3).

The lim f(x) + g(x) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x xo x xo

Therefore the function f(x) + g(x) is continuous since

lim f(x) + g(x) = lim f(xo) + g(xo)
x xo

Theorem 2:

If the functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous at the point xo = x then the
sum f(x) + g(x) is continuous at x = xo

Proof:
Let lim f(x) = f(xo) and

x xo

Let lim g(x) = g(xo) since

x xo

they are continuous at x = xo

Therefore lim f(x) . g(x) = lim f(x) . lim g(x) = f(x) . g(x)
x xo x xo

hence the function f(x) g(x) is continuous at x = xo

Theorem 3:

If the functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous at the point x = xo then the
function f(x) / g(x) , g(x) ≠ 0 is continuous at x1 = xo

Proof:

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

The proof is similar to the one above if left as an exercise for you
(good proving).

Theorem 4:

If the functions y=f(x) is continuous at the point x = xo and z = g(y) is

continuous at y = yo where yo = f(xo)

Then the function z = g ( f(xo) is continuous at point x = xo.

The Proof follows from the fact that

Lim f(x) = f(xo)

x xo
and lim g(y) = g(yo) = g(f(xo)
y yo

hence gf(x) is continuous at x = xo

Example:

Use the theorems on continuous function to determine whether

the following functions are continuous at the given points.

(i) f(x) = 6x2 - 2 at x = 2

(ii) f(x) = x2 - 1 at x = 1
x+1

(iii) f(x) = x2 + 9 x < 3 at x = 3

6x x≥ 3

(iv) f(x) = Cos2 x (x3 + 2x – 1) at x = xo

(v) f(x) = Cosx at x = xo

ex + Sin x

(vi) f(x) = sin (x2 - 1) at x = xo

(vii) f(x) = √x3 – 1 – x4 at x = 2

x

(viii) f(x) = x2 – 2x - 1 at x = 1
x–2
(viii) Is continuous at x = xo since cos x is continuous

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

. . (Cos x ) ( Cos x ) and x3 + 2x + 1 is continuous

.. by theorem 2 (Cos x)(Cosx ) (x3 + 2x + 1) is

continuous at x = xo
Solution:

(I) f(x) = 6x2 – 2 then

lim 6x2 – 2 = 6(2)2 – 2 = 22
x 2

f(2) = 6(2)2 – 2 = 2

Since f(x) = f(2) it is continuous

x 2

(II) f(x) = x2 – 1
x+1

then lim x2 – 1 = lim x – 1 = x – 1 = -2

x -1 x + 1 -1 -1 = -2

lim f(x) = f(-1) = -2

x 2

(III) f(x) = x2 – 9 x < 3

6x x ≥ 3

lim f(x) = 18 and lim f(x) = 18

x 3- x 3+

lim f(x) = 18 and lim f(3) = 18

x 3-

lim f(x) = 18 and lim f(3) = 18

x 3

Since lim f(x) = f(3)

x 3

It is continuous at x = 3

(IV) f(x) = Cos2 x (x3 + 2x + 1) at x = xo

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Cos x is continuant at x = x = xo
So is (Cos x) (Cos x) by Theorem 2.

x3 + 2x + 1 is continuous since it is a polynorminal therefore

(Cos x) (Cos x) (x3 + 2x + 1) is product of continuous function

which is continuous.

(V) Cos x at = x = xo
x
e + Sin x

Cos x, ∈x and sin x are all continuous of xo = x

∈x + Sin x is continuous by Theorem I

and _Cos x _ is continuous by Theorem II

∈x + Sin x

(VI) f(x) = Sin (x2 – 1) at x = xo

since f(g(x) is a continuous function.

If f(x) and g(x) are both continuous

Therefore sin (x2 + 1) is continuant at x = xo

(VII) f(x) = x3 + 1 - x4 at x = 2
x
lim = x3 + 1 - x4 = √8 + 1 – 16 = 3 – 16 = -13
x 2 2 2
x 2

f(2) = -13
2
It is continuous since lim f(x) = f(2)
x 2

The Theorem of continuity of inverse function will now be stated. This

theorem is important in that once a continuous function is defined and it
is a one to one function then it becomes easy for you to determine
whether the inverse function is continuous. The concept of continuity of
functions brings out the hidden beauty in the study of both differential
and integral calculus.

Theorem 5: Continuity of Inverse Function

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

If f(x) is continuous on an interval I and either strictly increasing or

strictly decreasing and one to one in the interval I, then there exists an
inverse function f-1(x) which is continuous and one to one and either
strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.

See Fig (24)a and Fig (24)b

Y Y
Y = Sin x
1
π/2

y
-1
= Sin (x)

-π/2
πX X
1 π/2

In the interval [-π/2, π/2] the function f(x) = Sin x is continuous

and one to one so is f(x) = Sin -1 x is also a continuous on [-π/2,
π/2] and one to one.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this Unit, you have defined a continuous function. You have used the
concept of limit of a function to identify points of continuous and
discontinuity of a function in a given interval of points. You have
studied theorem on continuous function and used the theorem to
examine points of continuities or discontinuities of a function. You are
now aware that a function that is continuous at a point x = xo is defined
at that point and that the limit of the function must exist as x approach
the point xo. You are also aware that the a converse is not necessary true
i.e. the Limit of a function might exist at a point xo and not continuous at
that point. This logical reasoning will be extended in the next Unit.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have studied the following:

(1) the definition of a function.

(2) how to determine points of continuity and discontinuities of a

given function.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

i.e. lim f(x) = f(xo) then xo is a

x xo

point of continuity for the function

(3) how to use the following theorems:

If f and g are continuous functions

Then
(i) f ± g, (ii) fg and f/g are continuous function to
determine a function. That is continuous or not.

(4) that all polynomials, cos x and sin x are continuous in R. In the
unit that follows this Unit, you will see that all the results on this
unit will be used.

6.0 TOTAL-MARK ASSIGNMENTS

(1) Give a precise definition of the limit of a function f(x) at the point x =
xo

(2) State 3 condition a function must satisfy for it to be continuous at the

point x = xo

(3) State two properties possessed by a function f(x) which is

continuous in a closed interval [a, b].

(4) using the “∈, δ” symbols explain what is meant by saying that a
function f (x) is discontinuous at a point xo

(5) give examples of two types of point of discontinuities of

functions. Hence for what values is each of the following
functions discontinuous.

f(x) = __x_ f(x) = 2x + 1

2
x+1 x – 3x + 2

(6) Show that the function f(x) = Sin x is continuous for x = xo

(7) Determine whether the following functions are continuous at the
given points.

(i) f(x) = ___x___ x =1

x2 - 2

(ii) f(x) = _1 – Sin x x =0

2 – Cos x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(iii) f(x) = ___1___ x =1

x3 - 1

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 2 DIFFERENTIATION

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Slope of a curve
3.2 Definition of derivative of a function
3.3 Differentiation of polynomial functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 Reference/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will learn how to differentiate a function or find the
derivative of a function at a given point. This will be done by looking at
the slope of a line, which you will extend to general case of slope of a
curve. Then you will apply the concept studied in unit 2 to study the
limiting process of a function along the given line.

After which you use the concept of a slope of a curve and a target at a
given point on the curve to solve two type of problems among others
namely:

1. given a function ƒ(x), determine those value of x (in the domain

of ƒ(x) ) at which the function is differentiable

2. given a function ƒ(x) and a point x = x o at which the function is

differentiable find the derived function you will finally extend
this to differentiation of a polynomials functions. A section on
solved problems has been included to sharpen your skills in
differentiation.

This unit is a formal bridge between concept studied so far in units 1 to

4 and those you will be studying in units 6 to 10. Therefore carefully
read and understand all definitions and solved examples given in this
unit – wishing you a successful completion of this unit.

Below are the objectives of this unit.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly:

1. define the slope of a point on a curve.
2. define the derivative of a function at a given point x = xo
3. evaluate the derivative of a function using the limiting process
(i.e. ∆ - process or from first principle).
4. derive standard formula for differentiation of polynomials
5. find the derivative of polynomials functions using the ∆ - process
or a standard formula.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Slope of a Curve

You will start the study this unit by reviewing the following:

i. the coordinate system

ii slope of a line

1. The Coordinate System

This is the system that contains

i) a horizontal line in a plane extending indefinitely to the left and

to the right and which is known as x axis or axis of abscussas

ii) a vertical line in the same plane extending indefinitely up and

down this is known as the y- axis or aixs of ordinates. A unit is
the chosen for both axis. See fig. 25.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

+b 0 P (a, b)

0
+a
-a

-b
Q (-a, -b)

Fig. 25. Showing the coordinate system.

2. The Slope of a Line

You are also familiar with the concept of increment.

For example. If a body starts at a point Q1(x1, y1) and goes to a new
position Q1(x2, y2) you say that its coordinates have changed by an
increment ∆x (i.e. delta x) and ∆y(i.e delta y).

Let a body move from point p(2, 4) to Q(4, 6) as shown in Fig (25). Find
∆x and ∆y.

6
Q(2, 4)
5
∆y
0
4
P(2, 4) ∆x
3

1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig 25.

∆ x=4-2=2
∆ y = 6 – 4 = 2.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Generally if P(xl, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are two given points then

∆x = x2 - x1 if P Q
∆x = x1 – x2 if Q P
∆y = y2 – y1 if P Q
∆y = y1 – y2 if Q P

Using the above you can now turn your attention to finding the slope of
a line the idea here is that lines in any coordinate plane rise or fall at a
constant rate as we move along them from left to right unless, of course
they are horizontal or vertical.

You can define the slope or gradient of line as the rate of rise or fall as
you move from left to right along the given line.

Example

Describe the slope of the line L in fig 26.

Y

Q(x2 – y2)

P(x2 – y1)

X
Fig. 26.

As you move from P to Q along line L, the increment ∆y = y 2 is called

the rise from P to Q. The increment ∆x = x2 – x1 is called the run from P
to Q. Since the line L is not vertical line then ∆x ≠ 0 . The slope of the
line L can now be defined as
rise = ∆y = y2- y2 = m
run ∆x x2 - xl

Remark
m = y2 – y1 = y1 - y2
x2 - x1, x1 - x2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example

Let P (4, -2 ) and Q (-3 , 2) then the slope of the line joining P
and Q is given as:

m = 2- (-2) = 4 = -2 -2 = -4
-3-4 -7 4-(-3) 7

Slope of a Curve

You will now extend method of finding the slope of line to finding the
slope or gradient of curve. To do this you start by finding the slope of a
secant line through P and Q by two points on the curve C. See Fig. 27.
Y

Q(x2, y2)

P(x1, y2)

Fig. 27

In fig 27. the slope of the secant line PQ is given as

Slope of PQ y2 – y11 = ∆y
x2 – x11 ∆x

The goal is to find the slope of the curve at point P to achieve this goal
you hold P fixed and move Q along the curve towards P as you do so,
the slope of the secant line PQ will vary. As Q moves closer and closer
to P along the curve the slope of the secant line varies by slope of the
secant line varies until it approaches a constant limiting value. This
limiting value is what is called the slope of the curve at point P. See Fig
28.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Q(x2, y2)
Q1
Q11

Fig 28.

In fig. 27 you will notice that as the secant line PQ moves along the
curve towards the point P the slope of the secant line approaches or
tends to the slope of the target line at the point P. Interesting the
increment ∆x tends 0 as Q --->P. Thus it will right to say that the
limiting position to the tangent line TP. Therefore the slope of the secant
line has a limiting value approximately equal to the slope of the tangent
line.

Example

Find the slope of the curve

Y = x2 at the point (x1, yl )

Solution

Since the point P(xl, yl) lies on the curve then its co-ordinate must
satisfy the equation.

y= x2 i.e. yl = xi2

Let Q(x2, x2) be a second point on the curve y = x2.

If ∆x = x2 - x1 =:> x = ∆x2 + x1
And ∆y = y2 - yl => y2 = ∆y + yl

Since the point Q is on the curve limits coordinates must satisfy

the equation

y2 = x2 that is y2 = x22

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Hence y + ∆y= (x + ∆x)2

= x12 + 2x1 ∆x + (∆x)2

= x 12+ 2x1 ∆x + (∆x)2 - yl
∴ ∆y = x12 + 2x1 ∆x + (∆x)2 -x12
=2x1 ∆x + (∆x)2 . . ... (A)

To find the slope of the line PQ you divide both sides of equation
(A) by ∆x ≠ 0 and equation A becomes:

∆y = Qx + ≠x = slope secant PQ
∆x

Q(x1, y1)
0

0 P(x1, y1)

Fig. 29.

As Q gets closer to P along the curve ∆x approaches zero and the slope
of PQ gets closer to 2x1

i. e. ∆y 2x, as ∆x ---> 0
∆x

By definition this means that

∆x--~0

The value of this limit is the slope of the tangent to the curve or slope of
the curve at the point (xl, yl). Since the point (xl, y1) is chosen arbitrarily
(i.e. can be any point on the curve y = x2) you could remove the
subscript 1 from xl and replace xl by x. Then the slope of the tangent will
be given as
m = 2x.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

This is the value of the slope of the curve at any point P(x, y) on the
curve.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

a. Plot the points and find the slope of the line joining them:
(i) (1, 2) and (-3, - ½ ) (ii) (- 2, 3) (1, -2).

b. Find a formula for the slope of the line y = mx + b at any point on

the line.

c. Use the example 2 above to find the slope of the curve y = x2 at

the following points (i) (-2, 2) (ii) (3, -2).

3.2 Definition of Derivative of a Function

In this section you will use the concept of the slope of a curve at a given
point to defined the derivative of function at a given point

Let P (x1, y1) be a point on the curve where;

x1 = x1 +∆x

And y2 = ∆y + y,

In Fig 29 below ∆y = ƒ(x +∆x) - ƒ(x)

Y

Q
ƒ(x + ∆x)

∆y

ƒ(x )
P∆x

X
x x + ∆x
Fig 29.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Then the slope the PQ (i.e. secant) is:

MS = ∆y = ƒ (x + ∆) - ƒ(x) . . ... ∆
∆xx ∆x

If the slope of the secant ms approaches a constant value when ∆x

gets smaller and smaller, then this constant value is the limit of
ms ∆x tends to zero. This limit is defined to be the slope of the
tangent (m1) to the curve at point p (x1 y). The mathematics to
describe the above could be symbolized as follows.

M1 = 1im ms = lim ∆y = lim = ƒ(x + ∆x)

- ƒ(x)
∆x ∆x

Q→P ∆x→0 ∆ x →0

If the slope of the secant ms approaches a constant value when

∆x gets smaller and smaller, then this constant value is the limit
of ms as ∆ x tends to zero. This limit is defined to be the slope of
the tangent (mt) to the curve at point P(x, y) . The mathematics to
describe the above could be symbolized as follows.

Mt = lim ms = lim ∆y = lim ƒ (x + ∆x)

- ƒ(x)
∆x ∆x
Q→P ∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

The limit above if it exists is related to ƒ(x) at the point x by

writing it as ƒ (x) ( read ƒ prime of x). which is define as

ƒ(x) = lim ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x)

∆x
∆ x → 30

The above limit may exist only for some or all values of x in the
domain of definition of the function ƒ(x). That is the limit may
fail to exist for other values of x belonging to the domain
whenever the limit exist for any point x, belonging to the domain,
then the function ƒ(x) is said to be differentiable at the point x.

Remark

All the curves used for or mentioned so far are assumed to be

smooth (i.e. continuous) In the previous unit it was mentioned

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(and it is by definition) that a function that is continuous at a

function that is a limit at that point. Since continuity implies
existence of lim ƒ(x). It will be shown later that a function that is
differentiable at the point x = xo, x → xo
is continuous at the point x = xo .

Example

In the previous section 3.1 it was shown that the slope of the
curve y =x2 at a given point x is 2x. This implies that the function
y = x2 possess a derivative whose value at a point x is given to
you that the function ƒ1(x) =2x.

Example

Let us find ƒ1(x) for the function given as ƒ (x) = 3x +2.

Solution:

This will be curried out in the steps/stages as follows:

Step 1:

For the given function ƒ(x) = 3x + 2 you start by defining ƒ(x +

∆x). This is given as ƒ (x + ∆x) = 3 (x + ∆x) + 2 (i.e. by direct
substituting x + ∆x for x).
∴ ƒ (x+ ∆x) =3x + ∆x +2.

And ƒ (x) = 3x+2

Step 2:

Subtract ƒ(x ) from ƒ (x + ∆x) i.e.

ƒ (x+ ∆x) - ƒ (x) -3x + 3∆x + 2 - (3x - 2) = 3∆x

Step 3:

Divide result of step 2 by ∆x

ƒ (x + ∆x) - f (x) = 3∆x =3

∆x ∆x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Step 4;

Evaluate the limit as ∆x ----> 0

ƒ1(x) = lim ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x) - s

∆x

The above process from step 1 to step 4 is referred to as

"differentiating from first principle"

Example

Find the ƒ1(x) if ƒ(x) = x2 + 3x

Solution:

Proceed as before.

Step 1: Write out ƒ(x + ∆x) and ƒ(x)

ƒ(x + ∆x) = (x + ∆x)2 + 3(x + ∆x)

= x2 + 2x ∆x + (∆x) + 3x + ∆x
ƒ(x) = x + 3x

Step 2: Subtract ƒ (x) from ƒ(x + ∆x) i.e.

ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x) = x2 + 2x∆x + (∆x)2 + 3x + ∆x

-x2 – 3x
= 2x ∆x + (∆x)2 + 3 ∆x

Step 3: Divide the result in step 2 i. e

ƒx + ∆x) - ƒ (x) = 2x∆x + (∆x)2 + 30x

∆x ∆x
=2x + 3+ ∆x

Step 4: Evaluate the limit of result of step 3 as ∆x ---->0

ƒ1 (x) = lim = ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x) = lim 2x + 3+∆x = 2x+ 3

∆x
∆x -->0 ∆x -->0

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2 (1.2)

(2 – 1 – ½
1

x
-3 -2 -1 1 1 2 3 4

-½

(3, – ½

(1 – (-7))

(i) slope= 21/2

4

3
(-2. 3)

(3 – (-2)) 1

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1

(1, -2)
-2
(-2 – 1)

-3

(ii) slope = 2/-3

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(b) Y = mx + b.
let P(xl , y1 ) be a point on the line i.e.

Y= mx + b.

Q(x2, y2) be another point. If

∆X = x2 - x1 and ∆y = y2 – y1

==> x2 = ∆x + x1 and y2 = ∆y + y,

but y2 = mx2 + b => ∆y +y,=(∆x+x1) m + b.

==> ∆y + y1 = mx1 + m∆ x + b.

∆y = mx1 + m∆ x + b – y1

= mxl + m∆x + b - (mxl +b) since (y1 = mxl + b.)

= m∆x.

(to get the slope of the line you divide by ∆x ≠ 0) this gives.)

∆y = m = slope of lin y = mx + b.
∆x
(c.) from solved example slope of the curve y = x is gin as:

m = 2x therefore slope at

(i) point (-2, 2) is 2. -2 = -4

(ii) point (3, -2 is 2.3 = 6

Example

If ƒ(x) = x3 + x find ƒ1 (x0)

Solution

Step 1: write out ƒ (x + ∆x ) and ƒ(x) i.e.

ƒ (x +∆x) = (x +∆x)3 = (x +∆x)

= x3 + 3x2 ∆x + 3x (∆x)2 + (∆x)

ƒ(x ) = x3 + x

Step 2: subtract ƒ(x) from ƒ (x + ∆x ) i.e.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

ƒ(x +∆x) - ƒ(x) = x3 +3x2 ∆x + 3x (∆x)2 + (∆x)3 + x +∆x -

x3 - x

ƒ(x) = x3 + ∆x + 3x (∆x)2 + (∆x)3 + ∆x

Step 3: Divide result of step 2 by ∆x

ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x) = 3x2∆x + 3x(∆x)2 + (∆x)2 + ∆x

∆x ∆xx

= 3x3 + 3x∆x + (∆x)2 + l

Step 4: Evaluate the limit of result in step 3 as ∆x 0

ƒ1 (x) = lim ƒ(x + ∆) - ƒ(x) ∆x

∆x
∆x → 0

Based on the discussion so far a formal definition of the

derivative of function ƒ(x) at a point x can now be given

Definition: A function ƒ(x) is said to be differentiable (i.e. to

have a derivation) at the point x If the limit:

lim ƒ(x + ∆) - ƒ(x) = ƒl (x) exists

∆x
∆x → 0

Definition: A function ƒ(x) is said to be differentiable at the

point x if for ε > 0 there is δ > 0

Such that:

If 0 < / ∆x/ < δ then ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x) – ƒ1 (x) < ε .

∆x -

Remark: The limit of the quotient ƒ(x + ∆) - ƒ(x) or ∆y as ∆x--

>0 have various notation. ∆x ∆x

Such as:

ƒl(x) (read ƒ prime of x)

yl (read y prime)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(read y clot)
dy (read dee y dee x)
dx

In this course the notation ƒl(x) and dy/dx will frequently be used.

