Speed Control of Induction Motor For Pump Application Using

SPWM method

CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

As far as the machine efficiency, robustness, reliability, durability, power factor, ripples,
stable output voltage and torque are concerned, three- phase induction motor stands at the
a top of the order. Induction motors are widely used in many residential, industrial,
commercial, and utility applications [1]. But they require much more complex methods of
control, more expensive and higher rated power converters than DC and permanent
magnet machines. Various techniques are in practice for induction motor speed control
today. S. Dam and A. Saha were proposed closed loop control of L-matrix based
induction motor using V/F method using PID controller [1]. S.V. Ustun tuned the PI
coefficients using fuzzy genetic control [3]. Neural network based control of induction
motor speed control developed in [4-6]. M. Suetake and I. N. Da Silva were proposed
DSP-Based Compact Fuzzy system for V/f control of induction motor in [7]. Artificial
Intelligence (AI) techniques, such as Expert Systems, Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks or
Biologically Inspired and Genetic Algorithm have recently been applied in motor drives
for V/f speed control [8]. Neuro-Fuzzy controller also designed for induction motor
speed control [9, 10]. The most popular technique for induction motor speed control is by
generating variable frequency supply, which has constant voltage to frequency ratio. This
technique is popularly known as V/F control which has large applications in industry. The
control strategy consists of keeping constant the Voltage/Frequency ratio of the induction
motor supply source. In this paper for speed control of induction motors, a closed loop
system utilizing PI controller and constant V/F ratio have been used and the performance
of two kinds of PWM based inverter including sinusoidal PWM and space vector PWM
have been compared.

Induction motor are widely used for appliances, industrial control, and automation, they
are often called the workhorse of the motion industry. They are robust, reliable, and
durable. When power is supplied to an induction motor at the recommended
specifications, it runs at its rated speed. However, many applications need variable speed
operations. Historically, mechanical gear systems were used to obtained variable speed.
Recently, electronic power and control system have matured tallow these component to
be used for motor control in place of mechanical gears. These electronics not only control

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the speed, but can improve the motor‘s dynamic and steady state characteristics. In
addition, electronics can reduce the system‘s average power consumption and noise
generation of the motor. Induction motor control is complex due to its nonlinear
characteristics. While there are different method for control, variable voltage variable
frequency or volts/hurtz to the most common method of speed control in close loop. This
method is most suitable for applications without position control requirements or the need
for high accuracy of speed control. For this purpose the generated 220 volts ac is fixed or
sometimes is dependent on output load or battery voltage. We will regulate the output ac
for induction motor so as to control the speed of induction motor by getting the sample of
output and feeding it to the input as reference so that by fixing a fix voltage as comparator
voltage we will regulate the speed of induction motor. II. SPEED CONTROL There are
two speed terms are synchronous speed and rated speed used in the electric machine.
Synchronous speed is the speed at which a motor's magnetic field rotates. Synchronous
speed is the motor's theoretical speed if there was no load on the shaft and friction in the
bearings.

The two factors affecting synchronous speed are the frequency of the electrical supply
and the number of magnetic poles in the stator. The synchronous speed is given by
Where, f = Frequency in Hz P = Number of Poles The rotor speed of an Induction
machine is different from the speed of Rotating magnetic field. The shaft speed (rotor
speed) of induction motor when driving load will always be lass than the synchronous
speed. The percent difference in synchronous speed and shaft speed is called slip as
shown in equation Ns = Synchronous speed Nr = Rotor speed Below relation states that
synchronous speed of induction motor is directly proportional to the frequency and
inversely proportional to the number of poles of the motor .Since the number of poles is
fixed by design, the best way to vary the speed of the induction motor is by varying the
supply frequency. The speed of the motor shaft with rated voltage and line frequency
applied at full load is so called base speed. By changing the frequency to the motor above
or below 50Hz; the motor can operate above or below base speed. Volts - Per - Hertz
Ratio

This term describes a relationship that is fundamental to the operation of motors using
adjustable frequency control. An ac induction motor produces torque by virtue of the flux
in its rotating field. Keeping the flux constant will enable the motor to produce full load

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torque. Below base speed, this is accomplished by maintaining a constant voltage-to-

frequency ratio applied to the motor when changing the frequency for speed control. For
460 and 230 Volt motors, the ratio is 460/60 = 7.6 and 230/60 = 3.8. If this ratio rises as
the frequency is decreased to reduce the motor speed, the motor current will increase and
may become excessive. If it reduces as the frequency is increased, the motor torque
capabilities will decrease. There are some exceptions to this rule which are described
below. The base speed of the motor is proportional to supply frequency and is inversely
proportional to the number of stator poles. So, by changing the supply frequency; the
motor speed can be changed. Above base speed, this ratio will decrease when constant
voltage (usually motor rated voltage) is applied to the motor. In these cases, the torque
capabilities of the motor decrease above base speed. At approximately 30 Hertz and
lower, the Volts-per-Hertz ratio is not always maintained constant. Depending on the type
of load, the voltage may be increased to give a higher ratio, in order for the motor to
produce sufficient torque, especially at zero speed. This adjustment is usually called
"Voltage Boost". At base speed and below, the Volts-per-Hertz ratio can be adjusted
lower to minimize motor current when the motor is lightly loaded. This adjustment,
which lowers the voltage to the motor, will reduce the magnetizing current to the motor.
Consequently, the motor will produce less torque which is tolerable. This control is the
most popular in industries and is popularly known as the constant V/f control. The VFD is
a system made up of active/passive power electronics devices; figure 1 shows electronic
speed control of the motor supply frequency. The basic concept of these drives, figure 1,
is that a rectifier converts the fixed frequency supply to d.c. (which converts commercial
power into a direct current). A d.c. link stage smoothes the rectified output to a stable d.c.
voltage (or current).This d.c. is then inverted to provide a synthesized a.c. waveform at
the motor terminals. The frequency and power of the a.c. supply delivered to the motor is
controlled by inverter [3].

