ATPL - CORE – THEORY

Procedures
➢ Aircraft categories

• single-engine land class

• multi-engine land class
o Multi-engine class aircraft are more commonly known as "multis," and
their pilots are called "multi pilots" or "multi-engine pilots."
o Pilots of larger multi-engine aircraft are sometimes called transport
pilots, although mostly in the realm of military aviation (see the article
on military transport aircraft). The term transport pilot can be
ambiguous in civil aviation, since the Airline Transport Pilot License is a
very specific civil qualification.
• single-engine sea class - Pilots of all sea class aircraft are usually called
"seaplane pilots" or "float-plane pilots"
• multi-engine sea class

Airplanes designed under the Category System are readily identified by a placard in
the cockpit, which states the operational category (or categories) in which the airplane
is certificated. The maximum safe load factors (limit load factors) specified for
airplanes in the various categories are as follows:
CATEGORY LIMIT LOAD
Normal* 3.8 to –1.52
Utility (mild acrobatics, including spins) 4.4 to –1.76
Acrobatic 6.0 to –3.0

➢ Ban approach
An approach procedure, for which continuation is prohibited beyond a specific point,
and or specified height, if the reported visibility or RVR is below the minimum specified
for that approach.
? You can think of it as the U.S. 14 CFR 135 rule that says you can't take off unless you have
what it takes to land at your destination. Too heavy to land? Can't takeoff. Weather great
here, bad there? Can't takeoff. Simple. It is the ICAO Law of the Land, but there are exceptions.
ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices
Commercial Aviation
[ICAO Annex 6, Part I, ¶4.2.8.1 Aerodrome operating minima] The State of the Operator shall
require that the operator establish aerodrome operating minima for each aerodrome to be
used in operations and shall approve the method of determination of such minima. Such
minima shall not be lower than any that may be established for such aerodromes by the State
in which the aerodrome is located, except when specifically approved by that State.
Note 1.— This Standard does not require the State in which the aerodrome is located to
establish aerodrome operating minima.
Note 2.— The use of head-up displays (HUD) or enhanced vision systems (EVS) may allow
operations with lower visibilities than normally associated with the aerodrome operating
minima.
[ICAO Annex 6, Part I, ¶4.4.1 Aerodrome operating minima]
4.4.1.1 A flight shall not be continued towards the aerodrome of intended landing, unless the
latest available information indicates that at the expected time of arrival, a landing can be
effected at that aerodrome or at least one destination alternate aerodrome, in compliance
with the operating minima established in accordance with 4.2.8.1.
4.4.1.2 An instrument approach shall not be continued beyond the outer marker fix in case of
precision approach, or below 300 m (1 000 ft) above the aerodrome in case of non-precision
approach, unless the reported visibility or controlling RVR is above the specified minimum.
4.4.1.3 If, after passing the outer marker fix in case of precision approach, or after descending
below 300 m (1 000 ft) above the aerodrome in case of non-precision approach, the reported
visibility or controlling RVR falls below the specified minimum, the approach may be continued
to DA/H or MDA/H. In any case, an aeroplane shall not continue its approach-to-land at any
aerodrome beyond a point at which the limits of the operating minima specified for that
aerodrome would be infringed.
Note.— Controlling RVR means the reported values of one or more RVR reporting locations
(touchdown, mid-point and stop-end) used to determine whether operating minima are or
are not met. Where RVR is used, the controlling RVR is the touchdown RVR, unless otherwise
specified by State criteria.
EASA Exception
The rules in Europe, at one point, were known as JAA OPS but that gave way to EU Ops under
the EASA.
[Commission Regulation (EU) No 965, ¶CAT.OP.MPA.305]
1. The commander or the pilot to whom conduct of the flight has been delegated may
commence an instrument approach regardless of the reported RVR/VIS.
You can start the approach regardless of weather, but there is a limit to how low you can go .
..
2. If the reported RVR/VIS is less than the applicable minimum the approach shall not be
continued:
1. below 1 000 ft above the aerodrome; or
2. into the final approach segment in the case where the DA/H or MDA/H is
more than 1 000 ft above the aerodrome.
3. Where the RVR is not available, RVR values may be derived by converting the reported
visibility.
4. If, after passing 1 000 ft above the aerodrome, the reported RVR/VIS falls below the
applicable minimum, the approach may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H.
If the visibility then goes below, you can continue to the DA/H or MDA/H.
 5. The approach may be continued below DA/H or MDA/H and the landing may be
completed provided that the visual reference adequate for the type of approach
operation and for the intended runway is established at the DA/H or MDA/H and is
maintained.
And if you have the reference you need to land at that point, you may.

➢ MAA (MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE)

A published altitude representing the maximum usable altitude or flight level for an
airspace structure or route segment. It is the highest altitude on a Federal airway, jet
route, RNAV low or high route, or other direct route for which an MEA is designated
at which adequate reception of navigation signals is assured.
➢ MEA (MINIMUM ENROUTE IFR ALTITUDE)
The lowest published altitude between radio fixes that meets obstacle clearance
requirements between those fixes and in many countries assures acceptable
navigational signal coverage. The MEA applies to the entire width of the airway,
segment, or route between the radio fixes defining the airway, segment, or route.
➢ MOCA (MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE ALTITUDE)
The lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways, off airway
routes, or route segments which meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire
route segment and in the USA assures acceptable navigational signal coverage only
within 22NM of a VOR.
➢ Grid MORA, MORA
GRID MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDE (Grid MORA)
An altitude derived by Jeppesen or provided by State Authorities. The Grid MORA
altitude provides terrain and man-made structure clearance within the section
outlined by latitude and longitude lines. MORA does not provide for navaid signal
coverage or communication coverage.
a. Grid MORA values derived by Jeppesen clear all terrain and man-made structures
by 1000ft in areas where the highest elevations are 5000ft MSL or lower. MORA values
clear all terrain and man-made structures by 2000ft in areas where the highest
elevations are 5001ft MSL or higher. When a Grid MORA is shown as “Unsurveyed” it
is due to incomplete or insufficient information. Grid MORA values followed by a +/-
denote doubtful accuracy, but are believed to provide sufficient reference point
clearance.
b. Grid MORA (State) altitude supplied by the State Authority provides 2000ft
clearance in mountainous areas and 1000ft in non-mountainous areas.
MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDE (MORA)
This is an altitude derived by Jeppesen. The MORA provides known obstruction
clearance 10NM either side of the route centerline including a 10NM radius beyond
the radio fix reporting or mileage break defining the route segment.
 ➢ MSA
MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE (MSA) (ICAO) — The lowest altitude which may be used
which will provide a minimum clearance of 300m (1000ft) above all objects located in
an area contained within a sector of a circle of 46km (25NM) radius centered on a
radio aid to navigation.
MINIMUM SAFE/SECTOR ALTITUDE (MSA) (FAA) — Altitude depicted on an
instrument chart and identified as the minimum safe altitude which provides 1000ft
of obstacle clearance within a 25NM radius from the navigational facility upon which
the MSA is predicated. If the radius limit is other than 25NM, it is stated. This altitude
is for EMERGENCY USE ONLY and does not necessarily guarantee navaid reception.
When the MSA is divided into sectors, with each sector a different altitude, the
altitudes in these sectors are referred to as “minimum sector altitudes”.
MSAs are published for emergency use on IAP charts. For conventional navigation
systems, the MSA is normally based on the primary omnidirectional facility on which
the IAP is predicated. For RNAV approaches, the MSA is based on the runway waypoint
(RWY WP) for straight-in approaches, or the airport waypoint (APT WP) for circling
approaches. For GPS approaches, the MSA center is the Missed Approach Waypoint
(MAWP)

➢ RVSM (REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMUMS)

A reduction in the vertical separation between FL290 – FL410 from 2000ft to 1000ft.
RVSM airspace is special qualification airspace; the operator and the aircraft used by
the operator must be approved by the Administrator. Air traffic control notifies
operators of RVSM by providing route planing information.

➢ Procedure turns, base turns, Racetrack

PROCEDURE TURN (PT) (ICAO) — A maneuver in which a turn is made away from a
designated track followed by a turn in the opposite direction to permit the aircraft to
intercept and proceed along the reciprocal of the designated track.
NOTE 1: Procedure turns are designated “left” or “right” according to the direction of
the initial turn.
NOTE 2: Procedure turns may be designated as being made either in level flight or
while descending, according to the circumstances of each individual procedure.
A report of “procedure turn inbound” is normally used by ATC as a position report for
separation purposes.
BASE TURN — A turn executed by the aircraft during the initial approach between the
end of the outbound track and the beginning of the intermediate or final approach
track. The tracks are not reciprocal.
NOTE: Base turns may be designated as being made either in level flight or while
descending, according to the circumstances of each individual procedure.

Reversal procedure
3.2.2.1 The reversal procedure may be in the form of a procedure or base turn. Entry
is restricted to a specific direction or sector. In these cases, a specific pattern -
normally a base turn or procedure turn - is prescribed.
3.2.2.2 The directions and timing specified should be strictly followed in order to
remain within the airspace provided. It should be noted that the airspace provided for
these procedures does not permit a racetrack or holding manoeuvre to be conducted
unless so specified.
3.2.2.3 There are three generally recognized manoeuvres related to the reversal
procedure, each with its own airspace characteristics:
a. 45°/180° procedure turn (see Figure I-4-3-1 A), starts at a facility or fix and consists
of:
1. a straight leg with track guidance. This straight leg may be timed or may be limited
by a radial or DME distance;
2. a 45° turn;
3. a straight leg without track guidance. This straight leg is timed. It is:
(a) 1 minute form the start of the turn for Category A and B aircraft; and
(b) 1 minute 15 seconds from the start of the turn for Category C, D and E aircraft; and
4. a 180° turn in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track.
The 45°/180° procedure turn is an alternative to the 80°/260° procedure turn unless
specifically excluded.
b. 80°/260° procedure turn (see Figure I-4-3-1 B), starts at a facility or fix and consists
of:
1. a straight leg with track guidance. This straight leg may be timed or may be limited
by a radial or DME distance;
2. an 80° turn;
3. a 260° turn in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track.
The 80°/260° procedure turn is an alternative to the 45°/180° procedure turn unless
specifically excluded.
c. Base turn, consisting of:
1. a specified outbound track and timing or DME distance from a facility; followed by
2. a turn to intercept the inbound track
The outbound track and/or the timing may be different for the various categories of
aircraft.
Where this is done, separate procedures are published.
RACETRACK PROCEDURE (ICAO) — A procedure designed to enable the aircraft to
reduce altitude during the initial approach segment and/or establish the aircraft
inbound when the entry into a reversal procedure is not practical.
Racetrack procedure consists of:
a. a turn from the inbound track through 180° from overhead the facility or fix on to
the outbound track, for 1, 2 or 3 minutes; followed by
b. a 180° turn in the same direction to return to the inbound track (see Figure I-4-3-1
D). As an alternative to timing, the outbound leg may be limited by a DME distance or
intersecting radial/bearing.
Entry into a racetrack procedure
Normally a racetrack procedure is used when aircraft arrive overhead the fix from the
various directions. In these cases, aircraft are expected to enter the procedure in a
manner similar to that prescribed for a holding procedure entry with the following
considerations:
a. offset entry from Sector 2 shall limit the time on the 30° offset track to 1 min 30 s,
after which the pilot is expected to turn to a heading parallel to the outbound track
for the remainder of the outbound time. If the outbound time is only 1 min, the time
on the 30° offset track shall be 1 min also;
b. parallel entry shall not return directly to the facility without first intercepting the
inbound track when proceeding to the final segment of the approach procedure; and
c. all manoeuvring shall be done in so far as possible on the manoeuvring side of the
inbound track.
NOTE: Racetrack procedures are used where sufficient distance is not available in a
straight segment to accommodate the required loss of altitude and when entry into a
reversal procedure is not practical. They may also be specified as alternatives to
reversal procedures to increase operational flexibility (in this case, they are not
necessarily published separately).
 ➢ CDFA
CONTINUOUS DESCENT FINAL APPROACH (CDFA) — A technique, consistent with
stabilized approach procedures, for flying the final approach segment of a non-
precision instrument approach procedure as a continuous descent, without level-off,
from an altitude/height at or above the final approach fix altitude/height to a point
approximately 15m (50 ft) above the landing runway threshold or the point where the
flare maneuver should begin for the type of aircraft flown.
This technique requires a continuous descent, flown either with VNAV guidance
calculated by on-board equipment or based on manual calculation of the required rate
of descent, without level-offs. The rate of descent is selected and adjusted to achieve
a continuous descent to a point approximately 15 m (50 ft) above the landing runway
threshold or the point where the flare manoeuvre should begin for the type of aircraft
flown. The descent shall be calculated and flown to pass at or above the minimum
altitude at any stepdown fix.
If the visual references required to land have not been acquired when the aircraft is
approaching the MDA/H, the vertical (climbing) portion of the missed approach is
initiated at an altitude above the MDA/H sufficient to prevent the aircraft from
descending through the MDA/H. At no time is the aircraft flown in level flight at or
near the MDA/H. Any turns on the missed approach shall not begin until the aircraft
reaches the MAPt. Likewise, if the aircraft reaches the MAPt before descending to
near the MDA/H, the missed approach shall be initiated at the MAPt.

➢ App Lights, Runway lights, RVR, CMV

An approach lighting system or ALS, is a lighting system installed on the approach end
of an airport runway and consisting of a series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a
combination of the two that extends outward from the runway end. ALS usually serves
a runway that has an instrument approach procedure (IAP) associated with it and
allows the pilot to visually identify the runway environment and align the aircraft with
the runway upon arriving at a prescribed point on an approach.
Several ALS configurations are recognized by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO); however, non-standard ALS configurations are installed at some
airports. Typically, approach lighting systems are of high-intensity. Many approach
lighting systems are also complemented by various on-runway light systems, such as
Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL), Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL), and High Intensity
Runway Lights (HIRL). The most common approach light system configurations
include:

• MALSR: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment

Indicator Lights
• MALSF: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing
lights
• SALS: Short Approach Lighting System
• SSALS: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System
• SSALR: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment
Indicator Lights
• SSALF: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing
Lights
• ODALS: Omnidirectional Approach Lighting System
• ALSF-1: Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights
configuration 1
 • ALSF-2: Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights
configuration 2

• CALVERT I/ICAO-1 HIALS: ICAO-compliant configuration 1 High Intensity

Approach Lighting System
• CALVERT II/ICAO-2 HIALS: ICAO-compliant configuration 2 High Intensity
Approach Lighting System
• LDIN: Lead-in lighting
• REIL: Runway End Identification Lights
• RAIL: Runway Alignment Indicator Lights
In configurations that include sequenced flashing lights, the lights are typically strobes
mounted in front of the runway on its extended centerline. These lights flash in
sequence, usually at a speed of two consecutive sequences per second, beginning with
the light most distant from the runway and ending at the Decision Bar. RAIL are similar
to sequenced flashing lights, except that they end where the white approach light bars
begin. Sequenced flashing lights and RAIL do not extend past the Decision Bar to avoid
distracting the pilot during the critical phase of transitioning from instrument to visual
flight. Sequenced flashing lights are sometimes colloquially called the rabbit or the
running rabbit. CAT II and III ILS approaches generally require complex high-intensity
approach light systems, while medium-intensity systems are usually paired with CAT I
ILS approaches.

• ALSF I (Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights) is used on

Category I runways during instrument landing approach to align the aircraft
with the centerline of the runway and to establish vertical orientation. Up to
twenty-one white lights create a sequential strobing flash pattern that rolls
toward the runway threshold.
• The Dual Mode ALSF II/SSALR approach lighting system allows Category II
runways to operate in either the full ALSF II mode or in the economical SSALR
mode, depending on weather conditions.
• ALSF II (Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights) mode is
used on Category II runways during instrument landing approach to align the
aircraft with the centerline of the runway and to establish vertical orientation.
Up to 174 steady burning white lights serve as a reference plane, and two rows
of red side row barrettes increase the pilots horizontal perception. Up to
twenty-one white lights create a sequential strobing flash pattern that rolls
toward the runway threshold. Three intensity settings allow the approach to
be used under changing weather conditions.
• SSALR (Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment
Indicator Lights) mode is used during instrument landing approach to align the
aircraft with the centerline of the runway. The white steady burning lights of
the ALSF II are greatly reduced to conserve power under improved visibility
and the side row barrettes are not powered. Up to sixty-three steady-burning
lights are used to create a reference plane, and up to eight lights create a
sequential strobing flash pattern that rolls toward the runway threshold. SSAL
(Simplified Short Approach Lighting System) is available.
Minimum Runway Lighting
• Runway Edge Lights are omni-directional and are located along or just
beyond the edges of the area declared for use as the runway as defined by
edge markings and are white subject to certain specific exceptions. The area
defined may not necessarily be the maximum width of the paved runway
surface. The lights may be either elevated or embedded in the surface. If a
landing threshold is displaced, but the pre-landing threshold area is available
for take off, then the edge lights between the beginning of the runway
surface and the displaced threshold will be split so as to show red up to the
landing threshold whilst still showing white after that point. If a runway
‘starter extension’ is provided which is narrower than its associated runway,
then blue edge lighting may be used to mark its edges.
• Runway Threshold Lights are provided in a line along the landing threshold
at the touchdown end of a runway and define the beginning of the declared
Landing Distances. They are green and can only be seen from the approach.
• Runway End Lights are provided in a line along the end of the runway
available for use. They are red and can only be seen in the direction of
runway use.
Supplementary Runway Lighting
Various other forms of runway lighting may also be provided, especially if the runway
is used for aircraft movements in less than ILS Cat 1conditions, which require both Low
Visibility Procedures and, in most cases, specific forms of additional lighting.
 • Runway Exit taxiways may be indicated by substitution of one or two of the
white runway edge lights with blue ones.
• Stopway Lighting may be used to show the extent of a stopway beyond the
designated end of a runway. Red unidirectional edge lights visible only in the
direction of runway use are provided at intervals until a further transverse
line which marks` the end of the stopway.
• Runway Centreline Lighting may be provided in which case it will extend for
the full length of the runway, It will be white except in the event that colour
coding is provided in order to indicate the approaching end of the runway.
Such colour coded centreline lighting consists of alternating red and white
lights beginning at 900 metres from the runway end and these change to
continuous red lights for the last 300 metres of the runway.
• Touchdown Zone (TDZ) Lighting must be provided on runways available for
use in low visibility conditions so as to provide enhanced identification of the
touchdown area. The method of provision is specified in ICAO Annex14
Volume 1 ‘Aerodrome Design and Operations’ and the lighting must extend
from the landing threshold for either 900 metres or to the midpoint of the
runway, whichever is the least.
• Rapid Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights (RETILs) may be provided to indicate the
distance to go to the nearest rapid exit taxiway. In low visibility conditions,
RETILs provide useful situational awareness cues to assist in appropriate
rates of deceleration and to allow flight crew to concentrate on keeping the
aircraft on the runway centre line during the landing roll. They usually consist
of six yellow lights adjacent to the runway centreline, configured as a three
- two - one sequence spaced 100 metres apart with the single light
positioned at 100 metres from the start of the turn for the rapid exit taxiway.
• Caution Zone Lighting may be provided on ILS-equipped runways which do
not have centreline lighting. It is provided by replacing the usual white edge
lights with yellow` ones for the lesser of the last 600 metres or last one third
of the lighted runway length available to provide a visual warning the
approaching runway end.
• Landing Threshold Wing Bars, which are green but may take various detail
forms, are sometimes provided if it is considered that the threshold needs
accentuating.
Taxiway Lights

• Taxiway Edge Lights: Taxiway edge lights are blue in color and line the
taxiways. Airports often have green taxiway centerline lights, as well.
• Clearance Bar Lights - Set inside the taxiway, clearance bar lights are steady
yellow and are meant to increase the visibility of a hold line or a taxiway
intersection at night.
• Stop Bar Lights - Only installed at select airports, stop bar lights are meant
to reinforce an ATC clearance to cross or enter a runway in low visibility
situations (low IMC). They're in-pavement lights that are steady red and
extend across the taxiway at a hold short line. Once a pilot is cleared onto
the runway, the stop bar lights will be turned off.
 • Runway Guard Lights - A pair of two steady yellow lights that are positioned
at each side of the taxiway at the hold short line, the runway guard lights are
meant to draw attention to the hold short line - the area where a taxiway
meets the runway.
Runway Lights

• Runway End Identifier Lights (REILs): A pair of white flashing lights, one on
each side of the approach end of the runway, that help identify the runway
from taxiways at night.
• Runway Edge Light Systems (HIRL/MIRL/LIRL): The runway edge lights are
steady white lights on the edges of the runways. On instrument runways,
the white lights change to yellow during last 2,000 feet, or half the runway
length, whichever is less, and then they turn red as the aircraft reaches the
end of the runway. They can be high-intensity (HIRL), medium-intensity
(MIRL) or low-intensity (LIRL).
• Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS) - On some precision runways, a
runway centerline light system is installed, with white lights spaced at 50-ft
intervals on the centerline of the runway. With 3,000 feet remaining, the
white lights change to alternating white and red, and then all red during last
1,000 feet.
• Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL) - Touchdown zone lights are steady white
lights placed in two rows next to the centerline, starting at 100 feet and
extending to the midpoint of the runway, or 3,000 feet beyond the
threshold, whichever is less.
• Land and Hold Short Lights - When land and hold short operations (LAHSO)
are in effect, flashing white lights may be seen across the runway at the hold
short line.
Other runway lighting may include Runway Status Lights (RWSL), which includes
Runway Entrance Lights (RELs), the Takeoff Hold Light Array (THL), Runway
Intersection Lights (RILs), and the Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS).
These lights work in conjunction with surveillance systems (like ADS-B) and are fully
automated. They assist in informing pilots and ground vehicle operators when it's safe
to enter or cross a runway.
Visual Glideslope Indicators
Visual glideslope indicators are meant to give pilots a visual guide during their descent
in order to maintain a stabilized approach. They come in two types, VASIs and PAPIs,
each of which has multiple types of arrangements, but both of which give pilots a good
idea whether they're on glide path for a stable approach or not.

• VASIs, or Visual Approach Slope Indicators, are bars of lights on the side of
the runway that, when illuminated, give pilots a visual indication of whether
their aircraft is too high or too low on the approach. VASIs can be made up
 of 2, 4, 6, 12 or 16 lights, usually located on two or three bars - near, middle
and far. Two-bar VASIs provide an indication for a 3-degree glideslope, which
is typical for what should be flown during an approach. In a common two-
bar VASI system, a pilot should see two red lights on the far bars and two
white lights on the near bars. If all lights on the near and far bars are red, he
is too low. If all lights on the near and far bars are white, he is too high. The
rule of thumb pilots use is "red over white, you're alright."
• PAPI stands for Precision Approach Path Indicator. PAPI lights are arranged
horizontally, and typically include four lights that can be red or white,
depending on where the aircraft is n the glideslope. A typical PAPI system is
located on the left side of the runway. When all four lights are white, the
aircraft is too high. As it descends onto the glide path, the lights on the right
side will begin to turn red. When an aircraft is on the precise glide path, the
two left lights should be white, and the two right lights should be red. When
three or more lights are red, it indicates that the aircraft is too low.

RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR) — The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the
centreline of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating
the runway or identifying its centreline.
An instrumentally derived value, based on standard calibrations, that represents the
horizontal distance a pilot will see down the runway from the approach end; it is based
on the sighting of either high intensity runway lights or on the visual contrast of other
targets whichever yields the greater visual range. RVR, in contrast to prevailing or
runway visibility, is based on what a pilot in a moving aircraft should see looking down
the runway. RVR is horizontal visual range, not slant visual range. It is based on the
measurement of a transmissometer made near the touchdown point of the
instrument runway and is reported in hundreds of feet. RVR is used in lieu of RVV
and/or prevailing visibility in determining minimums for a particular runway.
1. Touchdown RVR — The RVR visibility readout values obtained from RVR equipment
serving the runway touchdown zone.
2. Mid-RVR — The RVR readout values obtained from RVR equipment located midfield
of the runway.
3. Rollout RVR — The RVR readout values obtained from RVR equipment located
nearest the rollout end of the runway.
CMV (Converted Met Visibility)
A value equivalent to an RVR which is derived from the reported meteorological
visibility, as converted in accordance with the specified requirements in the CAR.
Conversion of Reported Meteorological Visibility to RVR/CMV Horizontal visibility
reported by the meteorological office could be different from the slant visibility
observed by the pilot due to factors such as low lying haze and a smoke layer. The
reported visibility has inherent limitations due to the fact that it is reported at a site
that is removed from the point at which a pilot makes the approach to land and is
expected to acquire the visual reference to continue the approach. An RVR is a better
representation of the expected distance that the pilot may acquire visual cues on
approach. As RVR and meteorological visibility are established differently, a ratio can
be identified between the two. Effect of lighting intensities and background luminance
play a role when establishing an RVR. In cases where the RVR is not reported, a pilot
may derive RVR/CMV by using a mathematical conversion depending upon the type
of approach lighting and day/night conditions. The RVR/CMV derived from the table
below may be used by an operator to commence or continue an approach to the
applicable DA/MDA. An Operator should ensure that a meteorological visibility to RVR
conversion is not used for takeoff, for calculating any other required RVR minimum
less than 800 m, for visual/circling approaches, or when reported RVR is available.
The only time you can use converted visibility is:
a) No RVR measurement available and either
b) CAT I ILS, or
c) Straight-in NPA
CMV = Reported Meteorological Visibility x Conversion Factor
High intensity approach and runway lights 1.5 (day) 2.0 (night)
Any type of light installation other than above 1.0 (day) 1.5 (night)
No lights 1.0 Not applicable
 Performance

➢ Approach Climb
This corresponds to an aircraft’s climb capability, assuming that one engine is
inoperative. The “approach climb” wording comes from the fact that go-around
performance is based on approach configuration, rather than landing configuration. It
may happen when executing a missed approach with minus one engine. For Airbus
fly-by-wire aircraft, the available approach configurations are CONF 2 and 3.