3.3 Differentiation of Polynomial Function

In unit 2 you have studied function of this type

ƒ(x) = an xn + an-1, x n-1 +..... + a1 x + a0

as a polynomial function. You will now investigate the derivation of

such function.

1. Differentiation of a constant function

Let y =k

Then ƒ(x) = k

ƒ(x + ∆) = k

ƒ(x + ∆) - ƒ(x) = k - k

ƒ( x +∆) -ƒ(x) =0
∆x

lim ƒ(x + ∆) - ƒ(x) = 0

∆x
∆x→ 0

2. Find the derivative of the function ƒ(x) = xn at any point x.

Solution

Let ƒ(x) = xn

Step 1: ƒ(x +∆x) = (x =∆x)n

By binomial expansion:

(x + ∆x)n = xn + ‫ ״‬mxn-1 ∆x + ‫ ״‬xn-2 (∆x)2 + .....+

I I

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(If you are not very familiar with binomial expansion you
can read it up in any course in algebra suggested in the
unit).

Step 2 Subtract ƒ(x ) from ƒ(x = ∆x )

ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x) = x + nxn-I ∆x + (n - 1)n xn-1 (∆x)2

+. . .. +( ∆x)n - xn

= nxn-I ∆x + (n-I )nxn-1 (∆x)2 +...+ (∆x)n

Step 3: Divide result of step 2 by ∆x

ƒ(x + ∆) – ƒ(x) = (n – 1)nxn-1 + (n - 1)nxn-1 ∆x …+ (∆x)n-1

∆x

Step 4: Evaluate limit of result of step 3 as

lim ƒ(x + ∆) - ƒ(x) = limnxn-1 + (n-1)nxn-1 ∆x +...+

(∆x)n-1
∆x

∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

= nxn-1

Example

ƒ(x) = k implies that n = 1 in that case ƒ(x) = x and ƒ1 (x) = 1

Example

dy if (1) y = x8 (ii) y = x5
dx

Solution

(i) dy = 8x8-1 = 8x7

dx

(ii) dy = 5x5-1 = 54
dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3. Differentiation of the function y = ku where a is a function

of x

Solution

Let ƒ(x) = u

Then ƒ(x +∆x) = u +∆u

Since y = ku

Then y + ∆y = k(u + ∆u)

.'. 4y = k(u + ∆u) - y

= k∆u
divide by ∆x you obtain

∆y =k ∆u
∆x ∆x

lim ∆y = lim k ∆u K lim ∆u du dy

∆X ∆x ∆x dx dx
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

dy =k du
dx dx

Example: Find dy if y = 5x4

dx

Solution

dy = d(5x4) =
5 d (xu) = 5.4x3 = 20x3
dx dx dx

Generally If y = kxn

Then dy = knxn-1
dx

3.4 Solved Problems

1. Given the function (i) y = 1/x (ü) y = √x.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Find the derivative by the limiting process i.e. from a suitable

difference quotient ∆y and evaluate the limit as ∆x tends to zero.
∆x
Solution 1

Step 1. write out ƒ(x + ∆x) and ƒ(x) i.e.

ƒ(x + ∆x) =

ƒ(x) = 1/x

Step 2. Subtract ƒ(x) from ƒ(x+ ∆x)

i.e. ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x) = 1 -1

x +∆x x

= x - (x + ∆x)
X (x + ∆x)

= -∆x
x(x + ∆x)

Step 3: divide results of step 2 by ∆x

ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x) = - ∆x = -1

∆x x + ∆x ∆x x(x + ∆x)

Step 4: Evaluate limit of result of step 3 as ∆x--->0

i.e. lim ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x) = lim -1 = 1

∆x x(x + ∆x)
2
x
∆x-->0 ∆x->0

Solution 2

Step 1: write out ƒ(x+ ∆x) and ƒ(x)

ƒ(x + ∆x) = √x +∆x
ƒ(x) = √x

Step 2: Subtract ƒ(x) from ƒ(x+ ∆x)

i.e. ƒ (x+ ∆x) - ƒ(x) = √x + ∆x - √x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Step 3 : Divide the result of step 2 by ∆x

ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x) = √x + ∆x - √x

∆x ∆xx

let ∆x = h

then ƒ(x + h)- ƒ(x) = √x + h + √x

h √x + h + √x

= (√x + h - √x (x + h + √x)
(h √x + h + √x)

= x+h–x = h
h √x + h + √x h(√x + h = √x

= 1

Step 4: Evaluate the limits of result of step 3 as h ->0

lim ƒ(x + h) - ƒ(x) = lim 1 - 1

h h(√x + h= √x) 2√x
h ---->0 h--->0

2. show that a function ƒ(x) that is differentiable at the point

x = xo is continuous at that point.

Solution

Since the function ƒ(x) is differentiable at x = xo then

ƒ1(xo) exists.

i.e. ƒ1(xo) = lim ƒ(xo + h - ƒ(xo) (note h = ∆x

h--> 0

but ƒ(xo+ h) - ƒ(xo) = ƒ(xo + h) - ƒ(xo) .h

h -I

∴ lim ƒ(xo + h) – ƒ(xo) = lim ƒ(xo + h) – ƒ(xo) .h

h
h --->0 h -->0

= lim ƒ(xo + h) – ƒ(xo) .h lim h

h

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

h --->0 h -->0

= 0 (since lim h = 0)
h --->0 -II

lim ƒ(xo + h) – ƒ(xo) = lim ƒ(xo + h) - lim ƒ(xo)

h --->0 h -->0 h -->0

= lim ƒ(xo + h) – ƒ(xo) -III

h-->0

==> then from equations II and III you get lim ƒ(xo + h) – ƒ(xo) = 0
h --> 0
==> lim ƒ(xo + h) – ƒ(xo) -IV
h--->0

Note that x – x0 = h then h --->0 ==> x --->0

∴ lim ƒ(xo + h) = lim ƒ(xo + h) lim ƒ(xo) = 0

h --->0 x--->0 x--->0

Therefore equation IV becomes

lim ƒ(x) = ƒ(x0)

Which shows that ƒ(x) is continuous at the point x = x > The

converse is not true. There exist functions that are continuous at
given points but not differentiable at those points.

Example

Is the absolute value function, which you are very familiar with
(see unit 1)

This function ƒ(x) = /x/ is continuous at x = 0 but not continuous

at x = 0 see fig 5.6.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

The limit ƒ1(0) does not exist

i.e. ƒ1(0) = lim ƒ(0+ h) – ƒ(0) = h = -1

h h
+
h ----> 0

ƒ1(0) = lim ƒ(0+ h) – ƒ(0) = -h = -1

h h
-
h ----> 0

Since lim ƒ(x) ≠ lim ƒ(x)

h-->0+ h-->0-

then ƒ1(x) at x = 0 does not exist

4.0 CONCLUSION

You have studied how to find the slope a line you have extended this to
finding the slope of a curve by evaluating the limit of the slope tangent
line at a given point on the curve. You have related the value of this
limit with the slope of the curve at any point. You have defined this
limit whenever it exist as the derivative of the function at the point x.
You have used these definitions to find the derivative of certain
functions such as:

y = k, y = x, y = x2, y = 1/x, y =√x, and y = kxn

by the method of limiting process. You are now posed to use materials
studied here to find derivatives of sum, product quotients of functions in
the next unit. Make sure you do all your assignment correctly. You will
definitely need them, because you will refer to them directly or
indirectly in this remaining part of this course.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

5.0 SUMMARY
The principle of using limiting processes to derive the derivatives of a
function is called the first principle. The principle must be well
understood because it is very useful in Advanced Analysis which you
will study as you progress in the study of Mathematics.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1) Differentiate from th the derivative e first principle the

following functions:
(a) f(x) =3x4 +56x3
(b) f(x) = e2x + 5x +6
2) If y=x n , show that the derivative of y is nxn-1
using the first principle.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 3 RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION I

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Differentiation of sum of functions
3.2 Differentiation of difference of functions
3.3 Differentiation of product of functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor marked assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will learn a few simple rules for differentiation of all
sorts of functions constructed from the ones you are already familiar
with so far you have observed that the study of differential calculus
started with the study of behaviour of functions and their limits at
different points. In the previous unit you studied that functions that are
differentiable are continuous. This implies that rules governing the
results on continuous functions in respect of algebra of continuous
functions can easily be extended to differentiable functions.

In this unit you will formulate rules based on theorems on limits and
theorems on continuous functions you will be expected to apply the
rules formulated in this unit to differentiate sum and product of
polynomials function. You will then use the same rules throughout the
remaining part of this course. Until the following study style will be
adopted; first the rules will be stated with example. Then the rules will
be justified.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly.

i) derive the following rules for differentiation

a. Sum rule
b. Difference rule
c. Product rule

ii) differentiate all types of polynomial functions.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Differentiation of Sum of Functions

Sum Rule

The derivative of the sum of finite number of functions is the sum of

their individual derivatives.

i.e.
d(u + v) = du + dv
dx dx dx.

Solution

The proof for the case of the derivative of the sum of two functions u
and v will be given first after which the prove of a finite sum will then
follow.

Example 1

Let u = x2, v = 2/x find d/dx (u+v)

d (x2 + 2/x) = d (x2) + d (2/x) = 2x – 2

dx dx dx x2

Now let y = u + v where u = u (x) and v = v(x) both u(x) and v(x) are
differentiable

Let ∆x be an increment in x which will give a corresponding increments

in y, and v given as ∆y, ∆u and ∆v respectively.

Then ∆y = (u + ∆u) + (v + ∆v)

∆y = (u + ∆u) + (v + ∆v) - (u + v)

∆y = ∆u + ∆v
∆x ∆x ∆x (divide by ∆x)

lim ∆y = lim ∆u + ∆v = lim ∆u + lim ∆v

∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x

∆y = ∆u + ∆v

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

∆x ∆x ∆x
∴ d (u + v) = ∆u + ∆u
dx ∆x ∆x which is the required result.

If y =u+ v+ w

Then y = z, where z = v + w

∆y = ∆u + ∆v but dz = ∆v + dw
∆x ∆x dx dx ∆x dx

∆y = ∆u + ∆v + dw
∆x ∆x ∆x dx

This can be extended to a finite sum of differentiable functions i.e.

if y = u1 + u2 +....... +un then

d (ul + u2 + .. + u) = du1 + du2 +…….+ du2

dx dx dx dx

Example 2

Find dy if y = 3x3 + 2x2 + x + 1

dx

Solution

First find the derivative of each of the term and then add the result.

dy = d(3x3) + d(2x2) + d(x) + d(1)

dx dx dx dx dx

=3.3x2 +2.2x + 1 +0
= ax2 + 4x + 1

Example 3

Find the dy/dx if.

(i) y = x3 + 1/x (ü) y = 1/3 x3 + ½ x2 + 2x

(iii) y = 5x7 + 4x5 + l0x (iv) y = x4 + 5x2 + 1

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solutions

(i) y = x3 + 1/x
dy = d (3x3) + d (1/x ) = 3x2 - 1
dx dx dy x2

(ii) y = 1 x3 + 1 x2 + 2x
3 2
dy = d ( 1/3x3) + d ( ½ x2) + d (2x)
dx dx dx dx

= 3. 1/3x2 + 2. ½x +2

= x2 + x + 2

(iii) y = 5x7 + 4x5 + l0x

dy - d(4x) + d(5x2) + dy(1)

dx dx dx dx

= 4x3 + 2.5x + 0

= 4x3 + l0x

In unit 5, it was shown that

d(ku) = k du where k is a constant and u is a differentiable function.

dx dx

3.2 Differentiation of Difference of Functions

The above will be used to establish the difference rule.

Difference Rule: The derivative of the difference of a finite number of

functions is the difference of the individual derivatives.

d(uv) = udv + vdu

dx dx dx.

Example 4

Find dy/dx if y = x2 (x - 1)

Let u = x2 and v=x-1

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Then uv = x2(x - 1) = x2 - x

d(uv) = d (x3 - x) = d (x3) = d(x)

dx dx dx dx

In unit 2 you studied that the product of two functions will result to
another function. For some complicated functions it might not be very
easy to carry out a straight forward multiplication or find the product
before differentiable. Therefore arises the need to find a rule that will
side track finding of the product of functions before differentiation. That
rule is what you will derive now.

Product Rule

Suppose y = uv is the product of two differentiable functions of x then

the derivative is given as:

d(uv) = udv + vdu

dx dx dx

Proof: Let y = uv where u and v are differentiable functions of x. Let

∆x be an increment in x which will result in a corresponding increments
in y, a and v given as ∆y, ∆u and ∆x respectively.

Then ∆y + y = (u + ∆u) (v + ∆v)

= uv + v ∆u + u ∆v + ∆u ∆v

Subtract y from ∆y + y you get

∆y = u v + v∆u = u ∆v + ∆u ∆v - u v
= v∆u + u∆v + ∆u∆v

Next
divide by ∆x ≠ 0

∆y = v ∆u + u ∆v ∆v ∆v
∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x

Evaluate the limit of dy/dx as ∆x →0 you get

lim ∆y = lim v ∆u + u ∆x ∆v ∆v
∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x

∆x → 0 ∆x → 0
= v llim ∆u + u lim ∆v + lim ∆u lim ∆v

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

∆x ∆x ∆x
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

The lim ∆u = lim ∆u ∆x = du . 0 = 0

∆x dx
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

dy = v du + u dv + 0. dv
dx dx dx dx

dy = v du + u dv
dx dx dx

This can now be extended to the case of product of a finite number of

functions:

i.e. if y = ul u2 u3 ...un then

d(ulu2u3....un) = du1 (u2….un) + ul du2 (u3…..un)

dx dx dx

+....+ (ul.....un-1) dun

dx

Example 5

Differentiate the following functions

(i) y = (x2 - 1) (x + 3)
(ii) y = (x3 – 2x) (x2 - 1)
(iii) y = (x2 + 1) (2x2- 1) (x - 1)
(iv) y = (x2 - 1) (3x - 1) (x4 - 1)(3x2 - 1)

Solutions

(i) y = (x2 - 1) (x + 3)

let u = (x2 - 1) and v = (x + 3)

then dy = u du + v dv = (x2 – 1) d(x + 3) + (x + 3)

d(x2 –1)
dx dx dx dx
dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

= (x2 - 1) 1 + (x + 3) (2x)
= x2 - 1 + 2x2 + 6x
= 3x2 + 6x - 1

(ii) y = (x3 - 2x) (x2- 1)

Let u = (x3 - 2x) v + (x2- 1)

dy = u du + v dv = (x3 - 2x) d (x2 - 1) + (x2 – 1) d(x – 2x)

dx dx dx dx dx

= (x - 2x) (2x) + (x2 - 1) (3x3 - 2x)

= 2x4 - 4x2 + 3x4 - 3x2 - 2x2 + 2

= 5x4 - 9x2 +2.

(iii) y = (x2 + 1) (2x2 - 1) (x-1)

y=uvw

dy = u v dw + u w dv + v w du
dx dx dx dx

let u = (x2 + 1) v = 2x2 - 1 w=x-1

dy d (uvw) = du (v w) + u dv w + (u v) dw
dx dx dx dx dx

= 2x(2x2 - 1) (x2 - 1) + (x + 1) 4x (x -1) + (x2 + 1) (2x2 - 1) 1

= 10x4 - 8x3 + 3x2 -2x - 1

(iv) y = (x2- 1) (3x -1) (x4 - 1)(3x2 - 1)

Let u = (x2 - 1) v = (3x - 1), w = (x4 - 1) z = (3x2 –

1) dy d(uvwz) = du v w z + u dv w z = uv dw ƶ u v w dz
dx dx dx dx dx dx

= 2x (3x – 1) (x4 – 1) (3x2 – 1)

+ (x2 – 1) (3) (x4 – 1) (3x2 – 1)

+ (x2 – 1) (3x - 1) (4x3) (3x2 – 1)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

+ (x2 – 1) (3x - 1) (x4 – 1) 6x

Example 6

More solved samples find dy/dx if

(i) y= 1 1 (x2 – 1)
x x–1

(ii) y = (2x -1) 1 (√x)

x–1

(iii) y = 1 (√x)(x2 – 1)
x

Solutions

(i) y= 1 1 (x2 – 1)
x x–1

let u = 1 , v = 1 w = (x2 – 1)
x x–1

(ii) y = (2x -1) 1 (√x)

x–1

u = (2x – 1), v = 1 , w = (√x)

x–1

∴ dy = 2. 1 √x - 2x - √x + 1 (2x – 1)
dx x+1 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1)√x

= x√x - 2x 3/2 + 1 √x - 1
2 2
(x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) 2(x + 1)√2

(iii) y = 1 (√x)(x2 – 1)
x

y = 1 (x2 + 1)
√x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Let u = 1 = x–½ v = (x2 + 1)

√x

dy = -1 (x2 + 1) + 2(√x)
dx 2x3/2

= 3 √x 1
2 2x3/2

4.0 CONCLUSION

In these unit you have acquired necessary techniques or methods of

differentiation. These techniques are governed by rules which you have
just studied. You will be required to apply these rules when dealing with
differentiation of transcendental functions. The rules of differentiation
you have studied as follows: sum rule, Difference rule, Product rule,
Quotient rule and Composite rule. You have used the rules in the
examples given in the unit some of these examples with little
modification or changes. Endeavor to solve all your exercises. It builds
confidence in you.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied the following rules for differentiation.

1) Sum rule: d (u + v) = du + dv
dx dx dx

2) Difference rule: d (u - v) = du - dv
dx dx dx

3) Product rule: d(uv) = du + dv

dx dx dx

In this unit you have studied the following

(i) the slope of a line i.e. ∆y = y2 – y1

∆x x2 – x1
(ii) the slope of a curve at a given point i.e. lim ∆y/ ∆x
∆x → 0
(iii) the definition of derivative of a function f (x) at a point x i.e.
ƒ(x) =
lim ƒ(x + ∆x) - ƒ(x)
∆x →0 ∆x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(iv) how to differentiate a polynomial function using the limiting

process i.e.
evaluating the limit of a suitable quotient such as ∆y as ∆x→0
∆x

(v) that not all continuous functions are differentiable e.g. ƒ(x) = /x/
is continuous at x = 0 but not differentiable at x = 0.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Differentiate with respect to x

(1) 4x10

(2) 3x7

(3) ¼ x7/2

(4) 2x-2

(5) 4x4 - 8x3 + 2x

(6) 3√7x

(7) (x + 1) (x2 - 1)

(8) (x +1) (x+2) (x +3)

(9) (x2 + 1)(4x2 - 1)

(10) (x3 - 1 (x)

(11) drive the product rule.

d (uv) = v du + u dv
dx dx dx

(12) show that d (u+v) = v du + u dv

dx dx dx

(13) d (x2 - 1) (2x + 1) =

dx

(14) d ((3x)2 - 1) (x - 1) =
dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(15) d (3x½ - 1) (x2 - 1) =

dx

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 4 RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION II

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Differentiation of Quotient of a Function
3.2 The Chain Rule for Eifferentiation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit you have studied rules of differentiation namely

1) Sum rule
2) Difference rule
3) Product rule

In this unit you will also extend the properties of differentiability to

include quotient rule and differentiation of a composite function. This
unit will follow the same concept used in the previous unit. The
introductions in unit 7 will fit perfectly as an introduction to this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:

(1) Derive the formula for quotient rule from first principle using the
limiting process.
(2) Derive the Chain rule.
(3) Differentiates all types of rational functions with denomination of
this type
a xn + al xn-1 +.... + c/n

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Differentiation of Quotient of Functions

Quotient Rule. The derivation of the quotient of two functions is given

as:

i.e.
d u = v du - u dv
dx v dx dx
v2 v≠0

Example 1

Find dy/dx if y = x2 - 2
x-1

Solution

Let u = x2 - 2, v=x-1
d = (x-1)2x - ( x2 -2)

= 2x2 - x2 - 2
(x -1) (x -1)2
Quotient Rule

Suppose y = u/v v≠0

Is the quotient of two differentiable functions of x then the derivative is
given as

d u = v du - u dv
dx v dx dx
v2 v ≠
0

Proof: Let y = , where u(x) and v(x) are both differentiable at a

domain where

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

v ≠ 0. Let ∆ x be an increment in x in the given domain. Then ∆

y, ∆ u and ∆v are corresponding increments in y, u and v
respectively.