Induction motors were used in the past mainly in applications requiring constant speed
because conventional methods of IM speed control has either been expensive or
inefficient. Variable speed applications have been dominated by DC drives. Availability
of thyristors, IGBT, GTO have allowed the development of variable speed induction
motor drives. The presence of commutator and brushes is the main disadvantage of DC
motor, which require frequent maintenance and make them unsuitable for environments

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which involve explosive and dirt. On the other hand, induction motors, particularly
squirrelcage are rugged, cheap, light, small, and more efficient, require lower
maintenance and can operate in dirty and explosive environments. Although speed control
of induction motor drives are generally expensive than DC drives, they are used in
number of applications such as pump, steel mills, cranes, hoist drives, conveyors, traction
etc. because of the advantage of induction motor. Dominant of them is the traction system
which is used in auto mobiles and locomotives [1].Induction motor drives have gained
equal importance as BLDC motor drives in automotive industries. Both have their
advantages and disadvantages. in this we try to see the better parts of induction motor
drives. In auto mobile applications speed control is the most important crucial part. Hence
in this we have discussed efficient way of controlling induction motor which is discussed
in later sections. Following methods are employed for speed control of induction motors:
i. Pole changing ii. Supply frequency control iii. Stator voltage control iv. Rotor
resistance control In this we go for frequency controlled induction motor drive. There are
again two types of variable frequency drive: a) Scalar control b) Vector control In this we
discuss scalar control of induction motor due to its simplicity compared to vector
controlled methods. We go for Volt/hertz control which is a scalar control method for
variable frequency drive. II. VOLT/HERTZ CONTROL Due to the advancement in solid
state power devices and microprocessors, speed control of Induction motor controlled by
switched power converter are getting popular. Switched power converters offer an easy
way to regulate both the frequency and magnitude of the voltage applied to a motor. As a
result higher efficiency and performance can be achieved by these motor drives with less
noise. The most common principle of this is the constant V/Hz principle which requires
that frequency and the magnitude of the voltage applied to the stator of a motor maintain
a constant ratio. So by this, the magnetic field in the stator is kept almost constant for all
operating points. Thus, constant torque is maintained. Also allows the motor to achieve
faster dynamic response.

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CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE SURVEY

In modern industrialized countries, more than half the total electrical Energy used is
converted to mechanical energy through AC induction motors. Induction motors are
extensively used in industrial and household appliances and consume more than 50% of
the total generated electrical energy. Single-phase induction motors are widely used in
home appliances and industrial control. During the last few years, the concept of speed
and torque control of asynchronous motor drives has gained significant popularity. This
way, it has been possible to combine the induction-motor structural robustness with the
control simplicity and efficiency of a direct current motor. This evolution resulted to the
replacement of the dc machines by induction motors in many applications in the last few
years.Earlier only dc motors were employed for drives requiring variable speedsdue to
facilitate of their speed control methods [1]. The conventional methods of speed control
of aninduction motor were either too extravagant or too inefficient thus limiting their
application to only constantspeed drives. They are used to drive pumps, fans,
compressors, mixers, agitators, mills, conveyors, crushers, machine tools, cranes, etc.
This type of electric motor is so popular due to its simplicity, reliability, less maintenance
and low cost. Today, with advancements in power electronics, microcontrollers, and
digital signal processors(DSPs), electric drive systems have improved drastically. Initially
the principle of speed control was based on steady state consideration of the induction
motor. V/f control was the commonly used one for the open-loop speed control of drives
with low dynamic requirements. In this paper, literature review on speed controlled
techniques of induction machine drive and the strategies for pulse width modulation
technique are narrated. Approaches for sensorless operation of induction motor and field
weakening control are reviewed. Analysis of research contributions in propulsion
applications are also carried out. Finally, the research gap in propulsion application with
induction motor require an intensive and time-consuming effort for the tuning of their
electrical parameters in order to achieve satisfactory performance is presented in open
literatures. Various technique methods are now available for the control of induction
motor drives; a brief classification of the available drive types is given in figure 2.1

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Figure 3.1 Available drives

Such as the popular constant Volts per Hertz control [1] or the ever more popular field-
oriented, or vector, control method [2]-[4]. Recently, ABB has introduced direct torque
control (DTC), a speed sensorless control approach [5]. There has also been some
investigation into the application of neural networks to various aspects of induction motor
control such as adaptive control [6], sensorless speed control [7]–[10], inverter current
regulation [11]– [13], as well as for motor parameter identification purposes [14], [15]
and flux estimation purposes [8], [9]. There has been less attention devoted to the
implementation of neural-network-based field-oriented control in induction motor drives
[12], [13].

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CHAPTER 4

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 4.1 represents the block diagram of the proposed system. The proposed system has
been in MATLAB/Simulink for the three phase system and the hardware implementation
was done for the single phase system.

As represented in block diagram, the energy is supplied from the solar panel to the charge
controller. The power from the charge controller flows to the battery and from there to the
single phase inverter. It uses a boost converter to boost the voltage from the 12V DC to
24V DC. This is given to the inverter. The inverter converts DC power to AC power. This
is stepped up to the single phase system and given to the load. Load in this case being the
bulb.

The whole system is simulated in MATLAB/Simulink and the hardware prototype has
also been implemented for the same proposed system. This system can be used for pump
application in field of agriculture or in aerospace applications.

4.1.1 Induction Motor

An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric

current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic
induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore
be made without electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motor's rotor can be
either wound type or squirrel-cage type.

Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because
they are self-starting, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used
extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although
traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used
with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially
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important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in
variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load applications. Squirrel cage
induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency
drive (VFD) applications.

The induction motor with a wrapped rotor was invented by Nikola Tesla Nikola Tesla in
1882 in France but the initial patent was issued in 1888 after Tesla had moved to the
United States. In his scientific work, Tesla laid the foundations for understanding the way
the motor operates. The induction motor with a cage was invented by Mikhail Dolivo-
Dobrovolsky about a year later in Europe. Technological development in the field has
improved to where a 100 hp (74.6 kW) motor from 1976 takes the same volume as a 7.5
hp (5.5 kW) motor did in 1897. Currently, the most common induction motor is the cage
rotor motor. An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor
(rotating part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this
power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor
this power is induced in the rotating device. An induction motor is sometimes called a
rotating transformer because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of
the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are
widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in
industrial drives. Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due
to their rugged construction, absence of brushes (which are required in most DC motors)
and the ability to control the speed of the motor. 2 CONSTRUCTION A typical motor
consists of two parts namely stator and rotor like other type of motors. 1. An outside
stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating magnetic
field, 2. An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating
field.