An approach configuration can be selected, as long as the stall speed VS1g of this
configuration does not exceed 110% of VS1g of the related “all-engines-operating“
landing configuration.

➢ Approach segments
An approach procedure consists of five parts or segments. These are:

• The Arrival Segments or Route

• The Initial Segment
• The Intermediate Segment
• The Final Segment
• The Missed Approach Procedure
Arrival Route/Segment.
The arrival segment begins at the point the aircraft departs from the enroute airways
system to begin the instrument arrival. This will normally be a radio navigation facility.
If this is 25nm or more from the aerodrome, a standard arrival route (STAR) will be
specified). If the distance is less than 25 nm then the aircraft will route directly from
the point of leaving the airway to the facility serving as the IAF for the procedure. In
either case, the enroute MOC is applied and the altitude specified for the aircraft to
be over the IAF is not below the highest MSA for the aerodrome. It is usual for aircraft
to be radar vectored from a convenient point, to the final approach track.
Initial
In the initial segment, the aircraft is directed to a point at which the intermediate
segment can be intercepted. It starts at the IAF and ends at the IF. Aircraft speed and
configuration will depend upon distance from the aerodrome and any need for
descent. MOC (Minimum Obstacle Clearance) in the initial segment is 300m (984ft).
Track guidance is normally provided with a maximum intercept angle to the IF of 90°
for a precision approach and 120° for a non-precision approach. If track guidance to
the IF is not available, a DR (Dead Reconing) segment may be specified. For the DR
segment, the interception angle to the intermediate segment track must be no greater
than 45°, and the length of the DR track, no more than 10nm. Where a straight-in
approach is not feasible or there is no suitable remote IAF or IF, a track reversal,
racetrack or holding pattern is required.
Purpose: To provide a method for aligning your aircraft with the approach course by
using an arc procedure, a course reversal, or by following a route that intersects the
final approach course.
Intermediate
This is the segment in which the aircraft speed and configuration is adjusted to
prepare for the final approach. Descent in this segment is kept to a minimum. It starts
at the IF and ends at the FAF. If no FAF exists, it ends when the aircraft is established
on the final inbound track. The MOC in the intermediate segment reduces from 300m
at the IF to 150m at the end of the segment.
This segment begins at the intermediate fix (IF) which is usually aligned within 30° of
the final approach course. If no fix is shown for this segment then it begins at a point
where you are proceeding inbound to the final approach fix and are properly aligned
with the final approach course.
Purpose: This is designed primarily to position your aircraft for the final descent to
the airport.
Final
The beginning of the final segment depends upon the type of approach and the
availability of a suitable FAF. In this segment, the aircraft is finally configured,
alignment with the runway takes place and descent for landing is commenced.
For a nonprecision approach, the final approach segment begins either at a designated
final approach fix (FAF) or at a point where you are established on the final approach
course. For a non-precision procedure with a FAF, the final segment starts at the FAF
and ends at the MAPt. The FAF will be positioned on the final approach track at a
distance from the threshold of the landing runway that permits aircraft configuration
for final approach/landing and descent from the intermediate altitude to the MDA/H.
MOC is incorporated in the calculation of MDA/H. The optimum distance of the FAF
from the threshold is 5nm and the maximum is 10nm. The required descent gradient
should be 300ft/nm (approx 3°). A step-down fix may be incorporated for obstacle
clearance purposes in which case, two OCA/H values will be published.
When an FAF is not designate (on-airport VOR or NDB) this point is typically where the
procedure turn intersects the final approach course inbound and is referred to as the
final approach point (FAP). This situation will normally occur at an aerodrome where
there is only one facility on or near the aerodrome that is used as both the IAF and the
MAPt. In this case it is unlikely that the final approach track will be aligned with the
runway centreline and therefore descent to MDA/H will be made when the aircraft is
established inbound on the final approach track.
For a precision approach the final approach segment begins where the glide slope is
intercepted at the minimum glide slope intercept altitude. For ILS/MLS the final
segment begins at the Final Approach Point (FAP). This is defined as the point in space
on localiser centreline (or the specified MLS azimuth) where the intermediate
approach altitude intercepts the nominal glide path. This can occur at heights between
300m (1000ft) and 900m (3000ft) which in the case of a 3° (300ft/nm) glide path, will
be between 3nm and 10nm from touchdown. MOC is included in the calculation for
DA/H but requires the pilot to fly the aircraft with no more than half scale deflection
of the CDI. At some point during the final segment, a fix will be specified where glide
path information can be verified.
Constant Approach Slope (Stabilised Approach). Primarily for the avoidance of wake
turbulence separation but also for economy and noise abatement, a procedure known
as stabilised approach has been developed. The procedure requires the aircraft to
depart from the IAF and descend at a constant rate (300ft/min) throughout the
procedure. Wake turbulence separation is only applicable between approaching
aircraft where the second aircraft is at the altitude as, or within 1000ft below, the
preceding aircraft. So, by ensuring that the subsequent aircraft is always above the
preceding aircraft there is no requirement for wake turbulence separation. Control of
the rate of descent is achieved by aircraft attitude negating the need for power
changes thus reducing noise. Also, by setting a constant power, minor economy in fuel
usage is achieved which, when multiplied by the total of the operation, may well
represent a considerable economic and environmental saving.
Purpose: Allows you to navigate safely to a point at which, if the required visual
references are available, you can continue the approach to a landing. If you cannot
see the required cues at the missed approach point, you must execute the missed
approach procedure.
Missed Approach
The missed approach segment begins at the missed approach point (MAP) and ends
at a designated point, such as an initial approach or enroute fix. The MAP depends
on the type of approach you are flying. If it’s a precision approach then the MAP
occurs when you reach a designated altitude on the glide slope called the decision
height (DH). For a nonprecision approach it’s when you hit either a fix defined by a
navaid or after a specified period of time has elapsed since crossing the FAF.
Purpose: To allow you to safely navigate from the missed approach point to a point
where you can attempt another approach or continue to another airport.

➢ ASDA
ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE (ASDA) — The length of the take-off run
available plus the length of the stopway, if provided.
“JAR-OPS 1.480
(a)(1) Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the takeoff run
available plus the length of the stopway, if such stopway is declared available by the
appropriate Authority and is capable of bearing the mass of the aeroplane under the
prevailing operating conditions.”
“JAR-OPS 1.490
(b)(1) The accelerate-stop distance must not exceed the accelerate-stop distance
available.” ASD ≤ ASDA

➢ Balanced field
A balanced field takeoff is a condition where the accelerate-stop distance required
(ASDR) is equal to the takeoff distance required (TODR) for the aircraft weight, engine
thrust, aircraft configuration and runway condition. For a given aircraft weight, engine
thrust, aircraft configuration, and runway condition, the shortest runway length that
complies with safety regulations is the balanced field length.
The rejected takeoff initial actions speed V1, or critical engine-failure recognition
speed (Vcef), is the fastest speed at which the pilot must take the first actions to reject
the takeoff (RTO). At speeds below V1 the aircraft may be brought to a halt before the
end of the runway. At V1 the pilot must continue the takeoff even if an emergency is
recognized.
Factors affecting the balanced field length include:
• the mass of the aircraft – higher mass results in slower acceleration and higher
takeoff speed
• engine thrust – affected by temperature and air pressure, but reduced thrust
can also be deliberately selected by the pilot
• density altitude – reduced air pressure or increased temperature increases
minimum take off speed
• aircraft configuration such as wing flap position
• runway slope and runway wind component
• runway conditions – a rough or soft field slows acceleration, a wet or icy field
reduces braking
➢ Landing climb
The objective of this constraint is to ensure aircraft climb capability in case of a missed
approach with all engines operating. The “Landing climb” wording comes from the fact
that go-around performance is based on landing configuration. That is GO AROUND
with all engines operating. For Airbus FBW, the available landing configurations are
CONF 3 and FULL.

For all Airbus aircraft, this constraint is covered by the approach climb requirement.
In its operational documentation (FCOM), Airbus publishes the maximum weight
limited by the approach climb gradient only. Landing climb performance is found in
the AFM.
➢ Take off segments
• First Segment: begins at lift off (????? Probably at the end of TOD) and ends
when the landing gear is fully retracted. The climb requirement in first segment
is a positive gradient, out of ground effect, for two engine aircraft and 0.3% for
three engine aircraft. The rotation speed, Vr, must be selected so that V2 is
achieved by the time the aircraft reaches 35 feet in the air.
• Second Segment: begins at the end of first segment and is continued to not
less than 400 feet above the airport elevation. The climb requirement in
second segment is 2.4% gradient for two engine aircraft and 2.7% for three
engine aircraft. Second segment is usually, but not always the most limiting of
the segments within the takeoff flight path.
• Third Segment: begins at the end of second segment and ends when the
aircraft reaches the speed for final segment. While third segment is usually
flown in level flight, the available gradient must be at least equal to that
required in final segment. During third segment the high lift devices are
retracted.
• Final Segment: begins when the aircraft reaches the final segment speed and
ends when the aircraft reaches 1500 feet above the airport elevation. The
climb requirement in final segment is 1.2% gradient for two engine aircraft and
1.5% for three engine aircraft. At the beginning of final segment, the power is
reduced to maximum continuous. Each segment must be flown at a constant
power setting and the end of the acceleration segment is often coincident with
the end of the five-minute limitation on Takeoff thrust.
There are 4 clearly defined segments following the Takeoff, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th.

• The Takeoff Distance (TOD) ends at a 35 ft 'screen height' above the runway
(15ft for Wet runway, 50 ft if a turning manoeuvre is involved, or class B
aircraft), and at V2 speed. At the end of the TOD, the Gear is assumed to be
DOWN.
• The 1st Segment begins at the end of the TOD, and ends when the Gear is UP.
Speed remains at V2.
• The 2nd Segment begins at the end of the 1st Segment with the Gear UP,
Power / Thrust at Takeoff, and the aircraft in the Takeoff configuration. The
2nd segment ends at 400 ft above Aerodrome Elevation, or higher if required
for obstacle clearance. The 2nd segment is flown at V2, or limited to V2 plus
an allowed margin.
• The 3rd Segment begins at the end of the 2nd Segment climb with the Gear
UP, Power / Thrust at Takeoff, and the aircraft in the Takeoff configuration.
The 3rd segment is a level accelerating segment, where Flaps / Slats are
retracted, and the aircraft accelerated to the Final Takeoff (Clean) speed, and
Power / Thrust then reduced to Maximum Continuous.
 • The 4th Segment begins at the end of the 3rd Segment level acceleration
segment with the aircraft in the Clean configuration, and Maximum
Continuous Power / Thrust set. The 4th segment ends at 1500 ft, or higher if
required for obstacle clearance.
Variation (1) - It is possible that the gear is retracted by the time that the aircraft has
reached 'screen height' at the end of the Takeoff, in which case no 1st segment exists.
This is not a typical case, but does exist.
Variation (2) - It is possible that the time limit for Takeoff thrust may be reached before
the 3rd segment is complete, although this is becoming rare with increasing
availability of a 10 minute limit. It is then necessary to re-evaluate whether the aircraft
has the performance capability to accomplish the acceleration with MCT, and re-
assess the length of the 3rd segment . Manufacturer's data is rarely available for this,
necessitating an alternative steeper 2nd segment climb, higher than dictated by
obstacles, to reach the 3rd segment in a shorter time, leaving sufficient Takeoff Power
/ Thrust availability to accomplish the 3rd segment.

➢ TO performance limits
The Takeoff Performance Limit Weights required by the FARs include:
• Climb Limit Weight
• Obstacle Clearance Limit Weight
• Field Length Limit Weight
To determine the maximum permissible mass for take-off it is necessary to consider
the limits set by:
▪ the aerodrome distances available (Field Limit Mass)
▪ the climb requirements (Climb Limit Mass)
▪ obstacle clearance (Obstacle Limit Mass)
▪ brake energy limitations (VMBE)
▪ tyre speed limitations (Tyre Speed Limit Mass)
▪ runway strength limitation (ACN/PCN)
▪ maximum structural mass.

Climb Limit Weight (CLW)

The Climb Limit Weight assures that a specified gradient can be maintained after liftoff
Obstacle Clearance Limit Weight
The Obstacle Clearance Limit Weight assures that all obstacles along the intended
flight path can be cleared with one engine inop.
Field Length Limit Weight
The Field Length Limit Weight is the most restrictive of:
• the distance to accelerate with all engines, lose an engine w/in 1 second of V1,
continue the takeoff to height 35 feet above the runway at V2 speed (Accelerate-Go
Distance).
• the distance to accelerate with all engines, initiate an RTO w/in 1 second of V1, and
stop within the confines of the runway (Accelerate- Stop Distance).
• 1.15 times the all engine T/O distance required to reach point 35 feet above the
runway.
TYRE SPEED LIMIT MASS
The reason for a tire speed limit is because naturally there is resistance between the
wheel and the runway. As the wheel rotates this resistance generates heat. The
greater the wheel speed and or the greater the load on the wheel, the greater the
heat generated. Too much heat will not only disintegrate the tire but it may also
expand the air within the tire and may over pressurize it. This is dangerous and may
result in a tire blow out, although there are fusible plugs in modern tires to help
prevent this. As you can now understand, there is a maximum ground speed and
maximum mass that the wheels can be subject to. The maximum ground speed that
the tyre will experience will be at VLOF, and as a result, tyre speed limits are designed
to be greater than or equal to the fastest VLOF. For most medium range jets the
maximum tire speed limit is set at 195 knots which is about 225 miles per hour.
Factors that affect take off are:
Aircraft weight, flap setting, Aerodrome pressure altitude, Density altitude, Humidity,
Wind, Runway length, slope and surface.

➢ TODA (Take Off Distance Available)

The length of the take off run available (TORA) plus the length of the clearway,
where provided.

➢ TORA (Takeoff Run Available)

The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an
aeroplane taking off.

➢ V1,2,3,4 speeds
Decision Speed: V1, is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to reject
the takeoff, and is ensured to stop the aircraft within the limits of the runway.
Takeoff Climb Speed: V2 is the minimum climb speed that must be reached at a
height of 35 feet above the runway surface, in case of an engine failure.
V3 speed is the all-engine-operating takeoff climb speed the aircraft will achieve at the
screen height.
V4 speed is the all-engine-operating takeoff climb speed the aircraft will achieve by
400 ft, and is used as the lowest height where acceleration to flap retraction speed is
initiated.

➢ Aircraft Classes
PERFORMANCE CLASS A
Multi-engined aeroplanes powered by turbo-propeller engines with a maximum
approved passenger seating configuration of more than 9 or a maximum take-off mass
exceeding 5700 kg., and all multi-engined turbo-jet powered aeroplanes. Class A
aeroplanes must abide by the Certification Specifications laid out in the document
from EASA called CS-25.
PERFORMANCE CLASS B
Propeller driven aeroplanes with a maximum approved passenger seating
configuration of 9 or less, and a maximum take-off mass of 5700 kg. or less. Class B
aeroplanes must abide by the Certification Specifications laid out in the document
from EASA called CS-23.
PERFORMANCE CLASS C
Aeroplanes powered by reciprocating engines with a maximum approved passenger
seating configuration of more than 9 or a maximum take-off mass exceeding 5700 kg.
UNCLASSIFIED
This class is given to those aeroplanes whose performance characteristic is very
unique and special performance consideration is required. For example, the
Unclassified class includes supersonic aeroplanes and sea planes.
Other classification: small aircraft (single/twin), Corporate, Commuter, Short-Haul
Transport Aircraft, Medium-Haul Transport Aircraft, Long-Haul Transport Aircraft.

➢ Approach aircraft classes

AIRCRAFT APPROACH CATEGORY (ICAO) — The ICAO table, depicted in the ATC
section “Flight Procedures (DOC 8168) Arrival and Approach Procedures”, indicates
the specified range of handling speeds (IAS in Knots) for each category of aircraft to
perform the maneuvers specified. These speed ranges have been assumed for use in
calculating airspace and obstacle clearance for each procedure.
Specifically the VRef, of a given aircraft, at the maximum certificated landing weight
(if VRef is not specified, the approach speed is given as the VS0 multiplied by 1.3) .
VRef, VS0, and the maximum certificated landing weight are those values as
established for the aircraft by the certification authority of the country of registry.
An aircraft shall fit in only one category. If it is necessary to manoeuvre at speeds in
excess of the upper limit of a speed range for a category, the minimums for the next
higher category should be used. For example, an aircraft which falls in Category A,
but is circling to land at a speed in excess of 90 knots, should use the approach
Category B minimums when circling to land. The categories are as follows:
Category A: Speed 90 knots or less.
Category B: Between 91 and 120 knots.
Category C: Between 121 and 140 knots.
Category D: Between 141 knots and 165 knots.
Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.
The following ICAO table indicates the specified range of handling speeds (IAS in
Knots) for each category of aircraft to perform the manoeuvres specified. These
speed ranges have been assumed for use in calculating airspace and obstacle
clearance for each procedure.

➢ Measured, Gross, Net performance

MEASURED PERFORMANCE This is the performance achieved by the manufacturer
under test conditions for certification. It utilizes new aeroplanes and test pilots and it
therefore unrepresentative of the performance that will be achieved by an average
fleet of aeroplanes.
Gross Performance The average performance that a fleet of aeroplanes should
achieve if satisfactorily maintained and flown in accordance with the techniques
described in the manual.
Net Performance is the gross performance diminished to allow for various
contingencies that cannot be accounted for operationally e.g., variations in piloting
technique, temporary below average performance, etc. It is improbable that the net
performance will not be achieved in operation, provided the aeroplane is flown in
accordance with the recommended techniques.
Most of the time, runways have surrounding obstacles which must be taken into
account prior to takeoff, to ascertain that the aircraft is able to clear them. A vertical
margin has to be considered between the aircraft and each obstacle in the takeoff
flight path. This margin, based on a climb gradient reduction, leads to the definitions
of the Gross Takeoff Flight Path and the Net takeoff flight Path.
GROSS Flight Path = Takeoff flight path actually flown by the aircraft
NET Flight Path = Gross takeoff flight path minus a mandatory reduction.
The gradient penalty between the net and the gross flight path must be taken into
account during the first, second, and final takeoff segments.
The Gross Gradient referenced above is the actual demonstrated performance as
achieved by the manufacturer (read test pilot) during certification. The 2.4% or 2.7%
gradient of 2nd segment simply means that the aircraft will climb 2.4 feet (or 2.7 feet)
for every 100 feet of horizontal distance it flies. Gradient = Rise over Run or the change
in height divided by the change in horizontal distance traveled (multiplied by 100 to
put the decimal in the right place).
Net Gradient is the Gross Gradient reduced by 0.8% for 2 engine aircraft and 0.9% for
3 engine aircraft. Net gradient is required for Part 135 operators for obstacle clearance
purposes. Part 135.379 (d) requires that all obstacles in the Net Takeoff Flight Path be
cleared by 35 feet vertically or by 200 feet horizontally within the airport boundary or
by 300 feet horizontally beyond the airport boundary. It is also assumed that no turns
are initiated before 50 feet and that the maximum angle of bank is 15°. The Net
Takeoff Flight Path begins at reference zero (the 35 foot height or the end of the
takeoff distance) and ends at a minimum of 1500 feet above the airport elevation.

➢ Clearway, Stopway
CLEARWAY — An area beyond the take-off runway under the control of airport
authorities within which terrain or fixed obstacles may not extend above specified
limits. These areas may be required for certain turbine-powered operations and the
size and upward slope of the clearway will differ depending on when the aircraft was
certified. It has the following characteristics: It must:
• Be centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway, and under the
control of the airport authorities.
• Be expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway
with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%.
• Have a minimum width not less than 152 m (500 feet) wide.
• Have no protruding objects or terrain. Threshold lights may protrude above the
plane, if their height above the end of the runway is 0.66 m (26 in) or less, and if they
are located on each side of the runway.
STOPWAY — A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of take-off run
available prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of
an abandoned take-off.
The runway may be extended by an area called the stopway. The stopway is an area
beyond the runway, which should have the following characteristics. It must be:
• At least as wide as the runway, and centered upon the extended centerline of the
runway.
• Able to support the airplane during an abortive takeoff, without causing structural
damage to the airplane.
• Designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an
abortive takeoff.

➢ Screen height
The height of an imaginary screen which the airplane would just clear at the end of
the runway, or runway and clearway, in an unbanked attitude with the landing gear
extended.
Indeed, on wet and contaminated runways, the screen height is measured at 15 feet
rather than 35 feet on dry runways or 50ft for Class B aircraft.

➢ Vlof, VMU
VLOF Lift Off speed is the calibrated airspeed at which the aeroplane first becomes
airborne.
VLOF [must] not [be] less than 110% of VMU in the all-engines-operating condition
and not less than 105% of VMU determined at the thrust-to-weight ratio
corresponding to the one-engine-inoperative condition.”
The regulations consider the particular case of aircraft which are geometrically-
limited, or limited by the elevator efficiency at high angle of attack. An aircraft is said
to be geometrically-limited, when, at its maximum angle of attack (the tail of the
aircraft hits the ground while the main landing gear is still on ground), the maximum
lift coefficient is not reached. In these conditions, the margins can be reduced, as
follows:
in the particular case that lift-off is limited by the geometry of the aeroplane, or by
elevator power, the above margins may be reduced to 108% in the all-
enginesoperating case and 104% in the one-engine-inoperative condition
For airplanes that are geometry limited, the 110 percent of VMU required by
§25.107(e) may be reduced to an operationally acceptable value of 108 percent on the
basis that equivalent airworthiness is provided for the geometry-limited airplane

Minimum Unstick Speed: VMU

VMU is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplane can safely lift off the
ground, and continue the take-off.
During the flight test demonstration, at a low speed (80 - 100 kt), the pilot pulls the
control stick to the limit of the aerodynamic efficiency of the control surfaces. The
aircraft accomplishes a slow rotation to an angle of attack at which the maximum lift
coefficient is reached, or, for geometrically-limited aircraft, until the tail strikes the
runway (the tail is protected by a dragging device). Afterwards, the pitch is maintained
until lift-off.

➢ Vmcg, Vmca
Minimum Control Speed on the Ground: VMCG
VMCG, the minimum control speed on the ground, is the calibrated airspeed during
the take-off run, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is
possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with the use of the primary aerodynamic
controls alone (without the use of nose-wheel steering) to enable the take-off to be
safely continued using normal piloting skill.
In the determination of VMCG, assuming that the path of the aeroplane accelerating
with all engines operating is along the centreline of the runway, its path from the point
at which the critical engine is made inoperative to the point at which recovery to a
direction parallel to the centreline is completed, may not deviate more than 30 ft
laterally from the centreline at any point.
VMCG must be established, with:
• The aeroplane in each take-off configuration or, at the option of the applicant, in the
most critical take-off configuration;
• Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the operating engines;
• The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• The aeroplane trimmed for take-off; and
• The most unfavourable weight in the range of take-off weights.