Then
1. ∆y + y = (u + ∆u) where ∆v + v ≠
(v + ∆u)
subtracting y from ∆y + y you get

∆y = u + ∆u - u
v + ∆u v

= uv + v∆u – uv - u∆v
v(v + ∆v)

2. v∆u - u∆v
v(v + ∆V)

division by ∆x ≠ 0 yields

d u = v du - u dv
dx v dx dx
v2 v≠0

Taking the limit as ∆x tends to zero you obtain

3. lim d = lim v ∆u -u ∆v
∆x ∆x
v(v + ∆x)
∆x → 0

Lim v ∆u - lim u ∆v
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x
lim v (v + ∆v)
∆x → 0

As ∆x → 0 lim (v + ∆v) = 1im v lim (v +∆v)

= lim v ( lim v + ∆v)
= v(v+0)

Recall that lim ∆v = Iim ∆v ∆x = dv .0

∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

lim v(v + ∆v) = V2

∆x → 0

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Hence from (3) you get:

v du - u dv
dx dx
V2
dy = lim ∆y
dx ∆x

Example 2

If y= x2 + 2 Find dy
x3 dx

Solution

Let u=x2 + 2, v = x3

Then dy = (x3) (2x) - (x2 +2) (3x2)

dx (x3)2

2 - 3(x2 +2)
x2 x4

Example 3

Differentiate the following functions if

(i) y= x3 + 1
x-1

(üi) y= x2 + 1
√x + 1

(iv) y= 3x2 +2x+1

x2 -1

Solution

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

dy (x -1)3x2 - x3 + 1 = 3x2 - (x3 + 1)

dx (x-1)2 x-1 (x-1)2

(ii) y= x+1 u = x + 1, v = √x
√x

dy = x – ½ (x + 1) (x-1/2)
dx x

= 1 - 1
√x 2

= x–1
2x3/2.

(üi) y= x2 + 1 u = 3x2 + 2x + 1, v = x2 - 1
x+1

dy = (6x + 2)(x2 -1) - 2x(3x22 + 2x + 1)

6x + 2 - 2x(3x2 +2x+1
x2 – 1 (x2 – 1)2

Let u = g(x) and y = un then

dy du" du
n-1
dx = dx = nu dx

Recall that in unit 5 you proved that dy = mxn-1 when u = x. You will
use the dx
same principle to show the above, i.e. Let y = un where u is a
differentiable function of x and n∈N.

Therefore ∆y and ∆u are corresponding increment in y and u

respectively.

Then y + ∆y = (u + ∆u)n
By trinomial equation you get that:

y + ∆y = un + nun-1 ∆u + (terms in u and higher powers of

(∆u) .

From the above subtract y from y + ∆y You get:

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

dy = nun-I du + 0
dx dx

(iv) y = (x+1)4 (x - 1 )3 (x2 + 1)2

Let u = (x + 1)4, v = (x- 1 )3, w = (x2 + 1)2

Then du = 4 (x+1)3 dv = 3(x- 1 )2 dw = 4x (x2 +

1)
dx dx dx

dy = 4 (x 1)3 (x - 1 )3 (x2 + 1)2 3(x -1 )4 (x + 1)2 (x - 1 )2

dx
+ 4 (x + 1)4 (x - 1 )3 (x2 + 1)

If n is negative instead of y = un you have

Using the quotient rule you will get that

dy = d 1 un d(l) - 1 d(un)
Un
dx dx dx dx

(un)2

u2n

dy = ( - nun-1 u-2n) du
dx dx

Given that:

(1) y = x4 + l (2) Y = x3(x - 1) -2

x4

(3) y = 2x(4x2 - 3)-3 Find dy/dx in each case.

Solutions

(1) y = x4 + 1 = x4+X-4
x4
dy = 4x - 4/x5
dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(2) Y = x3(x - 1)-2

let u = x3 v= (x - 1)-2

dy = 3x2(x-1)-2 – 2x3 (x - 1)3

dx

3x2 - 2x3
(x - 2)2 (x - 2)3

(3) y = 2x(4x2 - 3)-3

let u = 2x v = (4x2 - 3)-3

dy = 2 - 48x2
2 3
dx (4x - 3) (4x2 - 3)4

3.2 The Chain Rule for Differentiation

You will now learn how to differentiate composite functions, which you
studied in unit 2. i.e. if ƒ (x) and g(x) are functions defined in the same
domain then ƒ og =ƒ( g (x) )

Remark: Now suppose that u(x) is a differentiable functions of x, then u

(x) changes du times as fast as x does. If ƒ changes n times as fast as
g and g changes n times as dx fast as w, then ƒ changes mn times as fast
as w.

Suppose a function y = ƒ (g(x)) where ƒ and g are both differentiable

functions of x.

Then dy = d [ f (g(x)) ]
dx dx

This implies that by the above remark ƒ (g(x) ) changes ƒ 1(g(x)) times
as fast as g(x) And g(x) changes gl(x) x g1(x) times as fast as x.

ƒ 1 (g(x) g1 (x) is the derivative of ƒ (g(x) with respect to x . which

means that

d [ƒ (g(x)) ] = ƒ l (g(x) g1 (x) .

The above is called the chain rule for the differentiation of a composite
function (i.e, function of function). In the previous section you have
studied that if u is a differentiable

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

function of x and y = un then dy = nun-1 du for n εQ

dx dx

The coefficient of the term dy of the above equation can be written as

dx

nun-1 dy
dx

dy = dy , du
dx du dx

To prove the chain rule you assume that y = ƒ (u) is differentiable at

point u = u0, then an increment ∆u will produce a corresponding
increment ∆y is y such that:

∆y = f1(u0) ∆u + ε1 ∆u _______ (A)

If u = g(x) is a differentiable at a point x = x0, then an increment ∆x

produces a corresponding increment ∆y such that

∆u = g1 (x0) ∆x + ε2 ∆x ________ (B)

If ε1 → 0 then ∆u → 0

And if ε2 → 0 then ∆x → 40

Combining equations (A) and (B) you get:

∆y = (ƒ 1(u0) ε1) ∆x (gl (x0) + ε2) __________ (C)

Dividing equation (C) by ∆x ≠ 0 you get

ƒ 1(u0) g1 (x0) + ƒ 1(u0) ε2 + g1 (xo) εl + εl ε2 _______ (D)

Taking limits on both side D you get

lim ∆y = lim ƒ 1(u0) g1 (x0) + ƒ 1(u0) ε2 + g1 (xo) εl + εl ε2

(E)
∆x → 0 ∆x →O (E)

But as ∆x → 0 ⇒ ε2 → 0 ⇒ ∆u → 0 ⇒ ε1 → 0
Then Equation (E) becomes

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

dy = ƒ 1(u0) g1 (x0)
dx x0

which is dy du
du uo dx xo

since x0 and u0 are chosen arbitrarily then

dy = dy . du
dx du dx

The above could be written as

(fog)1 (x) = ƒ 1(g(x)) g1 (x)

or (fog)1 = ƒ 1,(g(x)) g1 (x).

Solution

Let u = 1
x -1

y = u4

dy = dy . du
dx du dx

dy = 4u3, du = -1
du dx (x - 1)2
3
Then dy = dy . du 4 1 -1
dx du dx x – 1 (x - 1)2

Example 4

Differentiate the following function with respect to x

(1) y = (1- 3x)-1 (2) y= 2x 3

2
x -1
3
(3) y= 1 - 1 (4) y= x2 + 2 4
x -1 x + 1 x2 - 1

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(5) y = (2x4 +x2 -1)6 (6) y= x3 - x-2 - x- 1

2 2 1

Solutions

(1) Y = (1-3x)-l

y = u-1 u = 1 - 3x

dy = -u-2 du = - 3.
du dx

dy = - u-2 -3 = 3u-2 = 3
dx (1-3x)2
3
(2) y= 2x
x2 - 1

Let y = u3, u= 2x , dy = 3u2

x2 -1 du

du = - 2(x2 +1)
dx (x2 - 1)2

dy = dy . du = 3 2(x2 +1) 2
. -2(x2 + 1)
dx du dx (x2 - 1) (x2 - 1)2
.
- 24x (x2 + 1)
2

(x2 - 1 )4

(3) y = 1 - 1
x–1 x - 1

u= 1 - 1 y = u3
x–1 x - 1

du = -1 + 1 dy = 3u2
2 2
dx (x -1) (x + 1) du

2
dy = 3 1 - 1 1 - 1
x–1 x + 1 (x – 1) (x + 1)2
2

- 48x
(x -1)4 (x + 1)4

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(4) y= x2 + 2 4

x2 - 1

Let u = x2 + 2 4

x2 – 1 y=u4

du 2x - 2x(x2 + 2) = - 6x
2
dx (x -1) (x2 -1)2 (x2 -1)2

dy = 4u3 du

dy = 4 (x2 + 2) 3
= - 6x
(x2 -1)2 (x2 -1)2

- 24x(x2 + 1)3
(x2 - 1 )5

5) y = (2x4 + x2 – l)6
u = 2x4 + x2 - 1, y = u6
du = 4x3 + 2x, dy =6u5
dx du
dy = 6( 2x4 + x2 - 1)5 ( 4x3 = 2x)
dx

(6) y = x3 - x2 - x -
3 2 1

Let
y = u-1

dy u-2, du = x2 – x – 1
du dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have derived rules for differentiating quotient of

functions. You have also derived the important chain rule. As mentioned
in the previous unit all these rules are very important because you will
use them throughout the remaining part of this course.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied the following rules for differentiation.

(i) Quotient rule

= v du - u dv
dx dx

v2

(ii) Chain rule dy = dy . du

dx du dx

You have used these rules differentiate polynomials and rational

functions.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

(1) 4x3 + 2x2 + 1

x

(2) x+1
2x

(3) x (x - 4)3

(4) x2
x - 1

(5) x + 1
x√x

(6) x3 – 2x + 1
x2 -1

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

6x___
(8) (x2 -1)2

2(x2 + 1)
(9) (x2 -1)2

(l0) 4
(x - 1)5

(11) x3 (x - 2)-1

(13) (x2+ x)3 (3x + 1)3

(14) (x + 1) (2x2 – 1) (2x – 1)

(15) (x – 1)4 ( x + 1)2

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

132
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

MODULE 3

Unit 1 Further Differentiation

Unit 2 Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions and Exponential
Function
Unit 3 Differentiation of Trigonometric 41 Functions
Unit 4 Differentiation Inverse Trigonometric Functions and
Hyperbolic Functions

UNIT 1 FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Differentiation of Inverse Functions
3.2 Implicit Differentiation
3.3 Higher Order Differentiation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

By now you would have known that the subject differential calculus has
a lot to offer to mankind. In order to be able to solve a large number of
problems it is important to study the derivative of certain class of
functions. You already know that if a function ƒ is a one to one function
then ƒ has an inverse ƒ -1. The question now is suppose ƒ is a
differentiable and one to one function. Will the inverse function ƒ -1 be
differentiable? And under what conditions will (ƒ -1) exist. This is one
question among others that you will be able to answer in this unit. In
addition problems of relating to motion of a body a along a curve can
only be fully described if the derivative known. In this unit higher
derivations of function will be discussed so that you and others may be
able to solve completely the problem of motion rte: a body along a
curve. Optimization of scarce resources can easily be solved with the
knowledge of higher derivatives of function most of the functions that
have been treated so far are expressed explicitly in terms of one
independent variable x. There are certain functions that might not be

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

expressed explicitly, such function fall into the class of functions known
as implicit function. They are so called in the sense that dependant and
independent variables are expressed implicitly. Finding derivatives of
such functions will be discussed; it will save you the time of trying to
express the dependent variable in terms of the independent variable
before differentiating y.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

Therefore after studying this unit you should be able to

1) Differentiate the inverse of a function

2) Evaluate higher derivatives of any given function.
3) Differentiate an implicit function

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.0 Differentiation of Inverse Functions

You could recall that the inverse of the function y = x3 is given as y =

x1/3 (see Unit 2)

If y = x1/3

dy - 1 x1/3 -1 x-2/3 and x ≠ 0

dx 3

In the above example the function y = x3 is a one to one function and

also a differentiable function. Also the function y = x1/3 is a one to one
and also differentiable at a specified domain provided x ≠ 0.

You recall that in unit 2 you studied that the composite function of ƒ (x)
and its inverse ƒ -1(x) in any order yields the identity function.

i.e. ƒ (ƒ -1(x)) = ƒ (ƒ -1(X)) =x

Using the function ƒ (x) = x3 you have that ƒ -1 (x) = xl/3

Then ƒ (ƒ -1(x)) = (x1/3)3 = x

And ƒ (ƒ -1(x)) = (x3 )1/3 = x

Using the above illustration, you can now differentiate the composite
function given as

ƒ (ƒ -1 (x)) =x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

i.e. d [ƒ (ƒ -1 (x))] = dx
dx dx
Using the chain rule studied in Unit 6.

Let ƒ -1 (x) = g (x)

Then ƒ (g(x)) = x.

But d [ƒ (g(x)) ] = ƒ '1 (g(x)) = dx = 1

dx dx

ƒ 1 (g(x)). g1(x) = 1.

ƒ 1 (g(x))

This gives the derivative of inverse of a function

i.e. (ƒ -1(x)) = 1
1
ƒ (g(x))

Example

Let ƒ (x) = x3 Find (ƒ -1(x))

Solution

(ƒ -1(x))1 = 1 = 1 = 1
1 1 -1 2
ƒ (ƒ (x)) 3(ƒ (x)) 3(x1/3)2

1
3x2/3

by direct differentiation of y = x you get:

dy = x.
dx

Example

Let ƒ (x) = x3 + 1 find the derivation of the inverse

Solution

ƒ (x) = x3 + 1; ƒ 1 (x) = 3x2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

inverse ƒ -1 (x) = (x – 1)1/3

(ƒ -1(x))1 = 1 = 1 = 1_____
-1 1 -1 2
(ƒ (x)) 3(ƒ (X)) 3((x - 1)1/3)2

The derivative of inverse of the function ƒ (x) = xn . , x > 0

Given that ƒ (x) = xn and ƒ 1 (x) = x 1/n

ƒ 1(X) = nxn-1

therefore (ƒ -1(x))1 = 1 = 1 _
1 -1 -1 n-1
ƒ (ƒ (x)) n(ƒ (x))

d [x 1/n] = 1 x1/n-1 1 = 1
dx n n(x1/n)n-1 n x1-1/n

1 x1/n-1
n

Thus for x > 0 and ƒ 1(x)=x1/n

d [x 1/n] = 1 x1/n-1 _____________

(A)
dx n

and for x ≠ 0 and n odd

d [x 1/n] = 1 x1/n-1
dx n

Examples

Find the derivative of the following functions.

(I) y = x½
(II) y = xI/7
(III) y = xp/E
(IV) y = x2/5
(V) y = x4/3
(VI) y = x -5/3

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solutions

(I) y = x1/2 = dy = 1 x-1/2

dx 2

(II) y = x1/7 = dy = 1 x-6/7

dx 7

(III) y = xp/E

Let xp/q = (x1/q)p

d [xp/q] d ( [ x1/q])p
dx dx

Let u = x I /q then y = up

dy = dy . du
dx du dx

dy = p u p-1 and du = 1 x 1/q -1

du dx q

dy = p u P-1 1 x 1/q-1 = p(x 1/q )p-1 . 1 x1/q-1

dx q q

(IV) y = x2/5

dy = 2 x2/5-1 = 2 x- 3/5
dx 5 5

(V) y = x4/3

dy = 4 x 4/3- 1 = 4 x 1/3
dx 3 3

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(VI) y = x-5/3

dy = -5 x -5/3-1 = -5 x-8/3
dx 3 3

The above equation (B) could be extended to the case f (x) = u

where u is to the case f (x) = u; where u is a differentiable
functions of x.

i.e. d (u(x) )p/q = P [u(x)]p/q – 1 d [u(x)]

dx q dx

For the above to make sense, then u (x) ≠ 0 when q is odd and u
(x) > 0 when q is even.

Example

(1) If y = [ (x2 - 1)1/5] then

dy = 1 (x2-1)1/5-1 2x
dx 5

2x (x2 – l )-4/5
5

(2) Evaluate d [ 2x2 -7]1/3] = 1 (2x2 -7)-2/3 . 4x

dx 3

4x
3(2x2 -7)2/3

(3) Evaluate

d x2 + 1 = d x2 + 1 ½
dx x2 – 1 x x2 – 1

= 1 x2 + 1 -½ . d = x2 + 1
2 x2 – 1 x x2 – 1

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

=1 x2 + 1 -½ 2x(x2 – 1) - 2 (x2 + 1)
2 x2 – 1 (x2 – 1)2

= 1 x2 + 1 -½ -4x
2 x2 – 1 (x2 – 1)2

= -2x

(√x2 + 1) (x2 – 1)3/2

3.2 Implicit Differentiation

So far you have been finding the derivatives of functions of the class of
functions whose right side of the equality sign is an expression of one
variable (i.e. x). Such functions are said to be explicit functions.
However, there are functions such as

x2y = 2xy2 + 6

This type of such is expressed implicitly. To obtain an explicit

expression of an implicit expression you resolve in transpose (make
subject of formula) the equation in the dependant variable or one
variable

Example

2x2 + 3y = 6 transposing for y

yields y = 2x2 - 6
-3

However there are implicit functions where it will not be possible to

solve for y. Example of such functions are

(1) x2 + xy4 + y3x + x3 =2

(2) x2 + xy2 + 5x3 + y2 = 1

In the above although it is not possible to solve for y, they can be

differentiated by the method of known as implicit differentiation.
Appropriate applications of the rules for differentiations u, u v, u l/n , U,
etc. which you have studied in unit 6. You should be able to carry out
implicit differentiation. The next question that comes to your mind

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

should be "what is implicit differentiation" this question is best

answered by finding the derivative of the functions.
x2 + xy4 + y3x + x3 = 2

Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation you get

d (x2) + d (xy4) + d (y3x) + dx3 = d(2)

dx dx dx dx dx

=2x + dx, y4 + x d(y)4 + y3 dx + x d(y)3 +3x2= 0

dx dx dx dx

= 2x + I. y4 = 4xy3 dy + y3 + 3x y2 dy + 3x2 = 0
dx dx

= (2x + y4 + 3x2 + y3) + (4xy3 + 3x y2) dy = 0

dx

dy = - (2x + y4 + 3x2 + y3)

dx 4xy3 + 3xy2

Implicit differentiation is useful in finding the slope of a tangent to

curves.

Example: Find dy of the following functions.

dx

1. x2 + y2 (2)

3. x2 y2 + y + 2 = 0 (4) x3 – xy + yl = 0

5. 2xy - y2 = x - y 6. (x + y)2 + (x-y)2 = x3 + y3

Solutions

1. d(x2) + d(y2) = d(4)

dx dx dx

=2x2 + 2y dy = 0
dx

⇒ dy = x2 , y ≠ 0
dx y

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2. d(x2) = d x2 - 2
dx dx x -1

- 2y dy = 2x(x-1)-(x2 -2) = x2 - 2x + 2
dx (x - 1)2 (x - 1)2

2y dy = x2 - 2x + 2
dx (x - 1)2

dy = x2 - 2x + 2
dx 2y(x - 1)2

3. d (x2y2) + d (y) + dy = 0
dx dx dx

x2 d(y2) + y2 d(x2) + dy = 0
dx dx dx

x22y dy + y2 2x + dy = 0
dx dx

2xy2 + (2yx + 1) dy = 0
dx
2
dy = - 2yx
dx 2yx-1

4. d (x3) + d (xy) = d(y2) =0

dx dx dx

3x2 - y d(x) -x dy + 2y dy = 0
dx dx dx

3x2 – y - x dy + 2y dy = 0
dx dx

3x2 – y +(2y - x) dy = 0
dx

dy y – 3x2
dx 2y-x

5. d(2xy)- d(y2) = d (x) - dy

dx dx dx dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2x dy + 2y - 2y dy = 1 - dy.
dx dx dx

2y - 1 = (2y - 2x - 1) dy
dx

dy = 2y – 1 _
dx 2y – 2x - 1

6. d(x + y)2 + d(x - y)2 = x3 + y3

dx dx

d(x + y)2 + d(x - y)2 = d (x3 + y3)

dx dx dx

2x(x +y)( 1 + dy ) + 2(x - y) ( 1 - dy) = 3x2 + 3y2 dy

dx dx dx

==> 2(x + y) = 2(x - y) + [(2(x + y) - (2x - y)] dy = 3x2 + 3y2 dy

dx dx

==> 4x + 4y dy = 3x2 + 3y2 dy

dx dx

==> (4x+3y2) dy = 3x2 + 4x

dx

dy 3x2 - 4x
dx 4y - 3y2

Example

By differentiating the equation

x2 y2 = x2 + y2 implicitly show that

c = k(1 - y2) , where k y = x.

x-1

Solution

Given that x2 y2 = x2 + y2

Then d (x2 y2) , where k y = x.

x2 -1

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Solution: Given that x2 y2 = x2 + y2

Then d(x2 y2) , d (x2 + y2)

2
x –1 d
2 2
2xy + 2yx dy = 2x + 2y dy
dx dx _________ (1)

Collecting like terms you equation (1) becomes

(2x + 2y) dy = 2x - 2xy2 __________ (II)

Dividing equation II by (2yx2 - 2y)

dy = x - xy2 = x( 1 - y2 )
dx yx2 - y y(x2 -1)

since k = x/y then.