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Figure 4.1 Motor Construction

Figure 4.2 Rotor Construction

Stator construction The stator of an induction motor is laminated iron core with slots
similar to a stator of a synchronous machine. Coils are placed in the slots to form a three
or single phase winding. 3 Figure. Single phase stator with windings. Figure. Induction
motor magnetic circuit showing stator and rotor slots Type of rotors Rotor is of two
different types. 1. Squirrel cage rotor 2. Wound rotor Squirrel-Cage Rotor In the squirrel-

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cage rotor, the rotor winding consists of single copper or aluminium bars placed in the
slots and short-circuited by end-rings on both sides of the rotor. Most of single phase
induction motors have Squirrel-Cage rotor. One or 2 fans are attached to the shaft in the
sides of rotor to cool the circuit. 4 Figure. Squirrel cage rotor Wound Rotor In the wound
rotor, an insulated 3-phase winding similar to the stator winding wound for the same
number of poles as stator, is placed in the rotor slots. The ends of the star-connected rotor
winding are brought to three slip rings on the shaft so that a connection can be made to it
for starting or speed control. It is usually for large 3 phase induction motors. Rotor has a
winding the same as stator and the end of each phase is connected to a slip ring.
Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require
maintenance of the slip rings and brushes, so it is not so common in industry applications.

Figure 4.3 Squirrel Cage IM Construction

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

An AC current is applied in the stator armature which generates a flux in the stator
magnetic circuit. This flux induces an emf in the conducting bars of rotor as they are
“cut” by the flux while the magnet is being moved (E = BVL (Faraday’s Law)) A current
flows in the rotor circuit due to the induced emf, which in term produces a force, (F =
BIL) can be changed to the torque as the output. In a 3-phase induction motor, the three-
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phase currents ia, ib and ic, each of equal magnitude, but differing in phase by 120°. Each
phase current produces a magnetic flux and there is physical 120 °shift between each flux.
The total flux in the machine is the sum of the three fluxes. The summation of the three ac
fluxes results in a rotating flux, which turns with constant speed and has constant
amplitude. Such a magnetic flux produced by balanced three phase currents flowing in
thee-phase windings is called a rotating magnetic flux or rotating magnetic field
(RMF).RMF rotates with a constant speed (Synchronous Speed). Existence of a RFM is
an essential condition for the operation of an induction motor. If stator is energized by an
ac current, RMF is generated due to the applied current to the stator winding. This flux
produces magnetic field and the field revolves in the air gap between stator and rotor. So,
the magnetic field induces a voltage in the short circuited bars of the rotor. This voltage
drives current through the bars. The interaction of the rotating flux and the rotor current
generates a force that drives the motor and a torque is developed consequently. The
torque is proportional with the flux density and the rotor 6 bar current (F=BLI). The
motor speed is less than the synchronous speed. The direction of the rotation of the rotor
is the same as the direction of the rotation of the revolving magnetic field in the air gap.
However, for these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor and the speed of
the rotating magnetic field in the stator must be different, or else the magnetic field will
not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents will be induced. If by some
chance this happens, the rotor typically slows slightly until a current is reinduced and then
the rotor continues as before. This difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of
the rotating magnetic field in the stator is called slip. It is unitless and is the ratio between
the relative speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor the (slip speed) to the speed of
the rotating stator field. Due to this an induction motor is sometimes referred to as an
asynchronous machine. SLIP The relationship between the supply frequency, f, the
number of poles, p, and the synchronous speed (speed of rotating field), ns is given by
120 s f n p = The stator magnetic field (rotating magnetic field) rotates at a speed, ns , the
synchronous speed. If, n= speed of the rotor, the slip, s for an induction motor is defined
as s s n n s n − = At stand still, rotor does not rotate , n = 0, so s = 1. At synchronous
speed, n= nS, s = 0 The mechanical speed of the rotor, in terms of slip and synchronous
speed is given by, n=(1-s) ns Frequency of Rotor Current and Voltage With the rotor at
stand-still, the frequency of the induced voltages and currents is the same as that of the
stator (supply) frequency, fe. If the rotor rotates at speed of n, then the relative speed is

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the slip speed: nslip=ns-n nslip is responsible for induction. 7 Hence, the frequency of the
induced voltages and currents in the rotor is, fr= sfe.

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES

We have seen the speed torque characteristic of the machine. In the stable region of
operation in the motoring mode, the curve is rather steep and goes from zero torque at
synchronous speed to the stall torque at a value of slip s = ˆs. Normally ˆs may be such
that stall torque is about three times that of the rated operating torque of the machine, and
hence may be about 0.3 or less. This means that in the entire loading range of the
machine, the speed change is quite small. The machine speed is quite stiff with respect to
16 load changes. The entire speed variation is only in the range ns to (1 − s)ns, ns being
dependent on supply frequency and number of poles. The foregoing discussion shows that
the induction machine, when operating from mains is essentially a constant speed
machine. Many industrial drives, typically for fan or pump applications, have typically
constant speed requirements and hence the induction machine is ideally suited for these.
However, the induction machine, especially the squirrel cage type, is quite rugged and has
a simple construction. Therefore it is good candidate for variable speed applications if it
can be achieved.

1.Speed control by changing applied voltage From the torque equation of the induction
machine, we can see that the torque depends on the square of the applied voltage. The
variation of speed torque curves with respect to the applied voltage is shown in figure
below. These curves show that the slip at maximum torque remains same, while the value
of stall torque comes down with decrease in applied voltage. The speed range for stable
operation remains the same. Further, we also note that the starting torque is also lower at
lower voltages. Thus, even if a given voltage level is sufficient for achieving the running
torque, the machine may not start. This method of trying to control the speed is best
suited for loads that require very little starting torque, but their torque requirement may
increase with speed.