Minimum Control Speed in the Air: VMCA

VMC[A] is the calibrated airspeed, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with that engine still
inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5
degrees.
VMC[A] may not exceed 1.2 VS with
• Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the engines;
• The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• The aeroplane trimmed for take-off;
• The maximum sea-level take-off weight
• The aeroplane in the most critical take-off configuration existing along the flight path
after the aeroplane becomes airborne, except with the landing gear retracted; and
• The aeroplane airborne and the ground effect negligible
During recovery, the aeroplane may not assume any dangerous attitude or require
exceptional piloting skill, alertness, or strength to prevent a heading change of more
than 20 degrees.
 ➢ Vmbe
Maximum Brake Energy Speed: VMBE
When the takeoff is aborted, brakes must absorb and dissipate the heat corresponding
to the aircraft’s kinetic energy at the decision point (1/2.TOW.V12).
Brakes have a maximum absorption capacity, known as maximum brake energy. For
certification purposes, this absorption capacity must be demonstrated with worn
brakes (post-amendment 42 only). As a result, the speed at which a full stop can be
achieved for a given takeoff weight is limited to a maximum value (VMBE). Thus, for a
given takeoff weight: V1 ≤ VMBE

➢ Turning restrictions
The turn conditions differ between JAR and FAR regulations.
JAR-OPS 1.495
(c)(1) Track changes shall not be allowed up to the point at which the net take-off flight
path has achieved a height equal to one half the wingspan but not less than 50 ft above
the elevation of the end of the take-off run available. Thereafter, up to a height of 400
ft it is assumed that the aeroplane is banked by no more than 15°. Above 400 ft height
bank angles greater than 15°, but not more than 25° may be scheduled.
(c)(3) An operator must use special procedures, subject to the approval of the
Authority, to apply increased bank angles of not more than 20º between 200 ft and
400 ft, or not more than 30º above 400 ft.
FAR 121.189 (f) For the purpose of this section, it is assumed that the airplane is not
banked before reaching a height of 50 ft, and thereafter that the maximum bank is
not more than 15 degrees.
➢ Obstacle clearance
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE (OCA) OR OBSTACLE CLEARANCE HEIGHT (OCH) —
The lowest altitude or the lowest height above the elevation of the relevant runway
threshold or the aerodrome elevation as applicable, used in establishing compliance
with appropriate obstacle clearance criteria.
NOTE 1: Obstacle clearance altitude is referenced to mean sea level and obstacle
clearance height is referenced to the threshold elevation or in the case of non-precision
approaches to the aerodrome elevation or the threshold elevation if that is more than
7ft (2m) below the aerodrome elevation. An obstacle clearance height for a circling
approach is referenced to the aerodrome elevation.
NOTE 2: For convenience when both expressions are used they may be written in the
form “obstacle clearance altitude/height” and abbreviated “OCA/H”.
Obstacle Clearance during a Straight Takeoff
JAR–OPS 1.495
(a) An operator shall ensure that the net take-off flight path clears all obstacles by a
vertical distance of at least 35 ft.”
As an example, the minimum required climb gradient during the second segment must
be 2.4% for a two-engine aircraft. But, as per regulation, the net flight path must clear
any obstacle by at least 35 feet (Figure C17). This may sometimes require the second
segment gradient to be greater than 2.4% and, consequently, the Maximum Takeoff
Weight may have to be reduced accordingly. This is a case of obstacle limitation.
Obstacle Clearance during a Turn
Once again, the obstacle clearance margins during a turn differ between JAR and FAR
regulations. The FAR regulation doesn’t consider any additional vertical margin during
a turn, as the bank angle is limited to 15º. The following rule is then purely JAR-OPS.
“JAR-OPS 1.495
(c)(2) Any part of the net take-off flight path in which the aeroplane is banked by more
than 15° must clear all obstacles […] by a vertical distance of at least 50 ft.”

➢ Vref
Reference Speed: VREF
In case of failure in flight, emergency or abnormal configuration, performance
computations are based on a reference configuration and on a reference speed. V REF
means the steady landing approach speed at the 50 feet point for a defined landing
configuration. For Airbus, this configuration is CONF FULL.
In case of a system failure affecting landing performance, Airbus operational
documentation indicates the correction to be applied to VREF to take into account the
failure. Another speed increment can be added to VAPP to account for wind, when
needed.

➢ Point of no return
Point of no return is a place on the route where the aircraft does not have enough fuel
to return to the starting place. The point of no return is calculated before departure
to cover the chance that both the terminal airfield and its alternate become
unavailable during flight. Is really important for aircraft for which diversion airfields
are not readily available, such as over large water areas, as the ocean.

➢ Cost index
Long-range Cruise Mach number was considered as a minimum fuel regime. If we
consider the Direct Operating Cost instead, the Economic Mach number (MECON), can
be introduced. DOCs are made up of fixed, flight-time related and fuel consumption
related costs. As a result, for a given trip, DOC can be expressed as:
DOC = CC + CF ΔF + CT ΔT
That is: CC = fixed costs, CF = cost of fuel unit, ΔF = trip fuel, CT = time related costs per
flight hour, ΔT = trip time.
As DOCs are calculated per nautical mile, it is possible to plot fuel-related costs, flight-
time related costs, and direct operating costs based on Mach number. Minimum fuel
costs correspond to the Maximum Range Mach number. The minimum DOC
corresponds to a specific Mach number, referred to as Econ Mach (MECON). The MECON
value depends on the time and fuel cost ratio. This ratio is called cost index (CI), and
is usually expressed in kg/min or 100lb/h:

When CT is fixed and CF increases, it becomes interesting to decrease fuel

consumption. Therefore, when CI decreases, Econ Mach decreases.
The extreme CI values are:
• CI = 0: Flight time costs are null (fixed wages), so MECON = MMR (lowest boundary).
• CI = CImax: Flight time costs are high and fuel costs are low, so MECON = MAX SPEED
in order to have a trip with a minimum flight time. The maximum speed is generally
(MMO - 0.02) or (VMO - 10kt).
For instance, a cost index of 30 kg/min means that the cost of one flight minute is
the same as the cost of 30 kg of fuel. This does not mean the fuel flow is 30 kg/min.

➢ Vra,Mra
Is the rough airspeed or Mach, these are simply slightly reduced cruising speeds for
flight in 'rough air' (turbulence). Is based on aircraft’s VB speed (design speed for
maximum gust intensity). High enough to provide adequate margin from stall speed,
but low enough to protect against structural damage from gusts.

Mass n balance
➢ BEM,DOM
Basic Empty Mass-BEM (Basic Mass-BM):
is the mass of an aeroplane plus standard items such as:

• Unusable fuel and other unusable fluids

• Lubricating oil in the engine and auxiliary units
• Fire extinguishers
• Emergency oxygen equipment
BEM + Variable Load = Dry Operating Mass (DOM)

➢ VL
Variable Load:
• Crew and crew baggage
• Catering and removable passenger service equipment
• Potable water and lavatory chemicals
• Food and beverages

➢ TL
Traffic Load: The total mass of passengers, baggage, and cargo, including any non-
revenue load.

➢ ZFM
Zero Fuel Mass (ZFM) is DOM plus traffic load but excluding fuel.
DOM + Traffic Load = ZFM
 BEM + VL + Traffic Load = ZFM

➢ Ramp mass
Or Ramp Weight (RW) is the gross aircraft weight prior to taxi.
Ramp mass = T/O mass + Fuel (start & taxi)

➢ T/o mass
Is the mass of the aircraft permitted for take-off.

Radio navigation

➢ NDB (errors)
A low or medium frequency radio beacon transmits nondirectional signals whereby
the pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings and “home” on the
station. These facilities normally operate in a frequency band of 190 to 535 kilohertz
(kHz), according to ICAO Annex 10 the frequency range for NDBs is between 190 and
1750 kHz, and transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or 1020 hertz (Hz)
modulation. All radio beacons except the compass locators transmit a continuous
three-letter identification in code except during voice transmissions.
The following are some of the inherent problems associated with reception of these
stations:
a. Infrequent identification of the station.
b. Identification of foreign language stations may be impossible without some
knowledge of the language.
c. Transmitter sites are not always collocated with studio facilities.
d. Termination of service without notice.
e. Weather systems causing erratic and unreliable reception of signal.
f. Atmospheric disturbances causing erratic and unreliable reception of signal.
g. No flight checks conducted to verify the suitability and reliability of the facility and
its signal for use in air navigation.
h. Fluctuation (bending) of signal due to shoreline/mountain effect.
i. Standard broadcast stations are not dedicated for air navigation purposes
Typical errors are:
• Interference from other stations
• Static (thunderstorms)
• Night effect
• Coastal reaction
• Mountain effect
• Aircraft quadrantal error
• Synchronistic transmission
 ➢ VOR VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE (errors)
VORs operate within the 108.0 to 117.95 MHz frequency band and have a power
output necessary to provide coverage within their assigned operational service
volume. They are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies
proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment. Most VORs are equipped
for voice transmission on the VOR frequency. VORs without voice capability are
indicated by the letter “W” (without voice) included in the class designator (VORW).
The only positive method of identifying a VOR is by its Morse Code identification or by
the recorded automatic voice identification which is always indicated by use of the
word “VOR” following the range’s name.
Accuracy. The accuracy of course alignment of the VOR is excellent, being generally
plus or minus 1 degree.
Errors of a VOR are:
• Equipment errors (ground and airborne)
• Site errors, when the signal is reflected by objects near the beacon.
• Propagation errors (Scalloping effect1 and atmospheric ducting2)

➢ INS,IRS
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS) combine the components of an IRU3 with an
internal navigation computer. By programming a series of waypoints, these systems
will navigate along a predetermined track. Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a system
that navigates precisely without any input from outside of the aircraft. It is fully self-
contained. The INS is initialized by the pilot, who enters into the system the exact
location of the aircraft on the ground before the flight. The INS is also programmed
with WPs along the desired route of flight. The principal error associated with INS is
degradation of position with time.
INERTIA REFERENCE SYSTEM (IRS) is a modern INS that has a greater integration into
the Flight Management System (FMS).

1
Scalloping is a radar phenomenon that reduces sensitivity for certain distance and velocity
combinations. The name is derived from the appearance of areas that are scooped out of graphs that
indicate radar sensitivity. Moving objects cause a phase-shift within the transmit pulse that produces
signal cancellation.
2
Atmospheric ducting is a mode of propagation of electromagnetic radiation, usually in the lower
layers of Earth’s atmosphere, where the waves are bent by atmospheric refraction
3
IRUs are self-contained systems comprised of gyros and accelerometers that provide aircraft
attitude (pitch, roll, and heading), position, and velocity information in response to signals resulting
from inertial effects on system components.
 ➢ Frequency bands

NAVIGATION AIDS
190 - 535 kHz Nondirectional Radio Beacon (low power)
and Radio Range (low power)
190 - 1750 kHz Non-directional Beacon (standard)
Non-directional Beacon (standard) Marker Beacon
108.0 - 117.975 MHz VOR test facility (VOT)
108.0 - 111.975 MHz ILS localizer (on odd-tenths plus twentieth
frequen- cies, 108.1, 108.3 etc.)
108.0 - 111.975 MHz VOR (even tenths or even tenths plus a
twentieth of MHz)
111.975 - 117.975 MHz VOR (even and odd tenths of MHz)
328.6 - 335.4 MHz ILS glide slope
960.0 - 1215.0 MHz DME and TACAN
1563.42 - 1587.42 MHz GPS
 Principles of flight

➢ IAS, CAS, EAS, TAS

Indicated Air Speed (IAS) is the speed indicated by the airspeed indicator.
Calibrated Air Speed (CAS) is the IAS corrected for instrument and pressure errors.
Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) is CAS corrected for compressibility errors.
True Air Speed (TAS) An aircraft in flight moves in an air mass, which is itself in motion
compared to the earth. The True Air Speed (TAS) represents the aircraft speed in a
moving reference system linked to this air mass, or simply the aircraft speed in the
airflow. It can be obtained from the CAS, using the air density (ρ) and a compressibility
correction (K).

➢ AoA
The angle of attack (AoA) represents the angle between the aircraft axis and the
aerodynamic axis (speed vector axis tangent to the flight path).

➢ Ao Incidence
On fixed-wing aircraft, the angle of incidence (sometimes referred to as the mounting
angle) is the angle between the chord line of the wing where the wing is mounted to
the fuselage, and a reference axis along the fuselage (often the direction of minimum
drag, or where applicable, the longitudinal axis). The angle of incidence is fixed in the
design of the aircraft, and with rare exceptions, cannot be varied in flight.

➢ Center of gravity (CG)

A point from which the weight of a body or system may be considered to act.
 ➢ Center of pressure
The center of pressure of an aircraft is the point where all of the aerodynamic pressure
field may be represented by a single force vector with no moment. The position is not
fixed, but depends on the distribution of pressure along the chord, which itself
depends on AoA.

➢ CG stability
The center of gravity affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is safe
to fly, the center of gravity must fall within specified limits established by the aircraft
manufacturer. Center of gravity (CG) limits are specified longitudinal (forward and aft)
and/or lateral (left and right) limits within which the aircraft's center of gravity must
be located during flight. The CG limits are indicated in the airplane flight manual. The
area between the limits is called the CG range of the aircraft.

➢ Coefficient of lift
The lift coefficient (CL) is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by
a lifting body to the fluid density around the body, the fluid velocity and an associated
reference area. A lifting body is a foil or a complete foil-bearing body such as a fixed-
wing aircraft. CL is a function of the angle of the body to the flow, its Reynold number
and its Mach number. The lift coefficient refers to the dynamic lift characteristics of a
two-dimensional foil section, with the reference area replaced by the foil chord.

➢ Controllability
Controllability refers to how easily the aircraft is disrupted from its current state by
pilot control inputs. The more STABLE and aircraft is, the less CONTROLLABLE it is.

➢ Critical Alpha
Also called angle of stall, critical angle of attack, stalling angle. Aeronautics. the angle
of attack, greater than or equal to the angle of attack for maximum lift, at which there
is a sudden change in the airflow around an airfoil with a subsequent decrease in lift
and increase in drag.

➢ Critical mach number

In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (Mcr or M* ) of an aircraft is the lowest
Mach number at which the airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed
of sound, but does not exceed it.
 ➢ Deep stall
A deep stall or a super stall is a condition where the wake of the wing impinges on the
tail surface and renders it almost ineffective. The wing is fully stalled, so the airflow
on its upper surface separates right after the leading edge, which produces a wide
wake of decelerated, turbulent air.

➢ Dihedral effect
Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tail-plane of a fixed-
wing aircraft.
Dihedral effect is the amount of roll moment produced per degree (or radian) of side-
slip. Dihedral effect is a critical factor in the stability of an aircraft about the roll axis
(the spiral mode). It is also pertinent to the nature of an aircraft's Dutch roll oscillation
and to manoeuvrability about the roll axis.

➢ Drag types
Types of drag are generally divided into the following categories:

• parasitic drag, consisting of

form drag,
skin friction,
interference drag,

• lift-induced drag, and

• wave drag (aerodynamics)
 ➢ Dutch Roll
Dutch roll is a type of aircraft motion, consisting of an out-of-phase combination of
"tail-wagging" and rocking from side to side. This motion is normally well damped in
most light aircraft, though some aircraft with well-damped Dutch roll modes can
experience a degradation in damping as airspeed decreases and altitude increases.
Dutch roll stability can be artificially increased by the installation of a yaw damper.
Wings placed well above the center of mass, sweepback (swept wings) and dihedral
wings tend to increase the roll restoring force, and therefore increase the Dutch roll
tendencies; this is why high-winged aircraft often are slightly anhedral, and transport-
category swept-wing aircraft are equipped with yaw dampers.
The most common mechanism of Dutch roll occurrence is a moment of yawing motion
which can be caused by any number of factors. As a swept-wing aircraft yaws (to the
right, for instance), the left wing becomes less-swept than the right wing in reference
to the relative wind. Because of this, the left wing develops more lift than the right
wing causing the aircraft to roll to the right. This motion continues until the yaw angle
of the aircraft reaches the point where the vertical stabilizer effectively becomes a
wind vane and reverses the yawing motion. As the aircraft yaws back to the left, the
right wing then becomes less swept than the left resulting in the right wing developing
more lift than the left. The aircraft then rolls to the left as the yaw angle again reaches
the point where the aircraft wind-vanes back the other direction and the whole
process repeats itself. The average duration of a Dutch roll half-cycle is 2 to 3 seconds.
 ➢ Lift formula
Weight = mg = ½ ρ S V 2 CL
With m = Aircraft mass
g = Gravitational acceleration
ρ = Air density
S = Wing area
CL = lift coefficient
The lift coefficient, CL, is a function of the angle of attack (α), the Mach number
(M), and the aircraft configuration.

➢ Mach number
The Mach Number is a comparison between the TAS and the speed of sound.
𝑇𝐴𝑆
M=
𝑎
With TAS = True Air Speed, a = The speed of sound at the flight altitude (Local Speed
of Sound)
The speed of sound in knots is: a(kt) = 39 √𝑆𝐴𝑇(𝐾))
With SAT = Static Air Temperature (ambient temperature)in Kelvin
 ➢ Mean chord line
Chord refers to the imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an
aerofoil. The chord length is the distance between the trailing edge and the point on
the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge. Most wings are not
rectangular so they have a different chord at different positions along their span. To
give a characteristic figure that can be compared among various wing shapes, the
mean aerodynamic chord, or MAC, is used. The MAC is somewhat more complex to
calculate, because most wings vary in chord over the span, growing narrower towards
the outer tips. This means that more lift is generated on the wider inner portions, and
the MAC moves the point to measure the chord to take this into account.

➢ Stall
A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack
increases beyond a certain point such that lift begins to decrease. The angle at which
this occurs is called the critical angle of attack. This critical angle is dependent upon
the airfoil section or profile of the wing, its planform, its aspect ratio, and other factors

➢ Swept wings
A swept wing is a wing which angles either backward or, occasionally, forward, from
its root rather than in a straight sideways direction. Wing sweep has the effect of
delaying the shock waves and accompanying aerodynamic drag rise caused by fluid
compressibility near the speed of sound, improving performance. Swept wings are
therefore often used on jet aircraft designed to fly at these speeds. Swept wings are
also sometimes used for other reasons, such as structural convenience or visibility.
The characteristic "sweep angle" is normally measured by drawing a line from root to
tip, 25% of the way back from the leading edge, and comparing that to the
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Typical sweep angles vary from 0
for a straight-wing aircraft, to 45 degrees or more for fighters and other high-speed
designs.
As an aircraft enters the transonic speeds just below the speed of sound, the pressure
waves associated with subsonic flight converge and begin to impinge on the aircraft.
As the pressure waves converge the air in front of the aircraft begins to compress. This
creates a force known as wave drag. This wave drag increases steeply until the whole
aircraft is supersonic and then reduces.
At the point where the density drops, the local speed of sound correspondingly drops
and a shock wave can form. This is why in conventional wings, shock waves form first
after the maximum Thickness/Chord and why all airliners designed for cruising in the
transonic range (above M0.8) have supercritical wings that are flatter on top resulting
in minimized angular change of flow to upper surface air. The angular change to the
air that is normally part of lift generation is decreased and this lift reduction is
compensated for by deeper curved lower surfaces accompanied by a reflex curve at
the trailing edge. This results in a much weaker standing shock wave towards the rear
of the upper wing surface and a corresponding increase in critical mach number.
Shock waves require energy to form. This energy is taken out of the aircraft, which has
to supply extra thrust to make up for this energy loss. Thus the shocks are seen as a
form of drag. Since the shocks form when the local air velocity reaches supersonic
speeds, there is a certain "critical mach" speed (or drag divergence mach number)
where this effect becomes noticeable. This is normally when the shocks start
generating over the wing, which on most aircraft is the largest continually curved
surface, and therefore the largest contributor to this effect.
Sweeping the wing has the effect of reducing the curvature of the body as seen from
the airflow, by the cosine of the angle of sweep. For instance, a wing with a 45 degree
sweep will see a reduction in effective curvature to about 70% of its straight-wing
value. This has the effect of increasing the critical Mach by 30%. When applied to large
areas of the aircraft, like the wings and empennage, this allows the aircraft to reach
speeds closer to Mach 1.

➢ Vortex generators
A vortex generator (VG) is an aerodynamic device, consisting of a small vane usually
attached to a lifting surface (or airfoil, such as an aircraft wing) or a rotor blade of a
wind turbine. VGs may also be attached to some part of an aerodynamic vehicle such
as an aircraft fuselage or a car. When the airfoil or the body is in motion relative to
the air, the VG creates a vortex, which, by removing some part of the slow-moving
boundary layer in contact with the airfoil surface, delays local flow separation and
aerodynamic stalling, thereby improving the effectiveness of wings and control
surfaces, such as flaps, elevators, ailerons, and rudders.
 ➢ Winglets
Are aerodynamically efficient surfaces located at the wing tips. They are designed to
reduce induced drag. They deal the span-wise airflow from upper and lower surfaces
at different points, and prevent the intermixing of these airflows that would create
induced drag vortices.

➢ Tip vortices
Wingtip vortices are circular patterns of rotating air left behind a wing as it generates
lift. Wingtip vortices are associated with induced drag, the imparting of downwash,
and are a fundamental consequence of three-dimensional lift generation. Careful
selection of wing geometry (in particular, aspect ratio), as well as of cruise conditions,
are design and operational methods to minimize induced drag. Wingtip vortices form
the primary component of wake turbulence.
When a wing generates aerodynamic lift the air on the top surface has lower pressure
relative to the bottom surface. Air flows from below the wing and out around the tip
to the top of the wing in a circular fashion. An emergent circulatory flow pattern
named vortex is observed, featuring a low-pressure core.

➢ Coffin corner
Coffin corner (also known as the aerodynamic ceiling or Q corner) is the region of flight
where a fast fixed-wing aircraft's stall speed is near the critical Mach number, at a
given gross weight and G-force loading. In this region of flight, it is very difficult to
keep the airplane in stable flight. Because the stall speed is the minimum speed
required to maintain level flight, any reduction in speed will cause the airplane to stall
and lose altitude. Because the critical Mach number is the maximum speed at which
air can travel over the wings without losing lift due to flow separation and shock
waves, any increase in speed will cause the airplane to lose lift, or to pitch heavily
nose-down, and lose altitude. The "corner" refers to the triangular shape at the top of
a flight envelope chart where the stall speed and critical Mach number are within a
few knots of each other. The speed where they meet is the ceiling of the aircraft.

➢ Balance tab, mass balance, trim tab

Balance tab is a tab on a control surface of an aircraft which reduces the amount of
force needed to move the control surface by moving in the opposite direction. Is a
form of aerodynamic control balance on a control surface. It balances the main
aerodynamic lift force load with an opposite force, which reduces the overall air load
force. So the stick control force is redused to manageable level.
Mass Balance: is a WEIGHT attached to the control surface forward of the
hinge.When a control is deflected a low pressure area forms on the cambered side.
This tends to pull the control back into alignment with the wing, stabilizer or fin as the
case may be. However, the control surface has mass and therefore momentum. If the
centre of gravity of the control surface is behind the hinge, the control tends to
overshoot the point of alignment. The result is a tendency for the control to flutter.
Flutter could become sufficiently severe that the aircraft could break up in flight.
To solve the above problem the control must be balanced, so that its centre of gravity
is in line with the hinge.

Trim tabs are small surfaces connected to the trailing edge of a larger control surface
on an aircraft, used to control the trim of the controls, i.e. to counteract hydro- or
aerodynamic forces and stabilise the boat or aircraft in a particular desired attitude
without the need for the operator to constantly apply a control force. This is done by
adjusting the angle of the tab relative to the larger surface.

➢ Flutter
Flutter is a form of aeroelasticity and is a potentially life-threatening occurrence which
can arise in any aerofoil part of an aircraft when moving at high speeds. Not only can
it occur in aircraft it is also found happening to buildings, bridges, and other flexible
objects. It happens when an aerodynamic force is applied to an object causing it to
oscillate, as the force gradually increases the oscillations also increase, until eventually
the object fails by means of fracture.
On an airplane, the wing attached to the fuselage has a natural structural frequency.
The relative wind and the aerodynamic force that it generates on the wing represents
the external force which is applied with a periodic frequency. When the periodic
frequency of the aerodynamic force is the same as the natural structural frequency of
the wing, the system enters resonance vibration and the amplitude of the vibration
becomes important. If it goes on for a certain time, the wing will break.
Flutter may be prevented by adding weight to the control surface in front of the hinge
line. This brings the center of gravity of the control forward to a position on, or slightly
in front of the hinge, but always to the point required by the designers. This reduces
the inertia moments about the hinge and prevents flutter developing.
The constructor should design the airplane in such a way that it will not suffer from
flutter below VNE (Never Exceed Velocity) or below VMO/MMO (Max Operating Velocity
or Mach number). So, do not fly at a speed greater than the red line (for SEP, Single
Engine Piston, and MEP, Multi Engine Piston) or at a speed greater than barber's pole
(VMO needle on jet airplanes).

➢ Tuck under
Mach tuck or mach tuck under is the phenomenon whereby some aircraft tend to dive
suddenly as they accelerate through the transonic speed range.
When airflow over the wings reaches the local speed of sound, shock waves form. Air
flowing through these shock waves experiences a sudden increase in static pressure.
This sudden pressure increase causes and equally sudden deceleration which tends to
cause the airflow to separate from the wing just behind the shockwave. The overall
effect is a loss of lift and an increase in drag, similar to that caused by ordinary low
speed aerodynamic stall. For this reason, the effect is called shock stall.
The shock waves form wherever the airflow reaches the local speed of sound, so they
form first at the wing roots where the thicker aerofoil section produces the greatest
acceleration. This means that the shock stall affects the wing root area before it affects
the wing tips. In swept back wings, the wing roots are ahead of the wing tips, so the
loss of lift due to shock stall at the wing roots causes the centre of pressure to move
rearwards. this causes the aircraft to pitch nose down in the mach tuck under.
With straight wings the effect is slightly different. Shock stall reduces lift behind the
shock waves so the rear area of the wing is most affected. This means that the Center
of Pressure initially moves forward, causing a tendency to pitch nose up. But as speed
increases further, the shock waves move rearwards causing the the C of P of the wings
to move rearwards to about the 50% chord point. It is this rearward movement of the
C of P which causes straight wings to tuck under. The overall effect in both cases is
that the aircraft tends to pitch nose down as it accelerates through the transonic
speed range.
Possibly the simplest way to picture the story is
(a) in subsonic flow the CP typically is somewhere near 0.25MAC
(b) for supersonic flow read 0.50MAC
(c) transonically the situation with shockwaves is rather dynamic.
Overall, if the CG remains constant, as the CP moves aft albeit not necessarily steadily,
there will be an increasing nosedown couple leading to a nosedown pitching moment.
The mach trim system counteracts this tendency by adjusting the longitudinal trim of
the aircraft.

➢ Mach trim
Mach trim is a system installed on many jets. The system automatically varies pitch
trim as a function of mach number to counteract what is known as “mach tuck.” Mach
tuck is experienced at higher submach numbers (when compressibility becomes a
factor), as well as at supersonic mach numbers, so the system is common on many
high speed jets, and not just those designed for supersonic flight. An alternative
technique of moving the CG (by altering fuel distribution) to compensate for mach
tuck was only ever used on Concorde.