Example

By differentiating the equation

x2 + y – y2 implicitly show that

dy = 2y - x
dx 2x + y

Solution: Differentiating with respect with y you have:

d(x2) d(xy) – d(y2) = 0

dy dy dy

2x dx + x + y d - 2y = 0
dy d

dx (2x + y) = 2y – x
dy

dx = 2y – x
dy 2x + y

3.3 Higher Order Differentiation

You will start this section with the study of second derivative of a
function where it exist and then extend it to higher order.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Let y = ƒ (x) be a differentiable function of x. Then it has a

derivative given as

dy = ƒ 1 (x)
dx

ƒ 1 (x) is a function let:

Then g1(x) = d2y which is the second derivative of function y = ƒ

(x) .
dx2

Which is written as d2y or ƒ 11 (x)

dx2

Example

Let y = 4x3 Find d2y

dx2

Solution

dx = d (4x3) = 12x2
dy d

d2y = d (12x2) = 24x

dx2 d

Example

y = x3 - 2x2 + x. find d2y

dx2

dy = d (x3 - 2x2 + x )=3x2 – 4x + 1

dx d

d2y = (3x2 - 4x + 1)
dx2

= 6x - 4
Since you now know what a second derivation of higher order. The idea
here is that so long as you have differentiability, you can continue to
differentiate y = ƒ (x) from dy
dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

ƒ 1(x) and dy = ƒ 1(x) to form dy = ƒ 11(x) and dy = ƒ 11(x) to form dy = ƒ111 (x)
dx dx2 dx2 = dx3

And so on until you get to an nth order

i.e. d(y) = dy , d dy = d2y

dx dx d dx dx2

d d2y d3y d d3y = d4y

d dx2 dx3 d dx3 dx4

d (dn-1 g) = dny
d dxn-1 dxn

Example

Let y = x5 + x4 + x3 + 1

Then dy = 5x4 + 4x3 + 3x2

dx

d2y = 20x3 + 12x2 + 6x

dx2

d3y = 60x3 + 24x2 + 6x

dx3

d4y = 120x + 24
dx4

d555y = 120
dx5

d6y = 0
dx6

d>1y = d8y = … = d "y = 0

dx1 dx8 dxn

In the above example all derivatives of order higher than 5 are

identically zero. You can see that derivative of a polynomial
function is again a polynomial function. This implies that
polynomial functions have derivatives of all order so also, is all
rational functions.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example

y= 1
x
dy = -1 , d2y = 2
dx x2 dx2 x3

d3y = - 6 d4 y = 24
dx3 x4 dx4 x5

Example

Find d4y If y = 2x
dx4 x-1

Solution

y = 2x
x-1

dy = -2x d2y = 4x
dx (x - 1)4, dx2 (x _ 1)3

d3y = -12x , d4y = 48x

dx3 (x – 1)4 dx4 (x – 1)5

Example

By differentiating implicitly find d2y if x2 = 1 + y2, leave your

answer in terms of x and y only.

Solution

Given that x2 - 1 = y2

Then 2x = 2y dy
dx

X = y dy
dx
1 = dy . dy + y d2y
dx dx dx2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

d2y = 1 - (x/y)2 = y2 – x2
dx2 y y3

Example

By differentiating implicitly find: (1) dy/dx. (2) d2y/dx2 in the

following equations.

(1) x2 - y2 = 4x
(2) x3 - y3 = 27
(3) x2 + y + y2 = 1
(4) x2 y2 = 16

Solutions

(1) x2 - y2 = 4x

d(x2) - d(y2) = d(4x)

dx dx dx
2x - 2y dy = 4
dx

dy = 2x - 4 = x - 3
dx 2y y.

Given that y dy = x - 2
dx

d y dy =1.
d dx

dy dy + y d2y = 1
dx dx dx2

d2y = 1 - dy = 1 - x – 2 2 = - (y2 + x2 - 4x + 4)
dx2 dx y _ y3
y y

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(2) x3 - y3 = 27

d(x3) - (dyn) = 0
dx dx

3x2 – 3y2 dy = 0
dx

====> dy = x2
dx y2

d y dy = d (x)
dx dx dx

y2 d2y + 2y d . d = 2x
dx2 dx dx

y2 d2y = 2(x – y dy 2
)
dx2 dx

d2y = 2 (x – y x 4
) = 2x 1 - x3
dx2 y y3
y2 y2

= 2x(y3 - x3)
y5

(3) x2 y + y2 = 1

d (x2y) - d(y2) = 0
dx dx

2xy + x2 dy + 2y dy = 0
dx dx

-2xy = (x2 + 2y) dy

dx

dy = -2xy
dx x2 + 2y

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Differentiating implicitly the equation

d (2x y) d (x2 dy) + d (2y dy) = 0

dx dx dx dx dx

you get:

2y + 2x dy +2x dy + x2 d2y + 2 dy . dy + 2y d2y = 0

dx dx dx2 dx dx dx2

collecting like terms you get:

2y+ 4x dy +2( dy)2 +( x2 + 2y) d2y = 0

dx dx dx2

d2y = 2y + 4x
dx2

(4) x2 y2 = 16

d (x2 y2) = 16
dx

2x y2 + x2 2y dy = 0
dx

dy = -2xy2 =- -y
dx 2yx2 x

d (x dy) = d ( - y) = d (x dy) d (- y)
dx dx dx dx dx dx

dy = - 2 dy
dx dx

d2y = - 2 dy/dx = -2 (-y/x) = 2y

dx2 x x x2

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have applied rules of differentiation to find derivatives

of inverse of a function which is turn lead to differentiation of function
such as y = xn where nEQ. You have studied implicit differentiation will
be useful when finding the normal or tangent of curve at a given point.
Higher order derivatives of functions, which you studied in this unit, is a

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

very useful tool for studying applications of differentiation. The various

solved examples in this unit is given to enable you acquire the necessary
tools for further differentiation.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have studied how to

(1) Fine the derivatives of inverse of a given function

i.e.
d (ƒ -1(x)) = 1
dx ƒ 1 (ƒ -1 (x))

(II) Differentiate a given equation implicitly

(III) Fine higher order derivatives of functions

i.e. dy d (dy) d d2y = d3y

dx dx dx dx dx2 dx2, ….,

d dn-1 y dny
dx dxn-l dxn

(IV) Differentiate functions with fractional powers i.e. d (xp/q) =

P/q x(p/q)
dx

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

For exercise (1) - (2) find the derivatives of the inverse of the following
functions:

(1) y = x2 -1

(2) y = 4x5 - 2

(3) y= 2x
x-1

(5) Find the derivatives of the following functions

(I) y=x1/5 (II) y = x1/9

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(III) y = x3/5 (1V) y = x-2/3

(6) Find the derivative of the following functions

(1) y = (x-1)1/5 (II) y = (2x2 - x)1/3

(III) y = (x3 - 1)2/3

(7) Evaluate d x2 - 1
dx x+2

2/3
(8) Evaluate d x+1
dx x2 - 2

(9) If y √l+x2 = 2 find dy

dx

(10) If y = x - 1 show that

x+2

(x+2)2 dy = 3
dx

(11) If y = 1 find dy and d2y

x2 + 1 dx dx2

(12) Find the value of dx and d2y

dx dx2
at the point p(2, 3) if x2 + xy = y.

(13) Find dx if (x - y) + (x + y)2 = x2 + y2

dy

(14) By differentiating the equation

2x - y2 = x2 - 2y show that

(1- y) d2y = 1 + x – 1 2

dx2 1 - y

(15) What is the value of d2y if y = x6

dx2

(16) Find d4y if y = x + 1

dx4 x2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(17) Find d3y if y = 1 + x

dx3 1-x
4 4
(18) Find d y if y = 3x + 1
dx4 x

(19) show that dx = - x if x2 y2 = 16.

dy y

(20) Find d2 x2 + 1
dx2 x -1

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 2 DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Differentiation of the Logarithm Function
3.2 Logarithmic Differentiation
3.3 Differentiation of Exponential Functions
3.4 Differentiation of the Function au
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

So far you have studied differentiation of functions such as polynomials

and rational functions. In this unit you will be studying differentiation of
two special functions namely natural log and exponential which have
practical applications in real life problems such as computation of
compound interest accruing from money deposited or borrowed from
financial institutions. Another application where the differentiation of
these two special functions could be applied is in the prediction of
growth or decay of a radioactive substance. The two functions natural
logarithm and exponential functions that will be subject of study in this
unit, are related to one another because one is the inverse functions of
the others. That is ƒ-1(natural logarithm) = exponential function and the
ƒ-1 (exponential function) is the natural logarithm.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly:

1) Differentiate logarithmic functions

2) Carry out logarithmic differentiation
3) Differentiate exponential functions
4) Find the derivative of the function au
5) Find the derivative of the function loga u.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Differentiation of the Logarithm Functions

You will review some properties of logarithm functions you are already
familiar with.

(1) x = 1oga y if ax = y

(2) the log of a product = the sum of the logs. Keeping the
above in mind you should be able to recall the following:

let ƒ (x) = log x

then ƒ (x, y) = ƒ (x) + ƒ (y) …….. (I)

suppose ƒ (x) = 1

then ƒ (1) = ƒ (1 . 1) = ƒ (1) + ƒ (1) = 2 ƒ

(1)

⇒ ƒ (1) = 2 ƒ (1)

⇒ 0 = ƒ (1). ......... (II)

if this is true for x>0

Then 0 = ƒ (1) = ƒ (x . 1/x) = ƒ (x) + ƒ (1/x )

⇒ = ƒ (1/x) = ƒ (x) ………….. (III)

Taking x > 0 and y > 0 then

ƒ (y/x) = ƒ (y . 1/x) = ƒ (y) + ƒ (1/x) = ƒ (y) – ƒ (x)

(Using equation II)

ƒ (y/x) ƒ (y) – ƒ (x) ................... (IV)

Still keeping x > 0 and using equation I you get

ƒ (x . x . x.... x) = ƒ (xn) = ƒ (x) + .....+ ƒ (x)

= n ƒ (x)
ƒ (xn) = n ƒ (x).

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Replacing ƒ (x) by log x you get the 3 basic properties.

(1) log (x y) = log x +log y

(2) log(y/x) = log x – log y

(3) log (xp) = p log x.

You will now attempt to derive a formula for the derivative of a

logarithm function.

Let log x = ƒ (x) and x > 0 where ƒ is assumed to be a non-

constant differentiable function of x which has all the properties
of a logarithm stated above let ∆x be an increment resulting in a
corresponding increment in ƒ(x). Then the difference quotient can
be formed as

ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ(x)
∆x __________ (A)

Since ƒ (x) is a logarithmic function.

You can re-write the above equations (A) as

ƒ (x +∆) - ƒ (x) = ƒ (x+∆x) = ƒ (1+ ∆x)

x x

Hence ƒ (x +∆) - ƒ(x) = ƒ (x+∆x)

∆x x

Multiplying equation (B) x/x and noting that f (l) = 0 you get

ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x) = 1 ƒ (1 + ∆x/x) – ƒ (1))

∆x x ∆x/x

Taking limits of equation (C) as ∆x -----> 0 you get

Lim ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x) lim 1 lim ƒ (1 + ∆x/x) –

f(1) = I
∆x x ∆x/x

∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

=1 lim ƒ (1 + ∆x/x) – f(1))

∆x/x

∆x → 0

ƒ 1 (x) = 1/x f 1(1)

⇒ d [ f(x) ] = d [log x] = 1 where ƒ 1 (x) = 1

dx dx x

(Since f is a non-constant function ƒ 1(1) ≠ 0).

If u is a differentiable positive function of x (i.e. u(x) > 0 and ul (x)

exist)

Then d (l nu ) = d lnu du = 1 du
dx du dx u dx

Example: Find d log(x2 + 1).

dx

Solution

Let u = x2 + 1 here u > 0 ∀ ε R.

Then d (x2 + 1). = 1 2x = 2x _

2
dx x +1 x2 +1

Example: Find d log 1 _

dx x2 + 1

Solution

Let u= 1 here u > 0 V x ε R.

x2 + 1

Then d log 1 d (log u) = 1 du

2
dx (x + 1) dx u dx

= x2 +1 - 2x = - 2x _
(x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 1)

Example: Show that d (log /x/ ) = 1

dx x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solution: For x > 0

d (log /x/ ) = d (log x) = 1 /x/ = x for x>0

dx dx x

For x < 0, / x/ =x.

Therefore d (log /x/ ) = d (log -x)

dx dx

Here let u=-x du = - 1 d (u) = 1

dx dx u

d (log /x/ ) = 1 . ( -1) = 1 . ( -1) = 1

dx u x x

Example: Find d log /1 - x2 /

dx

Solution

Let u = 1- x2, then d log /u/

dx

= 1 . - 2x = - 2x = 2x
1-x 1 – x2 x2 -1

Example: Find d log x4 , x ≠ 1.

dx x-1

Solution

Let u = xΔ du = (3x - 4)x3

x+1 dx (x-1)2,

Then d log = 1 . du = x – 1 . (3x - 4)x3

dx u dx x4 (x – 1)2

= (3x - 4)
x(x – 1)

3.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

The Natural Logarithm: In previous section you have differentiated a

general logarithm function. That is the base to which the logarithm is

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

taken was not mentioned. Every logarithm studied so far are mainly of
two types logl0 x or loge x. The latter is the one you will study in this
section.

Remark: The natural logarithm is that function ƒ(x) = loge x that is the
logarithm to base e (the number e is taken after Leonard Euler (1707
-1783)(There are logarithm to base other than e or 10.) The interesting
thing about the study of differentiation of the natural logarithm is that its
definition depends so much on calculus. You will consider the definition
after you have studied the second course on calculus i.e. integral
calculus. You have to make do with the fact that

Ln x = loge x = the natural logarithm.

The above satisfies all the basic properties of a logarithm function

reviewed in the previous section.

In practice it has been observed that finding the derivatives of certain

functions could be a difficult task.

But with appropriate application of the natural logarithm, derivatives of

such functions could easily be found. The method involves taking the
natural logarithm Ln of both sides of the given equation before
differentiation. This method is called logarithmic differentiation.

Example

Suppose y =ƒ(x) Find dy/dx

Step 1. take natural logarithm both sides

Ln y = In ƒ (x) _______
(I)

Step 2. Differentiate both sides with x

d (In y) = d (In ƒ (x) ) ________

(II)
dx dx

dy = y d (In ƒ (x))
dx dx

Let y = un u(x) is a differentiable function of x.

Taking log of both sides you get:

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Lny =1n Un

Lny = nln U

d (Iny) = d (nlnu)
dx dx

1 dy = n ( 1 du )
y dx u dx

dy = n y ( 1 ) du
dx u dx

= nun du (since y = un)

u dx

= nun-1 du
dx

Which is the same result derived in unit 7.

Example: Find dy/dx If y = x x+l , x > 0

Solution

Y = x x+1 (taking natural log of both sides)

Ln y = ln (xx+1)

Lny = x + 1 In x (differentiate with x)

1 dy = In x + (x+1)
y dx x

dy = ln x+ (x+1) y = ln x + ( x + 1 ) xx+1
dx x x

=(xlnx + x + 1)xx

Example: Find dy if y = (x2 + 1)3 (2x -1)2

dx (x2 + I)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solution:

Y = (x2 + 1)3(2x -1)2 (taking In of both sides)

(x2 + 1)

(x2 + 1)3 (2x - 1 )2

Lny = 1n (x2 + 1)

Lny = In (x2 + 1)3 + In (2x -1)2 - In (x2 + 1)

d (lny) = d 31n (x2 + 1) + 2 1n (2x -1) - In (x2 + 1)

dx dx

1 dy = 3 .2x + 2 _ .2 - 2x__
2
y dx x +1 2x - 1 x2 + 1.

dy = 6x + 4 - 2x . (x + 1)3 (2x -1)2

2
dx x + 2x - 1 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)

= 4(3x2 - x + 1) (x2 + 1) (2x - 1).

Example: Find dy if y 3/2 = (x2 - 1)(3x - 4)1/3

dx (2x - 3)5 (x + 1)2
Solution
= (x2 - 1)(3x - 4)1/3
(2x - 3)1/5 (x +1)2

In y 3/2 = In (x2 - 1)(3x - 4)1/3

2x - 3)1/5 (x +1)2 ( taking in of both sides)

= 1n (x - 1) + In (3x - 4)1/3 - In (2x - 3)1/5 – ln (x + 1)2

d 3In y d In(x2 – 1) + 1 In(3x – 4) – 1 In(2x – 3) – 2In(x +1)

dx 2 dx 3 5

3 dy = 2x + 3 - 2 1 - 2
2y dx x2 – 1 3(3x – 4) 5 2x - 3 x +1

dy = 2x + 1 - 2 1 - 2 2 (x2 - 1)(3x - 4)1/3

dx x2 - 1 3x - 4 5 2x - 3 x + 1 3 (2x - 3)1/5 (x +1)2

2 4x3 + 53x2 - 1774x + 127

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

15 (x = 1)5/3 (2x - 3)17/15 [3x – 4]7/9 (x -1)1/3

Example:

Solution

Ln y1/5 = 1n x6
(x + 1) ½

1 1
5 In y = 6 Inx – 2 ln (x = 1)

1 1 dy 6 - 1
5 y dx x 2(x+l)

dy = 5y 6 - 1
dx x 2(x+l)

5. x6 1/5
6 - 1
(x + 1)1/5 x 2 (x + 1)

Example: y = x (x - 1)(x2 + 1)(x - 2)(x2 - 3) find dy/dx

Solution

y = x (x - 1)(x2 + 1)(x - 2)(x2 - 3)

In y = In (x (x -1)(x2 + 1)(x -2)(x2 - 3) (taking In of both

sides.)

= lnx + ln (x-1) + ln(x2 + 1) + In (x - 2) + In (x2 - 3)

d (Iny) = d [ In x + In (x - 1) + In (x 2 + 1) + In (x - 2) + In (x2 -
3)]

1 dy = 1 + 1 + 2x + 1 + 2x .y
2
y dx x x-1 x +1 x - 2 x2 - 3

dy = 1 + 1 + 2x + 1 + 2x (x (x - 1)(x2 + 1)(x - 2)(x2 -3)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

dx x x-1 x2 + 1 x–2 x2 - 3

3.3 Differentiation of Exponential Function

You will now be introduced to the function that cannot be changed by

any differentiation.

The function ƒ (x) = ex for all real number x is called the exponential
function. At this stage you will review some properties of the
exponential function which you are already familiar with.

(I) log ex = x for all real number x

(II) ex > 0 for all real number x

(III) elogx = x for all x > 0

(IV) ex+y = ex ey for all real x and y

(V) ex-y = ex/ey for all real x and y

The derivative of the exponential function is the exponential function.

This singular property distinguishes it as the only indestructible
function.

i.e. _____________ (I)

To prove the above you start by noting that

Taking the derivative of both sides of equation(2) you get:

d (log ex) = d (x)

d. dx _______________ (3)

You can write equation (4) above in a general form. By letting y = e°

where u is a real and differentiable function of x.

i.e. dy = d ( eu) by applying

dx dx

the chain rule for differentiation you get that

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

dy = eu du
dx dx

Example: find dy if
dx

(I) y = e√x

(III) y = e (x+1)2 (IV) y = e√x +I

(V) y = e(x+1)3

Solutions

(I) y = e√x = eu where u = x2

dy = eu du = e √x . ½ x -1/2
dx dx

(II) y = ex2 eu , where u = x2

dy = eu du = ex2 . 2x
dx dx
=2x ex2.

(III) y = e(x+1)2 eu, where u = (x+ 1)2

du = 2(x + 1)
dx

dy eu dy = e(x+ 1)2, 2(x + 1)

dx dx

=2(x+ 1) e(x+1)2

(IV) y = e√x + 1 eu, wherein u = (x + 1) ½

du 1 (x+12)-1/2
dx 2

dy = eu . du = e√x + 1 . ½ (x+12) -1/2

dx dx

1e√x + 1
=
2 √x + 1
(x+1)3 u
(V) y=e e , where u = (x2 - 1)2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

du = 2(x2 - 1).2x = 4x(x2 - 1)

dx

dy = eu . du = e(x2 -1)2.. 4x = (x2 - 1)

dx dx

= 4x = (x2 - 1). e(x2 -1)2

Example : Find dy/dx if y = ex - lnx

Solution

Y = ex - lnx ⇒ ex = ex
eln x x

dy = ex x -1 + ( - 1) (x)-2 ex
dx

ex - x = ex 1 - 1
x x2 x x2

Example: find dy if y = e√x In √x

Solution: Y = uv, where v = e√x u = ln(x)½

dv = e√x du = 1
dx 2√x , dx 2x

dy = u dv + v du = e√x 1 + e√x . In(x)1/2

dx dx dx 2x 2

= e√x 1 + Inx
2x 4√x

Example: if y = 1 (ex + cx ) fine dy

2 dx

Solution

dy = 1(ex - e-x)
dx 2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

If y = x2e-x find d3y

dx2
Solution

Let y = uv, where vv = x2, u = e-x

dy = 2 x e-x - x2 e-x
dx

d2y = 2 e-x - 4x e -x + x2 e -x
dx2

d2y = - 6e-x + 6x e-x – x2 e-x

dx2

3.4 Differentiation of the Function Au

You will use the method above to differentiate the function y = au where
u is a real differentiable function of x.

if a > 0 and

b = 1n a I

Then eb = elna = a

Given that u is a differentiable function of x and

au = elna = a

then In au = uIna

To find the derivative of y = au.