2. Rotor resistance control From the expression for the torque of the induction machine,
torque is dependent on the rotor resistance. The maximum value is independent of the
rotor resistance. The slip at maximum torque is dependent on the rotor resistance.
Therefore, we may expect that if the rotor resistance is changed, the maximum torque

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point shifts to higher slip values, while retaining a constant torque. Figure below shows a
family of torque-speed characteristic obtained by changing the rotor resistance. Note that
while the maximum torque and synchronous speed remain constant, the slip at which
maximum torque occurs increases with increase in rotor resistance, and so does the
starting torque. whether the load is of constant torque type or fan-type, it is evident that
the speed control range is more with this method. Further, rotor resistance control could
also be used as a means of generating high starting torque. For all its advantages, the
scheme has two serious drawbacks. Firstly, in order to vary the rotor resistance, it is
necessary to connect external variable resistors (winding resistance itself cannot be
changed). This, therefore necessitates a slip-ring machine, since only in that case rotor
terminals are available outside

3. Stator frequency control The expression for the synchronous speed indicates that by
changing the stator frequency also it can be changed. This can be achieved by using
power electronic circuits called inverters which convert dc to ac of desired frequency.
Depending on the type of control scheme of the inverter, the ac generated may be
variable-frequency-fixedamplitude or variable-frequency variable-amplitude type. Power
electronic control achieves smooth variation of voltage and frequency of the ac output.
This when fed to the machine is capable of running at a controlled speed. However,
consider the equation for the induced emf in the induction machine. V = 4.44NØmf
where N is the number of the turns per phase, _m is the peak flux in the air gap and f is
the frequency. Note that in order to reduce the speed, frequency has to be reduced. If the
frequency is reduced while the voltage is kept constant, thereby requiring the amplitude
of induced emf to remain the same, flux has to increase. This is not advisable since the 21
machine likely to enter deep saturation. If this is to be avoided, then flux level must be
maintained constant which implies that voltage must be reduced along with frequency.
The ratio is held constant in order to maintain the flux level for maximum torque
capability. Actually, it is the voltage across the magnetizing branch of the exact
equivalent circuit that must be maintained constant, for it is that which determines the
induced emf. Under conditions where the stator voltage drop is negligible compared the
applied voltage, the above equation is valid.

4.1.2 Three Phase Inverter

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Three Phase DC-AC Converters

Three phase inverters are normally used for high power applications. The advantages of a
three phase inverter are:

o The frequency of the output voltage waveform depends on the switching

rate of the swtiches and hence can be varied over a wide range.
o The direction of rotation of the motor can be reversed by changing the
output phase sequence of the inverter.
o The ac output voltage can be controlled by varying the dc link voltage.

The general configuration of a three phase DC-AC inverter is shown in Figure 1. Two
types of control signals can be applied to the switches:

• 180° conduction

• 120° conduction

Figure 4.4: Configuration of a Three-Phase DC-AC Inverter

180-Degree Conduction with Star Connected Resistive Load

The configuration of the three phase inverter with star connected resistive load is shown
in Figure 3.5. The following convention is followed:

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• A current leaving a node point a, b or c and entering the neutral point n is assumed to be
positive.

• All the three resistances are equal, .

In this mode of operation each switch conducts for 180°. Hence, at any instant of
time three switches remain on . When S1 is on , the terminal a gets connected to the
positive terminal of input DC source. Similarly, when S4 is on , terminal a gets connected
to the negative terminal of input DC source. There are six possible modes of operation in
a cycle and each mode is of 60° duration and the explanation of each mode is as follows:

Figure 4.5: Three-Phase DC-AC Inverter with star connect resistive load

Mode 1: In this mode the switches S5 , S6 and S1 are turned on for time

interval . As a result of this the terminals a and c are connected to the positive
terminal of the input DC source and the terminal b is connected to the negative terminal
of the DC source. The current flow through Ra, Rb and Rc is shown in Figure 3a and the
equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3b. The equivalent resistance of the circuit shown
in Figure 3b is

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(1)

The current i delivered by the DC input source is

(2)

The currents ia and ib are

(3)

Keeping the current convention in mind, the current ib is

(4)

Having determined the currents through each branch, the voltage across each branch is

(5)

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Figure 4.6 (a): Current through the load in Mode 1

Figure 4.6(b): Equivalent circuit in Mode 1

Mode-2 : In this mode the switches S6 , S1 and S2 are turned on for time

interval . The current flow and the equivalent circuits are shown in Figure
4a and Figure 4b respectively. Following the reasoning given for mode 1 , the currents
through each branch and the voltage drops are given by

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(6)

(7)

Figure 4.7(a): Current through the load in Mode 2

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Figure 4.7(b): Equivalent circuit in Mode 2

Mode 3 : In this mode the switches S1 , S2 and S3 are on for . The current flow
and the equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 5a and figure 5b respectively. The
magnitudes of currents and voltages are:

(8)

(9)

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Figure 4.8(a): Current through the load in Mode 32

Figure 4.8 (b): Equivalent circuit in Mode 3

For modes 4, 5 and 6 the equivalent circuits will be same as modes 1,

2 and 3 respectively. The voltages and currents for each mode are:

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for mode 4 (10)

for mode5 (11)

for mode 6 (12)

The plots of the phase voltages (van, vbn and vcn) and the currents ( ia, ib and ic) are shown
in Figure 4.9 . Having known the phase voltages, the line voltages can also be determined
as:

(13)

The plots of line voltages are also shown in Figure 4.9 and the phase and line voltages
can be expressed in terms of Fourier series as:

(14)

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(15)

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Figure 4.9: Voltage waveforms for Resistive load for 180°

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180-Degree Conduction with Star Connected R-L Load

In mode 1 the switches S5, S4 and S1are turned on. The mode previous
to mode1 was mode 6and the in mode 6 the switches S4, S5 and S6 were on. In the
transition from mode 6 to mode 1the switch S4 is turned off and S1 turned on and the
current ia changes its direction (outgoing phase). When the switch S4 was on, the
direction of current was from point n to point a, the circuit configuration is shown
in Figure 7a and the equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 7b. When S1 is turned on the
direction of current should be from point a to point n. However, due to the presence of
inductance, the current cannot change its direction instantaneously and continues to flow
in the previous direction through diode D1(Figure 7c) and the equivalent circuit of the
configuration is shown in Figure 7d. Once ia = 0 , the diode D1 ceases to conduct and the
current starts flowing through S1 as shown already in Figure 3a and Figure 3b.
Whenever one mode gets over and the next mode starts, the current of the outgoing phase
cannot change its direction immediately due to presence of the inductance and hence
completes its path through the freewheeling diode.

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Figure 3.8(a): Current through the load in Mode 6

The phase currents are determined as follows:

(16)

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Figure 3.8(b): Equivalent circuit for Mode 6

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Figure 7d: Current through the load during transition from Mode 6 to Mode 1

Figure 3.8 (c): Equivalent circuit during transition from Mode 6 to Mode 1

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CHAPTER 5

SIMULATION AND HARDWARE SYSTEM

Figure 5.1 represents the simulation system of the three phase induction motor in a closed
loop. The induction motor is controlled in a closed loop condition by the three phase
inverter and the user defined speed.