➢ Positive limit load factor

For each aircraft there is a design limit load factor. For modern high speed jet transport
aircraft the positive limit load factor is 2.5 g.
The problem of load factors in airplane design is to determine the highest load factors
that can be expected in normal operation under various operational situations. These
load factors are called “limit load factors.” For reasons of safety, it is required that the
airplane be designed to withstand these load factors without any structural damage.
Although the Code of Federal Regulations requires that the airplane structure be
capable of supporting one and one-half times these limit load factors without failure,
it is accepted that parts of the airplane may bend or twist under these loads and that
some structural damage may occur. This 1.5 value is called the “factor of safety” and
provides, to some extent, for loads higher than those expected under normal and
reasonable operation.
 ➢ Shock, oblique expansion waves
When an airplane travels less than the speed of sound, the air ahead of it actually
begins to flow out of the way before the plane reaches it. The pressure waves created
by the airplane passing through the air end up being smooth and gradual.
But as an airplane reaches the speed of sound and catches up to its own pressure
waves, the air ahead of it receives no warning of the plane’s approach. The airplane
plows through the air, creating a shock wave (at 90° (perpendicular) to the shock
medium's flow direction). As air flows through the shock wave, its pressure, density,
and temperature all increase—sharply and abruptly.
When analyzing shock waves in a flow field, which are still attached to the body, the
shock wave which is deviating at some arbitrary angle from the flow direction is
termed oblique shock. These shocks require a component vector analysis of the flow;
doing so allows for the treatment of the flow in an orthogonal direction to the oblique
shock as a normal shock.

➢ Aspect ratio
In aeronautics, the aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It
is equal to the square of the wingspan divided by the wing area. Thus, a long, narrow
wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio.

➢ Wing loading
In aerodynamics, wing loading is the loaded mass of the aircraft divided by the area of
the wing. An aircraft with a low wing loading has a larger wing area relative to its mass
(i.e. a glider), as compared to an aircraft with a high wing loading (i.e. fighter jet, or
modern airliner).
The faster an aircraft flies, the more lift is produced by each unit of wing area, so a
smaller wing can carry the same weight in level flight, therefore increasing the wing
loading. This increased wing load also increases takeoff and landing distances and
speeds. A high wing loading also decreases maneuverability. The same constraints
apply to winged biological organisms.

➢ Spoilers
In aeronautics, a spoiler (sometimes called a lift spoiler or lift dumper) is a device
intended to intentionally reduce the lift component of an airfoil in a controlled way.
Most often, spoilers are plates on the top surface of a wing that can be extended
upward into the airflow to spoil it. By so doing, the spoiler creates a controlled stall
over the portion of the wing behind it, greatly reducing the lift of that wing section.
Spoilers differ from airbrakes in that airbrakes are designed to increase drag without
affecting lift, while spoilers reduce lift as well as increasing drag.
Spoilers fall into two categories: those that are deployed at controlled angles during
flight to increase descent rate or control roll, and those that are fully deployed
immediately on landing to greatly reduce lift ("lift dumpers") and increase drag. In
modern fly-by-wire aircraft, the same set of control surfaces serve both functions.

➢ Flaps, slats, slots

Flaps are a type of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft wing at a given
airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft.
Flaps are used to lower the minimum speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown,
and to increase the angle of descent for landing. Flaps also cause an increase in drag,
so they are retracted when not needed.
Extending the wing flaps increases the camber or curvature of the wing, raising the
maximum lift coefficient or the upper limit to the lift a wing can generate. This allows
the aircraft to generate the required lift at a lower speed, reducing the stalling speed
of the aircraft, and therefore also the minimum speed at which the aircraft will safely
maintain flight. The increase in camber also increases the wing drag, which can be
beneficial during approach and landing, because it slows the aircraft.
Slats are aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings of fixed-wing aircraft
which, when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack. A higher
coefficient of lift is produced as a result of angle of attack and speed, so by deploying
slats an aircraft can fly at slower speeds, or take off and land in shorter distances. They
are usually used while landing or performing maneuvers which take the aircraft close
to the stall, but are usually retracted in normal flight to minimize drag. They decrease
stall speed. Slats are one of several high-lift devices used on airliners, such as flap
systems running along the trailing edge of the wing.
A leading edge slot is a fixed aerodynamic feature of the wing of some aircraft to
reduce the stall speed and promote good low-speed handling qualities. A leading edge
slot is a spanwise gap in each wing, allowing air to flow from below the wing to its
upper surface. In this manner they allow flight at higher angles of attack and thus
reduce the stall speed.

➢ Washout
Washout reduces the angle of incidence from root to tip, thereby causing a lower
angle of attack at the tips.

➢ Ground effect
In fixed-wing aircraft, ground effect is the increased lift (force) and decreased
aerodynamic drag that an aircraft's wings generate when they are close to a fixed
surface. When landing, ground effect can give the pilot the feeling that the aircraft is
"floating".

General Navigation
➢ Convergency
Convergency is defined as the angle of inclination between two selected meridians
measured at a given latitude. Convergency = Change in Longitude x Sine Latitude
i. The angle that one meridian on the earth's surface makes with another. It equals the
angular difference between the measurements of the great circle at each meridian.
ii. The angle between two meridians at a given latitude. At the poles, its value is the
change of longitude, but it slowly reduces toward the equator when the value is zero,
as meridians are parallel to one another. Earth's convergence = Change of longitude
(ch long) × Sine latitude.
iii. The difference between the great-circle bearings of two meridians. earth's
convergence = ch long × sine lat.
 ➢ Conversion angle
Angular diffrence between Rhumb Line4 (RL) & Great Circle5 (GC) at a given latitude is
called Conversion Angle.
If Angular difference of GC bearings is = 180* then its Equator,
If Angular difference of GC bearings is > 180* then its Northern Hemisphere,
If Angular difference of GC bearings is <180* then its Southern Hemisphere.
➢ Departure
Departure is the east/west distance between the poles and the equator along a
parallel of latitude. Departure is not the shortest distance except when at the equator.
The formula for finding out the departure is:
Departure (NM) = Change of Longitude (in minutes) x Cosine of Latitude
➢ Deviation
Magnetic deviation is the error induced in a compass by local magnetic fields, which
must be allowed for, along with magnetic declination, if accurate bearings are to be
calculated. (More loosely, "magnetic deviation" is used by some to mean the same as
"magnetic declination").
➢ Variation
All information on a chart, including your own plotting, is related to TRUE North. Thus
all bearings on a chart are related to TRUE NORTH. Compasses point to MAGNETIC
NORTH, which varies from True North by an error called VARIATION. Compasses also
are subject to their own errors; this is called DEVIATION.
COMPASS BEARING = TRUE BEARING +/- MAGNETIC VARIATION +/- COMPASS DEVIATION

Magnetic Variation is due to the differing positions of the Geographic North Pole and
the Magnetic North Pole.

Systems
➢ Accumulators
A hydraulic accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in which a non-compressible
hydraulic fluid is held under pressure that is applied by an external source. The
external source can be a spring, a raised weight, or a compressed gas. An accumulator

4
an arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, that is, a path with constant bearing as
measured relative to true or magnetic north.
5
A great circle, also known as an orthodrome, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a
plane that passes through the center point of the sphere. A great circle is the largest circle that can be
drawn on any given sphere.
enables a hydraulic system to cope with extremes of demand using a less powerful
pump, to respond more quickly to a temporary demand, and to smooth out pulsations.
It is a type of energy storage device.
➢ EPR
The engine pressure ratio (EPR) is the total pressure ratio across a jet engine,
measured as the ratio of the total pressure at the exit of the propelling nozzle divided
by the total pressure at the entry to the compressor. Jet engines use either EPR or
compressor/fan RPM as an indicator of thrust. When EPR is used the pressures are
measured anywhere convenient in the turbine intake and exhaust ducts.

➢ EGT, TGT
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT), sometimes referred to as Turbine Outlet
Temperature (TOT), is the temperature of the turbine exhaust gases as they leave the
turbine unit. The gas temperature is measured by a number of thermocouples
mounted in the exhaust stream and is presented on a flight deck gauge in either
degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celcius.
In a piston engine, EGT is a measurement of the temperature of the exhaust gases at
the exhaust manifold. As the temperature of the exhaust gas varies with the ratio of
fuel to air entering the cylinders, it can be used as a basis for regulating the fuel/air
mixture entering the engine.
TGT: Turbine gas temperature, or target
 ➢ Flat rated engine
When an engine is Flat rated it means that an engine of high Horsepower rating is
constrained to a lower horsepower rating. The engine output in this case will always
remain the same, but when atmospheric conditions such as high temperatures and
high altitude (Hot and High) reduce the power output of the engine it has more
headroom before it falls below the limited maximum output. In some cases the total
power output of an engine needs to be constrained because the airframe can only
handle a certain force. This is the case with Gas Turbine engines. Flat rating allows
airplanes to operate under more demanding conditions, without the need for extra
structural strengthening due to higher peak power output of the engine.
➢ Flybywire
Fly-by-wire (FBW) is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight controls of
an aircraft with an electronic interface. The movements of flight controls are
converted to electronic signals transmitted by wires (hence the fly-by-wire term), and
flight control computers determine how to move the actuators at each control surface
to provide the ordered response. The fly-by-wire system also allows automatic signals
sent by the aircraft's computers to perform functions without the pilot's input, as in
systems that automatically help stabilize the aircraft, or prevent unsafe operation of
the aircraft outside of its performance envelope.
➢ Hydraulic Valves
Flow control valves control the speed and/or direction of fluid flow in the hydraulic
system. They provide for the operation of various components when desired and the
speed at which the component operates. Examples of flow control valves include:
selector valves, check valves, sequence valves, priority valves, shuttle valves, quick
disconnect valves, and hydraulic fuses.
 ➢ Ν1, Ν2
N1 is the first spool in the engine, for airliners this is the fan in the front.
N2 is the core compressor spool. Some Rolls Royce engines have a second core spool,
known as N3.
More specifically, N1 and N2 are the rotational speeds of those engine sections
expressed as a percentage of a nominal value. Think of it as being analogous to the
RPM of a piston engine, only expressed as a percentage rather than the actual rate of
rotation.
They are different because they are characteristic on two-spool engines (see the figure
below). The first spool is the low pressure compressor (LP), that is N1 and the second
spool is the high pressure compressor (HP), that is N2. The shafts of the engine are not
connected and they operate separately.

➢ Pitot blockage
A blocked pitot tube is a pitot-static problem that will only affect airspeed indicators.
A blocked pitot tube will cause the airspeed indicator to register an increase in
airspeed when the aircraft climbs, even though actual airspeed is constant. (As long
as the drain hole is also blocked, as the air pressure would otherwise leak out to the
atmosphere) This is caused by the pressure in the pitot system remaining constant
when the atmospheric pressure (and static pressure) are decreasing. In reverse, the
airspeed indicator will show a decrease in airspeed when the aircraft descends. The
pitot tube is susceptible to becoming clogged by ice, water, insects or some other
obstruction.
➢ Static blockage
A blocked static port is a more serious situation because it affects all pitot-static
instruments. One of the most common causes of a blocked static port is airframe icing.
A blocked static port will cause the altimeter to freeze at a constant value, the altitude
at which the static port became blocked. The vertical speed indicator will become
frozen at zero and will not change at all, even if vertical speed increases or decreases.
The airspeed indicator will reverse the error that occurs with a clogged pitot tube and
cause the airspeed to be read less than it actually is as the aircraft climbs. When the
aircraft is descending, the airspeed will be over-reported. In most aircraft with
unpressurized cabins, an alternative static source is available and can be selected from
within the cockpit
➢ Compressor
An axial compressor is a compressor that can continuously pressurise gases. It is a
rotating, airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows
parallel to the axis of rotation, or axially. This differs from other rotating compressors
such as centrifugal compressors, axi-centrifugal compressors and mixed-flow
compressors where the fluid flow will include a "radial component" through the
compressor. The energy level of the fluid increases as it flows through the compressor
due to the action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the fluid. The stationary
blades slow the fluid, converting the circumferential component of flow into pressure.

➢ Diffuser
The diffuser slows down the compressor delivery air to reduce flow losses in the
combustor. Slower air is also required to help stabilize the combustion flame and the
higher static pressure improves the combustion efficiency.

➢ Combustion chamber
Fuel is burned continuously after initially being ignited during the engine start.

➢ By pass engines
The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft
propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine
(through the combustion chamber), in a turbofan some of that air bypasses the
turbine. A turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted
fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air
bypassing the engine core compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core
is referred to as the bypass ratio. The engine produces thrust through a combination
of these two portions working in concert; engines that use more jet thrust relative to
fan thrust are known as low-bypass turbofans, conversely those that have
considerably more fan thrust than jet thrust are known as high-bypass. Most
commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, and most
modern military fighter engines are low-bypass.

➢ De-rated T/O
Reduced thrust T/O:
Operate the engine below its engine limiting temperature to save engine life. The FMS
limits the T/O thrust to ensure a safe T/O at the reduced thrust setting. You can always
override a reduced thrust T/O setting as the VMC speeds are associated with full
normal T/O thrust. VMCA and VMCG are not affected by a reduced thrust take-off:
you can re-apply max T/O thrust at any point during the take-off.
De-rated T/O thrust:
You are not allowed to re-apply max T/O thrust until Min flap retraction altitude, as
VMCA and VMCG speeds are calculated using the lower de-rated thrust setting. The
downside of the reduced thrust method is the length of the calculation process. With
the de-rated thrust you get a specific RTOG applicable to that runway and condition
so it’s a very simple process.
➢ Auto igniters
A jet engine is sensitive to the flow characteristics of the air that enters the engine
intake. If the airflow remains essentially normal, the engine will continue to run
smoothly. However, should the airflow be significantly disrupted, a compressor stall
or engine flameout could result. This level of airflow disruption is usually associated
with abrupt pitch changes such as might be encountered in severe turbulence or
during an aerodynamic stall. Other conditions that could lead to disruption of
sustained combustion include ice shedding, water ingestion from heavy precipitation
or contaminated runways and bird strike. Auto-igniters sense any airflow disturbance
via probe systems and signal the ignition system to start, before the disturbed airflow
affect the engine.
➢ Bleed valves
Bleed air produced by gas turbine engines is compressed air that is taken from the
compressor stage of those engines, which is upstream of the fuel-burning sections. In
modern airliner engines, two regulator valves (high stage and low stage) turn on and
off automatically and are controlled by at least two air supply and cabin pressure
controllers (ASCPCs) which open and close appropriate valves. Engine bleed air comes
from the high stage or low stage engine compressor section. Low stage air is used
during high power setting operation, and high stage air is used during descent and
other low power setting operations. Bleed air from that system can be utilized for
internal cooling of the engine, cross-starting another engine, engine and airframe anti-
icing, cabin pressurization, pneumatic actuators, air-driven motors, pressurizing the
hydraulic reservoir, and waste and water storage tanks. Some engine maintenance
manuals refer to such systems as "customer bleed air. Bleed air is valuable in an
aircraft for two properties: high temperature and high pressure (typical values are
200–250 °C and 275 kPa (40 PSI), for regulated bleed air exiting the engine pylon for
use throughout the aircraft).
A bleed valve for bleeding air from a compressor at start-up of a gas turbine engine is
self-actuated. The bleed valve moves between open and closed positions based on the
pressure within a compressor. The bleed valve is driven to an open position at low
pressure conditions and to a closed position once the pressure within the compressor
chamber becomes higher and closer to operating pressures.
Compressor bleed valves protect the axial compressor during start-up and shutdown
against stalling and surging conditions. These valves are typically only open during
acceleration to rated speed and deceleration from rated speed. Newer heavy-duty gas
turbine with complex combustion system arrangements designed to limit emission of
harmful gases also employ the compressor bleed valves during very light loading to
limit the amount of air entering the combustor. One application is to heat the inlet air
to prevent icing on the compressor inlet (appropriately called anti-icing protection);
another application uses inlet bleed heat to protect the axial compressor when the
IGVs (axial compressor Inlet Guide Vanes) are closed below the "normal" operating
conditions ("normal" being before complicated combustion systems designed to limit
exhaust emissions were invented).
➢ Engine surge
A surge is the reversal of airflow, where high pressure air from the combustion
chamber is expelled forward, with a loud bang and loss of thrust. So, basically, SURGE
is COMPRESSOR STALL. It is caused by stalling of compressor stages due to negative-g
manoeuvre, or by excessive fuel flow which creates high pressure at the rear of the
engine that moves forward, A surge is indicated by total loss of thrust and increasing
TGT. Required actions are: Throttles idle smoothly, adjust attitude to clean the stall
and smoothly readjust throttles.
➢ Turbine
The turbine is a series of bladed discs that act like a windmill, extracting energy from
the hot gases leaving the combustor. Some of this energy is used to drive the
compressor. Turboprop, turboshaft and turbofan engines have additional turbine
stages to drive a propeller, bypass fan or helicopter rotor. In a free turbine the turbine
driving the compressor rotates independently of that which powers the propellor or
helicopter rotor. Cooling air, bled from the compressor, may be used to cool the
turbine blades, vanes and discs to allow higher turbine entry gas temperatures for the
same turbine material temperatures.
➢ APU
An auxiliary power unit (APU) is a device that provides energy for functions other than
propulsion. They are commonly found on large aircraft. Aircraft APUs generally
produce 115 V alternating current (AC) at 400 Hz (rather than 50/60 Hz in mains
supply), to run the electrical systems of the aircraft; others can produce 28 V direct
current (DC). APUs can provide power through single- or three-phase systems.
The primary purpose of an aircraft APU is to provide power to start the main engines.
Turbine engines must be accelerated to a high rotational speed to provide sufficient
air compression for self-sustaining operation. Before the engines are to be turned, the
APU is started, generally by a battery or hydraulic accumulator. Once the APU is
running, it provides power (electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic, depending on the design)
to start the aircraft's main engines. APUs are also used to run accessories while the
engines are shut down. This allows the cabin to be comfortable while the passengers
are boarding before the aircraft's engines are started. Electrical power is used to run
systems for preflight checks. Some APUs are also connected to a hydraulic pump,
allowing crews to operate hydraulic equipment (such as flight controls or flaps) prior
to engine start. This function can also be used, on some aircraft, as a backup in flight
in case of engine or hydraulic failure.
A typical gas turbine APU for commercial transport aircraft comprises three main
sections: Power section, Load compressor section and Gearbox section
➢ SFC
The Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) is equal to the fuel flow (FF) divided by the
available thrust. It is expressed in kg/h.N (kilogram per hour per Newton) and
represents the fuel consumption per thrust unit.
➢ Advantages of jet engines over turboprop
• Aircraft with jet engines are faster.
• Vibrations and noise level are more acceptable.
• More efficient at high altitudes and high cruising speeds.

Company
➢ Fleet size
See Aegean’s Fleet web page

➢ Destinations
Destinations throughout Greece, Europe and Asia. Corporation with Star Alliance
allow for worldwide destination access.

➢ Launch of operations
1999
➢ Aircraft types (engines, systems, pax, ceiling, speed, range, mtow)
Airbus A320 family, see webpage
Roster

➢ Awards
Best Regional Airline in Europe and others.
1 ICAO HOLDING SPEEDS

Levels1 Normal conditions Turbulence conditions

Up to 4250 m (14000 ft) 425 km/h (230 kt) 2 520 km/h (280 kt)3
inclusive 315 km/h (170 kt)4 315 km/h (170 kt)4
Above 4250 m (14000 ft) 445 km/h (240 kt)5 520 km/h (280 kt)
to 6100m (20000 ft) or
inclusive 0.8 Mach,
Above 6100 m (20000 ft ) 490 km/h (265 kt) 5 whichever is less3
to
10350 m (34000 ft)
inclusive
Above 10350 m (34000 ft) 0.83 Mach 0.83 Mach
1. The levels shown represent altitudes or corresponding flight levels depending
upon the altimeter setting in use.
2. When the holding procedure is followed by the initial segment of an instrument
approach procedure promulgated at a speed higher than 425 km/h (230 kt), the
holding should also be promulgated at this higher speed wherever possible.
3. The speed of 520 km/h (280 kt) (0.8 Mach) reserved for turbulence conditions
shall be used for holding only after prior clearance with ATC, unless the relevant
publications indicate that the holding area can accommodate aircraft flight at these
high holding speeds.
4. For holdings limited to CAT A and B aircraft only.
5. Wherever possible, 520 km/h (280 kt) should be used for holding procedures
associated with airway route structures.
Table 1:Holding speeds - Categories A through E

PANS-OPS Second Edition Holding Speeds Applicable to Many of the Presently Published
Holdings

Levels1 Propeller2 aircraft Jet aircraft

Normal conditions Turbulence
conditions
up to 1850 m 315 km/h 390 km/h 520 km/h
inclusive 6000 ft (170 kt) (210 kt) (280 kt) or
above 1850 m to 315 km/h 405 km/h 0.8 Mach whichever
4250 m inclusive (170 kt) (220 kt) is less3
6000 ft to 14000 ft
above 4250 m 325 km/h 445 km/h
14000 ft (175 kt) (240 kt)
1. The levels tabulated represent altitudes or corresponding flight levels depending upon
the altimeter setting in use.
2. Certain types of propeller aircraft may need to hold at higher speeds.
3. The speed of 520 km/h (280 kt) (0.8 Mach) reserved for turbulence conditions shall be
used for holding only after prior clearance with ATC, unless the relevant publications
indicate that the holding area can accommodate aircraft flying at these high holding speeds.
NOTE: Holdings calculated in accordance with the Second Edition criteria should not be
flown at higher holding speeds as the lateral limits of the holding area are larger when the
holding speed is higher. The obstacle clearance or separation may not be guaranteed when
these holdings are flown at the new higher holding speeds.
Holding Speeds Per U.S. FAA Regulations

Levels All aircraft

at 6000 ft or below 200 kt
above 6000 ft to and including 14000 ft 230 kt
above 14000 ft 265 kt
1. Holding patterns from 6001 ft to 14000 ft may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of
210 kt. This nonstandard pattern will be depicted by an icon.
2. Holding patterns at all altitudes may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of 175 kt. This
nonstandard pattern will be depicted by an icon.
3. Holding patterns at USAF airfields only - 310 kt maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
4. Holding patterns at U.S. Navy fields only - 230 kt maximum, unless otherwise depicted.

2 ILS MINIMA/RESTRICTIONS
The ground equipment consists of two highly directional transmitting systems and, along the
approach, three (or fewer) marker beacons. The directional transmitters are known as the
localizer and glide slope transmitters.
The localizer transmitter operates on one of 40 ILS channels within the frequency range of
108.10 to 111.95 MHz. Signals provide the pilot with course guidance to the runway
centerline. The approach course of the localizer is called the front course and is used with
other functional parts, e.g., glide slope, marker beacons, etc. The localizer signal is transmitted
at the far end of the runway. It is adjusted for a course width of (full scale fly-left to a full scale
fly-right) of 700 feet at the runway threshold. Identification is in International Morse Code and
consists of a three-letter identifier preceded by the letter I (••) transmitted on the localizer
frequency.
The localizer provides course guidance throughout the descent path to the runway threshold
from a distance of 18 NM from the antenna between an altitude of 1,000 feet above the
highest terrain along the course line and 4,500 feet above the elevation of the antenna site.
Proper off-course indications are provided throughout the following angular areas of the
operational service volume:
The localizer course is very narrow, normally 5. This results in high needle sensitivity. With this
course width, a full-scale deflection shows when the aircraft is 2.5 to either side of the
centerline. This sensitivity permits accurate orientation to the landing runway. With no more
than onequarter scale deflection maintained, the aircraft will be aligned with the runway.
The UHF glide slope transmitter, operating on one of the 40 ILS channels within the frequency
range 329.15 MHz, to 335.00 MHz radiates its signals in the direction of the localizer front
course. The term “glide path” means that portion of the glide slope that intersects the
localizer.
The glide slope transmitter is located between 750 feet and 1,250 feet from the approach end
of the runway (down the runway) and offset 250 to 650 feet from the runway centerline. It
transmits a glide path beam 1.4 degrees wide (vertically). The signal provides descent
information for navigation down to the lowest authorized decision height (DH) specified in
the approved ILS approach procedure. The glidepath may not be suitable for navigation below
the lowest authorized DH and any reference to glidepath indications below that height must
be supplemented by visual reference to the runway environment. Glidepaths with no
published DH are usable to runway threshold.
The glide path projection angle is normally adjusted to 3 degrees above horizontal so that it
intersects the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at about 1,400 feet above the runway
elevation. The glide slope is normally usable to the distance of 10 NM. However, at some
locations, the glide slope has been certified for an extended service volume which exceeds 10
NM.
Unlike the localizer, the GS transmitter radiates signals only in the direction of the final
approach on the front course. The system provides no vertical guidance for approaches on
the back course. The glidepath is normally 1.4° thick. At 10 NM from the point of touchdown,
this represents a vertical distance of approximately 1,500 feet, narrowing to a few feet at
touchdown.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
1. When installed with the ILS and specified in the approach procedure, DME may be used:
(a) In lieu of the OM;
(b) As a back course (BC) final approach fix (FAF); and
(c) To establish other fixes on the localizer course.
2. In some cases, DME from a separate facility may be used within Terminal Instrument
Procedures (TERPS) limitations:
(a) To provide ARC initial approach segments;
(b) As a FAF for BC approaches; and
(c) As a substitute for the OM.
Marker Beacon
ILS marker beacons have a rated power output of 3 watts or less and an antenna array
designed to produce an elliptical pattern with dimensions, at 1,000 feet above the antenna,
of approximately 2,400 feet in width and 4,200 feet in length. Airborne marker beacon
receivers with a selective sensitivity feature should always be operated in the “low” sensitivity
position for proper reception of ILS marker beacons.
Ordinarily, there are two marker beacons associated with an ILS, the OM and MM. Locations
with a Category II ILS also have an Inner Marker (IM).
(a) The OM normally indicates a position at which an aircraft at the appropriate
altitude on the localizer course will intercept the ILS glide path. (on the localizer front course
4–7 miles from the airport)
(b) The MM indicates a position approximately 3,500 feet from the landing threshold.
This is also the position where an aircraft on the glide path will be at an altitude of
approximately 200 feet above the elevation of the touchdown zone.
(c) The IM will indicate a point at which an aircraft is at a designated decision height
(DH) on the glide path between the MM and landing threshold.
A back course marker normally indicates the ILS back course final approach fix where
approach descent is commenced.
Marker Passage Indications

Marker Code Light

OM --- BLUE
MM •-•- AMBER
IM •••• WHITE
BC •••• WHITE

Compass Locator

Compass locator transmitters are often situated at the MM and OM sites. The transmitters
have a power of less than 25 watts, a range of at least 15 miles and operate between 190 and
535 kHz. At some locations, higher powered radio beacons, up to 400 watts, are used as OM
compass locators. These generally carry Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) information.
Compass locators transmit two letter identification groups. The outer locator transmits the
first two letters of the localizer identification group, and the middle locator transmits the last
two letters of the localizer identification group.
ILS Minimums
The lowest authorized ILS minimums, with all required ground and airborne systems
components operative, are:
Category 1 An Instrument Approach and landing with :
o DH not lower than 60m (200’) and
o Runway Visual Range (RVR) not less than 550m.
Category 2 A precision Instrument Approach and landing with
o DH lower than 60m (200’) but not lower than 30m (100’) and
o RVR not less than 300m.
Category 3A A precision instrument approach and landing with:
o DH lower than 30m (100’), or no DH; and
o RVR not less than 200m.
Category 3B A precision instrument approach and landing with:
 o DH lower than 15m (50’), or no DH; and
o RVR less than 200m but not less than 75m.
Category 3C No DH and no RVR limitations.
NOTE: Special authorization and equipment required for Categories II and III.
o the aeroplane has suitable flight characteristics.
o the aeroplane will be operated by a qualified crew in conformity with laid down
procedures.
o the aerodrome is suitably equipped and maintained.
o it can be shown that the required safety level can be maintained.