Given that y = au

Then dy = d au = d (euIna)
dx dx dx

= euIna d e. (uIna)
dx

= euIna. Ina du .
dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

d (au) = aulna du
dx

Example: find dy if
dx

(I) y = 4 lnx

(II) y = 2-(x2+1)

(III) y = 5√x

Solutions

(1) y = 4lnx

let a = 4, u = Inx

y=au

dy = auIn a du = 4 Inx . In 4 . 1
dx dx x

4In x In4
x

(II) y = 2-(x2+1)

y= au, a=2, u=-(x2+ 1)

dy = auIn a du = 2 -(x2+1). In 2( -(x2+1))

dx dx

= 2 -(x2+1). In 2. -2x

= 2x ln2(2 -(x2+1)).

(III) y=5√x

y = au, a = 5, u = √x

du = 5√x . Ln 5. 1 x -½
dx 2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Further Examples

Find dy if
dx

(I) y = ex In x3

(II) y2 = e-x

(III) y2/3 = x + 1 1/5

x>1
(x - 1)

(IV) y = x1/x

(V) y =1n (1nx2)

(VI) x = In y.

Solution

(I) y = ex In x3

= ex 31nx.

Let u = ex, v = 31nx.

dy = u dv + v du = 3 ex + ex 31nx
du dx dx x

= 3ex ( 1 + lnx).
x

(II) y2 = e-x

21ny =1ne-x = -x

2 dy = 1
y dx

dy = y = √e-x
dx 2 2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(III) y2/3 = x+1 1/5 x>1

x-1

In (y)2/3 = In x + 1 1/5
x>1
x-1

2 dy = 1 Inu where u = x+1

3 dx 5 x -l
2 dy = 1 .. (x - 1) - (x + 1)
3y dx 5 (x -1)2

2 dy = 1 x + 1 . - 2
3y dx 5 x – 1 (x - 1)2

dy = 3 -2 .x+l
dx 10 x2 -l x-1

(IV) y = x1/x

In y = Inx1/x = 1 Inx.
x

1 dy = 1 . 1 + -1 Inx
y dx x x x2

dy = y l - 1 In x = x1/x . 1 (1 - Inx)
dx _ x2 x2 x

= x1/x-1 ( 1 - lnx)

X 1-x/x (1 – Inx)
(V) y = In (lnx2)

y =1n u, where u =1nx2

du 1 . 2x = 2
dx x2 x

= 2
xInx2
(VI) x = In y.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

x = In y.

====> y = dy
dx

but y = ex ==> dy
dx ex (ex = elng g = y.)
4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have studied how to differentiate logarithmic and

exponential functions. You have studied additional methods of finding
the derivative of functions, by application of logarithmic differentiation.
Differentiations of certain function that are rigorous have been made
easy by the method of logarithmic differentiation. The differentiation of
exponential function which is very useful in solving problems of growth
or decay and computing compound interest on invested money has been
studied by you in this unit. you will use the knowledge gained in this
unit to solve problems involving differentiation of trigonometric and
hyperbolic functions in the next unit. Make sure you do all your
assignments. Endeavour to go through all the solved examples.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied how to

(1) differentiate the function ƒ (x) =1nu

i.e. d (lnu) = 1 du
dx u dx

(II) differentiate the function ƒ (x) =10ga u

(III) differentiate the function ƒ (x) = eu

i.e d (eu) = eu du
dx dx

(IV) to final derivative of complicated functions by applying

logarithmic differentiation (i.e taking natural logarithmic of both
sides of the equation before differentiating).

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(V) to find the derivative of the function ƒ (x) = au

i.e. d (au) = au lna du

dx dx

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Find d log, x + 1
dx x2

2. Find d log / x4 -1 /
dx

3. Differentiate y = log x2
x3 + 1

4. Differentiate y = x2x

5. If y = (x - 1)(x2 - 1)1/5 find dy

x2 + 1 dx

6. find dy if √y x2 + x 1/7

dx x2 - 1

7. If y = (x + 1)(x - 2)(x2 + 1)(x2 -1) find dy

x3 dx
3
8. If 7√y = ex find dy
dx

9. find dy/dx if y = e√x2+1

2
10. Given that y = x ex find d3y/dx3

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)

170
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational

Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 3 DIFFERENTIATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC

41 FUNCTIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Differentiation of Sines
3.2 Differentiation of Other Trigonometric Functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

So far you have studied how to differentiate various types of functions

such as polynomial, rational, fractional, exponential and logarithm
functions. You have applied rules of differentiation to differentiate the
sums, products, quotients and roots of these functions. In this unit you
will be differentiating the class of functions which are periodic. Such
periodic function are best studied using trigonometric ratios such as sine
and cosines. You are already familiar with trigonometric ratios of
cosines and sines in your SSCE/GCE mathematics. Their properties are
briefly studied here as (see Fig 9.1)

(i) sin θ = y (ii) cos θ = x/r (iii) tan θ = (iv) cosec θ = r/y

(v) sec θ = r/x and (vi) cot = x/y

Y

P(x, y)

r
θ

X
0 x N

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

The trigonometric ratios given above are structured by placing an angle

of measure θ in standard position at the center of a circle of radius r and
finding the ratios of the sides of the triangle O PN.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly:

i) derive the derivation of the function y = sin x from first principle.

ii) derive the derivatives of trigonometric function such as cos x, tan
x, cosec x and sec x.
iii) differentiate combination of various types of trigonometric
functions.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Differentiation of Sines

A good starting point for the differentiation of the trigonometric ratio of

sine is imbedded in the concept of evaluating the limit.

Lim sin θ where θ is measured

θ
θ→θ

in radian ( a radian measure is uniteless)

Fig 9.2

r s

θ
θ ( in radian)
= s/r

Prove that Lim sin θ θ is 1

θ

θ→θ

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

From the above a direct calculation will not be possible because

division by zero is not possible. Therefore, you have to go
through a formal proof of the above since you will need to find
the derivative of the function ƒ(x) = sin u.

Proof

Let θ > O and also measured in radian

Let θ be a small angle at the center of the circle (see Fig 9.3) or
radian radius r = 1
Y
Q

Fig 9.3.

In fig 9.3 OP and OA are side of the angle 0. OA is the targent to

the cicle at point A and meets side OP at Q.

Note that

Area of AOPA = ½ base x height

= ½ (OA) (h) = ½ (1) (OP sineθ)
= ½ (1) (1)sinθ = ½ sinθ

Area of sector OPA = ½ r2 θ = ½ (1) 2 θ.

Area of ∆OQA = ½ (OA) (QA) = ½ (1) (tan θ)

= ½ tan θ .

Fig. 9.3

Area of ∆OPA < Area of sector OPA < Area of ∆OQA

⇒ 1 sin θ < 1 θ < 1 tan θ ______ 1

2 2 2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Since θ> 0 and small than sin ) > 0

dividing the inequalities in (12) by ½ sin θ you get.
1<θ < 1 _________ II

taking the reciprocal (II) you get _________ III

1 > sin θ > cos θ

θ

taking limits in (III) as θ -->0

lim 1 > lim sin θ > lim cos θ
θ
θ→0 θ→0 θ→0

1 > lim sin θ > 1

θ
θ→0

the above hold for θ < 0. Since cos θ is an even function (see
unit 2) i.e.

cos (-θ) - cos θ and sin θ is add i.e.

sin (-θ) = -sin θ ⇒ sin(-θ) = -sinθ = sin θ
-ϑ -θ θ

Using the above fact you can now derive a formula for d (sin u)
dx

Let ∆ u as usual be an increment in u with a corresponding

increment

∆y is y. if y = sin U
then y + ∆y = sin (u + ∆u) _________ I

subtracting y from y + ∆y you get

∆y = sin (u + ∆u) - y
= sin (u + ∆u) – sinU __________ II

applying the factor formula i.e. sin A – sin B = 2 sin (A–B) cos (A + B)
2 2
to the right side of equation II you get

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

∆y = 2 cos ((u + ∆u).- u) sin ((u + ∆u) - u)

2 2

= 2 cos u + ∆u sin ∆u __________ III

2 2

dividing equation III through by ∆u you have

∆y = 2 cos u + ∆u sin ∆u/2

∆u 2 ∆u

= cos u + ∆u sin ∆u/2 ___________IV

2 ∆u

setting θ = ∆u/2 equation IV becomes

∆y = cos (u + θ ) sin ϑ
∆u θ

taking limits in equation (V) as ∆u → 0

lim ∆y = lim cos (u + θ) sin θ

∆u θ __________ VI

∆u → 0

limcos (u + θ) sin θ
θ
θ→0

(since θ = θu , so as ∆u → 0, θ → 0)
2

Equation VI becomes

dy = cos U. 1 = cos U.
du

since U is a differentiable function of x by the chain rule you get

d (sin u) = cosu du
dx dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

i.e. if y = sin u, -dy = dy . du

dx du dx

dy = cos u,
du

d (sinu) = cosu du
dx dx

The above process is known as differentiation of sin u from first

principle or limiting process.

Example find dy if
dx

(i) y = sin 5x
(ii) y = sin x2
(iii) y = sin √x
(iv) y = sin (In x)

Solution:

(i) y = sin 5x

Let sin U where U = 5x

Then dy = cos U dy = cos 5x . 5

dx dx

= 5 cos 5x

(ii) y = cos ex + sin x2

let y = cos u + sin v, where u = ex, v = x2.

∴ dy = - sin u du + cos v dv
dx dx dx

= - sin ex . ex + cos x2 . 2x
= 2x cos x2 - ex sin ex.

(iii) y = sin x
cos x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

let y = u , u = sin x, v = cos x

v
dy = v du - u dv
dx dx dx
2
v

= cos x(cos x) - sin x(-sin x)

cos2 x

= cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 = sec2x

cos2 x cos2 x

(iii) y = cos x
sin x

let y = u , where u = cos x, v = sin x

v

dy = v du - u dv
dx dx dx = sin x(-sin xx) – cos x(cos x)
v2 sin2 x

= -sin2 x – cos2 x
sin2 x

= - 1 = - cosec2x
sin2x

(iv) y = (sin x)-1

let y = u-1 and u = sin x

dy = -1 . du du = cos x.
dx u2 dx, dx

(v) y = (cos x)-1.

Let y = u-1 and u = cos x

dy = -1 . du = -1 - sin x
dx u2 dx cos2 x

sin x
cos2 x.

(vi) y = cos (sin2x)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

let y = cos (u)

let u = v2 where v = sinx

AQ
dy = dy . du . dv
dx du dv dx.

dy = -sin u, du = 2v, dv = cos x.

du dv dx

dy = -sin (sin2x). 2sin x . cos x.

dx

= 2sin x cos x sin (sin2 x)

DIFFERENTIATION OF tan u.

Since tan u = sin u

cos u

Let y = tan u = sin u

cos u

Using example (III) above we get:

dy - d (tan u) = cos u(c cos u)-(-sin u)(sin u)

dx du cos2 u

= 1 = sec2u.
cos2 u

d (tan u) = sec2 u du
dx dx ~

Exercise: Derive the formula for the derivative of cot u,

where u is a
differentiable function of x. (see example (IV) above).

d (cot u) = cosec2 u du
d dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Differentiation of sec u

Let y = sec u = 1 = (cos u)-1

cos u,
-2
d (sec u) = -1 (cos u) . (- sin u) du
dx dx

= sin u du
cos2 u dx

sin u . 1 du
cos u cos u dx

= tan u sec u du
dx

d (sec u) = tan u sec u du

dx dx

SELF ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE 1

Derive the formula for the derivative of cosec u, where u is a

differentiable function of x (see example (IV)above)

d (sec u) = tan u sec u du

dx dx

3.1 Differentiation Of Other Trigonometric Functions

Example: Find dy if
dx

(i) y = cot √x (ii) y = √x tan(√1- x)

(iii) y = sec2 2x (iv) y = tan x sec x.

(v) y = tan (x2 + sec x) (vi) x cos 2y = y sin x

(vii) y = 2x (viii) y = x + cos2 x
cos 3x sin x

(vx) y = cot2x tan x (x) y = ex cos x2 y = sin y.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solution

(i) y = cot√x

y=cot u , u = x½

dy = -cosec2u du , du = 1 x- ½
dx dx dx 2

dy = -cosec2u (x) 1 = - cosec2(√x)

dx 2√x 2√x

(ii) y = √x- tan(√1 - x)

let y = uv, u = √x, v = tan z, z = (I - x)½

dy = du .v + u dv
dx dx dx

tan z. + √x . dv . dz
2√x dz dx

= tan (1 – x) ½ + √x sec2 (I – x) ½ . 1 (1 – x) – ½
2√x 2

= tan(1 – x)½ + √x sec2 1

2√x 4 √1 – x
√(1 – 4)
(iii) y = sec2 2x

y = sec2 (u) , u = 2x

y = (sec u)2

dy = 2sec u. d (sec u)
dx d

2 sec u. - (tan u sec u) . 2

dy = 4 sec2 (2x) tan 2x.

dx

(iv) y = tan x sec x.

let y = uv u = tan x v = sec x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

dy = u dv + v du , du = sec2 x dv tan x sec x

dx dx dx dx dx

dy = tan x(tan x sec x) = sec 2 xtnx.

dx

(v) y = tan (x2 + sce x)

y = tan u, u = x2 + sin x.

dy sec2 u du du = 2x = cos x
dx dx, dx

dy = sec2 (x2 + sin x)(2x + cos x)

dx

(vi) x cos 2y = y sin x

using implicit differentiation you

if u = cos 2y.

du = 2 dy (- sin 2y),
dx dx

.'. - 2x sin 2y dy + cos y = sin x dy + y cos x.

dx dx

∴ cos y – y cos x = (sinx + 2xsin 2 y)dy

dx

∴ dy = cos y - y cos x
dx sin x + 2x sin 2y.

(vii) y = 2x
cos3x

let y = u
v

dy = v du -u dv
dx dx dx
2
v

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

u = 2x, v = cos 3x, du = 2, dv = - 3 sin 3x.

dx dx

dy = 2cos3x - 2x.(- 3sin 3x)

dx cos2 3x.

= 2 cos3x + 6x sin 3x
cos2 3x.

(viii) y = x + cos2 x
sin x

y = u = x + cos2 x, v = sin x.
v,

du = 1 - 2cosx.sin x dv = cos x.
dx dx

dy = v du - u dv
dx dx dsx
2
v.

= sin x (1 - 2 cos x sin x) - (x + cos2 x) cos x

sin2 x

(ix) y = cot2x tan x

let y = uv, u = cot2x, v = tan x

du = 2 cot x (-cosec2x)
dx

dv = sec2 x.
dx

dy = u dv + v du = cot2 x.sec2 x + tan x.(-2 cot x cosec2 x)

dx dx dx

= cot x(cot xsec2 x - tan x cosec2 x)

= -(1 - cosec2x + cosec2x . cos2 x)

(cos2 x - 1).

(x) y = ex cos x2 y = sin y.

let u = ex, v = cos z, z = x2 y

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

du = ex , dv = -sin z, dz = 2xy + x2 dy
dx dz dx dx

duv = u dv + du
dx dx dx

cos y dy + ex (=(sin x2 y) = (2xy + x2 dy) + cos x2 y.ex

collecting like terms

cos y dy + ex sin x2 yx2 dy = -ex sin x2 y2xy + cos x2 yex

dx

⇒ dy (cos y + x2ex sin x2 y) = ex (cos x2 y - 2xy sin x2 y)

dx

dy = ex (cos x2 y - 2xy sin x2 y

dx cos y + x2ex sin x2y.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have studied now to derive the derivative of ƒ (x) =
sinx from first principle i.e. using the limiting process. You have
extended it to finding basic formula for the derivative of cos x, tan x,
cosec x, and sec x., You have used rules for differentiation studied unit 8
to find the derivatives of functions involving trigonometric functions.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied how to;

(i) Derive the formula d (sin u) = cos u du from first principle.

dx dx

(ii) Use d (sin u) = cos u du to derive the formula d (cos u) = -sin u du

dx dx dx dx.

(iii) Differentiate functions involving various combination of

trigonometric functions. Such as cos(sec2 x) x sin2 3x2 etc.

(iv) How to differentiate functions involving inverse hyperbolic

functions such as arc sin h u, arc cos h u and arc tan h u.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

(1) find lim (x - 3)

sin(x - 3)
x→1

(2) lim sin (x2 – 1)

sin(x2 - 1)
x→3

(3) find the dy if

dx

(i) cos y = sin x2

(ii) y = cos (lnx)
(iii) y = tan (x2 - 1)

(4) If 2siny = cos(tanx) find dy

dx

(5) Find dx if y = √x cos (√x)

(6) Find dy if y2 = tan x cosec x.

dx

(7) Given that y = ex cos (ex)

(8) Derive the formula d (sin u) = cos u du

dx dx

(9) Derive the formula d (cos ecu) = - cosecu cot u du

dx dx

(10) Derive the formula d (cot u) = -cosec2u du

dx dx

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic

185
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)

fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

186
MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 4 DIFFERENTIATION INVERSE

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Differentiation of Inverse Sine and Cosine Functions
3.2 Differentiation of Functions
3.3 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions
3.4 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You have already studied how to differentiate trigonometric functions of

sins, cosines, tangent, secant and cosecant. In this unit you will study
how to differentiate their respective inverses. The derivatives of inverse
trigonometric functions are very useful in evaluating integral, of a
certain trigonometric functions. Therefore your understanding of this
unit will help you tremendously in the course on integral calculus i.e.
calculusis.

In this unit you shall also differentiate a special class of function that is
derived as a combination of exponential ex and e-x which you are already
familiar with in previous units. These combination produce functions
that are called hyperbolic functions. They are engineering problems.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly:

1) differentiate the inverse trigonometric functions such as arc(sin u)

, arc (cos u) arc (tan u), arc (sec u) and arc (cosec u).
2) Find the derivative of the inverse hyperbolic function of arc (sin
hu) and arc (cos hu) etc.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Differentiation of Inverse Sine and Cosines Functions

In this unit you will use the knowledge you acquired when you studied
unit 2 and unit 9 to study the inverse of a trigonometric function. This
section is important because the concept you will study here will be
useful in the second course of calculus. Recall that the inverse of a
function ƒ(x) is that function. ƒ -1(x) for which its composite with ƒ(x)
yields the identical function:

i.e. ƒ (ƒ -1 (x)) = ƒ 1 (ƒ (x)) = x.

You could begin the study of differentiation of trigonometric functions

by examining the inverse of the sine function. Consider the equation

x = sin y

In this equation you can show that infinitely many values of y

corresponds to each x in the interval [-1,1 ] i.e. only one of these values
y lies in the interval

-π , π
2 2 .

For example if x = ½ then you might wish to know the values of all
angles y such that sin y = ½ . These two angles y = 30° and y = 150°
will come readily to your mind. Multiples of these two angles will give
the sine value to be ½ .

i.e. sin 30° = ½ , sin 150° = ½ . sin k y = ½

for k = 1, 2, ..., and y = π/6, note that

1500 = 5(30°).

Consider the graph of y = sin x as shown in fig. 9.3.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

1 -

-π/

- -1

If you interchange the letters(variables) x and y in the original equation

y = sin x you will clearly see the what is being discussed so far in this
section .

That is x = sin y, x ε [ -l, 1 ] and

In the interval [- π/2, - π/2] the function f (x) = sin x is a one to one
function (see Fig 9.3 no horizontal line cuts the graphs only once).

Therefore within the interval [- π/2, - π/2] the inverse exist and it called
the inverse sine function and it is written as y = arc sin x (or sin-' (x))
(see Fig 9.4 and 9.5.)

Remark: You will use the arc sin x frequently to represent the
inverse sine function. The notation sin-1(x) could be used if you are sure
you will not confuse it with the function

1
sin x.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Y = sin x

-1

X
- π/2 π/2

- -1

Fig: 9.5

In Fig 9.4 the function y = sin x is a continuous so also is y = arc

(sin x).

The function dy = d (sin x) = cos x

dx d2

is defined in the interval -π , π and there is no x ε - π , π

2 2 . 2 2 .

such that cos x = 0. So also the derivative of the inverse sine

function does not take any value zero in the open interval ( -1, 1 )
i.e.

d (arc sin x) ≠ 0 ∀ x ε ( - 1, 1 )

With the above information you can now proceed to derive a

formula for the derivative of arc sin x.

Let ƒ (x) = sin x

Then ƒ -1(x) = arc sin x

Note that ƒ (ƒ -1(x)) = x.