Figure 5.1 Simulation system for closed loop control of IM

The simulation presented, takes in the solar panel power form the MPPT control to the
three phase inverter through the DC link. The PV panel presented is a subsystem shown
in figure 5.2. It produces the voltage and current for the inverter. The DC bus is just a link
between the inverter and the panel which reduces the ripples and the harmonics in it. The
inverter is a three phase inverter represented in figure 5.3. It takes in 6 gate pulses for the
six switches.

The speed controller is a sub system which converts the actual speed with the reference
speed and produce gate pulses through the SPWM controller. The speed controller sub
system is shown in figure 5.4.

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Figure 5.2 (a) Sub system of PV Panel with MPPT Boost converter

Figure 5.2 (b) PV panel system

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Figure 5.3 Three Phase Inverter

Figure 5.4 Speed Controller sub system

5.2 Hardware Implementation

The figure 5.5 represents the hardware prototype of the proposed system for the open
loop single phase system.

As represented, The system generates a 230V form the 12V renewable system which in
this case is a solar panel. The solar panel used here is of 12V, which is given to the solar
charge controller of 12V DC. The solar charge controller is used to control the power
going from the solar array to the battery. If the voltage in the battery is less, the power is
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delivered from the solar cell or else it is kept in OFF position. The power from the charge
controller is passed to the battery. The battery supplies power to the boost converter
which supplies boosted voltage, in this case 24V DC to the single phase inverter. The
Inverter converts this 24VDC to 12VAC which is given to the step up transformer. This
steps up the voltage to 230V is given to the load. The detailed explanation of the system
is given below.

5.2.1 ATMEGA328
The project uses Arduino microcontroller board the Arduino ecosystem consists of
software
and hardware. The microcontroller board used in the project is Arduino mega2560. A
microcontroller is a self-contained system with peripherals, memory and a processor that
can be used as an embedded system for processing signals. Most programmable
microcontrollers that are used today are embedded in other consumer products or
machinery including phones, peripherals, automobiles and household appliances for
computer systems. Due to that, another name for a microcontroller is "embedded
controller." Some embedded systems are more sophisticated, while others have minimal
requirements for memory and programming length and a low software complexity. Input
and output devices include solenoids, LCD displays, relays, switches and sensors for data
like humidity, temperature or light level, amongst others.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the
size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and
input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more
devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog
components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as
low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (single-digit mill watts or microwatts). They
will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a
button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most
peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting

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battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where

they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds
and power consumption.
The microcontroller used in this project is Arduino Mega consisting of at mega 2560. At
mega 2560 features The high-performance, low-power Atmel 8-bit AVR RISC-based
microcontroller combines 256KB ISP flash memory, 8KB SRAM, 4KB EEPROM, 86
general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers, real time counter, six
flexible timer/counters with compare modes, PWM, 4 USARTs, byte oriented 2-wire
serial interface, 16-channel 10-bit A/D converter, and a JTAG interface for on-chip
debugging. The device achieves a throughput of 16 MIPS at 16 MHz and operates
between 4.5-5.5 volts. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the
device achieves a throughput approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, balancing power
consumption and processing speed. buggies and small robots. Others are electrically
equivalent but change the form factor sometimes retaining compatibility with shields,
sometimes not.

Figure 5.8: An Official Arduino ATmega2560

Types of Arduino:
• Arduino Uno
• Arduino Leonardo
• Arduino LilyPad
• Arduino Mega
• Arduino Nano

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• Arduino Mini
• Arduino Mini Pro

Table 5.1 :Features of ATmega2560

POWER

The Arduino Mega2560 can be powered via the USB connection or with an
external power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB)
power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can
be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack.
Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER
connector. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with
less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be
unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the
board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The Mega2560 differs from all preceding
boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the
Atmega8U2 programmed as a USB-to-serial converter. The power pins are as follows: •
VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as

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opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can
supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it
through this pin. • 5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and
other components on the board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board regulator,
or be supplied by USB or another regulated 5V supply. • 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply
generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA. • GND. Ground
pins.

MEMORY

The ATmega2560 has 256 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 8 KB is used
for the bootloader), 8 KB of SRAM and 4 KB of EEPROM

INPUT AND OUTPUT

Each of the 54 digital pins on the Mega can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin
can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized
functions: •

Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX); Serial 1: 19 (RX) and 18 (TX); Serial 2: 17 (RX) and 16 (TX);
Serial 3: 15 (RX) and 14 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data.
Pins 0 and 1 are also connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-
TTL Serial chip . •

External Interrupts: 2 (interrupt 0), 3 (interrupt 1), 18 (interrupt 5), 19 (interrupt 4), 20
(interrupt 3), and 21 (interrupt 2). These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on
a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt()
function for details.

PWM: 0 to 13. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog Write() function. • SPI: 50
(MISO), 51 (MOSI), 52 (SCK), 53 (SS). These pins support SPI communication, which,
although provided by the underlying hardware, is not currently included in the Arduino
language. The SPI pins are also broken out on the ICSP header, which is physically
compatible with the Duemilanove and Diecimila.

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LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH
value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off. • I 2C: 20 (SDA) and 21 (SCL).
Support

I2C (TWI) communication using the Wire library (documentation on the Wiring
website). Note that these pins are not in the same location as the I2C pins on the
Duemilanove.

The Mega2560 has 16 analog inputs, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution
(i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it
possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and
analogReference() function. There are a couple of other pins on the board:

AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().

Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset
button to shields which block the one on the board

COMMUNICATION
The Arduino Mega2560 has a number of facilities for communicating with
a computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega2560 provides four
hardware UARTs for TTL (5V) serial communication. An ATmega8U2 on the board
channels one of these over USB and provides a virtual com port to software on the
computer (Windows machines will need a .inf file, but OSX and Linux machines will
recognize the board as a COM port automatically. The Arduino software includes a serial
monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the board. The RX and
TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the ATmega8U2 chip
and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Mega's digital
pins. The ATmega2560 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation on
the Wiring website for details

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AUTOMATIC SOFTWARE RESET:

Rather then requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload,
the Arduino Mega2560 is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running
on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the
ATmega8U2 is connected to the reset line of the ATmega2560 via a 100 nanofarad
capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset
the chip. The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by simply
pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment. This means that the bootloader
can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start
of the upload. This setup has other implications. When the Mega2560 is connected to
either a computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to
it from software (via USB). For the following half-second or so, the boot loader is
running on the Mega2560. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e.
anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent
to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board receives one-
time configuration or other data when it first starts, make sure that the software with
which it communicates waits a second after opening the connection and before sending
this data. The Mega contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on
either side of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN".
You may also be able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V
to the reset line.