Pilots must be alert when approaching the glidepath interception. False courses and reverse
sensing will occur at angles considerably greater than the published path.
CAUTION: Unless the aircraft’s ILS equipment includes reverse sensing capability, when flying
inbound on the back course it is necessary to steer the aircraft in the direction opposite the
needle deflection when making corrections from off-course to oncourse. This “flying away from
the needle” is also required when flying outbound on the front course of the localizer. Do not
use back course signals for approach unless a back course approach procedure is published for
that particular runway and the approach is authorized by ATC.
CAUTION: False glide slope signals may exist in the area of the localizer back course approach
which can cause the glide slope flag alarm to disappear and present unreliable glide slope
information. Disregard all glide slope signal indications when making a localizer back course
approach unless a glide slope is specified on the approach and landing chart.
CAUTION: Avoid flying below the glide path to assure obstacle/terrain clearance is maintained.
Inoperative ILS Components
1. Inoperative localizer. When the localizer fails, an ILS approach is not authorized.
2. Inoperative glide slope. When the glide slope fails, the ILS reverts to a non-
precision localizer approach.
REFERENCE—Jeppesen approach charts include adjustments to minimums due to inoperative
airborne or ground system equipment.
ILS Course Distortion
1. All pilots should be aware that disturbances to ILS localizer and glide slope courses
may occur when surface vehicles or aircraft are operated near the localizer or glide slope
antennas. Most ILS installations are subject to signal interference by either surface vehicles,
aircraft or both. ILS CRITICAL AREAS are established near each localizer and glide slope
antenna.
2. ATC issues control instructions to avoid interfering operations within ILS critical
areas at controlled airports during the hours the Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) is in
operation as follows:
(a) Weather Conditions. Less than ceiling 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles.
(1) Localizer Critical Area. Except for aircraft that land, exit a runway,
depart, or execute a missed approach, vehicles and aircraft are not authorized
in or over the critical area when an arriving aircraft is inside the outer marker
(OM) or the fix used in lieu of the OM. Additionally, when conditions are less
than reported ceiling 200 feet or RVR less than 2,000 feet, do not authorize
vehi cles or aircraft operations in or over the area when an arriving aircraft is
inside the MM, or in the absence of a MM, ½ mile final.
(2) Glide Slope Critical Area. Do not authorize vehicles or aircraft
operations in or over the area when an arriving aircraft is inside the ILS outer
marker (OM), or the fix used in lieu of the OM, unless the arriving aircraft has
reported the runway in sight and is circling or side-stepping to land on another
runway.
(b) Weather Conditions. At or above ceiling 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles.
(1) No critical area protective action is provided under these
conditions.
 (2) A flight crew, under these conditions, should advise the tower that
it will conduct an AUTOLAND or COUPLED approach.
EXAMPLE: Denver Tower, United 1153, Request Autoland/Coupled
Approach (runway)
ATC replies with:
United 1153, Denver Tower, Roger, Critical Areas not protected.
Aircraft holding below 5,000 feet between the outer marker and the airport may cause
localizer signal variations for aircraft conducting the ILS approach. Accordingly, such holding
is not authorized when weather or visibility conditions are less than ceiling 800 feet and/or
visibility 2 miles.
Pilots are cautioned that vehicular traffic not subject to ATC may cause momentary deviation
to ILS course or glide slope signals. Also, critical areas are not protected at uncontrolled
airports or at airports with an operating control tower when weather or visibility conditions
are above those requiring protective measures. Aircraft conducting coupled or autoland
operations should be especially alert in monitoring automatic flight control systems.
ILS Errors
The ILS and its components are subject to certain errors, which are listed below. Localizer and
GS signals are subject to the same type of bounce from hard objects as space waves.
1. Reflection. Surface vehicles and even other aircraft flying below 5,000 feet above
ground level (AGL) may disturb the signal for aircraft on the approach.
2. False courses. In addition to the desired course, GS facilities inherently produce
additional courses at higher vertical angles. The angle of the lowest of these false courses
occurs at approximately 9°– 12°. An aircraft flying the LOC/GS course at a constant altitude
would observe gyrations of both the GS needle and GS warning flag as the aircraft passed
through the various false courses. Getting established on one of these false courses results in
either confusion (reversed GS needle indications) or in the need for a very high descent rate.
However, if the approach is conducted at the altitudes specified on the appropriate approach
chart, these false courses are not encountered.
The Instrument Landing System has several limitations in that indications can be affected by:
• beam bends caused by atmospheric conditions
• scalloping caused by reflections which results in rapid fluctuations of the
needles on the CDI/HIS which are impossible to follow; and
• beam noise generated by the transmitter or due to interference.
The pilot must be alert to the existence of potential problems and constantly cross check the
information which is being received.
• To minimise interference to the ILS transmissions, the rate of landings has to
be kept relatively low, and also vehicle and aircraft movement must be
restricted on the ground, especially during low visibility procedures.
• Pilot’s serviceability checks of the localiser and glide path may be checked by:
ensuring the warning flags are not visible.
 the pilot monitoring the identification signals. Cessation of the Ident means
that the ILS is unserviceable and the procedure must be discontinued
immediately.

3 TORA, TODA-R, ASDA-R, LDA-R

BALANCED FIELD, STOPWAY, CLEARWAY
TORA (Takeoff Run Available)
The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane taking
off. (physical length of rwy)
TORR (Takeoff Run Required)
The measured length required to the rotation speed VR plus 1/3 of the airborne distance
between unstick and screen height. This is factored by a safety margin (usually 15%).
TODA (Take Off Distance Available)
The length of the take off run available (TORA) plus the length of the clearway, where
provided.
TODR (Take Off Distance Required)
The measured length required to the rotation speed VR plus ground distanced climbing to
screen height at a speed not less than T/O Safety Speed (TOSS) or V2. This is factored by a
safety margin (usually 15%).
ASDA (ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE)
The length of the take-off run available plus the length of the stopway, if provided.
ASDR (ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE REQUIRED)
The length of the take-off run to V1 and stop till the end of rwy or swy (if available), in case of
engine failure. This is factored by a safety margin (usually 10%). Distance should not be
affected by reverse thrust.
LDA (LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE)
The length of runway which is declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane
landing. A 50 ft obstacle at the threshold is considered for the calculations.
LDR (LANDING DISTANCE REQUIRED)
Is the distance from the point where the aircraft is 50 ft above ground at a maximum VAT
threshold speed to the point the aircraft reaches fullstop.
CWY (CLEARWAY)
An area beyond the take-off runway under the control of airport authorities within which
terrain or fixed obstacles may not extend above specified limits. These areas may be required
for certain turbine-powered operations and the size and upward slope of the clearway will
differ depending on when the aircraft was certified. It has the following characteristics: It
must:
 • Be centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway, and under the
control of the airport authorities.
• Be expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway
with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%.
• Have a minimum width not less than 152 m (500 feet) wide.
• Have no protruding objects or terrain. Threshold lights may protrude above the
plane, if their height above the end of the runway is 0.66 m (26 in) or less, and if they are
located on each side of the runway.

SWY (STOPWAY)
A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of take-off run available prepared as a
suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off.
The runway may be extended by an area called the stopway. The stopway is an area beyond
the runway, which should have the following characteristics. It must be:
• At least as wide as the runway, and centered upon the extended centerline of the
runway.
• Able to support the airplane during an abortive takeoff, without causing structural
damage to the airplane.
• Designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an
abortive takeoff.
BALANCED FIELD
A balanced field takeoff is a condition where the accelerate-stop distance required (ASDR) is
equal to the takeoff distance required (TODR) for the aircraft weight, engine thrust, aircraft
configuration and runway condition. For a given aircraft weight, engine thrust, aircraft
configuration, and runway condition, the shortest runway length that complies with safety
regulations is the balanced field length.
The rejected takeoff initial actions speed V1, or critical engine-failure recognition speed (Vcef),
is the fastest speed at which the pilot must take the first actions to reject the takeoff (RTO).
At speeds below V1 the aircraft may be brought to a halt before the end of the runway. At V1
the pilot must continue the takeoff even if an emergency is recognized.
Factors affecting the balanced field length include:
• the mass of the aircraft – higher mass results in slower acceleration and higher takeoff
speed
• engine thrust – affected by temperature and air pressure, but reduced thrust can also
be deliberately selected by the pilot
• density altitude – reduced air pressure or increased temperature increases minimum
take off speed
• aircraft configuration such as wing flap position
• runway slope and runway wind component
 • runway conditions – a rough or soft field slows acceleration, a wet or icy field reduces
braking
STOPWAY — An area beyond the takeoff runway no less wide than the runway and centered
upon the extended centerline of the runway, able to support the airplane during an aborted
takeoff, without causing structural damage to the airplane, and designated by the airport
authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an aborted takeoff. It is NOT inclucded
in TORA.
CLEARWAY - A defined rectangular area on the ground or water, at the departure end of the
runway selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may make a portion
of its initial climb to a specified height. This WILL include the Stopway if there is one.
TODA = RUNWAY + CLEARWAY
TORA = RUNWAY only (no STOPWAY or CLEARWAY)
TODR - Depending on the ambient conditions and your weight, your TODR must be < TODA to
takeoff successfully.
TORR - Depending on the ambient conditions and your weight, your TORR must be < TORA to
takeoff successfully.
ASDA = RUNWAY + STOPWAY
ASDR - Depending on the ambient conditions and your weight, your ASDR must be < ASDA to
remain on the confines on the runway during an abort.
Balanced Field Length - TORA = TODA ie. no CLEARWAY
LDA (Landing Distance Available) = RUNWAY minus Displaced Threshold (if any) LDR - needs
to be < LDA to remain on runway during a landing.

4 APPROACH SPEEDS CATEGORIES

MAX CIRCLING
The following ICAO table indicates the specified range of handling speeds (IAS in
Knots) for each category of aircraft to perform the manoeuvres specified. These speed
ranges have been assumed for use in calculating airspace and obstacle clearance for each
procedure.

5 ICAO AERODROME REFERENCE CODE

A simple method for interrelating the numerous specifications concerning the characteristics
of aerodromes so as to provide a series of aerodromes facilities that are suitable for the
aeroplanes that are intended to operate at the aerodrome. It is included in ICAO Annex 14. It
has two 'elements', the first is a numeric code based on the Reference Field Length for which
there are four categories and the second is letter code based on a combination of aircraft
wingspan and outer main gear wheel span. The aerodrome reference code — code number
and letter, which are selected for aerodrome planning purposes, have the meanings assigned
to them as indicated in the table below:
Field length means the balanced field length (which is when the take-off distance required is
equal to the accelerate-stop distance required) if applicable, or take-off distance in other
cases. Aeroplane reference field length is defined as "the minimum field length required for
take-off at maximum certificated take-off mass, at sea level, in ISA conditions in still air and
with zero runway slope as documented in the AFM or equivalent document.

It should be noted that Element 2 is often used on its own since it has direct relevance to
detailed airport design. It also has a parallel but differently defined code use by the FAA, the
Airplane Design Group (ADG)

6 ICAO AERODROME RFFS CATEGORIES

Rescue and Fire Fighting Services (RFFS) is also commonly referred to as Aircraft Rescue and
Fire Fighting (ARFF) and occasionally as Crash Fire Rescue (CFR). In all cases, these terms refer
to the rescue and firefighting services provided at an aerodrome which are specifically
dedicated to the support of safety in aircraft operation. This special category of fire-fighting
involves incident response, hazard mitigation, evacuation and possible rescue of passengers
and crew of an aircraft involved in an aerodrome (or potentially off aerodrome) ground
emergency.

In ICAO’s Airport Service Manual Part 1 it is said that “The level of protection to be provided
at an airport should be based on the dimensions of the aeroplanes”. The first dimension to
take into consideration is the aircraft length and the second is the fuselage width, the reason
for this being that a short but very wide(fuselage-wise) airplane might carry more fuel and
passengers than a short and not-so-wide aircraft. The category-defining specification is, in the
end, the fuselage width.

ICAO defines ten airport categories and specifies the minimum amount of water, dry chemical
powders (or “other complementary agents having equivalent firefighting capability”) and
discharge rates of the crash tenders for each case. Although it is recommended to have
principal and complementary agents, it is implicitly demanded to have both of them at the
airport (in or on the trucks). It is also implicitly demanded a turret on the trucks, as no human
can hold on to a nozzle+hose delivering such great high-pressure discharge rates.
Prior to 2005 the number of aircraft movements was considered and the airport’s RFFS
category could be downgraded to two categories below if there were not many movements
of the largest aircraft during the three busiest consecutive months. Nowadays “during
anticipated periods of reduced activity, the level of protection available shall be no less than
that needed for the highest category of aeroplane planned to use the aerodrome during that
time, irrespective of the number of movements”. After all, it would be possible to downgrade
the category just one level.

If the airport and its approach/departure areas are over the water, swamps or other difficult
environments, more vehicles, suitable to those surroundings, should be available. However,
this does not eliminate the need for having a minimum number of airport firefighting vehicles
or alter in any way the aerodrome’s category.

7 AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE CLASSES

CLASS A (multi-engine JETs and some Turboprops( > 5700kg or > 9 seats)

CLASS B (small propellor)

CLASS C (large reciprocating engine -propellor)

8 ICAO WAKE TURBULANCE CATEGORIES
The ICAO wake turbulence category (WTC) is entered in the appropriate single character wake
turbulence category indicator in Item 9 of the ICAO model flight plan form and is based on the
maximum certificated take-off mass, as follows:

• H (Heavy) aircraft types of 136 000 kg (300 000 lb) or more;

• M (Medium) aircraft types less than 136 000 kg (300 000 lb) and more than 7 000 kg
(15 500 lb); and

• L (Light) aircraft types of 7 000 kg (15 500 lb) or less.

Note:

• Super Heavy for Airbus A380-800 with a maximum take-off mass in the order of 560
000 kg.

State Variations to ICAO Wake Turbulence Category

States may elect to operate variations to the ICAO scheme if they wish. One example of this is
the UK where the main differences are the re-definition of the lower weight end of the ICAO
‘MEDIUM’ category:

An extra category called ‘SMALL’ is defined as aircraft types with an MTOM (maximum take-
off mass) of between 17000 kg and 40000 kg

The ‘LIGHT’ Category defined in the ICAO scheme is extended to cover aircraft types with
an MTOM of up to 17000 kg

In addition an ‘UPPER MEDIUM’ aircraft type category is defined from within the ICAO
‘MEDIUM’ category (only) for approaches made at EGLL EGKK EGSS and EGCC.

9 FINAL APPROACH SEPARATION MINIMA

When surveillance systems are used (based on radar, ADS-B or MLAT) the minimum
separation prescribed by ICAO Doc 4444 is 5 nm (unless otherwise stated by the appropriate
ATS authority). This minimum may be reduced by the appropriate ATS authority but not
below:

• 3 nm when the surveillance systems' capabilities at a given location permit this;

• 2.5 nm between succeeding aircraft which are established on the same final approach
track within 10 nm of the runway threshold.

The following minima shall be applied to aircraft landing behind a HEAVY or a MEDIUM
aircraft:

a) MEDIUM aircraft behind HEAVY aircraft — 2 minutes;

b) LIGHT aircraft behind a HEAVY or MEDIUM aircraft — 3 minutes.

A separation minimum of 2 minutes shall be applied between a LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft and
a HEAVY aircraft and between a LIGHT aircraft and a MEDIUM aircraft when operating on a
runway with a displaced landing threshold when:
a) a departing LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft follows a HEAVY aircraft arrival and a departing LIGHT
aircraft follows a MEDIUM aircraft arrival; or

b) an arriving LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft follows a HEAVY aircraft departure and an arriving
LIGHT aircraft follows a MEDIUM aircraft departure if the projected flight paths are expected
to cross.

The following distance based wake turbulence separation minima shall be applied to aircraft
being provided with an ATS surveillance system (radar like IvAc) in the approach and departure
phases of flight:

During non-radar en-routeor arrival sequence and departure sequence of aircraft, an air traffic
controller shall apply a minimum separation due to wake turbulence phenomena.

The following separation minima for arriving aircraft shall be applied by the air traffic
controller:
10 APPROACH SEGMENTS
An approach procedure consists of five parts or segments. These are:

• The Arrival Segments or Route

• The Initial Segment
• The Intermediate Segment
• The Final Segment

• The Missed Approach Procedure

Arrival Route/Segment.
The arrival segment begins at the point the aircraft departs from the enroute airways system
to begin the instrument arrival. This will normally be a radio navigation facility. If this is
25nm or more from the aerodrome, a standard arrival route (STAR) will be specified). If the
distance is less than 25 nm then the aircraft will route directly from the point of leaving the
airway to the facility serving as the IAF for the procedure. In either case, the enroute MOC is
applied and the altitude specified for the aircraft to be over the IAF is not below the highest
MSA for the aerodrome. It is usual for aircraft to be radar vectored from a convenient point,
to the final approach track.
Initial
In the initial segment, the aircraft is directed to a point at which the intermediate segment
can be intercepted. It starts at the IAF and ends at the IF. Aircraft speed and configuration
will depend upon distance from the aerodrome and any need for descent. MOC (Minimum
Obstacle Clearance) in the initial segment is 300m (984ft). Track guidance is normally
provided with a maximum intercept angle to the IF of 90° for a precision approach and 120°
for a non-precision approach. If track guidance to the IF is not available, a DR (Dead
Reconing) segment may be specified. For the DR segment, the interception angle to the
intermediate segment track must be no greater than 45°, and the length of the DR track, no
more than 10nm. Where a straight-in approach is not feasible or there is no suitable remote
IAF or IF, a track reversal, racetrack or holding pattern is required.
Purpose: To provide a method for aligning your aircraft with the approach course by using an
arc procedure, a course reversal, or by following a route that intersects the final approach
course.
Intermediate
This is the segment in which the aircraft speed and configuration is adjusted to prepare for
the final approach. Descent in this segment is kept to a minimum. It starts at the IF and ends
at the FAF. If no FAF exists, it ends when the aircraft is established on the final inbound
track. The MOC in the intermediate segment reduces from 300m at the IF to 150m at the
end of the segment.
This segment begins at the intermediate fix (IF) which is usually aligned within 30° of the
final approach course. If no fix is shown for this segment then it begins at a point where you
are proceeding inbound to the final approach fix and are properly aligned with the final
approach course.
Purpose: This is designed primarily to position your aircraft for the final descent to the
airport.
Final
The beginning of the final segment depends upon the type of approach and the availability
of a suitable FAF. In this segment, the aircraft is finally configured, alignment with the
runway takes place and descent for landing is commenced.
For a nonprecision approach, the final approach segment begins either at a designated final
approach fix (FAF) or at a point where you are established on the final approach course. For
a non-precision procedure with a FAF, the final segment starts at the FAF and ends at the
MAPt. The FAF will be positioned on the final approach track at a distance from the
threshold of the landing runway that permits aircraft configuration for final
approach/landing and descent from the intermediate altitude to the MDA/H. MOC is
incorporated in the calculation of MDA/H. The optimum distance of the FAF from the
threshold is 5nm and the maximum is 10nm. The required descent gradient should be
300ft/nm (approx 3°). A step-down fix may be incorporated for obstacle clearance purposes
in which case, two OCA/H values will be published.
When an FAF is not designate (on-airport VOR or NDB) this point is typically where the
procedure turn intersects the final approach course inbound and is referred to as the final
approach point (FAP). This situation will normally occur at an aerodrome where there is only
one facility on or near the aerodrome that is used as both the IAF and the MAPt. In this case
it is unlikely that the final approach track will be aligned with the runway centreline and
therefore descent to MDA/H will be made when the aircraft is established inbound on the
final approach track.
For a precision approach the final approach segment begins where the glide slope is
intercepted at the minimum glide slope intercept altitude. For ILS/MLS the final segment
begins at the Final Approach Point (FAP). This is defined as the point in space on localiser
centreline (or the specified MLS azimuth) where the intermediate approach altitude
intercepts the nominal glide path. This can occur at heights between 300m (1000ft) and
900m (3000ft) which in the case of a 3° (300ft/nm) glide path, will be between 3nm and
10nm from touchdown. MOC is included in the calculation for DA/H but requires the pilot to
fly the aircraft with no more than half scale deflection of the CDI. At some point during the
final segment, a fix will be specified where glide path information can be verified.
Constant Approach Slope (Stabilised Approach). Primarily for the avoidance of wake
turbulence separation but also for economy and noise abatement, a procedure known as
stabilised approach has been developed. The procedure requires the aircraft to depart from
the IAF and descend at a constant rate (300ft/min) throughout the procedure. Wake
turbulence separation is only applicable between approaching aircraft where the second
aircraft is at the altitude as, or within 1000ft below, the preceding aircraft. So, by ensuring
that the subsequent aircraft is always above the preceding aircraft there is no requirement
for wake turbulence separation. Control of the rate of descent is achieved by aircraft
attitude negating the need for power changes thus reducing noise. Also, by setting a
constant power, minor economy in fuel usage is achieved which, when multiplied by the
total of the operation, may well represent a considerable economic and environmental
saving.
Purpose: Allows you to navigate safely to a point at which, if the required visual references
are available, you can continue the approach to a landing. If you cannot see the required
cues at the missed approach point, you must execute the missed approach procedure.
Missed Approach
The missed approach segment begins at the missed approach point (MAP) and ends at a
designated point, such as an initial approach or enroute fix. The MAP depends on the type of
approach you are flying. If it’s a precision approach then the MAP occurs when you reach a
designated altitude on the glide slope called the decision height (DH). For a nonprecision
approach it’s when you hit either a fix defined by a navaid or after a specified period of time
has elapsed since crossing the FAF.
Purpose: To allow you to safely navigate from the missed approach point to a point where
you can attempt another approach or continue to another airport.

11 TAKE OFF SEGMENTS

• First Segment: begins at lift off and ends when the landing gear is fully retracted.
The climb requirement in first segment is a positive gradient, out of ground effect,
for two engine aircraft and 0.3% for three engine aircraft. The rotation speed, Vr,
must be selected so that V2 is achieved by the time the aircraft reaches 35 feet in
the air.
• Second Segment: begins at the end of first segment and is continued to not less than
400 feet above the airport elevation. The climb requirement in second segment is
2.4% gradient for two engine aircraft and 2.7% for three engine aircraft. Second
segment is usually, but not always the most limiting of the segments within the
takeoff flight path.