Therefore d - (ƒ (ƒ -1 (x)) = d (x) = 1
dx dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

⇒ d sin(arcsin x) =1.
dx

⇒ cos(arcsin x) d (a arcsin x) =1.

dx

Hence d (arcsin x) = 1 _
dx cos(a arcsin x)

= 1
√1 – sin2 (arcsin x)

note that : cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 ⇒ cos x = √1- sin2x)

thus d (arc sin x) = 1

dx √1 – x2

note also that;

sin(arc sin x) = x then (sin(arc sin x)2 =x2)

you could also derive the above formula by applying implicit

differentiation Given that:

y = arc sin x

⇒ sin y = x

then ⇒ d (sin y) = dx
d dx

cos y dy = 1
dx

dy = 1 = 1
dx cos y √1- sin2 y

putting y = arc sin x and sin y = x you get :

d (arc sin x) = 1
dx √1- x2

let y = arc sin u where u is a differentiable function of x.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Then;

d (arc sin u) = 1 du
dx √1 - u dx.
2

Differentiation of Inverse Cosine

Given that y = arc cos u

Let cos y = u

Then d (cos y) = dy
dx dx

-sin y dy = dy
dx dx

dy = -1 dy
dx sin y dx

sin y = √1- cos2 y. where cos y = u

Therefore

d (arc cos u) = 1 du
dx √1 - u dx.
2

Differentiation of Inverse Tangent

Given that y = arc tan u

Let tan y = u

then d (tan y) = du
dx dx

sec2 y dy = du
dx dx

dy = 1 du
2
dx Sec y dx.
(note that if tan2 y = sec2 y and tan y == u)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

therefore dy = 1 du = 1 du
dx 1 + tan7y dx 1 + u2 dx

hence

d (arc tan u) = 1 du
2
dx 1 + u dx.

Differentiation of arc sec u.

Given that y = arc sec u

Let sec y = u

d (sec y) = du
dx dx

sec yt an y dy = du
dx dx

dy = 1 du
dx sec y tan y dx

(note that tan y = ± √sec2 y – 1 and sec y = u)

therefore
dx u ± √u2 – 1 dx.

hence

d (arc tan u) = 1 du
dx /u/√u2 - 1 dx.

DIFFERENTIATION OF y = arc cot u

Give y = arc cot u

Let cot y = u

d (cot y) = du
dx dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

- cossec2 y dy = dx
dx dx

dy = - 1 du
2
dx cosec y dx

(but cosec2 y =1 + cot2 y, cot y = u)

then
d (arc cot u) = 1 du
2
dx 1 + u dx.

DIFFERENTIATION OF y = arc cosec u.

Given that y = arc cosec u.

Then cosec y = u

- cot y cosecy dy = du
dx dx

dy = -1 du
dx cot y cosecy dx.

but cot y = ± √cosec2 y – 1 cosec y = u

then dy = -1 du
dx u√u2 – 1 dx.

Therefore

d (arc tan u) = 1 du
2
dx /u/√u - 1 dx.

Examples

Find dy/dx if;

1. y = arc sin x2 2. y = arc cos 2x3

3. y = arc tan (x + 1)2 4. y = arc cot x+l

x-1
5. y = x2 (arc sec 2x).

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solutions

(1) y = arc sin x2

let y = arc sin u, u = x2

dy = 1 dy = 1 2x
2
dx 1 - u dx 1 - (x)2

= 2x
√1 – x4

(2) y = arc cos 2x3

let y = arc cos u, u = 2x3

dy = - 1 du = -1 .6x2
dx √1- u2 dx √1 - (2 x 3)2

=- 6x2
1 – 4x6

(3) y = arc tan (x + 1)2

let y = arc tan u, u = (x +1)2

dy = 1 du = 1 .2(x + 1)
2
dx 1 + u dx 1 + (x + 1)4

= 2(x + 1)
1+(x+1)4

(4) y = arc cot x+1

x -1
let y = arc cot u, u = ~ x + 1
x–1

dy = - 1 du = -1 . -2
2 2
dx 1 + u dx x+1 (x - 1)2
x–1

= 1
2
x + 1

5. y = (x2 arc sec 2x)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

let y=uv and u = x2, v = arc sec 2x

let v = arc sec z, z = 2x.

dv = 1 d2 = 1 .2x
dx 2 √22 - 1 . dx 2x√4x2 - 1

but

dx dx dx √4x2 -1

==> dy - x2 + 2x(arc sec 2x)

dx 4x2 - 1

3.3 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions

You are already familiar with the differentiation of exponential function

ex and e-x. These combinations occur in two basic forms ½ (e x + e-') and
½ (ex - e-x). They occur so frequently that they have to be given a special
attention. The types of function described above are known as
hyperbolic functions (see unit 2 sec 3.2 for more details).

Definition: The hyperbolic sine and cosine are functions written as

Sin h x = ½ (ex + e-x)and

Cos h x = ½ (ex - e-x)

(Recall that the word hyperbolic is formed from the word hyperbola see
unit 2 sec. 3.2).

Given sin h x and cos h x defined above you can easily form other
hyperbolic function of tangent cotangent, secant and cosecant by noting
that

Sin h x = ½ (ex + e-x)and

Cos h x = ½ (ex – é-x)

Then

1. tan h x = sin h x = ex – e -x
cos h x ex + e-x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2. cot h x = cos h x = ex – e -x
sin h x ex + e-x
3. cosec h x = 1 = 2
sin h x ex + e-x

4. sec hx = 1 = 2
cos h x e + e-x
x

You will briefly review some of the identities associated with hyperbolic
functions they follow the same pattern with those derived for
trigonometric functions.

Note that the equation of a unit hyperbola is given as

x2 - y2 = 1

if you put x =cos h θ and sin h θ = y

then x2 = cosh2 θ and y2 = sin h2 θ

⇒ cos h2 - sin h2 θ = 1 _________ (1)

Then by substituting appropriately you get the following

identities

1- tan h2 θ = cosec h2 θ __________ (2)

cot h2 θ - 1 = cosec h2 θ ___________(3)

The identities will be useful in finding the derivative of inverse

hyperbolic functions.

DIFFERENTIATION OF Sin h u.

Let y = sin h u., where u is a differentiable function of x.

then:

dy = d (sin h u = d (eu – e-u

dx dx dx 2

d eu - d e-u
dx dx
2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

eu d + e-u d e-u
dx dx
2

= cos h du
dx.

d (sin h u) = cos h u du
dx dx

DIFFERENTIATION OF cos h u

Let y = cos h u

Then:

Therefore

d (cos h u) = sin h u du
dx dx

DIFFERENTIATION OF tan h u.

Let y = tan h u.

Then:

dy = d (tan h) = sin h u
dx dx cos h u

⇒ dy = cos h U d (sin h U) - sin h U d (cos h U)

dx dx dx
2
cos h u

= 1 = sec h2u du
cos h2u dx

d (tan h u) = sec h u du
dx dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Using the method above:

(1) show that d (cot h u) = -cosec h2u du

dx dx.

(2) show that d (sec h u) = - sec h u tan h u du

dx dx

(3) show that d (cosec h u ) = - cosec h u cot h u du

dx dx

Examples

Find dy if
dx

(i) y =tan h 3x (ii) y = cos h2 5 x

(iii) y = sin h 3x2 (iv) y = sec h3 2x2

(v) sin h x =tan y.

Solution

(i) y =tan h 3x

let y= tan h u, u = 3x

dy = sec h2 u du = sec h2 (3x). 3

dx dx
2
= 3 sec h 3x.

(ii) y = cos h2 5 x

let y = cos h2 5x, u = 5x

dy = 2 coshu.sin h u du
dx dx

= 2 cos h 5x sin h 5x. 5.

= 10 cos h 5x sin h 5x.

(iii) y = sin h 3x2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

let y = sin h u, u = 3x2

dy = cos h u du = cos h 3x2 . 6x

dx dx

= 6x cos h 3x2.

(iv) y = sec h2 2x2

let y = sec h3 u, u = 2x2.

dy = 3sec h u ( -sec h u tan h ).4x

dx

= - 3 sec h2 2x2 . sec h 2x2 tan h 2x2 . 4x

= 12x sec h3 2x2 tan h 2x2

(v) sin h x = tan y.

cos h x = sec h2y dy

dx

dy = cos h u
dx sec h2 y.

3.4 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

In this section you will adopt the same pattern used in studying the
differentiation of inverse trigonometric function to finding the derivative
of the derivative of the inverse hyperbolic functions. In this course only
the following hyperbolic inverse will be treated.

(I) Inverse hyperbolic sine i.e. y = arc sin h x

(II) Inverse hyperbolic cosine i.e. y = arc cos h x
(III) Inverse hyperbolic tangent i.e. y = arc tan h x.

DIFFERENTIATION OF arc (sin h u)

Let y = arc sin h x

⇒ sin hy=x

⇒ ½ (ey - e-y) = x.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

ey – e-y = 2x / multiplying through by ey we get.

e2y - 1 = 2x ey

⇒ e2y - 2xey = 0

let ey = P

then P2 - 2xp - I = 0

solving for P you get

P= ½ (2x ± √4x2 + 4 )

Now find dy by Logarithmic differentiation

dx

i.e take In of both sides

In ey = In (x + √x2 + 1) (note ey . 0 hence you drop the minus sign.)

y = ln (x +x2 + 1) y = In u

dy = 1 du u (x + √x2 +l
dx u dx,

du = 1 + x
dx √x2 + 1

therefore dy = 1 . 1+ x _
dx x+ √x2 + 1 x√ +1

= 1
√x2 + 1

d (arcsin hu) = 1 du
dx √x + 1 dx
2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

DIFFEREENTIATION OF arc cos h u

Let y = arc cos h x

.'. cos h y = x

½ (ey + e-y) = x

ey + e-y = 2x/ multiplying through by ey

e2y + l - 2x ey = 0

let P = ey you get a quadratic equation of the form.

P2 - 2x P + 1 = 0.

Solving for P you get;

P = ½ (2x ± √4x2 – 4 )

∴ ey= x ± √x2 - 1

for ey > 0 then

ey = x + √x2 - 1

To find dy by logarithmic differentiation you take natural

logarithm of both sides dx and get;

Ln ey = In (x+ √x2 - 1)

dy = d In u, u = x + √x2 - 1
dx d2

=1 du du = 1 + x
u dx, dx √x - 1
2

1 1+ x
x + x2 -1 √x - 1
2

= 1
√x2 - 1

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

d (arcos hu) = 1 du
dx

DIFFERENTIATION OF arc tan h u.

Let y = arc tan h x

⇒ tan h y = x

sin h y = x.
cos h y

⇒ ey - e-y =x
ey + e-y

Multiplying through by e-y

e2y – 1 = x
e2y + 1

⇒ e2y - 1= (e2y + 1) x
collecting like terms

e2y - x e2y = x + 1

(1 - x) e2y = x + 1

e2x = x + 1
1-x

Differentiating by taking natural logarithm of both sides you get:

Ln e2y = 1n x+1
1- x

2y = In x+1
1–x

2 dy = d In u = 1 du u = x + 1
dx dx u dx, 1- x

dy = 1 . du du -2
dx u . dx, dx (x -1)2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2 dy = 1-x . = 1
2
dx x+1 1–x

∴ d (arcos hu) = 1 du
dx 1 – u2 dx

Example: Given that cos h2 y - sin h2y = 1

Show that d (arc h u) = 1 du

dx ±

Solution

Let y= arc cos h u

Then cos h y = u
d (cos h y) = du
dx dx

sin h y dy = du
dx dx

dy = 1 du
dx sin h y dx

but cos h2 y - sin h2 y = 1

∴ cos h2 y – 1 = sin h2 y

⇒ sin h y = ± √cosh2 y - 1

but cos h y = u

then sin h y =√u2 - 1

⇒ dy = 1 du
dx ±√u - 1 dx

SELF ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE 2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Use the above exercise to show that

d (arc sin h u) = 1 du
2
dx 1 + u dx

Example

Find dy If
dx

(1) y = arc sin h (4x) (II) y = arc tan h (sin x)

(III) y= arc cos h (In x) (IV) y = arc cos h (cosx)

Solution

(1) let y =arc sin h u, u = 4x

dy = 1 du
dx √1+ u 2
dx
= 1 = 4
√1 + 16x 4
1 +16x4

(II) let y = arc tan u, u = sin x.

dy = 1 du = 1 . cos x
2 2
dx 1 - u dx 1 - (sin x)

dy = cos x = 1
dx 1- sin2 x cosx

(III) let y = arc cos h u, u = (In x)

dy 1 du du = 1
dx √u - 1 dx,
2
dx x

dy = 1 .1 = 1
dx √(In x)2 – 1 x x√(In x)2 - 1

(IV) let y = arc cos h u, u = cos x

dy = 1 du du = -sin x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

dx dx

dx - sin x
dx √cos2 x - 1

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have studied three types of functions and their respective
derivative that is inverse trigonometry, hyperbolic and inverse rules for
differentiation to differentiate functions involving inverse trigonometric
and hyperbolic functions. You have been exposed to numerous
examples involving the differentiation of these function discussed. Some
of the examples were repeated in another format for example some of
the examples used in unit 8 were used to explain the concept of
differentiation of trigonometric and hyperbolic functions. This is a
deliberate attempt so that you will master the technique studied in this
unit. The differentiation of inverse function of trigonometric and
hyperbolic will be very useful when studying the next course on
calculus that is integral calculus. Make sure you go through the example
thoroughly because you will need them in the second course in calculus.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied how to:

(1) Derive the formula for inverse trigonometric function such as

d (arc sin u) = 1 du d (arc cos u) = - I du etc.

dx dx

(II) Derive the formula

(a) d (sin h u) = cos h u du

dx dx etc

(b) d (cos h u) = sin h u du

dx dx

(III) Differentiate functions involving inverse hyperbolic functions

such as arc sin h u, arc cos h u, arc tan h u etc.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

(1) Find dy if y = ex arc sin (In x)

dx

(2) Find dy if y= arc cot(√1- x )

dx sin h x2

(3) Find dy if cos h2 2(sin x)

dx

(4) Find dy if sin h2 y = tan h (x)

dx

(5) Derive the formula d (tan h u ) = sec h2 u du

d dx

(6) Derive the formula d (arc sin h u ) = 1 _ du

d 1 + u2 dx

(7) Find dy if y = sinh3 (e2x)

dx ln(sin x)

(8) Derive the formula d (arc tan u) = 1 _ du

dx 1 + u2 dx

(9) Derive the formula d (arc sec u) = du _

dx

(10) Derive the formula d (arc cos u) = - du

1 - u2

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

MODULE 4

Unit 1 Curve Sketching

Unit 2 Maximum – Minimum and Rate Problems
Unit 3 Approximation, Velocity and Acceleration
Unit 4 Normal and Tangents

UNIT 1 CURVE SKETCHING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Significance of the Sign of First Derivatives to Curve
Sketching
3.2 Significance of the Sign of Seemed Derivative to Curve
Sketching
3.3 Curve Sketching
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Most polynomial and some rational functions could be sketch with the
knowledge of the signs of the first derivative dx/dy and the second
derivative d2y/d2xThe signs of the first derivative can give an idea of the
behaviour of the curve within a given interval. The second derivative is
used to determine points at which the curve is concave upward or
concave downwards or information could then be used to sketch the
curve of a given functions. In this unit you will study how to use both
the first and second derivative to sketch the graph of a function at every
points of the graph.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:

1) Use the first to determine

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(i) points at which the given curves is increasing i.e. dy > 0.

dx

(ii) Points at which the a given curve is decreasing i.e. dy < 0

dx
and

(iii) Points at which a given curve is stationary i.e. dy = 0

dx

(2) Use the second derivative to determine points at which a graph is

concave upwards or concave downwards.

3.1 Significance of The First Derivative to Curve Sketching

You will now consider the application of differentiation to curve

sketching some curve could easily be sketched with the knowledge of
the first and second derivatives of the function and the points where the
first derivatives vanish i.e. equal to zero. You have already studied
functions that are monotonic increasing or decreasing within an interval
(see unit 2, section 3.2). You could determine whether a function is
monotonic decreasing or increasing in a given interval. This is done by
checking if the value of the first derivative within the given interval is
positive or negative. This is stated as follows:

A function y = ƒ(x) is monotonic

(i) increasing in x ε [a, b] if dy > 0 ∀ x ε [a, b]

dx
(ii) decreasing in x ε [a, b] if dy < 0 ∀ x ε [a, b]
dx
(iii) constant (stationary) in x ε [a, b] if dy = 0
dx

Example

Use the above stated facts to sketch the curve y = x2 for x ε [-10,
10].

Solution

y = x2

dy =2x when x = 0 dy = 0
dx dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Start by first considering the values of dy/dx = 2x at points on the left of

x = 0.

For x ε [-10, 10]. dy = 2x < 0 (decreasing)

dx

For the values of dy =2x at points on the right of x = 0.

dx

i.e. x [-10,10]; dy =2x > 0 (increasing)

dx

(see fig: 10. 1 )

Increasing

constant

-10
increasing

10

Fig 10.2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example

Let y = x3

dy = 3x2
dx

when x = 0, dy = 0
dx

The values of dx/dy at points to the left and right of the point x = 0 is
given as

(i) for. x [-10, 0]; dy =3x2 > o (increasing)

(ii) for. x [0, 10]; dy =3x2 >- o (increasing)

dx

see fig 10.2.

Example

Given y= 1 x3 + x2 - 8x + 1
3

dy = x2 + 2x - 8
dx

= (x - 2) x (x + 4 ) = 0

x = 2 or - 4.

As before you will consider values of dy

dx respectively. i.e. at
points to the
left and right of 2 and – 4 respectively. i.e.

At x = 2

2. dy > 0 for all x ε (2, α ) i.e. increasing at the right side of

dx

dy < 0 for all x ε (-4, 2) between - 4 and 2

dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

dy > 0 for all x ε ( -α , - 4)

dx

(see Fig 10.3)

3.2 Significance of the Sign of Seemed Derivative Curve

Sketching

The above sketch could be improved if you apply the information you
get by taking the second derivative of the function under investigation.
A quick look at the graph shown in Fig. 10 3. shows that within the
interval x ε (- 4, 1o) the graph is concave upward. Within the interval x
x ε (-10, - 4) the curve is concave downward. Once you find the point at
which dy/dx = 0 (i.e. the turning points along the curve y = ƒ(x). Then
by finding the second derivative d2y/dx2 you can determine which of the
turning points (i.e. points at dx/dy = 0) is the concave upwards or
downwards.

Definition:

If d2y exists and d2y > 0 ,

dx2 dx2

for all x in a specified interval 1, then dy/dx is said to be increasing in I

and the graph of ƒ(x). is said to be concave upwards. If d2y < 0 for all x
ε I, the dy is decreasing in I. dx2
dx

So that the graph of y = f(x). is said to be concave downwards.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.3 Curve Sketching

Definition of Points of Inflection

A point where the curve changes its concavity from downwards to

upwards or vice versa is called a point of inflection This occurs where

d2y = 0 or where d2y does not exists.

dx2 dx2

Example

y = 3x1/3

dy = x-2/3
dx

at x= 0 dy is not defined.
dx

So the point x = 0 is a point of inflection for the y = 3x1/3

Example

Given that y = ƒ(x).

Let the following explain the behaviour of the curve.

(1) At point x = a

dy1 = 0 if x = ± a
dx

The curve increases or decreases as indicated below.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

is flat is flat
decrease increase
____________________
__________________
- X dy - a increases a dy > 0
dx dx
dy
dx

Let the point x = - a be the lowest point of the curve and the point
x = a be the highest point of the curve.

Let the curve cut the y - axis at the point y = b, x = 0.

Let the curve cut the x- axis at the points -xl and x2 sketch the
given curve.

Step 1. dy = 0 at x±a
dx

Locate point x = ± a

In cre as ing De
c re
a si n
g
De
cr
ea
si
ng

a
-a
in g
e as

f(a)
I nc r

Flat

Step 2. Find the values of y = ƒ (a) and y = ƒ (-a)

Step 3. Find the point y = ƒ (o)

Step 4. Find d2y at x = ao, x = - a

dx2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

For the above d2y > o at x = - a and d2y < 0 at x = a..

dx2 dx2

Step 5: Use the above sketch the curve.

On step 5 use the information about the curve increasing and decreasing

i.e. left of x = - a it is decreasing. and right it is increasing etc. see

fig. 10.3.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Given the function

(a) y = -1 + 3x - x3 (b) x3 - 3x + 1

Find the following:

(i) Find dy (ii) solve the equation dy = 0

dx dx

(iii) Find d2y (iv) solve d2y = 0

dx2 dx2

(v) Find y for which x = 0

Solutions

(a) (i) 3(1 - x2) (ii) ±1

(iii) -6x. (iv) -1

(b) (i) 3(x2 - 1) (ii) ±1

(iii) 6x (iv) 1

Hints For Sketching Curves

Below are seven useful hints for curve sketching

Hint 1 Find dy/dx

Hint 2 Find the turning points by solving the equation dy = 0

dx

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Hint 3 Evaluate y = ƒ(x) at the turning points

Hint 4 Evaluate d2y/dx2 at the turning points to determine which

of them is the maximum or minimum points.