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Figure 5.9: Pin Diagram of AT MEGA2560

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5.2.2. TLP 250 MOSFET Driver:

Mosfet driver is main component of power electronics circuits. Mosfet drivers are
dedicated integrated circuits which are used to drive Mosfets in low side and high side
configuration.
Mosfet driver TL250 like other MOSFET drivers have input stage and output
stage. It also have power supply configuration. TLP250 is more suitable for MOSFET
and IGBT. The main difference between TLP250 and other MOSFET drivers is that
TLP250 MOSFET driver is optically isolated. Its mean input and output of TLP250
mosfet driver is isolated from each other. Its works like a optocoupler. Input stage have a
light emitting diode and output stage have photo diode. Whenever input stage LED light
falls on output stage photo detector diode, output becomes high.

Pin layout of TLP250 is given below. It is clearly shown in figure that led at input
stage and photo detector diode at output stage is used to provide isolation between input
and ouput. Pin number 1 and 4 are not connected to any point. Hence they are not in use.
Pin 2 is anode point of input stage light emitting diode and pin 3 is cathode point of input
stage. Input is provided to pin number 2 and 3. Pin number 8 is for supply connection. Pin
number 5 is for ground of power supply.

5.2.3. Pin configuration:

Pin number one and four is not connected to any point physically. Therefore they
are not in use.
 Pin number 8 is use to provide power supply to TLP250 and pin number 5 is
ground pin which provides return path to power supply ground. Maximum power
supply voltage between 15-30 volt dc can be given to TLP250. But it also depends
on temperature of environment in which you are using TLP250.

 Pin number 2 and 3 are anode and cathode points of input stage LED. It works
like a normal light emitting diode. It has similar characteristics of forward voltage
and input current. Maximum input current is in the range of 7-10mA and forward
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voltage drop is about 0.8 volt. TLP250 provides output from low to high with
minimum threshold current of 1.2mA and above.

 Pin number six and seven is internally connected to each other. Ouput can be
taken from either pin number 6 and 7. Totem pole configuration of two transistor
is used in TLP250. In case of high input , output becomes high with output
voltage equal to supply voltage and in case of low input, output become low with
output voltage level equal to ground.

 Mosfet driver TLP250 can be used up to 25khz frequency due to slow propagation
delay.

Figure 5.10: pin configurations

Low side of MOSFET Driver: Circuit diagram of low side mosfet driver using
tlp250 is shown below. In this circuit diagram, tlp250 is used as non inverting low side
mosfet driver. you should connect an electrolytic capacitor of value 0.47uf between
power supply. It provide protection to tlp250 by providing stabilize voltage to IC.

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Figure 5.11: circuit low flow side of MOSFET driver

As shown in figure above input is drive signal that drives the output. Vin is
according to signal ground. It should not be connected with supply ground and output
ground. It is clearly shown in above figure TLP250 and load ground is referenced to the
power ground and it is isolated from input signal reference ground. When input is high,
MOSFET Q1 get high signal from TLP250 and it is driven by power supply and current
flows through the load. When input is low, MOSFET Q1 get low signal from TLP250
output pin and mosfet Q1 remains off and there is no current flow to load. Value of
supply voltage ranges between 10-15 volt. Input resistor at gate of MOSFET is used
depend on amplitude of input signal. Usually input signal is provided through
microcontroller and microcontroller input signal level is in the order of 5 volt. Capacitor
C1 is used as decoupling capacitor.

High side of MOSFET Driver: Circuit diagram of MOSFT driver tlp250 used as
high side driver is shown below. It is used as non inverting high side mosfet driver.
Because input signal ground is connected to cathode of input stage light emitting diode.
Therefore it is used as a non inverting high side mosfet driver. In high side configuration
there are three grounds as shown in figure above. Ground of input signal, ground of
supply voltage and ground of power supply voltage. Remember that while using TLP250
as high side MOSFET driver, all grounds should be isolated from each other.

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Figure 5.12: circuit high flow side of MOSFET driver

5.2.4 Inverter –MOFET / IRFZ44N

IRF-Z44N basically belongs to the family of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor(MOSFET). It is a power MOSFET. There are two types of MOSFET
i.e. N-channel and P-channel. IRF-Z44N belongs to the N-channel family. It uses
“Trench” technology and is enveloped in a plastic structure. It has very low on state
resistance. It has zener diode which provides ESD protection up to 2 kilo-volt. It is a low
cost device and provides higher efficiency. It is easily available in the market these days
and is mostly known because of its vast applications. IRF-Z44N has several different
amazing features. It’s features include ultra low on resistance, advance processing
technology, dynamic rating, avalanche rated completely, quick switching process and
many more. It has a wide range of real life applications including full bridge, push pull
applications, consumer full bridge and a lot more.

 IRFZ44N belongs to the family of N-channel Power MOSFETs, covered in

plasteic body and uses “Trench” technology.
 Similar to other transistors, it has three terminals named as Gate,
Drain andSource. They are denoted by the alphabets G, D and S respectively.

 Its features include very low on state resistance, high speed processing
technology, completely avalanche rated etc.

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 Push pull systems and full bridge are few of its real life applications.

Figure 5.13: IR Sensor

Pinout:
 It has total three (3) pins having different individual functions.
 IRFZ44N Pinout is as follows:
o Pin # 1: Gate.
o Pin # 2: Drain.
o Pin # 3: Source.

Table 5.2: pin configuration

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Figure 5.14: Pinout

Table 5.3: IRFZ44N Ratings

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Table 5.4: IRFZ44N Features

Table 5.5: IRFZ44N Applications

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5.2.5 Solar panel

Figure 5.15: Solar panel

Small, compact, all weather and built to high standards. This 6V Solar panel is
ideal for steady battery charging and maintenance of 6V projects. Ideal for Trickle
charging Motorcycles, Classic cars, Power tools and Water pumps This high quality
5w monocrystalline 6v solar panel works in both sunny and overcast conditions and is
fully weatherproof. Comes supplied with 2 meters of cable, a blocking diode to prevent
reverse charging and crocodile clips for easy battery connection

Specification
 Dimensions: 200mm (w) 265mm(H) 25mm (D)
 Open Circuit Voltage: 10.80V
 Short Circuit Current: 0.74A
 Max Power Voltage: 9.00V
 Max System Current: 0.56A
 Max System Voltage: 600V
 Year electronic component warranty
 25 year efficiency guarantee @ >80%

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5.2.6 Solar Charge Controller

A charge controller, charge regulator or battery regulator limits the rate at which electric
current is added to or drawn from electric batteries.[1] It prevents overcharging and may
protect against overvoltage, which can reduce battery performance or lifespan, and may
pose a safety risk. It may also prevent completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery,
or perform controlled discharges, depending on the battery technology, to protect battery
life.[2][3] The terms "charge controller" or "charge regulator" may refer to either a stand-
alone device, or to control circuitry integrated within a battery pack, battery-powered
device, or battery charger.