• Third Segment: begins at the end of second segment and ends when the aircraft
reaches the speed for final segment. While third segment is usually flown in level
flight, the available gradient must be at least equal to that required in final segment.
During third segment the high lift devices are retracted.
• Final Segment: begins when the aircraft reaches the final segment speed and ends
when the aircraft reaches 1500 feet above the airport elevation. The climb
requirement in final segment is 1.2% gradient for two engine aircraft and 1.5% for
three engine aircraft. At the beginning of final segment, the power is reduced to
maximum continuous. Each segment must be flown at a constant power setting and
the end of the acceleration segment is often coincident with the end of the five
minute limitation on Takeoff thrust.
There are 4 clearly defined segments following the Takeoff, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th.
• The Takeoff Distance (TOD) ends at a 35 ft 'screen height' above the runway (15ft for
Wet runway, 50 ft if a turning manoeuvre is involved), and at V2 speed. At the end
of the TOD, the Gear is assumed to be DOWN.

• The 1st Segment begins at the end of the TOD, and ends when the Gear is UP. Speed
remains at V2.
• The 2nd Segment begins at the end of the 1st Segment with the Gear UP, Power /
Thrust at Takeoff, and the aircraft in the Takeoff configuration. The 2nd segment
ends at 400 ft above Aerodrome Elevation, or higher if required for obstacle
clearance. The 2nd segment is flown at V2, or limited to V2 plus an allowed margin.
 • The 3rd Segment begins at the end of the 2nd Segment climb with the Gear UP,
Power / Thrust at Takeoff, and the aircraft in the Takeoff configuration. The 3rd
segment is a level accelerating segment, where Flaps / Slats are retracted, and the
aircraft accelerated to the Final Takeoff (Clean) speed, and Power / Thrust then
reduced to Maximum Continuous.

• The 4th Segment begins at the end of the 3rd Segment level acceleration segment
with the aircraft in the Clean configuration, and Maximum Continuous Power /
Thrust set. The 4th segment ends at 1500 ft, or higher if required for obstacle
clearance.

Variation (1) - It is possible that the gear is retracted by the time that the aircraft has
reached 'screen height' at the end of the Takeoff, in which case no 1st segment exists. This is
not a typical case, but does exist.

Variation (2) - It is possible that the time limit for Takeoff thrust may be reached before the
3rd segment is complete, although this is becoming rare with increasing availability of a 10
minute limit. It is then necessary to re-evaluate whether the aircraft has the performance
capability to accomplish the acceleration with MCT, and re-assess the length of the 3rd
segment . Manufacturer's data is rarely available for this, necessitating an alternative
steeper 2nd segment climb, higher than dictated by obstacles, to reach the 3rd segment in a
shorter time, leaving sufficient Takeoff Power / Thrust availability to accomplish the 3rd
segment.
12 SCREEN HEIGHT
DEFINITION, 15', 35', 50'
The height of an imaginary screen which the airplane would just clear at the
end of the runway, or runway and clearway, in an unbanked attitude with the landing
gear extended. It has to do with Takeoff Distance (TOD), which on a dry runway is the
distance covered from the brake release to a point at which the aircraft is 35 feet
above the takeoff surface (50 ft for Class B aircraft), assuming the failure of the critical
engine at VEF (Engine Failure Speed) and recognized at V1. Some references suggest 50
ft for Heavy aircraft.
Indeed, on wet and contaminated runways, the screen height is measured at
15 feet rather than 35 feet on dry runways. This is because TOD is the distance covered
from brake release to a point at which the aircraft is 15 feet above the takeoff surface,
ensuring that the V2 speed can be achieved before the airplane is 35 feet above the
takeoff surface, assuming failure of the critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1

13 BRAKING ACTION DECODE

0.25 POOR - 0.40 GOOD
Braking action in aviation is a description of how easily an aircraft can stop after
landing on a runway. Braking action reports in Europe are an indication/declaration of reduced
friction on a runway due to runway contamination which may impact an aircraft's crosswind
limits. European reports have nothing to do with stopping distances on a runway, though they
should alert pilots that stopping distances will also be affected. Landing distances are
empirically dealt with by landing performance data on dry/wet/contaminated runways for
each aircraft type.

In Europe the format of braking action declarations are given using the Greek term
mu which is the co-efficient of friction:

• Good = a mu value of 0.4 and above; measured snowtam decode is 95

• Med/Good = a mu value of 0.36 to 0.39; measured snowtam decode is 94
• Med = a mu value of 0.30 to 0.35; measured snowtam decode is 93
• Med/Poor = a mu value of 0.26 to 0.29; measured snowtam decode is 92
• Poor = a mu value of 0.25 and below; measured snowtam decode is 91
• UNRELIABLE = reading unreliable; measured snowtam decode is 99 READING
not measurable or not operationally significant; snowtam decode is

Snowtam Format reference is International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

document Annex 15 Appendix 2.
14 WEIGHTS OF AIRCRAFT
BEM, DOM, ZFM, RM, TOM, LM
The aircraft has:
• Basic Empty Weight (BEW) is the weight of the aircraft "as built" and includes
the weight of the structure, power plant, furnishings, installations, systems
and other equipment that are considered an integral part of an aircraft before
additional operator items are added for operation.
• Dry Operating Wieght (DOW) BEW + Weight of Crew (Pilot + Cabin including
their bags) + Pantry
• Operating Weight (OW) DOW + Takeoff fuel (i.e. Ramp Fuel - Taxi fuel)
• Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) DOW + Payload (anything put on the
aircraft that generates revenue to the company, e.g. passenger, baggage,
cargo, mail and fret)
• Maximum Taxi Weight (MTW) MZFW + Ramp fuel
• Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW) MZFW + Takeoff fuel, or MTW - Taxi fuel
• Maximum Landing Weight (MLW) MTOW - Trip Fuel

Or

Basic Empty Mass-BEM (Basic Mass-BM):

is the mass of an aeroplane plus standard items such as:
• Unusable fuel and other unusable fluids
• Lubricating oil in the engine and auxiliary units
• Fire extinguishers
• Emergency oxygen equipment
BEM + Variable Load = Dry Operating Mass (DOM)
VL Variable Load:
• Crew and crew baggage
• Catering and removable passenger service equipment

• Potable water and lavatory chemicals

• Food and beverages
TL Traffic Load: The total mass of passengers, baggage, and cargo, including any non-
revenue load.
ZFM Zero Fuel Mass (ZFM) is DOM plus traffic load but excluding fuel.
DOM + Traffic Load = ZFM
BEM + VL + Traffic Load = ZFM
Ramp mass Or Ramp Weight (RW) is the gross aircraft weight prior to taxi.
Ramp mass = T/O mass + Fuel (start & taxi)
T/o mass Is the mass of the aircraft permitted for take off.
15 COLOUR OF LIGHTS AT THE END OF THE RUNWAYS
1000' RED - 3000' RED AND WHITE
With 3,000 feet remaining, the white lights change to alternating white and red, and
then all red during last 1,000 feet.

16 PLATE ANALYSIS
SYMBOLOGY, (*), (H), TCH 52'
17 NOTAMS DECODING
TYPICAL NOTAM — IN THE SYSTEM NOTAM FORMAT

FORMAT EXPLANATION OF SYSTEM NOTAM

NOTAMN — New NOTAM
NOTAMR — Replaces a previous NOTAM
NOTAMC — Cancels a NOTAM
NOTAMS — SNOWTAM
NOTAM format item Q is divided into eight separate qualifier fields.
a. FIR — ICAO location indicator plus “XX” if applicable to more than one FIR.
b. NOTAM CODE — If the subject of the NOTAM (second and third letter of NOTAM
code) is not in the NOTAM Code , the following letters should be used to reference the subject
category. QAGXX = AGA QCOXX = COM QRCXX = RAC QXXXX = Other
c. TRAFFIC — I = IFR
V = VFR
IV = IFR/VFR
d. PURPOSE— N = Selected for the immediate attention of aircraft operators.
B = Selected for preflight information bulletins.
O = Operationally significant for IFR flights.
M = Miscellaneous.
 e. SCOPE — A = Aerodrome
E = Enroute
W = Navigational warning
f. LOWER — Used when applicable to indicate lower limits of the affected area.
Default value of 000 is used when limit is not defined.
g. UPPER — Used when applicable to indicate upper limit of the affected area. Default
value of 999 is used when limit is not defined.
h. COORDINATES RADIUS — Latitude and longitude present approximate center of a
circle whose radius encompasses the whole area of influence.
NOTAM format items A thru G provide information on location, times, changes and limits.
A) ICAO location indicator of aerodrome or FIR.
B) Ten figure date-time group indicating when the NOTAM comes into force.
C) Ten figure date-time group or PERM indicating the duration of the NOTAM. If the duration
of the NOTAM is uncertain, the approximate duration must be indicated using the date-time
group followed by EST.

D) Specified periods for changes being reported, otherwise omitted.

E) Decoded NOTAM code in plain language. ICAO abbreviations may be used where
appropriate.

F) These items are normally applicable to navigational warnings or airspace restrictions clearly
indicating reference datum and units of measurement. Item F provides the lower limit and
item G provides the upper limit.

PREVIOUS NOTAM FORMAT AND EXPLANATION

A) ICAO location indicator of aerodrome or FIR.

B) Eight figure date-time group, WIE (with immediate effect), or WEF (with effect from)
indicating when the NOTAM comes into force.

C) Eight figure date-time group, PERM, or UFN (until further notice) indicating the duration of
the NOTAM. If the duration of the NOTAM is UFN, the approximate duration of the
information should also be indicated.

D) Specified periods for changes being reported, otherwise omitted.

E) NOTAM code, abbreviated plain language or both.

F) & G) These items are normally applicable to navigational warnings or airspace restrictions
clearly indicating reference datum and units of measurement.
18 NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS
MORA, MOCA, MAA, MCA, MOUNTAINOUS AREA DEFINITION
 MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDE (MORA) — This is an altitude derived by Jeppesen.
The MORA provides known obstruction clearance 10NM either side of the route centerline
including a 10NM radius beyond the radio fix reporting or mileage break defining the route
segment. For terrain and man-made structure clearance refer to Grid MORA.
MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE ALTITUDE (MOCA) — The lowest published
altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways, off airway routes, or route segments
which meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route segment and in the USA
assures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 22NM of a VOR.
MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE (MAA) — A published altitude representing the
maximum usable altitude or flight level for an airspace structure or route segment.
MINIMUM CROSSING ALTITUDE (MCA) — The lowest altitude at certain fixes at which
an aircraft must cross when proceeding in the direction of a higher minimum enroute IFR
altitude (MEA).
MOUNTAINOUS AREA (ICAO) — An area of changing terrain profile where the
changes of terrain elevation exceed 900m (3000ft) within a distance of 10NM.
19 HOLDING PROCEDURES
Extracted from ICAO Document 8168, Volume I - Fifth Edition - Procedures for Air Navigation
Services - AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS, Flight Procedures, herein known as PANS-OPS.

HOLDING CRITERIA

1.1.1 To ensure that aircraft remain in the protecting holding areas, pilots shall use established
error check procedures to reduce the effects of operating errors, data errors or equipment
malfunction.

1.1.3 The procedures described in this chapter are related to right turn holding patterns. For
left turn holding patterns, the corresponding entry and holding procedures are symmetrical
with respect to the inbound holding track.

Speeds

Holding patterns shall be entered and flown at or below the appropriate airspeeds.

NOTE: The speeds given are rounded to the nearest multiple of five for operational reasons.
From the standpoint of operational safety, these speeds are considered to be equivalent to the
unrounded originals.

Bank angle/rate of turn

All turns are to be made at a bank angle of 25° or at a rate of 3° per second, whichever requires
the lesser bank.
Allowance for known wind

All procedures depict tracks. Pilots should attempt to maintain the track by making allowance
for known wind by applying corrections both to heading and timing. This should be done
during entry and while flying in the holding pattern.

Start of outbound timing

Outbound timing begins over or abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed.

Outbound leg length based on a DME distance

If the outbound leg length is based on a DME distance, then the outbound leg terminates as
soon as the limiting DME distance is reached.

Limiting radials

1.3.6.1 In the case of holding away from the station, where the distance from the holding fix
to the VOR/DME station is short, a limiting radial may be specified. A limiting radial may also
be specified where airspace conservation is essential.

1.3.6.2 If the limiting radial is reached before the limiting DME distance, this radial should be
followed until a turn inbound is initiated. The turn should be initiated at the latest where the
limiting DME distance is reached.

ATC notification

If for any reason a pilot is unable to conform to the procedures for normal conditions, air
traffic control should be advised as early as possible.

ENTRY

1.4.1 The entry into the holding pattern shall be according to heading in relation to the three
entry sectors, recognizing a zone of flexibility of 5° on either side of the sector boundaries.

1.4.2 For holding on a VOR intersection, the entry track is limited to the radials forming the
intersection.

1.4.3 For holding on a VOR/DME fix, the entry track is limited to:

a. the VOR radial;

b. the DME arc; or

c. the entry radial to a VOR/DME fix at the end of the outbound leg, as published.
Sector 1 entry

Sector 1 procedure (parallel entry):

a. at the fix, the aircraft is turned left onto an outbound heading for the appropriate
period of time; then

b. the aircraft is turned left onto the holding side to intercept the inbound track or to
return to the fix; and then

c. on second arrival over the holding fix, the aircraft is turned right to follow the
holding pattern.

Sector 2 entry

Sector 2 procedure (offset entry):

a. at the fix, the aircraft is turned onto a heading to make good a track making an
angle of 30° from the reciprocal of the inbound track on the holding side; then

b. the aircraft will fly outbound:

1. for the appropriate period of time, where timing is specified; or

2. until the appropriate limiting DME distance is reached, where distance is

specified. If a limiting radial is also specified, then the outbound distance is
determined either by limiting DME distance or the limiting radial, whichever comes
first;

c. the aircraft is turned right to intercept the inbound holding track; and

d. on second arrival over the holding fix, the aircraft is turned right to follow the
holding pattern.
Sector 3 entry

Sector 3 procedure (direct entry): Having reached the fix, the aircraft is turned right to follow
the holding pattern.

DME arc entry

DME arc entry: at the fix, the aircraft shall enter the holding pattern in accordance with either
the Sector 1 or Sector 3 entry procedure.

Special entry procedure for VOR/DME holding

NOTE: Where a special entry procedure is used, the entry radial is clearly depicted.

Time/distance outbound

The still air time for flying the outbound entry heading should not exceed:

a. one minute if at or below 4250 m (14000 ft); or

b. one and one-half minutes if above 4250 m (14000 ft).

Where DME is available, the length of the outbound leg may be specified in terms of distance
instead of time.

Still air condition

a. Having entered the holding pattern, on the second and subsequent arrivals over
the fix, the aircraft turns to fly an outbound track which will most appropriately position the
aircraft for the turn onto the inbound track;

b. It continues outbound:

1. where timing is specified:

(a) for one minute if at or below 4250 m (14000 ft); or

(b) for one and one-half minutes if above 4250 m (14000 ft);

2. where distance is specified until the appropriate limiting DME distance is

reached; then

c. the aircraft turns so as to realign itself on the inbound track.

Corrections for wind effect

Due allowance should be made in both heading and timing to compensate for the effects of
wind to ensure the inbound track is regained before passing the holding fix inbound. In making
these corrections, full use should be made of the indications available from the navaid and
estimated or known wind.

Departing the pattern

When clearance is received specifying the time of departure from the holding point, the pilot
should adjust the pattern within the limits of the established holding procedure in order to
leave the holding point at the time specified.
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE in HOLDING AREA
The holding area includes the basic holding area and the entry area. The basic holding area is
the airspace required for a holding pattern at specified level, based on the allowances for
aircraft speed, wind effect, timing errors, holding fix characteristics, etc. The entry area is the
airspace required for the entry procedure.

BUFFER AREA

An additional buffer area extends 9.3 km (5.0 NM) beyond the boundary of the holding area.
Significant obstacles in the buffer area are taken into consideration when determining the
minimum holding level.

MINIMUM HOLDING LEVEL

2.3.1 The minimum permissible holding level provides a clearance of at least:

a. 300 m (984 ft) above obstacles in the holding area;

b. one of the values shown in next image above obstacles in the buffer area.

The minimum holding altitude to be published shall be rounded up to the nearest 50 m or 100
ft as appropriate.

Obstacle clearance over high terrain or in mountainous areas

Over high terrain or in mountainous areas, additional obstacle clearance up to a total of 600
m (1969 ft) is provided to accommodate the possible effects of turbulence, down drafts and
other meteorological phenomena on the performance of altimeters.

Distance beyond the Minimum obstacle clearance over low flat terrain
boundary of the holding Metres Feet
area
0 to 1.9 km (0 to 1.0 NM) 300 984
1.9 to 3.7 km (1.0 to 2.0 NM) 150 492
3.7 to 5.6 km (2.0 to 3.0 NM) 120 394
5.6 to 7.4 km (3.0 to 4.0 NM) 90 295
7.4 to 9.3 km (4.0 to 5.0 NM) 60 197
Category H
0 to 3.7 km (0 to 2.0 NM) Linear Linear
300 to 0 984 to 0
20 QDM, QDR
QDM Magnetic bearing to facility (course)

QDR Magnetic bearing from facility (radial)

21 APPROACH BAN
An approach procedure, for which continuation is prohibited beyond a specific point, and or
specified height, if the reported visibility or RVR is below the minimum specified for that
approach.

? You can think of it as the U.S. 14 CFR 135 rule that says you can't take off unless you have
what it takes to land at your destination. Too heavy to land? Can't takeoff. Weather great
here, bad there? Can't takeoff. Simple. It is the ICAO Law of the Land, but there are exceptions.

ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices

Commercial Aviation

[ICAO Annex 6, Part I, ¶4.2.8.1 Aerodrome operating minima] The State of the Operator shall
require that the operator establish aerodrome operating minima for each aerodrome to be
used in operations and shall approve the method of determination of such minima. Such
minima shall not be lower than any that may be established for such aerodromes by the State
in which the aerodrome is located, except when specifically approved by that State.
Note 1.— This Standard does not require the State in which the aerodrome is located to
establish aerodrome operating minima.

Note 2.— The use of head-up displays (HUD) or enhanced vision systems (EVS) may allow
operations with lower visibilities than normally associated with the aerodrome operating
minima.

[ICAO Annex 6, Part I, ¶4.4.1 Aerodrome operating minima]

4.4.1.1 A flight shall not be continued towards the aerodrome of intended landing, unless the
latest available information indicates that at the expected time of arrival, a landing can be
effected at that aerodrome or at least one destination alternate aerodrome, in compliance
with the operating minima established in accordance with 4.2.8.1.

4.4.1.2 An instrument approach shall not be continued beyond the outer marker fix in case of
precision approach, or below 300 m (1 000 ft) above the aerodrome in case of non-precision
approach, unless the reported visibility or controlling RVR is above the specified minimum.

4.4.1.3 If, after passing the outer marker fix in case of precision approach, or after descending
below 300 m (1 000 ft) above the aerodrome in case of non-precision approach, the reported
visibility or controlling RVR falls below the specified minimum, the approach may be continued
to DA/H or MDA/H. In any case, an aeroplane shall not continue its approach-to-land at any
aerodrome beyond a point at which the limits of the operating minima specified for that
aerodrome would be infringed.

Note.— Controlling RVR means the reported values of one or more RVR reporting locations
(touchdown, mid-point and stop-end) used to determine whether operating minima are or
are not met. Where RVR is used, the controlling RVR is the touchdown RVR, unless otherwise
specified by State criteria.

EASA Exception

The rules in Europe, at one point, were known as JAA OPS but that gave way to EU Ops under
the EASA.

[Commission Regulation (EU) No 965, ¶CAT.OP.MPA.305]

1. The commander or the pilot to whom conduct of the flight has been delegated may
commence an instrument approach regardless of the reported RVR/VIS.

You can start the approach regardless of weather, but there is a limit to how low you can go .
..

2. If the reported RVR/VIS is less than the applicable minimum the approach shall not be
continued:

1. below 1 000 ft above the aerodrome; or

2. into the final approach segment in the case where the DA/H or MDA/H is more than
1 000 ft above the aerodrome.

3. Where the RVR is not available, RVR values may be derived by converting the reported
visibility.
4. If, after passing 1 000 ft above the aerodrome, the reported RVR/VIS falls below the
applicable minimum, the approach may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H.

If the visibility then goes below, you can continue to the DA/H or MDA/H.

5. The approach may be continued below DA/H or MDA/H and the landing may be
completed provided that the visual reference adequate for the type of approach operation
and for the intended runway is established at the DA/H or MDA/H and is maintained.

And if you have the reference you need to land at that point, you may.

22 NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES

NADP1 - NADP2
ICAO Document 8168, Volume I - Fifth Edition - Procedures for Air Navigation
Services - AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS, Flight Procedures

Nothing in these procedures shall prevent the pilot-in-command from exercising authority for
the safe operation of the aeroplane. Noise abatement procedures shall not be implemented
except where a need for such procedures has been determined.

They can comprise any one or more of the following:

a. use of noise preferential runways to direct the initial and final flight paths of
aeroplanes away from noise-sensitive areas;

b. use of noise preferential routes to assist aeroplanes in avoiding noise-sensitive

areas on departure and arrival, including the use of turns to direct aeroplanes away from
noise-sensitive areas located under or adjacent to the usual take-off and approach flight
paths; and

c. use of noise abatement take-off or approach procedures, designed to minimize the

overall exposure to noise on the ground and at the same time maintain the required levels of
flight safety.

Noise abatement shall not be determining factor in runway nomination under the following
circumstances:

a. if the runway surface conditions are adversely affected (e.g. by snow, slush, ice,
water, mud, rubber, oil or other substances);

b. for landing in conditions:

1. when the ceiling is lower than 150 m (500 ft) above aerodrome elevation
or the visibility is less than (1900 m); or,

2. when the approach requires vertical minima greater than 100 m (300 ft)
above aerodrome elevation and:

(a) the ceiling is lower than 240 m (800 ft) above aerodrome
elevation; or

(b) the visibility is less than 3000 m;

 c. for take-off when the visibility is less than 1900 m;

d. when wind shear has been reported or forecast or when thunderstorms are
expected to affect the approach or departure;

e. when the crosswind component, including gusts, exceeds 28 km/h (15 kt), or the
tailwind component, including gusts, exceeds 9 km/h (5 kt).

In establishing noise preferential routes:

a. turns during take-off and climb should not be required unless:

1. the aeroplane has reached (and can maintain throughout the turn) a height
of not less than 150 m (500 ft) above terrain and the highest obstacles under the flight
path;

2. the bank angle for turns after take-off is limited to 15° except where
adequate provision is made for an acceleration phase permitting attainment of safe
speeds for bank angles greater than 15°;

b. no turns should be required coincident with a reduction of power associated with

a noise abatement procedure; and

c. sufficient navigation guidance should be provided to permit aeroplanes to adhere

to the designated route.

Departure climb

a. Initial power or thrust reductions shall not be executed below a height of 240 m (800 ft)
above the aerodrome elevation.

b. The level of power or thrust for the flap/slat configuration, after power or thrust
reduction,shall not be less than:

1. for aeroplanes in which derated take-off thrust and climb thrust are computed by
the flight management system, the computed climb power/thrust; or

2. for other aeroplanes, normal climb power/thrust.

APPROACH

In noise abatement approach procedures which are developed:

a. the aeroplane shall not be required to be in any configuration other than the final
landing configuration at any point after passing the outer marker or 5 NM from the threshold
of the runway of intended landing, whichever is earlier; and

b. excessive rates of descent shall not be required.

Τhe following safety considerations shall be take fully into account:

a. glide path or approach angles should not require an approach to be made:

1. above the ILS glide path angle;

2. above the glide path of the visual approach slope indicator system;

3. above the normal PAR final approach angle; and

 4. above an angle of 3° except where it has been necessary to establish, for
operational purposes, an ILS with a glide path angle greater than 3°;

b. the pilot should not be required to complete a turn on to final approach at distances
less than will:

1. in the case of visual operations, permit an adequate period of stabilized

flight on final approach before crossing the runway threshold; or

2. in the case of instrument approaches, permit the aircraft to be established

on final approach prior to interception of the glide path.

Compliance with published noise abatement approach procedures should not be required in
adverse operating conditions such as:

a. if the runway is not clear and dry, i.e. it is adversely affected by snow, slush, ice or
water, mud, rubber, oil or other substances;

b. in conditions when the ceiling is lower than 150 m (500 ft) above aerodrome
elevation, or when the horizontal visibility is less than 1.9 km (1 NM);

c. when the crosswind component, including gusts, exceeds 28 km/h (15 kt);

d. when the tailwind component, including gusts, exceeds 9 km/h (5 kt); and

e. when wind shear has been reported or forecast or when adverse weather
conditions, e.g. thunderstorms, are expected to affect the approach.

The first example (NADP 1) is intended to describe one method, but not the only method, of
providing noise reduction for noise-sensitive areas in close proximity to the departure end of
the runway.

The second example (NADP 2) similarly describes one method, but not the only method, of
providing noise reduction to areas more distant from the runway end

NOISE ABATEMENT DEPARTURE CLIMB - EXAMPLE OF A PROCEDURE ALLEVIATING NOISE

CLOSE TO THE AERODROME (NADP 1)

This procedure involves a power or thrust reduction at or above the prescribed minimum
altitude (240 m/800 ft above aerodrome elevation) and the delay of flap/slat retraction until
the prescribed maximum altitude is attained. At the prescribed maximum altitude (900
m/3000 ft above aerodrome elevation), the aircraft is accelerated and the flaps/slats are
retracted on schedule while maintaining a positive rate of climb, to complete the transition to
normal en-route climb speed. The initial climbing speed to the noise abatement initiation
point is not less than V2 plus 20 km/h (V2 plus 10 kt).