Hint 5 Investigate the behaviour of the curve as x-> turning

points either from left or right.

Hint 6 Investigate the behaviour of the curves as

(1) x --> ∞ (II) x -> - ∞ (III) x = 0

Hint 7 Sketch the graph with information gathered from hint 1 to

hint 6
above.

Example: sketch the curve

y = 1x3 - 4x + 2 using
3

Hint 1; y = 1 x3 - 4x + 2
3

dy = x2 - 4
dx

Hint 2: dy = 0 (x2 - 4) = 0
dx

X= ± 2.

Hint 3: x=2 y= 1 (2)2 - 4. 2 + 2 = -10

3 3

x= -2 y= 1 (-2)2 - 4(-2) + 22
3 3

Hint 4: y = d2y = 2x
dx2

at x = -2, d2y = 2(-2)=- 4 < 0

dx2

at x = 2 d2y = 2.2 = 4 > 0

dx2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Hint 5:

Increasing -2 decreasing 2 increasing

e.g.: x=-6
y = -46
x = -3
y=5

Hint 6: x --> ∞, y-> ∞

x--> ∞, y-->- ∞
x = 0, y=2

Hint 7: (see graph below.)

Y

22
3

2
-2
- 10
3

Fig 10.4

Example: y = x + 9/x

Hint 1: dy = 1 – 9 = x – 9
dx x2 x2

Hint 2: dy = 0, ==> x2 – 9 = 0
dx x2

x = ± 3.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Hint 3 x = 3, y = 3 + 9 = 6
3
X = -3 y = -3 + 9 = -3 -3 = - 6
-3

Hint 4:

Increasing -3 decreasing 3 increasing

Y = -10, x =
Hint 5:

x ----> -3, y ---> 6, x ----> 3+, y ---> -6

x ----> -∞, y ---> - ∞,

x ---> 3x y ----> 6, ----> 3+, y ---> -6

x ----> ∞ y ---> ∞

Hint 6: Sketch

X
-3 3

-6

SELF ASSESSEMENT EXERCISES 2

Use the hints given above to sketch the graph of

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(1) y = x3 + 1 (II) y = x3 - 3x + 1

Solutions:

(i)
y

y = x3 + 1

(ii)

Y = x3 – 3x + 1

1
-x
X

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have studied how to use the sign of the first derivative of
a function to determine a function that is monotonic increasing and
monotonic decreasing. You also studied how to use the first derivative

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

to determine stationary point. You have used the signs of the second
derivative to determine a curve that is concave upwards or concave
downward. You have studied how to use the information above with
other information to sketch the graph of a function within the interval [a,
b] or (-∞,∞)

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied how to:

(I) Investigate the behaviour of a function y = f (x) when

(a) dy < 0 (b) dy > 0

dx dx

(c) dy = 0 (d) d2y < 0

dx dx2

(e) d2y > 0

dx2

(II) Use the information in (10 above with other relevant ones such as
the behaviour of y as x -> ∞ or ∞ to sketch the graph of y = f(x)

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

If y= 1 x3 - 2x2 + 3x + 2
3

(1) Find dy (2) solve the equation dy = 0

dx dx

(3) Find d2y (4) solve d2y = 0

dx2 dx2

(5) Find y for which x = 0

(6) Find y when (i) x→ ∞ (ii) x → - ∞

(7) Sketch the curve of y = 1 x3 - 2x2 + 3x + 2

3

(8) Locate the global minimum and maximum points on the graph in
(7) above and the point of inflection.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 2 MAXIMUM – MINIMUM AND RATE

PROBLEMS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Global and Local Minimum and Maximum
Values
3.2 Application of Differentiation to Maximum and Minimum
3.3 Application of Rate Problems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will study how to use first and second derivative of a
function to solve optimization problems in social sciences, physics,
chemistry, engineering etc. That is any problem where the information
on how small or how big a given quantity should be is needed. It
assumed that such problem should be able to be modelled by any
mathematical formula. By differentiating such a function you can
determine it minimum or maximum value. Differentiation could be
applied to problems where it necessary to determine the rate at which a
quantity is changing with respect to another quantity. There are various
classes of problems that could be solved by appropriate application of
differential calculus the ones enumerated in this unit and some where
else is the course is by no mean exhausture.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly:

1) use first and second differentiation of a function to solve

problems where the minimum amount of resources or material is
required.
2) Use first and second differentiation of a function to solve
problems where maximum value of a resources or material
needed or should be attained
3) Use differentiation of a function to determine the rate at which a
given quantity is changing with respect to another quantity.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Global and Local Minimum ad Maximum

Value

In this section you will be able to use both first derivative and where
necessary the second derivative to solve problems of classical
optimization in economics, engineering, medicine and physics etc. The
words minimum and maximum give the impression of a problem where
you may wish to determine how small (minimum) or how large
(maximum) a variable quantity may attain. You will start by considering
the following important definitions.

Definition: A function ƒ(x) is said to have a local (or relative)

maximum at point x = xo if

ƒ (x) > ƒ (xo + h)

For all positive and negative value of h however small It is

said to have a local (or relative minimum at point x = xo if

ƒ (x) < ƒ (xo + h) for all values of h however small.

Definition: A function ƒ (x) is said to have an absolute (global)

maximum at x = xo if f(x) > ƒ (x) for all values of x in the domain of
definition. It is said to have an absolute (global minimum at x = xo if ƒ
(xo) < ƒ (x) for all values of x in the domain of definition.

Example

In Fig 10.5, you will notice that there are five turning points i.e.
stationary
points the points at which dy = 0
dx

Y
A
C
E

D
X
Xo

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Points E and C are points where the curve attains maximum or local
maximum, while at point A the curve attains an absolute maximum or
global maximum within the interval x ε [0, xo] point B is a local
maximum point while point D is a global minimum point.

Example: Given that y = x + 9/x

dy = (1 – 9 ) = (x2 – 9) = 0, x = ± 3
dx x2

The point x = -3 is a relative maximum and not global maximum (see

Fig 10.4) The point x = -3 is a relative minimum point.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain why the point x = 3 is not a global minimum for the curve given
as
y=x+9
x
(Hint consider points near x = 3)

Example if y - 3x4- 16x3 +24x2 + 1

Determine whether the function has a maximum or minimum

points.

Solution

Y = 3x4 - 16x3 - 24x2 - 1

dy = 4.3x3 - 3.16x2 - 2.24x

dx

= 12x3 - 48x2 - 48x

= 12x(x2 - 4x + 4)
= 12x(x -2)(x - 2) =0
x = 0,or 2.
To determine which of the two points is a maximum or minimum the
second derivative of these points will have to be evaluated

i. e. d2y = 3. 12x2 - 2.48x + 48

dx2

= 36x2 - 96x + 48

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

At x = 0, d2y = 48
dx2
d2y > 0 is a point of global minimum.
dx2

At x = 2 d2y = 36(2)2 - 96(6) + 48 = 0

dx2

Look at points near 2.

Increasing decreasing

Y = 3x4 – 16x3 + 24x2 + 1.

Therefore the point x = 2 is a point of inflection.

3.2 Application to Minimum and Maximum Problems

It time to use the theory explained above to solve practical problems that
call for the minimization or maximization of values of a function.

Example: Find two possible positive numbers whose product is 36 and

whose sum could be made relatively small

Solution

You could start by making a guess based on the fact that the
factors of 36 that are positive are:

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(6, 6), (9, 4), (36, 1), (12, 3), (2, 18).

Taking their sum you see that

12 < 13 < 15 < 20 < 37.

So the number could is 6. It could be cumbersome to solve such a

problem if the number is very large, find factors of a possible
short cut is to apply differentiation. We need to note, that x and
36/x are two numbers whose product is 36.
Their sum is given as a function y = ƒ(x)

The issue at stake is to see the positive values of x that will give
the problem is now reduced to the problem of minimization of the
value of the function
y = x + 36

Since y = x + 36
x

d = 1 + 36 = 0
dx x2

==> x2 – 36 = 0

d2y = + 72
dx2 x3

if x = - 6 d2y < 0 maximum point

dx2

if x = 6 d2y > 0 minimum point.

dx2

Therefore the answer is x = 6.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Example

The management of a manufacturing company found out that their profit

was not enough as that wish it should be. A mathematical formulation
gives the cost of production and distribution as N a. The selling price is
N x. The number sold at a given period is put at n = K/ (x 2 - a) + C(100 -
x2) where K and C are certain constants. What selling price will bring a
maximum profit to the company.

Solution

The first thing to do is to find or formulate an equation that gives the

total profit for the company.

Profit = Selling Price - Total Cost

i.e. P = N (n x - n a).

= (x - a) (K/(x - a) + C (100 - x)

= K+C (100-x) (x-a)

dp = C[(100-x) 1 +(x-a)-1]
dx

dp = 0 =:> 100 – x = x – a
dx

2x = 100 - a

x = 100 + a
2

N x is the selling price therefore x > 0 . Having this in mind you

find

d2P = - 23C hence C > 0.

dx2

To guarantee that d2P < 0.

dx2
100+a
The selling price that give the maximum profit is given as x = 2.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Hence the above shows that the selling price is determined by the cost of
production and distribution.

Example

An open storage tank with square base and vertical sides is to be

constructed from a given amount of plastic material calculate the
dimensions that will produce a maximum volume.

Solution

The formula for the volume of a rectangular box is given as

V = base x height (see Fig. 10.6)

Let base = x2 (square base of side = x)

∴ V=x2h

Total surface area of tank

= Total amount of material

x
x

x
Therefore

A = 4 x h + x2

Solving for h you get

but V = x2h = x2 (A - x2) = x (A - x2

4x 4

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

= ¼ [(A – x2 - 2x2)]

Let dv = 0 =:> [(A - x2 - 2x2)] = 0

dx

⇒ A = 3x2 => x = ± √A/3

Since x represent sides of the tank definitely x > 0 therefore x = ±

√A/3
To check if this value of V you evaluate second derivative at

x = √A/3 i.e. d2y = 1 (-6x) < 0

dx2 4

for x > 0 d2v < 0. Thus x = √A/3

dx2
is a maximum point for the function V = x2 h.

Therefore the dimension that will yield maximum volume is

given as x = √A/3and

h = A - x2 = A - A/3 = 1 √A/3
4x 4√A/3 2

Thus x = x = √A/3, h = x = ½ √A/3

This is dependent on the surface area of tank chosen.

In the next example you will consider the case where you will
seek to minimize the amount of material to be used.

Example

Given a storage rectangular tank with a square base can contain

32m2 of water.

Find the dimensions that require the least amount of material to

construct such a tank. (Neglect the thickness of the material and
the waste in construction.

Solution

Let V = x2 h be the volume of the rectangular tank (see Fig 10. 6)

But V = -32m3 therefore 32 = x2 h

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

⇒ 32 = h
x2
Since the amount required to build the tank is equal to surface
area of the tank which is given as

A=4xh+x

= 4x ( 32) + x2 = 128 + x2
x2 x

∴ dA = - 128 + 2x
dx x2

equating to zero you get

-128 + 2x = 0
x2

∴ -128 + 2x3 = 0

x3 = 64.

x=4

For x = 4 dA = 0.
dx

To check if x = 4 is a minimum point you evaluate d2A/dx2 at x = 4

i.e. d2A = 256 + 2

dx2 x3

Since x > 0 =:> d2A = 4 + 2 = 6 > 0

dx2

Thus at x = 4 the function has a minimum value.

Therefore the dimension of the tank that will minimize amount of

material is given as 4, 4, 2.

Example

A milk can is to be made in the form of a right circular cylinder

from a fixed amount of plastic sheet Find the radios and height
that will produce the maximum volume.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solution (see fig, 10.7)

V= π r2 h _____________ (1)

The idea is find the values of r and h that will Maximize V.

Fig 10.7

Let A be the surface area of a right circular cylinder

A = 2πr2 + 2π r h _____________ (ii)

Thus h = A - 2πr2
2πr
Substituting h into equation (i) you have that:

V = π r2 a - 2πr2
2πr

= ½ (A - 2π r2)

Taking Differentiations

dv A - 3π r2
dr 2

Equating to 0 and solving for r you get

3π r2 = A/2

r2 = A /6π

.'. r = √ a
6π

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

√A/6π
2π√A/6π

Now d2N = - 6πr . < 0 r = + √A/6π

dr2

The radius r = √A/6π h = 2π that will produce maximum

volume

Example: In Fig 10 .7 let V = π r2 h = 8 and h = 8πr2

Find the value of r that fail use the teart amount to produce a
volume of 8 cm3

In other words minimize the surface area. Given that the surface
area

A=2πr + 2π r. 8 = 2π r2 + 16
m2 r

Differentiations

dA = 4πr - 16
dr r2

equating to zero and solving for r you get

πr3 – 4 = 0

==> r2 = 4/π
1/3
r= 4
π

d2A = 4π + 32 > 0 for r = 4 1/3

dx2 r3 π

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

1/3
Therefore r = 4
π

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Given the graph of the f(x) in Fig 10.8.

Fig 10.8.

(i) Define a global maximum of f(x) and indication at which

point in Fig(10.8) is this maximum attained if x ε [a, b].

(ü) Define a relative minimum of a function. Indicate at which

points did the function f(x) shown in Fig (10.8) is
relatively minimized.

(iii) Define point of inflection, Indicate them.

Remark: To find the global a maximum and minimum of ƒ (x) in the

interval
a < x < b. Locate all points where ƒ 1(x) = 0. Call these points xl,
xL, x3,..., x7 The global maximum is the largest of the numbers ƒ
(x2) =, ƒ (x6), ƒ (x8)

Solution:

(i) f(x6) is the largest value therefore at x = x 6 = global maximum is

attained.

(ii) Points of relative minimum are at x = x l, x = x4, x =x7 and x = x9

(iii) points of inflection are at x = x3 and x = x5.

Remark: Definitions are given in the beginning of this section

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 3

1. Find the minimum value of the function ƒ (x) = ½ x - sin x in the

interval x ε [0, 4 7π]

Solution

X = π/3, X = 7π/3.

2. Find the largest value of f(x) 108 x - x4

Solution

ƒ (3) 243.

3.3 Application to Rate Problem

You have already study that the derivative of a function gives its rates of
change. In other words suppose you have a qualities y which varies with
another quality x, them the rate of change of y with respect to x is given
as dy/dx.

You would have study this type of problem under the topic variation
during your course of study in your preparation for the GCE 0 level or
SSCE examination. That is y is increasing or decreasing with respect to
x as according as dy/dx is positive or negative. This situation was
described under the section on application to curve sketching, i.e. dy/dx
> 0 implies that the function y = ƒ (x) is increasing while dy/dx == ƒ (x)
is decreasing

Example: Suppose the amount of petrol y litres in a car tank after

traveling x kilometers is given as

y = 30 – 0.02x

Then dy = -0.02
dx

The negative sign means that y decreases as x increases. Hence the

amount of petrol in the car's tank is decreasing at the rate of 0.02 It. I
km.

Example: A circular sheet of material has a radius of 4cm. At

what rate is the area increasing with respect to the radius? If the

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

radius increases to 4.2cm, what is the approximate increase in the

area.

Solution

Let radius of circular sheet be r cm and the area be represented as A cm

2

Therefore A =π r2 (area of a circle with radius r)

The rate of increase of A with respect to r is given as

dA = 2πr
dr

Thus if r = 4cm them dA = 2π (4) = 8π cm

dr
But dA = 2πr
dr

Let ∆A and ∆r be small changes in area and radius

respectively

The ∆A = 2πr ∆r

Since r = 4 and ∆r = 0.2 = (4.2 - 4) cm

Then ∆A = 2π (4) 0.2 = 1.4π

Therefore the approximate increase in area is 1.4π cm2.

Example: A spherical balloon is inflated with gas. If its radius

is increasing at the rate of 2cm per second, how fast is the volume
increasing when the radius is 8cm (see Fig 10.9)

Solution

The volume at time t is expressed in terms of the radius at time t

by the formula

v(t) = 4 π (r(t))3
3
dv(t) = 4π ( r(t) )2 dr
dt dt

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

r(t
)

If at time t the radius is 8 cm

Then dv(t) = 4π (8)2 .2 = 512π.

dt

This implies that the volume is increasing at the rate of 512π cm3 per
second.

Example: water ns into a large concrete conical storage tank

of radius 5 and its height is 1om (see Fig 10.10) at a constant rate
of 3m3 per minute. How fast is the water level rising when the
water is 5m deep

Solution:

In this case the list of variable quantities will be given

Quantities that are changing is

V = the volume (m) of water in the tank at time (t)

x = the radius (m3) of the Surface of the water at time t.

y = the depth (m) of water in the tank at time t.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

C
Fig. 10.10

The rate at water flow into the tank is constant and is given as dv/
dt = 3m3 1 min.

The function establishing a relation between the variable

quantities is given as
1. v = 1πx2y (this is volume of cone = 1 πr2h.)
3 3
The function is better expressed in terms of only one variable x or
y . You can expressed it in terms of y alone. By noting that in Fig
10.10 ∆ ABC and ∆DEC are similar triangles.;

Therefore DE = CX = X = y
Ab CY 5 10

⇒ x=½y

Hence equation (1) becomes

V 1 = π ( ½ y)2y = πy3
3 12

Therefore dv = πy2 dy
dt 4 dt

Given that dv =3 and y = 5.

dt
2
Therefore. dy = 4 . dv = 4 1
dt πy2 dt πr 5 , 3

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

12
⇒ 25 m3 1min

Example

A boat is pulling into a dockyard, for repairs by means of a rope

with one and attached to the tip of the boat the other end passing
through a ring attached to the dockyard at a pint 5m higher than
the tip in at the rate of 3m/sec, how fast is the boat approaching
the dockyard when 13m of the rope are out? (see Fig 10.11)

Solution
13m
rope
Y
5m

boat

Fig 10.11.

There are two quantities dockyard that are changing. They are as
follows:

(i) x = distance of boat to dockyard

(ii) y = the length of the rope.

The quantities that are fixed are:

(i) height of the dockyard = 5m

(ii) rate of change of rope to time t, dy

du
the formula connecting these quantities is given as (see Fig
11.11)

x2 + (5)2 = y2

⇒ x2 25 = y2

Differentiating you get;

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2x dx = 2y dy
dt dt.

∴ dx = y dy
dt x dt.

given that y = 13 and h = 5 (constant)

and x =
√132 – 52 = 12

dx = 13 .3 = 13m/sc.
dt 12 4

That is the boat is approaching the dockyard at the rate of 13/4 m/

sec.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

(1) A small spherical balloon is inflated by a young boy that injects

air into 10 mm3/sec. At the instant the balloon contains 288mm3
of air, how fast is its radius moving.

Solution:

5π mm/sec.
72π
(2) A company that sells vegetable oil has a conical distribution tank
of radius 3m and height of 6m. If vegetable oil is poured into the
tank at a constant rate of 0.05m3 per second. How fast is the oil
level rising when the oil is 2m deep.

Solution:

0.05m3 /sec.
π

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have studied the applications of differentiations to

minimum and maximum problem. You have also applied differentiation
to determine the rate a given quantity changes with respect to another.

You have specifically studied how to use the first and second derivatives
of a to solve problem where a minimum amount of material or resource

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

is needed and also where certain maximum value is to be attained. You

have applied rules for differentiation to solve these problems

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied how to:

(1) calculate the minimum amount of material or resources needed in

a project by using first and second derivatives of a function.

(2) Calculate the maximum value of a quantity or commodity using

the first and second derivatives of a function.

(3) Determine the rate at which a quantity changes with respect to

another quantity i.e. rate problems.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

l. Given x = sin h t and y = -cos h t

(a) find dx (b) dy (c) dx

dy

2. An auto catalyst reaction R is defined as

R(x) = 2x (a - x), a = the amount of substance

X = product of reaction

(i) At what values of a and x will the reaction attain its

maximum?

(ii) Find the maximum value of R.

(Remark: An auto catalyst reaction is a chemical reaction

where the product of the reaction acts as a catalyst).

3. A closed rectangular dish with a square base can contain a

maximum of 20cm3 of liquid. Find the dimensions that require
the least amount of materials to construct such a tank (Neglect the
thickness of the material and waste in construction).

4. A state owned water corporation department has a large plastic

conical storage tank of radius r = 6m and height h = 9m.
Because of water scarcity water is allowed to run into the tank at
a cons tank rate of 4m3 per minute;

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(i) How fast is the water level rising when the water is 6m
deep?