Figure 5.16 Stand-alone charge controllers

Charge controllers are sold to consumers as separate devices, often in conjunction
with solar or wind power generators, for uses such as RV, boat, and off-the-grid home
battery storage systems. In solar applications, charge controllers may also be called
solar regulators. Some charge controllers / solar regulators have additional features, such
as a low voltage disconnect (LVD), a separate circuit which powers down the load when
the batteries become overly discharged (some battery chemistries are such that over-
discharge can ruin the battery). A series charge controller or series regulator disables
further current flow into batteries when they are full. A shunt charge controlleror shunt
regulator diverts excess electricity to an auxiliary or "shunt" load, such as an electric
water heater, when batteries are full. Simple charge controllers stop charging a battery
when they exceed a set high voltage level, and re-enable charging when battery voltage
drops back below that level. Pulse width modulation (PWM) and maximum power point

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tracker (MPPT) technologies are more electronically sophisticated, adjusting charging

rates depending on the battery's level, to allow charging closer to its maximum capacity.
A charge controller with MPPT capability frees the system designer from closely
matching available PV voltage to battery voltage. Considerable efficiency gains can be
achieved, particularly when the PV array is located at some distance from the battery. By
way of example, a 150 volt PV array connected to an MPPT charge controller can be used
to charge a 24 or 48 volt battery. Higher array voltage means lower array current, so the
savings in wiring costs can more than pay for the controller. Charge controllers may also
monitor battery temperature to prevent overheating. Some charge controller systems also
display data, transmit data to remote displays, and data logging to track electric flow over
time.

5.2.7 Step up Transformer

A transformer that increases the voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary
winding turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-up transformer. Conversely, a
transformer designed to do just the opposite is called a step-down transformer.

Figure 5.17 Transformer

This is a step-down transformer, as evidenced by the high turn count of the primary
winding and the low turn count of the secondary. As a step-down unit, this transformer
converts high-voltage, low-current power into low-voltage, high-current power. The
larger-gauge wire used in the secondary winding is necessary due to the increase in
current. The primary winding, which doesn’t have to conduct as much current, may be
made of smaller-gauge wire

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Reversibility of Transformer Operation

In case you were wondering, it is possible to operate either of these transformer types
backward (powering the secondary winding with an AC source and letting the primary
winding power a load) to perform the opposite function: a step-up can function as a step-
down and visa-versa. However, as we saw in the first section of this chapter, efficient
operation of a transformer requires that the individual winding inductances be engineered
for specific operating ranges of voltage and current, so if a transformer is to be used
“backward” like this it must be employed within the original design parameters of voltage
and current for each winding, lest it prove to be inefficient (or lest it be damaged by
excessive voltage or current!).

Transformer Construction Labels

Transformers are often constructed in such a way that it is not obvious which wires lead
to the primary winding and which lead to the secondary. One convention used in the
electric power industry to help alleviate confusion is the use of “H” designations for the
higher-voltage winding (the primary winding in a step-down unit; the secondary winding
in a step-up) and “X” designations for the lower-voltage winding. Therefore, a simple
power transformer will have wires labeled “H1”, “H2”, “X1”, and “X2”. It is usually
significant to the numbering of the wires (H1 versus H2, etc.), which we’ll explore a little
later in this chapter.

Practical Significance of Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers

The fact that voltage and current get “stepped” in opposite directions (one up, the other
down) makes perfect sense when you recall that power is equal to voltage times current,
and realize that transformers cannot produce power, only convert it. Any device that
could output more power than it took in would violate the Law of Energy Conservation in
physics, namely that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted. As with the
first transformer example we looked at, power transfer efficiency is very good from the
primary to the secondary sides of the device.

Analysis of Step-up and Step-down Transformer Operation

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Looking closely at the numbers in the SPICE analysis, we should see a correspondence
between the transformer’s ratio and the two inductances. Notice how the primary inductor
(l1) has 100 times more inductance than the secondary inductor (10000 H versus 100 H),
and that the measured voltage step-down ratio was 10 to 1. The winding with more
inductance will have a higher voltage and less current than the other. Since the two
inductors are wound around the same core material in the transformer (for the most
efficient magnetic coupling between the two), the parameters affecting inductance for the
two coils are equal except for the number of turns in each coil. If we take another look at
our inductance formula, we see that inductance is proportional to the square of the
number of coil turns.

Transformer used in this circuit is of 12V to 230V of 500mA as shown below.

Figure 5.18 Step Up Transformer

5.2.8 Boost Converter

As with the buck converter, the boost or step-up converter circuit consists of a
switch, a diode, an inductor and a capacitor. Their positions in the circuit vary in
comparison to the buck converter. In this case the switch is in parallel with the input
voltage source, the capacitor and the load. The inductor is placed between the input
voltage source and the switch and the diode is placed in-between the switch and the
capacitor. A simple boost circuit with the components mentioned above is pictured in
Figure 7. The switch is pictured as a transistor.

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Figure 5.20: Boost Converter Circuit

Just like in the buck converter case there are two separate states in this boost
converter topology. When the switch is on or closed the input voltage is used to increase
the inductor current as energy is stored in the inductor. The switch acts as short circuit
path to disable the RC part of the circuit on the right side of the diode. The diode prevents
the capacitor from discharging the output voltage to ground. The second state is
encountered when the switch is opened or off. The inductor’s tendency to resist changes
in current enables the boost in voltage. When the inductor is charging it acts as a load and
stores energy. In this state the inductor acts as an energy source and the output voltage
produced during its discharge is related to the current’s rate of change, not the input
voltage, therefore allowing a difference between the two voltages. The inductor current is
used to charge the capacitor and in turn boost the output voltage. As the output voltage
increases the current decreases.
The Boost converter used is XL6009 in this system shown below.