NOISE ABATEMENT DEPARTURE CLIMB - EXAMPLE OF A PROCEDURE ALLEVIATING NOISE

DISTANT FROM THE AERODROME (NADP 2)

3.1 This procedure involves initiation of flap/slat retraction at or above the prescribed
minimum altitude (240 m/800 ft above aerodrome elevation) but before reaching the
prescribed maximum altitude (900 m/3000 ft above aerodrome elevation). The flaps/slats are
to be retracted on schedule while maintaining a positive rate of climb. Intermediate flap
retraction, if required for performance, may be accomplished below the prescribed minimum
altitude. The power or thrust reduction is initiated at a point along the acceleration segment
that ensures satisfactory acceleration performance. At the prescribed maximum altitude, a
transition is made to normal en-route climb procedures. The initial climbing speed to the noise
abatement initiation point is not less than V2 plus 20 km/h (V2 plus 10kt).

Noise Abatement Departure Procedure A (NADP A)

Take-off to 450 m (1500 ft) above aerodrome elevation:

– take-off power

– take-off flap

– climb at V2 + 20 to 40 km/h (V2 + 10 to 20 kt) (or as limited by body angle).

At 450 m (1500 ft):

– reduce thrust to not less than climb power/thrust.

At 450 m (1500 ft) to 900 m (3000 ft):

– climb at V2 + 20 to 40 km/h (V2 + 10 to 20 kt).

At 900 m (3000 ft):

– accelerate smoothly to enroute climb speed with flap retraction on schedule.

Noise Abatement Departure Procedure B (NADP B)

Take-off to 300 m (1000 ft) above aerodrome elevation:

– take-off power/thrust

– take-off flap

– climb at V2 + 20 to 40 km/h (V2 + 10 to 20 kt).

At 300 m (1000 ft):

– maintaining a positive rate of climb, accelerate to zero flap minimum safe manoeuvring
speed (VZF ) retracting flap on schedule; thereafter, reduce thrust consistent with the
following:

a. for high by-pass ration engines reduce to normal climb power/thrust;

b. for low by-pass ratio engines, reduce power/thrust to below normal climb thrust but not
less than that necessary to maintain the final take-off engine-out climb gradient; and

c. for aeroplanes with slow flap retracting reduce power/thrust at an intermediate flap setting;
thereafter, from 300 m (1000 ft) to 900 m (3000 ft):

– continue climb at not greater than VZF + 20 km/h (VZF + 10 kt).

At 900 m (3000 ft):

– accelerate smoothly to enroute climb speed.

23 RVR - VISIBILITY CONVERSION TABLE

RVR-VISIBILITY DEFINITIONS, MINIMA FOR PRECISION OR NON PRECISION

Runway Visual Range (RVR): The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of
a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centre line.
• Aerodromes may include a letter indicator R followed by the runway designator, a"/"
and the touchdown zone RVR in metres, e.g. R06/0400. If the RVR is assessed on 2 or
more runways simultaneously then the RVR group will be repeated.
• Parallel runways will have L, C, or R added to the runway designator e.g. R24L/1100.
 • If the RVR is greater than the maximum value that can be measured, P will precede
this value e.g. R24L/P1500.
• If the RVR is less than the minimum value that can be measured , M will precede this
value e.g. R24L/M0050.
• If RVR trends can be measured then U, D, or N will follow the RVR value to indicate
increasing, decreasing or no change respectively.
VISIBILITY (ICAO) — The ability, as determined by atmospheric conditions and expressed in units
of distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent lighted
objects by night.
a. Flight Visibility — The visibility forward from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight.
b. Ground Visibility — The visibility at an aerodrome as reported by an accredited observer.
c. Runway Visual Range (RVR) — The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centerline
of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centerline.
Visibility Reported in a four figure group (e.g. 0400 = 400 metres; 8000 = 8 km) up to but
excluding 10 km; 9999 = 10km or more; 0000 = less than 50 metres visibility.
CMV (Converted Met Visibility)
A value equivalent to an RVR which is derived from the reported meteorological visibility, as
converted in accordance with the specified. The RVR/CMV derived from the table below may
be used by an operator to commence or continue an approach to the applicable DA/MDA. An
Operator should ensure that a meteorological visibility to RVR conversion is not used for
takeoff, for calculating any other required RVR minimum less than 800 m, for visual/circling
approaches, or when reported RVR is available.
The only time you can use converted visibility is:
a) No RVR measurement available and either
b) CAT I ILS, or
c) Straight-in NPA
CMV = Reported Meteorological Visibility x Conversion Factor
High intensity approach and runway lights 1.5 (day) 2.0 (night)
Any type of light installation other than above 1.0 (day) 1.5 (night)
No lights 1.0 Not applicable
RVR for non-precision approach
Required RVR. The lowest minima to be used by an operator for non-precision approaches are:
RVR for non-precision approach — full facilities
Non-precision approach minima Full facilities (Notes 1, 5, 6 and 7)
MDH versus RVR/Aeroplane Category

RVR for non-precision approach — intermediate facilities

Non-precision approach minima Intermediate facilities (Notes 2, 5, 6 and 7)
MDH versus RVR/Aeroplane Category

RVR for non-precision approach — basic facilities

Non-precision approach minima Basic facilities (Notes 3, 5, 6 and 7)
MDH versus RVR/Aeroplane Category

RVR for non-precision approach — Nil approach light facilities

Non-precision approach minima Nil approach light facilities (Notes 4, 5, 6 and 7)
MDH versus RVR/Aeroplane Category
Note 1: Full facilities comprise runway markings, 720 m or more of HI/MI approach lights,
runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
Note 2: Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420-719 m of HI/MI approach lights,
runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
Note 3: Basic facilities comprise runway markings, less than 420 m of HI/MI approach lights,
runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
Note 4: Nil approach light facilities comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold
lights, runway end lights or no lights at all.
Note 5: The tables are only applicable to conventional approaches with a nominal descent slope
of not greater than 4°. Greater descent slopes will usually require that visual glide slope
guidance (e.g. PAPI) is also visible at the minimum descent height.
Note 6: The above figures are either reported RVR or meteorological visibility converted to RVR
as in subparagraph (h) below
Note 7: The MDH mentioned in Table 4a, 4b, 4c and 4d refers to the initial calculation of MDH.
When selecting the associated RVR, there is no need to take account of a rounding up to the
nearest ten feet, which may be done for operational pur- poses, e.g. conversion to MDA.

24 RESERVE FUEL
The final reserve fuel is the minimum fuel required to fly for 30 minutes at 1,500 feet above
the alternate airport or destination airport, if an alternate is not required, at holding speed in
ISA conditions.

25 ALTERNATE, ISOLATED AERODROME

An alternate aerodrome is an aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes
either impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or to land at the aerodrome of intended
landing.

An alternate aerodrome must comply with the following conditions throughout the period for
which it is nominated as an alternate aerodrome:

▪ The aerodrome must be open;

▪ The airfield condition (available runway length, strength, etc.) must be suitable for the
safe operation of the aircraft type;

▪ The status of electronic equipment must be suitable to permit safe operation in the
expected weather conditions;
 ▪ The weather conditions must be sufficient to permit safe operation of the aircraft.

The following information is taken from ICAO Annex 6, Chapter 4.

Isolated aerodrome

If acceptable to the Authority, the destination aerodrome can be considered as an isolated

aerodrome, if the fuel required (diversion plus final) to the nearest adequate destination
alternate aerodrome is more than:

-For aeroplanes with reciprocating engines, fuel to fly for 45 minutes plus 15 % of the flight
time planned to be spent at cruising level or two hours, whichever is less; or
-For aeroplanes with turbine engines, fuel to fly for two hours at normal cruise consumption
above the destination aerodrome, including final reserve fuel.

26 DIHEDRAL ANGLE
Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tail-plane of a fixed-wing
aircraft.

27 CHORD LINE
An imaginary straight line drawn between the leading edge and the trailing edge of an aerofoil,
in the direction of the normal airflow, is referred to as a Chord Line.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord is the average chord length of a tapered, swept wing.

The distance between the leading and trailing edge of the wing, measured parallel to the
normal airflow over the wing, is known as the chord. If the leading edge and trailing edge are
parallel, the chord of the wing is constant along the wing’s length. Most commercial transport
airplanes have wings that are both tapered and swept with the result that the width of the
wing changes along its entire length. The width of the wing is greatest where it meets the
fuselage at the wing root and progressively decreases toward the tip. As a consequence, the
chord also changes along the span of the wing. The average length of the chord is known as
the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).

In large aircraft, centre of gravity limitations and the actual centre of gravity are often
expressed in terms of percent MAC.

28 AEROFOIL
An aerofoil is the term used to describe the cross-sectional shape of an object that, when
moved through a fluid such as air, creates an aerodynamic force. Aerofoils are employed on
aircraft as wings to produce lift or as propeller blades to produce thrust. Both these forces are
produce perpendicular to the air flow. Drag is a consequence of the production of lift/thrust
and acts parallel to the airflow.
29 ANGLE OF ATTACK
The angle of attack (AoA) represents the angle between the aircraft axis and the aerodynamic
axis (speed vector axis tangent to the flight path).

30 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
On fixed-wing aircraft, the angle of incidence (sometimes referred to as the mounting angle)
is the angle between the chord line of the wing where the wing is mounted to the fuselage,
and a reference axis along the fuselage (often the direction of minimum drag, or where
applicable, the longitudinal axis). The angle of incidence is fixed in the design of the aircraft,
and with rare exceptions, cannot be varied in flight.

31 VORTEX GENERATOR FENCES

A vortex generator (VG) is an aerodynamic device, consisting of a small vane usually attached
to a lifting surface (or airfoil, such as an aircraft wing) or a rotor blade of a wind turbine. VGs
may also be attached to some part of an aerodynamic vehicle such as an aircraft fuselage or
a car. When the airfoil or the body is in motion relative to the air, the VG creates a vortex,
which, by removing some part of the slow-moving boundary layer in contact with the airfoil
surface, delays local flow separation and aerodynamic stalling, thereby improving the
effectiveness of wings and control surfaces, such as flaps, elevators, ailerons, and rudders.

32 DUTCH ROLL
Dutch roll is a type of aircraft motion, consisting of an out-of-phase combination of "tail-
wagging" and rocking from side to side. This motion is normally well damped in most light
aircraft, though some aircraft with well-damped Dutch roll modes can experience a
degradation in damping as airspeed decreases and altitude increases. Dutch roll stability can
be artificially increased by the installation of a yaw damper. Wings placed well above the
center of mass, sweepback (swept wings) and dihedral wings tend to increase the roll
restoring force, and therefore increase the Dutch roll tendencies; this is why high-winged
aircraft often are slightly anhedral, and transport-category swept-wing aircraft are equipped
with yaw dampers.
The most common mechanism of Dutch roll occurrence is a moment of yawing motion which
can be caused by any number of factors. As a swept-wing aircraft yaws (to the right, for
instance), the left wing becomes less-swept than the right wing in reference to the relative
wind. Because of this, the left wing develops more lift than the right wing causing the aircraft
to roll to the right. This motion continues until the yaw angle of the aircraft reaches the point
where the vertical stabilizer effectively becomes a wind vane and reverses the yawing motion.
As the aircraft yaws back to the left, the right wing then becomes less swept than the left
resulting in the right wing developing more lift than the left. The aircraft then rolls to the left
as the yaw angle again reaches the point where the aircraft wind-vanes back the other
direction and the whole process repeats itself. The average duration of a Dutch roll half-cycle
is 2 to 3 seconds.

33 LIFT FORMULA
L=1/2*CL*S*ρ*V²
Weight = mg = ½ ρ S V 2 CL

With m = Aircraft mass

g = Gravitational acceleration

ρ = Air density

S = Wing area

CL = lift coefficient

The lift coefficient, CL, is a function of the angle of attack (α), the Mach number (M),
and the aircraft configuration.
34 TYPE OF HYDROPLANING
DYNAMIC, VISCUS, REVERTED TUBE
The presence of water on the runway creates an intervening water film between the tire and
the runway, leading to a reduction of the dry area. This phenomenon becomes more critical
at higher speeds, where the water cannot be squeezed out from between the tire and the
runway. Aquaplaning (or hydroplaning) is a situation where the tires of the aircraft are, to a
large extent, separated from the runway surface by a thin fluid film. Under these conditions,
tire traction drops to almost negligible values along with aircraft wheels’ braking; wheel
steering for directional control is, therefore, virtually ineffective.

Aquaplaning speed depends on tire pressure, and on the specific gravity of the contaminant
(i.e. how dense the contaminant is).

VAQUAPLANING (kt) = 34 (PT/σ)0.5

With PT = tire pressure (kg/cm2)

σ = specific gravity of the contaminant

In other words, the aquaplaning speed is a threshold at which friction forces are severely
diminished. Performance calculations on contaminated runways take into account the
penalizing effect of hydroplaning.

The three basic types of hydroplaning are dynamic hydroplaning, reverted rubber
hydroplaning, and viscous hydroplaning. Any one of the three can render an airplane partially
or totally uncontrollable anytime during the landing roll.

Dynamic hydroplaning happens when water lifts your wheels off the runway. This usually
happens when a wedge of water builds up in front of your tires and lifts them off the runway.
Dynamic hydroplaning is a relatively high-speed phenomenon and happens at about 8.6 times
the square root of your tire pressure.

Reverted rubber (steam) hydroplaning occurs during heavy braking that results in a
prolonged locked-wheel skid. Only a thin film of water on the runway is required to facilitate
this type of hydroplaning. It happens when your tires lock up, the rubber begins to melt, and
trapped water under the tire turns into steam. When it happens, you're riding on steam, and
melting your tires in the process.

Viscous hydroplaning is due to the viscous properties of water. A thin film of fluid no more
than one thousandth of an inch in depth is all that is needed. The tire cannot penetrate the
fluid and the tire rolls on top of the film. This can occur at a much lower speed than dynamic
hydroplane, but requires a smooth or smooth acting surface such as asphalt or a touchdown
area coated with the accumulated rubber of past landings. Such a surface can have the same
friction coefficient as wet ice.

35 DEEP STALL
A deep stall or a super stall is a condition where the wake of the wing impinges on the tail
surface and renders it almost ineffective. The wing is fully stalled, so the airflow on its upper
surface separates right after the leading edge, which produces a wide wake of decelerated,
turbulent air.

36 STALL PROTECTION
Stall protection is achieved with stall warner’s and stick pushers. An aircraft Stall Warning
System is that system which provides the pilot with advance warning of an impending stall.
The regulatory requirements for a Transport Category Aircraft are somewhat more robust and
the regulations themselves are more prescriptive. As examples:

• When the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding one knot per second, the stall
warning, in each normal configuration, must begin at a speed (Vsw) which exceeds
the stall speed by not less than five knots or by five percent of the calibrated airspeed,
whichever is greater. Once initiated, the stall warning must continue until the angle
of attack is reduced to approximately that at which the stall warning began
• During decelerating turns, with a load factor of at least 1.5g and airspeed reductions
of at least two knots per second with flaps and gear in any normal position, the stall
warning margin must be sufficient to allow the pilot to prevent stalling when the
recovery is initiated not less than one second after the onset of the stall warning
• Stall warning must be provided in each abnormal configuration of the high lift devices
that is likely to be used in the event of a system failure inclusive of all configurations
addressed by AFM procedures.

Some of the most common stall warning systems are as follows:

• Pre-Stall Buffet. In this case, the warning of the impending stall is provided solely by
aerodynamic buffet.
• Audible Warning. Stall warning is provided by an electronic or mechanical device that
sounds an audible warning as the stall speed is approached.
• Stick Shaker. A stick shaker is a mechanical device that shakes the control column to
warn of the onset of stall. A stick pusher may be installed in association with a stick
shaker system in aircraft which are susceptible to the deep stall phenomenon.
• Angle of Attack. Stall warning systems often involve inputs from a broad range of
sensors and systems and include a dedicated angle of attack sensor. At a
predetermined angle of attack, calculated for each possible configuration, the angle
of attack sensor triggers the activation of the stick shaker or the audible warning
device as appropriate to the aircraft fitment.

37 HYPOXIA TYPES
Hypoxia is the condition of the body in which the tissues are starved of oxygen. In its extreme
form, where oxygen is entirely absent, the condition is called anoxia. There are four types of
hypoxia:

o the hypoxemic type, in which the oxygen pressure in the blood going to the
tissues is too low to saturate the hemoglobin; is due to one of two
mechanisms:
 ▪ (1) a decrease in the amount of breathable oxygen—often
encountered in pilots, mountain climbers, and people living at high
altitudes—due to reduced barometric pressure or
▪ (2) cardiopulmonary failure in which the lungs are unable to
efficiently transfer oxygen from the alveoli to the blood.
o the anemic type, in which the amount of functional hemoglobin is too small,
and hence the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen is too low;
o the stagnant type, in which the blood is or may be normal but the flow of
blood to the tissues is reduced or unevenly distributed; and
o the histotoxic type, in which the tissue cells are poisoned and are therefore
unable to make proper use of oxygen. Diseases of the blood, the heart and
circulation, and the lungs may all produce some form of hypoxia.

38 HYPOXIA TIME OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Time of useful consciousness (TUC) is defined as the amount of time an individual is able to
perform flying duties efficiently in an environment of inadequate oxygen supply. It is the
period of time from the interruption of the oxygen supply or exposure to an oxygen-poor
environment to the time when useful function is lost, and the individual is no longer capable
of taking proper corrective and protective action. It is not the time to total unconsciousness.
The TUC has also been called Effective Performance Time (EPT). At the higher altitudes, the
TUC becomes very short; considering this danger, the emphasis is on prevention rather than
cure.

A rapid decompression can reduce the TUC by up to 50 percent caused by the forced
exhalation of the lungs during decompression, mimicking an extremely rapid rate of ascent.
For orbital altitudes and above, that is, direct exposure to space, 6–9 seconds of consciousness
is expected.
39 ALCOHOL LIMITS
0.02% - NO DRINK 8 HOURS PRIOR
The precise regulations are below, but the rule is "8 hours from bottle to throttle," the
maximum BAC is 0.04 and any law enforcement officer can require a pilot to submit to a blood
or alcohol test when they are about to fly or have flown. Many airlines also have more
stringent restrictions than the 8 hours.
From Section 91.17 of the U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations:
(a) No person may act or attempt to act as a crewmember of a civil aircraft
(1) Within 8 hours after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage;
(2) While under the influence of alcohol;
(3) While using any drug that affects the person's faculties in any way contrary
to safety; or
(4) While having an alcohol concentration of 0.04 or greater in a blood or
breath specimen.
NOT ABLE TO FIND ANYTHING IN ICAO FOR 0.02%

40 TYPE OF FUELS
JET A1 - JET A FREEZING POINT
Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft.
Conventional aviation fuels :
Avgas (aviation gasoline) is used in spark-ignited internal-combustion engines in aircraft.
Jet fuel is a clear to straw-colored fuel, based on either an unleaded kerosene (Jet A-1), or a
naphtha-kerosene blend (Jet B). It is similar to diesel fuel, and can be used in either
compression ignition engines or turbine engines.
Jet-A powers modern commercial airliners and is a mix of pure kerosene and burns at
temperatures at or above 49 degrees Celsius (120 degrees Fahrenheit). Kerosene-based fuel
has a much higher flash point than gasoline-based fuel, meaning that it requires significantly
higher temperature to ignite. It is a high-quality fuel
The primary difference is the lower freezing point of A-1:
Jet A's is −40 °C (−40 °F)
Jet A-1's is −47 °C (−53 °F)
The other difference is the mandatory addition of an anti-static additive to Jet A-1.

41 VFR MINIMA
Visual meteorological conditions (VMC) are the meteorological conditions expressed in terms
of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling equal to or better than specified minima. (ICAO
Annex 2: Rules of the Air).
VMC are detailed in ICAO Annex 2. Essentially, they are:
 • When above 3,000ft or 1,000ft above terrain, whichever is higher:
o 1500m horizontally and 1,000 ft vertically from cloud;
o Flight visibility 5km below 10,000ft and 8km above 10,000 ft.
• When below 3,000 ft or 1,000 ft above terrain, whichever is higher:
o Clear of cloud and in sight of the surface;
o Flight visibility 5km.
Controlled VFR is a sub category of VFR flight where clearance is given by Air Traffic Control
to an aircraft being operating in accordance with those rules to enter and remain within a
Control Zone. It is effectively a form of Special VFR.
Special VFR is a sub category of VFR flight. Permission to operate under Special VFR within a
Control Zone, in meteorological conditions not meeting VMC minima, is given to a flight by
means of an Air Traffic Control clearance. Such traffic is effectively also Controlled VFR.
Both terms are defined in ICAO Doc 9713.

42 DRY, WET, CONTAMINATED RUNWAY

Dry runway: A dry runway is one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and includes those
paved runways which have been specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement and
maintained to retain ‘effectively dry’ braking action even when moisture is present

Damp runway: A runway is considered damp when the surface is not dry, but when the
moisture on it does not give it a shiny appearance.

Wet runway: A runway is considered wet when the runway surface is covered with water or
equivalent, [with a depth less than or equal to 3 mm], or when there is a sufficient moisture
on the runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing
water

Contaminated runway: A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of

the runway surface area within the required length and width being used is covered by the
following:

• Standing water: Caused by heavy rainfall and/or insufficient runway drainage with
a depth of more than 3 mm (0.125 in).

• Slush: Water saturated with snow, which spatters when stepping firmly on it. It is
encountered at temperature around 5° C, and its density is approximately 0.85 kg/liter ( 7.1
lb / US GAL).

• Wet snow: If compacted by hand, snow will stick together and tend to form a
snowball. Its density is approximately 0.4 kg/liter ( 3.35 lb / US GAL).

• Dry snow: Snow can be blown if loose, or if compacted by hand, will fall apart again
upon release. Its density is approximately 0.2 kg/liter ( 1.7 lb / US GAL).

• Compacted snow: Snow has been compressed (a typical friction coefficient is 0.2).

• Ice : The friction coefficient is 0.05 or below.

43 MACH CRITICAL
In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (Mcr or M* ) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach
number at which the airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, but
does not exceed it.

44 MACH TUCK
Mach tuck is an aerodynamic effect whereby the nose of an aircraft tends to pitch downward
as the airflow around the wing reaches supersonic speeds; the aircraft will first experience
this effect at significantly below Mach 1. This speed is known as the critical Mach number of
the wing.

45 COFFIN CORNER
Coffin corner (also known as the aerodynamic ceiling or Q corner) is the region of flight where
a fast fixed-wing aircraft's stall speed is near the critical Mach number, at a given gross weight
and G-force loading. In this region of flight, it is very difficult to keep the airplane in stable
flight. Because the stall speed is the minimum speed required to maintain level flight, any
reduction in speed will cause the airplane to stall and lose altitude. Because the critical Mach
number is the maximum speed at which air can travel over the wings without losing lift due
to flow separation and shock waves, any increase in speed will cause the airplane to lose lift,
or to pitch heavily nose-down, and lose altitude. The "corner" refers to the triangular shape
at the top of a flight envelope chart where the stall speed and critical Mach number are within
a few knots of each other. The speed where they meet is the ceiling of the aircraft.

46 SPEEDS ECTM DIAGRAM

ECTM - EQUIVELANT, CALIBRATED, TRUE, MACH
3 finger rule: C- CAS, T-TAS, M- MACH

Lets try an example.Using your thumb and next two fingers on your left hand with your palm
facing towards you. Your thumb is CAS, middle finger TAS and other MACH. Now, imagine you
were to climb at a constant CAS. What you want to figure out is what is happening to the TAS
and the MACH. So CAS is a bench mark for this example and therefore we need to do
something with our thumb. Rotate your hand so that your thumb is pointing straight up in the
air. Whats happened to your other fingers? They're both pointing to the right, right? Or if you
imagine that is a graph format, they are increasing. So TAS and MACH increase. Look at it the
other way, if you were decending at the CAS, so starting at the top of your thumb and coming
vertically downwards, so coming back down the fingers they are now decreasing also. So
decending at a CONSTANT CAS the TAS and the MACH decrease.

Now rotate your hand so that the middle finger is pointing upwards.

So a climb at constant TAS, the CAS decreases and the MACH increases.

4 finger rule works but I prefer my method.

Basically, write down (or visualise it in your head) ECTM.

Next, ask yourself are you climbing or descending? If you are climbing you are going from low
altitude (-) to high altitude (+)

-ECTM+

So as you climb at constant TAS, for example, to the right of the T there is a + so that means
mach increases. To the left is a - so that means EAS and CAS decrease.

Switch the - and + around for when you are descending.

47 SPEEDS
V1, V2, VMCG, VMCA, VR, Vref, Vstall, Vno, Vne, Vimd
Decision Speed: V1, is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to reject the takeoff,
and is ensured to stop the aircraft within the limits of the runway.

Takeoff Climb Speed: V2 is the minimum climb speed that must be reached at a height of 35
feet above the runway surface, in case of an engine failure.

V3 speed is the all-engine-operating takeoff climb speed the aircraft will achieve at the screen
height.