(ii) How deep will water when the water level is rising at the
rate of lm3 /min.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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UNIT 3 APPROXIMATION, VELOCITY AND

ACCELERATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Approximations
3.2 Application of differentiation to velocity
3.3 Application of differentiation to acceleration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

One of the areas of application of differentiation is the approximation of

a function y = ƒ(x). In this unit you will study how to estimate the
changes produced in a function y = ƒ(x). when x changes by a small
amount ∆x. In other words if there is a change in x by a very small
amount ∆x, then there will be a corresponding changes ∆y in y. The
approximate estimate. An important rate of change of distance with
respect to time. Which corresponds to the speed if a body in motion. Of
moving object at a given instant of time could be computed using the
derivative of the distance function. The second derivative of the distance
function will produce the acceleration of the moving body. The
objective to achieve in the study of this unit is hereby studied.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to

(i) Find the approximate value of the change in y = (x) if there is a

small change in x.
(ii) To compute the velocity of a moving body at a given instant of
time.
(iii) Compute the acceleration of a moving body at a given instant of
time.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Application to Approximation

3.1.1 Differential

You will start the study of the application of differentiation by

examining the concept of "differential" of y and x where ƒ (x). = y.

Definition: If x is the independent variable and y = ƒ (x). has a

derivative at xo, say, define dx to be an independent variable with
domain = R and define dy to be dy = ƒ 1(x).
dx.

You will now consider two types of changes that can take place within a
specified domain of a function.

Let y = ƒ (x). then an increment ∆x in x produces a corresponding

increment ∆y in y .

Given that:

Lim ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x) = ƒ 1 (x)

∆x → 0

but ƒ 1(x) lim ƒ 1(x) ∆x

∆
∆x → 0

then lim ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x) – ƒ 1(x) ∆x = 0

∆x

The difference ƒ(x +∆x) - ƒ (x) is called the increment of ƒ from

x it x + ∆x and is denoted by the symbol:

∆ ƒ = ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x)

The product ƒ 1(x) ∆x is called the differential at x with

increment ∆x and is usually denoted by d ƒ:

i.e. dƒ = ƒ l (x) ∆x.

Given that:

ƒ ( x + ∆x) - ƒ (x) = ƒ 1(x) ∆x. + y(x)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

for a very small ∆x.

∆ƒ ≈dƒ.

where lim g(x) = 0

∆x

∆x → 0

since y = ƒ (x) you could re-write the above as:

∆y ⇒ dy

then dy = ƒ 1(x) dx

let x = ƒ (t) and y = g(t)

then dx = ƒ 1(t)dt and dy = gl (t)dt,

if dt ≠ 0 and ƒ 1(t) ≠ 0

then dy = g1 (t)
f1 (t)

from the above you can say that a function y = ƒ (x) is the
product of the derivative of the function and dx

Example:

The dimension of a square is x cm.

(i) how do small changes is x affect the area given as A =x2

Solution

∆ ƒ = ƒ (x + ∆x) - ƒ (x)

= ƒ (x + ∆x)2 - x2 = 2x ∆x + (∆x)2

⇒ ƒd = ƒ 1(x) ∆x = 2x ∆x

The error of the estimate is the difference between the actual

change and the estimated change that is

∆ ƒ - d ƒ = (∆x)2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

If ∆x → 0 then this error → 0 .

Example: Use differentials to determine how much the function.

Y = x 1/3 changes when

(1) x is increased from 8 to 11

(2) x is decreased from 1 to 0.5

Solution

(1) Let xo = 8 and ∆x = 11- 8 = 3

Given that; y=

dy = 1 x-1/3 => ∆y ≅ 1 (x-1/3)dx

dx 3

∆y = 1 (8)-2/3 = 1 1 = 1 (3√8)-2 = 1 (2)-2

3 3 82/3 3 3

∆y = 1 . 1 . ∆x = 1 . 1 . 3 = ¼ = 0.25
3 4 3 4

A change in the value of x from 8 to 11 increased the value of y

by 0.25.

(2) let xo = 1 and ∆x = (0.5 -1) = - 0.5.

∆y = 1/3(1)-2/3 . (-0.5) = -1/6 = -0.167

Example

If Q = 9 and x is decreased from 1 to 0.85, what is the approximate

x change in

the value of Q.

Solution:

Let xo = 1

Then x - xo = ∆x = 1- 0.85 = - .15.

dQ = -9
dx x2

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

when x = 1, dQ = -9
dx
∆Q = -9. (- .15) = 1.35.

Example

If x = sin t and y = cost

0<t<π

Find (1) dx and dy (II) dy/dx

Solution

(1) dx = cos t and dy = sin t

(2)

Example

Use differential to approximate the value of √125

Solution

Let y = √x

You are aware that √121 = 11

So the problem reduces to finding an approximate change in y as

x increases from 121 to 125.

xo = 121, ∆x = 125 - 121 = 4

since y = x ½ ==> dy = 1 1
dx 2 √x

if x = 121 dy = 1 1 = 1
dx 2 √121 22

∆y = dy∆x 1 .4 = 2
dx 22 11

then √125 ≅ √121 + 2 = 11 + 0.1182

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

√125 ≅ 11.182

Example

Given that P = (3q2 - 2)2

When q = 3 it is increased by 0.8%. Find the approximate

percentage change in P

Solution

Let qo - 3, ∆q = .9% of qo

Given ∆P = dP ∆q
dq

P = (3q2 - 2)2,dP = 2(3q2 – 2) . 6q.

dq

∆q = 0.008 x 3 = 0.024

∆P = (2(3(3)2 - 2)63)x0.024.

= (50 x 6 = 3) x 0.024 = 21.6

% change in p ≅ ∆P x 100
P

P = (3q2 - 2)2 = (3(3)2 - 2)2 = (25)2 = 125.

∴ change in P = 21.6 x 100 =17.28%

125

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Use differential to estimate the following:

(1) √l04 (2) (1020)1/3 (3) (24)- ¼

(4) If y = √x , find the approximate increase in the value of y if x is

increased from 2 to 2.05.

(5) if y = (x3 + 1)2 when x = 2 it is increasing by 0.5% find the

approximate percentage change in y.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solutions

(1) √l04 ≈ 10.2

(2) (1020)1/3 ≈ 10 + 2/30 = 10.067

(3) (24)- ½ = 1/24 ≈ 21 - (0.063)

(4) y ≈ 1.432

(5) 2.7%

3.2 Application of Differentiation to Velocity

You are familiar with the word speed. This is defined as the distance
traveled by a body divided by the time it takes the body to arrive the
distance.

i.e speed = distance

time

In the above the motion must occur along a straight line. Such as

0 S

(motion of car along a straight road)

However it might be a tricky question if you want to know the speed of

a body in at a given instant along a curve.

For example: The motion of a rocket fired into the air to be able to
describe how fast the rocket is rising after say a few second it is fired
might not be very clear as finding the speed of the car along a straight
road. To be able to know the speed of the rocket one must know the
function that described the motion of the rocket in the air. Again one
must be able to know how fast the rocket is rising after it is fired for
every single point in the curve describing the motion. Un other words to
be able to know how fast such a body is traveling one must know the
velocity of the body at a given instant. You are aware that to find the
velocity of a body all you need to do is to find the distance between the
staring or initial point and point at which you want to find the velocity.

i.e. Average velocity = Dist (to) - Dist(t1)

t1 - to

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

where to = initial time and t1 = time traveled The above formula cannot
give you the value of instantaneous velocity which is the object of study
in the section.

Let a body travel along a curve ƒ (t) = t2, if you sub divide the entire
time it took to cover this curve in a given interval of time t [to, t1 in a
subinterval of length h . Then the average velocity between to and to th
will be given as;

ƒ (toth) - ƒ (to)
h

The smaller h is the closer thus average velocity is to (2to+ h). so at the
time t = to this average velocity is 2to. Take a closer took again at
equation (1) you will agree that the average velocity at a given instant in
the same process used in deriving the slope of a curve y = ƒ (t) at the
point t = to thus the velocity of the body at time to is the same
numerically with the slope of y = ƒ (t) = t2 at t = to.

Definition: If ƒ (t) is the position of a moving body at time t, its velocity

is defined as ;
d ƒ (t) = lim ƒ (tth) - ƒ (t)
dt h
h -----> 0

its speed is defined as d ƒ (t)

dt

the above implies that you might have a negative velocity. This always
happen in the case of falling bodies. In most textbooks the velocity of a
body is represented as y.

i.e. if y = ƒ (t) then d ƒ (t) = y

dt
Example

A shot is fired from a top of Abia Tower at Umuahia which is at a height

100 + 24t - 12t2 After t seconds. Find

(i) its velocity after 2 seconds

(ii) its maximum height

(iii) its velocity as the bullet hits the ground.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solution

Let y (t) = 100 + 24 = - 2t2

Then d ƒ (t) = y(t) = 24 - 4t

dt

(i) After 2 saec t = 2.

∴ y(2) = 24 - 4.2 = 16 m2/sec.

Since y(2) > 0 it implies that the bullet is rising.

Ans. = 16m2/sec.

(ii) The maximum height can only be attained at the maximum

value of y(t) i.e.

y(t) = 0, => 24 - 4t = 0

t = 6.

Y(12) = 100 + 24.6 - 2(6)2 =172

Observe that when the velocity = 0.

Then the bullet will start to fall down. This occurs at the
instant the bullet attain it highest point (see Fig 10.12)

6 10 20

Fig 10.12.
At time t = 6 y(6) = 0

Y(16) = 172m. is the maximum height

Ans. =172m.
(iii) When the bullet hits ground y(t) = 0

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

.'. 100 + 24t - 2t2 = 0

==> t2 -12t -50 = 0

-12 ± √144 + 4.50

2

12 ± √344 = 12 ± 18.547
2 2

= 15.274 (see Fig 10.12)

at = t = 15 .274.

y(15.274) = 24 - 4 (15.274)

= -37.096.

Ans. -37.096 m/s. This should be expected

Since the bullet is falling down in practical terms the speed = 1

-37.096 m/s/ = 37.01

Compare to the rising speed of 16m/s at t = 2.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

(a) A ball thrown straight up has a height ƒ(t) = - 16t 2 + 160 t after t
seconds Find its

(i) maximum height

(ii) the velocity when it hits the ground

Solution

(i) 400m. (ii) -160.m/s.

(b) a ball thrown upwards from a building attains a height of

ƒ(t) = (-16t2 + 400 t + 8000) m after t seconds. Find

(i) the time it attains its maximum height

(ii) the maximum height
(iii) the velocity after 15 seconds.
(iv) Sketch the curve between t = 0 and t = 20

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solution

(i) 12.5 secs (ii) 10.500m (ii) - 80m/s.

(iv)

12.5
10 20

3.3 Application of Differentiation to Acceleration

If you applied brakes on a moving car it moves slower and slower it

velocity decreases. This implies that velocity, of a moving body can
either be increasing decreasing or constant.

Definition : If the velocity of a moving body at t is given as v(t) the

acceleration of the body is given as

dv(t) - v(t)
dt

Put simply acceleration is the derivative of the velocity, i.e. if measures

the rate of change of velocity during motion.

If ƒ(t) represent the distance covered by a moving body after t

second.

Then d2 ∫(t) = acceleration.

dt2

Simply put acceleration is the second derivative of the equation of the

distance covered after t seconds.

Example

A stone thrown above the ground attains a height of 100 + 24t -8t after t
seconds.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Find the acceleration at time t.

ƒ (t) = 100+ 241 - 8t2

ƒ (t) = 24 - 16t

f (t) = -16 m/s.

Ans. = -16m/s.

Example

The distance covered by a moving body after t seconds is given

as
ƒ (t) = t3 - 3t3 + 2

Find the

(i) acceleration of the body at t = 2

(ii) At what time will the acceleration equal to zero.

Solution

ƒ (t) = t3 - 3t2 +2.

ƒ (t) = 3t2 - 6t

ƒ (t) = 6t - 6.

At t = 2 ƒ (2) = 2.6-6 = 6m2 /see.

ƒ (t) = 0 => t = 1.

Ans: (i) 6m2/sec. (ii) 1.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

A small body is made to travel in a straight line so that at time t

sec after a start in distance ƒ (t) from a fixed point 0 on the
straight line is given by

ƒ (t) = t3 - 4t2 + 12.

Find;

(1) how far has the body traveled starting from the point 0.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(ii) Evaluate the velocity after t = 2.

(iii) A what time is the acceleration zero.

(iv) What is the acceleration after 4 seconds.

Solution:

(1) 12m (ii) -4m/s. (ii) 1.33 secs. (iv) 16m2/S.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have studied the applications of differentiation to

problem solving. You have applied the first derivative at a function to

(i) Approximate. Values of a variable quantity

(ii) Find the rate at which a quantity is changing with respect. To
another.
(iii) Find the equation of a tangent and normal to a curve.

You have also studied how to use the first and second derivatives of a
function to find the approximate value of the change in value of a given
quantity with respects to a small change in another value. You have
studied how to compute the instantaneous velocity and acceleration of
moving body.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied how to

(1) Approximate a value of a function ƒ by its differential d ƒ i.e. dƒ

≈ƒ1 (x)∆x.

(2) calculate the velocity and acceleration of a moving body i.e. v(t)
dƒ (t) and
dt

ace /n = v(t0 = d2 ƒ(t)

dt2

where ƒ (t) is the distance covered in any measurable unit after t second.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. If P = 4/x and x is decreased from 0.5 to 0.1 what is the

approximate change in the value of P.

2. Given that ƒ(x) x ½ estimate the change in ƒ if

(i) x is increased from 32 to 34.
(ii) x is decreased from 1 to 9/10

3. Use the differential to estimate √1004

4. A ball thrown straight up from the top of a building at height of

180 + 64t - 16t2 after t sec. Compute;
(a) It velocity after 1 sec.
(b) Its maximum height
(c) Its velocity as it hits the ground.

5. A ball is 180 + 64t - 16t2 meters above the ground at time t sec.
Find its acceleration at time t.

6. A ball thrown above the ground attains a height of ƒ(x) = 20 = 4t

- t2 after t seconds. Find;
(a) The maximum height
(b) The velocity after 3 sees.
(c) The velocity when the ball hits the ground.
(d) The acceleration of the ball

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
Flanders H, Korfhage R.R, Price J.J (1970) Calculus academic
press New York and London. Osisioga U.A (Ed)(2001)
fundamentals of Mathematical analysis, best soft Educational
Books, Nigeria.

Satrmino L.S. & Einar H. (1974) Calculus "2nd Edition”, John Wiley &
Sons New York. London, Sydney. Toronto.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Thomas G.B and Finney R. L (1982) Calculus and Analytic Edition,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Would student series
Edition, London, Sydrey, Tokyo, Manila, Reading.

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

UNIT 4 NORMAL AND TANGENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The point slope equation of a line
3.2 Equation of a tangent to a curve
3.3 Equation of a normal to a curve
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will apply the differentiation of a function y =f(x) to find
the slope of a tangent to a curve at a point. You could recall that this
idea was extensively discussed in unit 6.You then use the slope of the
tangent to compute the slope of the normal to the curve at the same
point. So it is necessary you review the slope f a curve studied in unit 6.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to correctly:

(i) Find the slope of a tangent to a curve by method of

differentiation.
(ii) Find the slope of a normal to a curve by the method of
differentiation
(iii) Derive the point-slope equation of a tangent at a given point of a
curve.
(iv) Derive the point - slope equation of a normal at a given point of
curve.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Point-Slope Equation of a Line

Let a line L pass through the point P (x l, yl) and let Q (x, y) any other
pint on the curve.

The slope of the line L is given as:

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

m = y - y1
x - x1

y – y1 = m (x –x1) ------ I

The above equation I is known as the point-slope form of the equation

of the line L. Since it givens the equation of the line is terms of a single
point P(x1 y1) on the line and the slope m of the line. That is why it is
called the point -slope equation of a line.

Therefore once you know the coordinate of just one point on the curve
and you can determine the slope of the tangent-line at that point by
method of differentiation. Then you can easily form the equation of the
tangent -line by using equation I above.

Example: Given that the slope of a line is 2 and the line passes through
the point P (2, - 2). Write the equation of the line

Solution

Using point-slope formula

y - y1 = m (x-x1)
and given that m = 21 x1= 21 and y1 = - 2

then you have that:

y- (-20) = 2(x-2)
y = 2 = 2x-4y = 2x -6

which is the required equation of a line.

3.2 Equation of a Tangent to a Curve

In unit 5 you studied that the slope of the curve y = f (x) at any given
point is given as:
m= (dy) = f1 (x)
dx

Which is also the slope of the tangent to curve y = f (x) at the given
point (x1 y1).

Therefore the equation of a tangent - line to a given curve y = f(x) at a

given point (x1, y1). On the curve can be written as;

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

y -y1 = m (x-x1)
y - y1 = dy (x -x1)
dx

(x1, y1)

= f1(x1) (x-x1).

Therefore tangent is given as;

y = f1(x1)(x – x1) + y1

3.3 Equation of Normal to Curve

The normal is the line that is peculiar to the tangent. As such if m is the
slope of the tangent passing through the point (xl, yl) then the slope of
the normal passing through the [point (xl yl) is given as;

MN = -1
MT

Since MT = f1 (X1)

Then MN = -1
f (x1)

Therefore the equation of the normal line at point (x1, y1) is given as;

y = -1 (x –x1) + y1
f(x1)

Where y = f (x).

Examples

Write the equation of the tangent to the following curves at the given
points.

(i) y = x2 (-2, 4)

(ii) y = x3 (-1,-1)

(iii) y = 1/x (1,1)

(iv) y2 = x2 (2,4)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Solution

(i) dy = 2x at x1 _ - 2, 2x1= 2 (-2)

dx
m = -4
y = -4(x-(-2) = 4
y = -4x – 8 + 4 = -4x - 4
y = -4x - 4.

(ii) dy = 3x2, m = 3(x1) 2 = 3 (-1)2 = 3.

dx

y = 3(x-(-2) = (-1) = 3x = 3 - 1
y = 3x = 2

(iii) dy = - 1 m = -1 =-1
dx x2 (x1)2

y = -(9x - 2) + l = -x + 2 +1
y=3-x

(iv) 2y = dy = 2x
dx

dy = x ⇒ m = 2 = 1
dx y 2
y = (x-2) + 2 = x
y=x

(v) xy = 2x + xy = 1 (12)

(vi) x dy + y + 2 + 4 dy 0 (differentiating)
dx dx

⇒ (x + 4) dy + y +2 = 0 (collecting like terms)

dx

dy = -(y + 2) = - (2 = 2) = -4
dx x+4 1=4 5

Equation of tangent is

Y = -4 (x-1) = 2
5

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

⇒ 5y = -4x = 1 + 10 = -4x + 11.

5y = -4x + 11

Equation of normal is

Y = 5 (x – 1) + 2
4
4y = sx – 5 =
4y = 5x -3.

(iii) y2 - 2x - 4y + x2 = 4 (-1, -2)

Differentiating

2y dy -2-4dy +2x =0
dx dx

Collecting like terms

(2y - 4) dy = 2 - 2x
dx

dy - 2-2x = 1-x = 1- (-1) = 2

dx 2y-4 y-2 -2-2 - 4
m=-½

Equation of tangent

Y= - ½ (x-(-1))+(-2)
2y=-x-1-4=-x-5
2y+x+5=0.

Equation of normal
Y=2(x+1)-2=2x+2-2
Y=2x

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curves at the
given points. (for exercises a - d)

(a) y =2x2-1 x=1

(b) y =x2-2x x=2
(c) y = x - 1 x = 1
x+1
(d) 2x2 - xy = 16 = y2 at (2,4)

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

2. The slope of the tangent at a point P(81, y1) on the curve

y = 2x2 - 6x + 1 is 10. Find x1and y1.

3 The curve where equation y = ax2 - bx -6 passes through

the point ( -1, - 4) and the slope of the curve at
the is 2 find the value a and b.

Solution

(1). (a) y=4x-3, 4y=3-x

(b) y=2x-4, 2y=xn-2
(c) 2y = x-1, y=2-2x
(d) 5y = 2x + 16 2y = 5x -2.

(2). (4,9)
(3). a = 2, b = -6

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have reviewed the point - slope equation formula for the
point slope equation of the tangent line by using differentiation to
calculate the slope of the tangent at a given point. You have used the
slope of a tangent to determine the slope of a normal and consequently
derived the formula for the point slope equation of a the normal line to a
curve at a given point. You have solved example on the above.

5.0. SUMMARY

You have studied in this unit how to:

(1) Determine point slope equation of a line (y – y1) = m (x – x1)

(2) Derive the point - slope equation of the tangent to a curve at a
given point.
(3) Derive the point - slope equation of the normal to a curve at a
given point.
(4) Determine the slope of the a tangent and normal to a curve by
differentiation.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Find the tangent and normal to the curves at the specified points.

1. y2+x2-4x+3y=1 x=1,y-1

2. y2=x+ 4 x=1,y= 5
x

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MTH 112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

3. y = 2-+ (2,5)
3-x

4. x2 + y2 = 25 (3,4)

5. y=x3-x x0=-2

6. Derive the point - slope from of equation of a tangent and normal

to a curve y = f(x) at the point (x1, y1).

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Godwin Odili (Ed) (1997): Calculus with Coordinate Geometry and

Trigonometry, Anachuma Educational Books, Nigeria.

Osisiogu U.A (1998) An introduction to Real Analysis with Special

Topic on Functions of Several Variables and Method of
Lagranges Multipliers, Bestsoft Educational Books Nigeria
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