Figure 5.21 XL6009 Boost Converter

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This DC-DC Module is based on IC XL6009E1 which is a high-performance step-up

switching current (BOOST) module. The module uses the second generation of high-
frequency switching technology XL6009E1 core chip that offers superior performance
over the first generation technology LM2577. XL6009 replaces LM2577 module as
LM2577 is about to be phased out.

Features

 Wide input voltage range of 3V – 32V (optimum operating voltage range is 5 –

32V)
 Wide Output voltage range of 5V – 35V (Adjustable using on board preset)
 Built in 4A MOSFET switches enables efficiency of up to 94% (LM2577 current
is 3A)
 High switching frequency of 400KHz, can use a small-capacity filter capacitors
that can achieve very good results (LM2577 switching frequency is only 50KHz)

Specifications Value
Type Non-Isolated Boost ( BOOST )
Rectification Non-synchronous rectification
Input Range 3V ~ 32V
Output Range 5V ~ 35V
4A (maximum), load 18mA ( 5Vinput, 8V output, no-load is less
Input Current
than 18mA . The higher the voltage, the load current increases.)
Conversion
<94% (the greater the current, the lower the efficiency)
efficiency
Switching
400KHz
frequency
Output ripple 50mV (the higher the voltage, the greater the current, the greater ripple)
Load Regulation ± 0.5%
Voltage
± 0.5%
Regulation
Working
-40 ° C ~ +85 ° C
temperature
Dimensions 43mm * 21mm * 14mm (length * width* height)

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Pins

 IN+ input positive

 IN- input negative!
 OUT+ output positive
 OUT- output negative

Module Schematic

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CHAPTER 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1 Simulation Results

The simulation done for the closed loop control of Induction motor fetches very good
results and accurate speed as it follows closed loop control by comparing the actual and
reference speed.

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Figure 6.1 Output actual speed and reference speed along with electromagnetic torque

The actual speed and the reference speed are in coordination with each other which can
be observed from the graph. The electromagnetic torque always stays approximately close
to 0 when the required speed is achieved. Figure 5.2 represents the stator voltages Vq and
Vs out of the induction motor.

Figure 6.2 Stator Voltages

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6.2 Hardware Results

The hardware prototype has been designed for 12V voltage. The solar panel of 12V is
attached to charge controller as shown in figure 5.5. The charge controller allows the
voltage to flow through it to the battery. The battery is of 12V DC. The power from the
battery is given to the Boost converter of 24V. This is given to the Inverter which
converts my DC power to AC power of 12V. The gate pulses to the hardware or the
inverter is given through the ATMEGA328 microcontroller. The 12V AC voltage is
stepped up and given to the step up transformer and to the load.
Figure 6.3 represents the gate pulses for inverter and the figure 6.4 represents the inverter
output voltage.

Figure 6.3 Gate pulses for Inverter

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Figure 6.4 Inverter Output

CHAPTER 7

7.1CONCLUSION

The machine efficiency, robustness, reliability, durability, power factor, ripples, stable
output voltage and torque are concerned, three- phase induction motor stands at the a top
of the order. Induction motors are widely used in many residential, industrial,
commercial, and utility applications. But they require much more complex methods of
control, more expensive and higher rated power converters than DC and permanent
magnet machines. Various techniques are in practice for induction motor speed control
today. In this project, a closed loop simulation of IM was performed along with the open

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loop single phase system in hardware prototype. The results were in accordance with each
other.

7.2 FUTURE SCOPE

This system can be implemented for real world applications by proper designing for the
future purpose. If properly designed, the system can be also applied to other applications
such aerospace, industries etc.

CHAPTER 8

REFRENCES

1. IEC 60050 (Publication date: 1990-10). Section 411-31: Rotation Machinery -

General, IEV ref. 411-31-10: "Induction Machine - an asynchronous machine of
which only one winding is energized".
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Babbage, C.; Herschel, J. F. W. (Jan 1825). "Account of the
Repetition of M. Arago's Experiments on the Magnetism Manifested by Various
Substances during the Act of Rotation". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society. 115: 467–496. doi:10.1098/rstl.1825.0023. Retrieved 2 December 2012.

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3. ^ Thompson, Silvanus Phillips (1895). Polyphase Electric Currents and Alternate-

Current Motors (1st ed.). London: E. & F.N. Spon. p. 261. Retrieved 2
December 2012.
4. ^ Baily, Walter (June 28, 1879). "A Mode of producing Arago's
Rotation". Philosophical Magazine. Taylor & Francis.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Vučković, Vladan (November 2006). "Interpretation of a
Discovery" (PDF). The Serbian Journal of Electrical Engineers. 3(2).
Retrieved 10 February 2013.
6. ^ The Electrical engineer, Volume 5. (February, 1890)
7. ^ The Electrician, Volume 50. 1923
8. ^ Official gazette of the United States Patent Office: Volume 50. (1890)
9. ^ Eugenii Katz. "Blathy". People.clarkson.edu. Archived from the original on June
25, 2008. Retrieved 2009-08-04.
10. ^ Ricks, G.W.D. (March 1896). "Electricity Supply Meters". Journal of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers. 25 (120): 57–77. doi:10.1049/jiee-
1.1896.0005.
11. ^ Ferraris, G. (1888). "Atti della Reale Academia delle Science di Torino". Atti
della R. Academia delle Science di Torino. XXIII: 360–375.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Alger, P.L.; Arnold, R.E. (1976). "The History of
Induction Motors in America". Proceedings of the IEEE. 64 (9): 1380–
1383. doi:10.1109/PROC.1976.10329.
13. ^ Froehlich, Fritz E. Editor-in-Chief; Allen Kent Co-Editor (1992). The
Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications: Volume 17 - Television
Technology to Wire Antennas (First ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
p. 36. ISBN 978-0-8247-2902-8.
14. ^ The Electrical Engineer (21 Sep 1888). . . . a new application of the alternating
current in the production of rotary motion was made known almost
simultaneously by two experimenters, Nikola Tesla and Galileo Ferraris, and the
subject has attracted general attention from the fact that no commutator or
connection of any kind with the armature was required. . . . Volume II. London:
Charles & Co. p. 239.

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15. ^ Ferraris, Galileo (1885). "Electromagnetic Rotation with an Alternating

Current". Electrician. 36: 360–375.

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