V4 speed is the all-engine-operating takeoff climb speed the aircraft will achieve by 400 ft, and
is used as the lowest height where acceleration to flap retraction speed is initiated.

Minimum Control Speed on the Ground: VMCG

VMCG, the minimum control speed on the ground, is the calibrated airspeed during the take-
off run, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to
maintain control of the aeroplane with the use of the primary aerodynamic controls alone
(without the use of nose-wheel steering) to enable the take-off to be safely continued using
normal piloting skill.

In the determination of VMCG, assuming that the path of the aeroplane accelerating with all
engines operating is along the centreline of the runway, its path from the point at which the
critical engine is made inoperative to the point at which recovery to a direction parallel to the
centreline is completed, may not deviate more than 30 ft laterally from the centreline at any
point.

VMCG must be established, with:

• The aeroplane in each take-off configuration or, at the option of the applicant, in the most
critical take-off configuration;

• Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the operating engines;

• The most unfavourable centre of gravity;

• The aeroplane trimmed for take-off; and

• The most unfavourable weight in the range of take-off weights.

Minimum Control Speed in the Air: VMCA

VMC[A] is the calibrated airspeed, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with that engine still
inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees.
VMC[A] may not exceed 1.2 VS with
• Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the engines;
• The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• The aeroplane trimmed for take-off;
• The maximum sea-level take-off weight
• The aeroplane in the most critical take-off configuration existing along the flight path after
the aeroplane becomes airborne, except with the landing gear retracted; and
• The aeroplane airborne and the ground effect negligible
During recovery, the aeroplane may not assume any dangerous attitude or require
exceptional piloting skill, alertness, or strength to prevent a heading change of more than 20
degrees.
VLOF Lift Off speed is the calibrated airspeed at which the aeroplane first becomes airborne.
VLOF [must] not [be] less than 110% of VMU in the all-engines-operating condition and not
less than 105% of VMU determined at the thrust-to-weight ratio corresponding to the one-
engine-inoperative condition.”
The regulations consider the particular case of aircraft which are geometrically-limited, or
limited by the elevator efficiency at high angle of attack. An aircraft is said to be geometrically-
limited, when, at its maximum angle of attack (the tail of the aircraft hits the ground while the
main landing gear is still on ground), the maximum lift coefficient is not reached. In these
conditions, the margins can be reduced, as follows:

in the particular case that lift-off is limited by the geometry of the aeroplane, or by elevator
power, the above margins may be reduced to 108% in the all-enginesoperating case and 104%
in the one-engine-inoperative condition

For airplanes that are geometry limited, the 110 percent of VMU required by §25.107(e) may
be reduced to an operationally acceptable value of 108 percent on the basis that equivalent
airworthiness is provided for the geometry-limited airplane

Minimum Unstick Speed: VMU

VMU is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplane can safely lift off the ground,
and continue the take-off.

During the flight test demonstration, at a low speed (80 - 100 kt), the pilot pulls the control
stick to the limit of the aerodynamic efficiency of the control surfaces. The aircraft
accomplishes a slow rotation to an angle of attack at which the maximum lift coefficient is
reached, or, for geometrically-limited aircraft, until the tail strikes the runway (the tail is
protected by a dragging device). Afterwards, the pitch is maintained until lift-off.

Maximum Brake Energy Speed: VMBE

When the takeoff is aborted, brakes must absorb and dissipate the heat corresponding to the
aircraft’s kinetic energy at the decision point (1/2.TOW.V12).

Brakes have a maximum absorption capacity, known as maximum brake energy. For
certification purposes, this absorption capacity must be demonstrated with worn brakes
(post-amendment 42 only). As a result, the speed at which a full stop can be achieved for a
given takeoff weight is limited to a maximum value (VMBE). Thus, for a given takeoff weight:

V1 ≤ VMBE

Reference Speed: VREF

In case of failure in flight, emergency or abnormal configuration, performance computations

are based on a reference configuration and on a reference speed. VREF means the steady
landing approach speed at the 50 feet point for a defined landing configuration. For Airbus,
this configuration is CONF FULL.
In case of a system failure affecting landing performance, Airbus operational documentation
indicates the correction to be applied to VREF to take into account the failure. Another speed
increment can be added to VAPP to account for wind, when needed.

Vra,Mra

Is the rough airspeed or Mach, these are simply slightly reduced cruising speeds for flight in
'rough air' (turbulence). Is based on aircraft’s VB speed (design speed for maximum gust
intensity). High enough to provide adequate margin from stall speed, but low enough to
protect against structural damage from gusts.
Rotation Speed: VR
VR is the speed at which the pilot initiates the rotation, at the appropriate rate of about 3° per
second. VR, in terms of calibrated air speed, […] may not be less than:
• V1,
• 105% of VMCA
• The speed that allows reaching V2 before reaching a height of 35 ft above the take-
off surface, or
• A speed that, if the aeroplane is rotated at its maximum practicable rate, will result
in a [satisfactory] VLOF”
VR is entered in the MCDU by the crew during the flight preparation.
VR ≥ 1.05 VMCA

Vs or VSTALL
Stalling speed is the calibrated stalling speed, or the minimum steady flight speed, in knots, at
which the airplane is controllable.

VNO
Maximum structural cruising speed or maximum speed for normal operations.

VNE
Never exceed speed.

Vimd
Minimum drag

VMO/MMO
Maximum operating limit speed.
Vef
The speed at which the Critical Engine is assumed to fail during takeoff.
There are quite few others, difficult to remember.
48 CG MOVEMENTS CAUSES
The center of gravity (CG) of an aircraft is the point over which the aircraft would balance. So
changes in weight would cause movement of CG. The three reasons for this are:

• Fuel burn, which is the most common reason on swept-wing aircraft. Modern A/C
have automatically mechanisms to compensate the problem, done by fuel being
transfered to ensure that the CG is within a safe range. If the nose is too heavy, the
fuel flows to the back at the tail plane and if too tail heavy, it would flow to the front.
• Passenger movement
• High speeds

49 SWEPT WINGS
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

A swept wing is a wing which angles either backward or, occasionally, forward, from its root
rather than in a straight sideways direction. Wing sweep has the effect of delaying the shock
waves and accompanying aerodynamic drag rise caused by fluid compressibility near the
speed of sound, improving performance. Swept wings are therefore often used on jet aircraft
designed to fly at these speeds. Swept wings are also sometimes used for other reasons, such
as structural convenience or visibility. The characteristic "sweep angle" is normally measured
by drawing a line from root to tip, 25% of the way back from the leading edge, and comparing
that to the perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Typical sweep angles vary
from 0 for a straight-wing aircraft, to 45 degrees or more for fighters and other high-speed
designs.

As an aircraft enters the transonic speeds just below the speed of sound, the pressure waves
associated with subsonic flight converge and begin to impinge on the aircraft. As the pressure
waves converge the air in front of the aircraft begins to compress. This creates a force known
as wave drag. This wave drag increases steeply until the whole aircraft is supersonic and then
reduces.
ADVANTAGES: Sweeping the wing has the effect of reducing the curvature of the body as seen
from the airflow, by the cosine of the angle of sweep. For instance, a wing with a 45 degree
sweep will see a reduction in effective curvature to about 70% of its straight-wing value. This
has the effect of increasing the critical Mach by 30%. When applied to large areas of the
aircraft, like the wings and empennage, this allows the aircraft to reach speeds closer to Mach
1. So, an aircraft with swept wings gain High Mach cruise speed.

Also, provide more stability in turbulence, because swept wings produce less lift than straight-
wing and being less responsive to gusty conditions.

DISADVANTAGES: Poor lift qualities lead to poor lift capabilities. Also, higher stall speeds are
expected. Moreover, a speed instability is present. Higher approach speeds are required. And
a wing-tip stalling tendency is experienced.

50 WINGLETS
Are aerodynamically efficient surfaces located at the wing tips. They are designed to reduce
induced drag. They deal the span-wise airflow from upper and lower surfaces at different
points, and prevent the intermixing of these airflows that would create induced drag
vortices.

51 DORSAL FINS
A fixed vertical fin extending from the top of the fuselage to the leading edge of the vertical
fin. Dorsal fins are used to increase the directional stability of an airplane.

52 CL
The lift coefficient (CL) is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by a lifting
body to the fluid density around the body, the fluid velocity and an associated reference area.
A lifting body is a foil or a complete foil-bearing body such as a fixed-wing aircraft. CL is a
function of the angle of the body to the flow, its Reynold number and its Mach number. The
lift coefficient refers to the dynamic lift characteristics of a two-dimensional foil section, with
the reference area replaced by the foil chord.

53 DRAG TYPES
Types of drag are generally divided into the following categories:
 • parasitic drag, consisting of

form drag,

skin friction,

interference drag,

• lift-induced drag, and

• wave drag (aerodynamics)

54 LIFT
Lift is the force that directly opposes the weight of an airplane and holds the airplane in the
air. Lift is generated by every part of the airplane, but most of the lift on a normal airliner is
generated by the wings. Lift is a mechanical aerodynamic force produced by the motion of the
airplane through the air. Because lift is a force, it is a vector quantity, having both a magnitude
and a direction associated with it. Lift acts through the center of pressure of the object and is
directed perpendicular to the flow direction.

There are many explanations for the generation of lift found in encyclopedias, in basic physics
textbooks, and on Web sites. Lift occurs when a moving flow of gas is turned by a solid object.
The flow is turned in one direction, and the lift is generated in the opposite direction,
according to Newton's Third Law of action and reaction. Because air is a gas and the molecules
are free to move about, any solid surface can deflect a flow. For an aircraft wing, both the
upper and lower surfaces contribute to the flow turning. Neglecting the upper surface's part
in turning the flow leads to an incorrect theory of lift.

55 SPOILER FUNCTIONS
In aeronautics, a spoiler (sometimes called a lift spoiler or lift dumper) is a device intended to
intentionally reduce the lift component of an airfoil in a controlled way. Most often, spoilers
are plates on the top surface of a wing that can be extended upward into the airflow to spoil
it. By so doing, the spoiler creates a controlled stall over the portion of the wing behind it,
greatly reducing the lift of that wing section. Spoilers differ from airbrakes in that airbrakes
are designed to increase drag without affecting lift, while spoilers reduce lift as well as
increasing drag.

Spoilers fall into two categories: those that are deployed at controlled angles during flight to
increase descent rate or control roll, and those that are fully deployed immediately on landing
to greatly reduce lift ("lift dumpers") and increase drag. In modern fly-by-wire aircraft, the
same set of control surfaces serve both functions.

56 CRITICAL ENGINE
Critical Engine means the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the performance
or handling qualities of an aircraft”, i.e. an outer engine on a four engine aircraft. When one
of the engines on a typical multi-engine aircraft becomes inoperative, a thrust imbalance
exists between the operative and inoperative sides of the aircraft. This thrust imbalance
causes several negative effects in addition to the loss of one engine's thrust.

57 THRUST
Thrust is the force is a reaction force described quantitatively by Isaac Newton's second and
third laws (When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction, the accelerated mass
will cause a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction on that system). It moves an
aircraft through the air. Thrust is used to overcome the drag of an airplane. Thrust is generated
by the engines of the aircraft through some kind of propulsion system. Thrust is generated
most often through the reaction of accelerating a mass of gas. Since thrust is a force, it is a
vector quantity having both a magnitude and a direction. The engine does work on the gas
and accelerates the gas to the rear of the engine; the thrust is generated in the opposite
direction from the accelerated gas. The magnitude of the thrust depends on the amount of
gas that is accelerated and on the difference in velocity of the gas through the engine. Thrust
formula is the following:
Thrust = ½ ρ S (TAS)2 CD
With CD = Drag coefficient
ρ = Air density
S = Wing area

58 FLAPS TYPES
KRUEGER – FOWLER
Plain flap: The rear portion of airfoil rotates downwards on a simple hinge
mounted at the front of the flap.
Split flap: The rear portion of the lower surface of the airfoil hinges downwards
from the leading edge of the flap, while the upper surface stays immobile. This can
cause large changes in longitudinal trim, pitching the nose either down or up. At full
deflection, a split flaps acts much like a spoiler, adding significantly to drag coefficient.
It also adds a little to lift coefficient.
Slotted flap: A gap between the flap and the wing forces high pressure air from
below the wing over the flap helping the airflow remain attached to the flap,
increasing lift compared to a split flap. Additionally, lift across the entire chord of the
primary airfoil is greatly increased as the velocity of air leaving its trailing edge is
raised, from the typical non-flap 80% of freestream, to that of the higher-speed,
lower-pressure air flowing around the leading edge of the slotted flap.
Fowler flap: A split flap that slides backwards, before hinging downward,
thereby increasing first chord, then camber. The flap may form part of the upper
surface of the wing, like a plain flap, or it may not, like a split flap, but it must slide
rearward before lowering. As a defining feature - distinguishing it from the Gouge Flap
- it always provides a slot effect.
Junkers flap: A slotted plain flap where the flap is fixed below the trailing edge
of the wing, rotating about its forward edge, and usually forming the "inboard" hinged
section (closer to the root) of the Junkers Doppelflügel, or "double-wing" style of wing
trailing edge control surfaces (including the outboard-mounted ailerons), which hung
just below and behind the wing's fixed trailing edge. When not in use, it has more drag
than other types, but is more effective at creating additional lift than a plain or split
flap, while retaining their mechanical simplicity.
Gouge flap: A type of split flap that slides backward along curved tracks that
force the trailing edge downward, increasing chord and camber without affecting trim
or requiring any additional mechanisms.
Fairey-Youngman flap: Drops down (becoming a Junkers Flap) before sliding
aft and then rotating up or down.
Zap Flap: The leading edge of the flap is mounted on a track, while a point at
mid chord on the flap is connected via an arm to a pivot just above the track. When
the flap's leading edge moves aft along the track, the triangle formed by the track, the
shaft and the surface of the flap (fixed at the pivot) gets narrower and deeper, forcing
the flap down
Krueger flap: A hinged flap which folds out from under the wing's leading edge
while not forming a part of the leading edge of the wing when retracted. This increases
the camber and thickness of the wing, which in turn increases lift and drag. This is not
the same as a leading edge droop flap, as that is formed from the entire leading edge.
Gurney flap: A small fixed perpendicular tab of between 1 and 2% of the wing
chord, mounted on the high pressure side of the trailing edge of an airfoil.
Leading edge flap: The entire leading edge of the wing rotates downward,
effectively increasing camber and also slightly reducing chord.
Blown flap: A type of Boundary Layer Control System, blown flaps pass engine-
generated air or exhaust over the flaps to increase lift beyond that attainable with
mechanical flaps. Types include the original (internally blown flap) which blows
compressed air from the engine over the top of the flap, the externally blown flap,
which blows engine exhaust over the upper and lower surfaces of the flap, and upper
surface blowing which blows engine exhaust over the top of the wing and flap.

59 CYCLE OF JET TURBINE ENGINE

The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle named after George Bailey Brayton that describes
the workings of a constant-pressure heat engine. The original Brayton engines used a piston
compressor and piston expander, but more modern gas turbine engines and airbreathing jet
engines also follow the Brayton cycle. Although the cycle is usually run as an open system (and
indeed must be run as such if internal combustion is used), it is conventionally assumed for
the purposes of thermodynamic analysis that the exhaust gases are reused in the intake,
enabling analysis as a closed system.

A Brayton-type engine consists of three components: a compressor, a mixing chamber, and

an expander. In the original 19th-century Brayton engine, ambient air is drawn into a piston
compressor, where it is compressed; ideally an isentropic process. The compressed air then
runs through a mixing chamber where fuel is added, an isobaric process. The pressurized air
and fuel mixture is then ignited in an expansion cylinder and energy is released, causing the
heated air and combustion products to expand through a piston/cylinder, another ideally
isentropic process. Some of the work extracted by the piston/cylinder is used to drive the
compressor through a crankshaft arrangement.

Ideal Brayton cycle:

• isentropic process – ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is pressurized.
• isobaric process – the compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber,
where fuel is burned, heating that air—a constant-pressure process, since the
chamber is open to flow in and out.
• isentropic process – the heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy, expanding
through a turbine (or series of turbines). Some of the work extracted by the turbine is
used to drive the compressor.
• isobaric process – heat rejection (in the atmosphere).

Actual Brayton cycle:

• adiabatic process – compression

• isobaric process – heat addition
• adiabatic process – expansion
• isobaric process – heat rejection

60 CG
Center of gravity (CG) is a point from which the weight of a body or system may be considered
to act.

61 CG EFFECT OUT OF LIMIT

FWD - AFT CG EFFECTS
When the fore-aft center of gravity (CG) is out of range serious aircraft control problems occur.
The fore-aft CG affects longitudinal stability of the aircraft, with the stability increasing as the
CG moves forward, and stability decreasing as the CG moves aft. With a forward CG position,
although the stability of the aircraft increases, the elevator control authority is reduced in the
capability of raising the nose of the aircraft. This can cause a serious condition during the
landing flare when the nose cannot be raised sufficiently to slow the aircraft. An aft CG
position creates severe handling problems due to the reduced pitch stability and increased
elevator control sensitivity, with potential loss of aircraft control. Because the burning of fuel
gradually produces a loss of weight and possibly a shift in the CG, it is possible for an aircraft
to take off with the CG within normal operating range, and yet later develop an imbalance
that results in control problems. Calculations of CG must take this into account (often part of
this is calculated in advance by the manufacturer and incorporated into CG limits).
Also a FWD movement of CG requires a large balancing from the horizontal tailplane, which
results in increased AoA, higher drag and reduced performance and range. Moreover,
increased stalling speeds are present and less maneuverability. Generally a heavy aircraft is
expected and less responsive.
On the other hand, an Aft CG, may lead to excessive g forces (possibility of overstressing),
better overall performance due to less drag, less pitch control in nose-up attitudes and
restricted maximum speeds. Generally, lighter and more responsive aircraft.

62 CROSSOVER ALTITUDE
The Crossosver Altitude is the altitude at which a specified CAS and Mach value represent the
same TAS value. The curves for constant CAS and constant Mach intersect at this point. Above
this altitude the Mach number is used to reference speeds. It is therefore used for climb and
descent profiles, a lot more often than a Vmo / Mmo change over.

63 LSS - LOCAL SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave as it propagates
through an elastic medium. In dry air at 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound is 343 metres per
second (1,125 ft/s; 1,235 km/h; 767 mph; 667 kn), or a kilometre in 2.91 s or a mile in 4.69 s.
The speed of sound in an ideal gas depends only on its temperature and composition. So,
speed of sound decreases with temperature drop. The speed of sound for a particular
temperature is known as Local Speed of Sound (LSS). It can be found by the next formula:

LSS = 38.94 √𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

64 MACH NUMBER
M=TAS/LSS
The Mach Number is a comparison between the TAS and the speed of sound.
𝑇𝐴𝑆
M= 𝑎

With TAS = True Air Speed, a = The speed of sound at the flight altitude (Local Speed of Sound)
The speed of sound in knots is: a(kt) = 39 √𝑆𝐴𝑇(𝐾))

With SAT = Static Air Temperature (ambient temperature)in Kelvin

65 VENTURI EFFECT
The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section (or choke) of a pipe. In fluid dynamics, an incompressible fluid's velocity
must increase as it passes through a constriction in accord with the principle of mass
continuity, while its static pressure must decrease in accord with the principle of conservation
of mechanical energy. Thus any gain in kinetic energy a fluid may accrue due to its increased
velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in pressure.

By measuring the change in pressure, the flow rate can be determined, as in various flow
measurement devices such as venturi meters, venturi nozzles and orifice plates.

As fluid flows through a venturi, the expansion and compression of the fluids cause the
pressure inside the venturi to change. This principle can be used in metrology for gauges
calibrated for differential pressures. This type of pressure measurement may be more
convenient, for example, to measure fuel or combustion pressures in jet or rocket engines.

66 BLOCKED PITOT ACTION

Effects

• If the pitot probe is blocked but the pitot drain and static ports are free, then in
straight and level (cruising) flight the displayed IAS will tend to reduce, eventually
indicating zero.
• If the pitot probe and pitot drain are blocked but the static port is free then the IAS
will increase during a steady climb and decrease during a steady descent.
• If the pitot probe, pitot drain, and static ports are all blocked then the IAS will remain
constant despite changes in actual airspeed..

In addition to airspeed indicators, systems which rely on information directly or indirectly (via
Air Data Computers) from the pitot-static system are also unreliable if the pitot static system
is blocked in some way.

• If the static vent only is blocked, then the altimeter will freeze on the altitude that the
blockage occurred, the VSI will show zero climb or descent, and the IAS will over-read
in the descent or under-read in the climb.
Managing a static system malfunction requires that the pilot know and understand the
airplane’s pitot-static system. If a system malfunction is suspected, the pilot should confirm it
by opening the alternate static source. This should be done while the airplane is climbing or
descending. If the instrument needles move significantly when this is done, a static pressure
problem exists and the alternate source should be used during the remainder of the flight. In
this occasion readings will be less accurate. Also, to prevent icing, many pitot tubes are
equipped with a heating element.

67 PET FORMULA
POINT OF EQUAL TIME
The Point of Equal Time (PET) or sometimes is referred to as Critical Point(CP), is that track
position, in relation to two suitable airfields, from which it is the same time for an aircraft to
fly to either. These two airfields could be the departure and destination airfields, or any two
airfields situated suitably in relation to the aircraft’s track.
The PET allows the pilot to decide quickly which of the two diversion airfields is the closer in
time if there is a failure of an engine or a major system, or other event such as a serious illness
on board. The fuel loaded for a flight (trip fuel, contingency allowance, holding and alternate
fuel etc.) will be sufficient always for the aircraft to fly from the PET to either nominated
airfield. The PET is a time problem. To make the time HOME from the PET equal to the time
ON from the PET the two distances will be different, unless there is zero wind; in which case
they are equal.
68 NDB
The nondirectional radio beacon (NDB) is a ground-based radio transmitter that transmits
radio energy in all directions. The ADF, when used with an NDB, determines the bearing from
the aircraft to the transmitting station. The indicator may be mounted in a separate
instrument in the aircraft panel. The ADF needle points to the NDB ground station to
determine the relative bearing (RB) to the transmitting station. It is the number of degrees
measured clockwise between the aircraft’s heading and the direction from which the bearing
is taken. The aircraft’s magnetic heading (MH) is the direction the aircraft is pointed with
respect to magnetic north. The magnetic bearing (MB) is the direction to or from a radio
transmitting station measured relative to magnetic north.

The ground equipment, the NDB, transmits in the frequency range of 190 to 535 kHz. Most
ADFs also tune the AM broadcast band frequencies above the NDB band (550 to 1650 kHz).
However, these frequencies are not approved for navigation because stations do not
continuously identify themselves, and they are much more susceptible to sky wave
propagation especially from dusk to dawn. NDB stations are capable of voice transmission and
are often used for transmitting the Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS). The
aircraft must be in operational range of the NDB. Coverage depends on the strength of the
transmitting station. Before relying on ADF indications, identify the station by listening to the
Morse code identifier. NDB stations are usually two letters or an alpha-numeric combination.

The indicator instrument can be one of four kinds: fixedcard ADF, rotatable compass-card ADF,
or radio magnetic indicator (RMI) with either one needle or dual needle. Fixedcard ADF (also
known as the relative bearing indicator (RBI)) always indicates zero at the top of the
instrument, with the needle indicating the RB to the station.

The movable-card ADF allows the pilot to rotate the aircraft’s present heading to the top of
the instrument so that the head of the needle indicates MB to the station and the tail indicates
MB from the station.

Orientation

The ADF needle points TO the station, regardless of aircraft heading or position. The RB
indicated is thus the angular relationship between the aircraft heading and the station,
measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft. Think of the nose/tail and left/right needle
indications, visualizing the ADF dial in terms of the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. When the
needle points to 0°, the nose of the aircraft points directly to the station; with the pointer on
210°, the station is 30° to the left of the tail; with the pointer on 090°, the station is off the
right wingtip. The RB alone does not indicate aircraft position. The RB must be related to
aircraft heading in order to determine direction to or from the station.

Station Passage

When you are near the station, slight deviations from the desired track result in large
deflections of the needle. Therefore, it is important to establish the correct drift correction
angle as soon as possible. Make small heading corrections (not over 5°) as soon as the needle
shows a deviation from course, until it begins to rotate steadily toward a wingtip position or
shows erratic left/right oscillations. You are abeam a station when the needle points 90° off
your track. Hold your last corrected heading constant and time station passage when the
needle shows either wingtip position or settles at or near the 180° position. The time interval
from the first indications of station proximity to positive station passage varies with altitude—
a few seconds at low levels to 3 minutes at high altitude.

Homing

The ADF may be used to “home” in on a station. Homing is flying the aircraft on any heading
required to keep the needle pointing directly to the 0° RB position. To home in on a station,
tune the station, identify the Morse code signal, and then turn the aircraft to bring the ADF
azimuth needle to the 0° RB position. Turns should be made using the heading indicator. When
the turn is complete, check the ADF needle and make small corrections as necessary.

Intercepting Bearings

ADF orientation and tracking procedures may be applied to intercept a specified inbound or
outbound MB. To intercept an inbound bearing, the following steps may be used.

1. Determine your position in relation to the station by paralleling the desired inbound
bearing.

2. Determine the number of degrees of needle deflection from the nose of the aircraft. A rule
of thumb for interception is to double this RB amount as an interception angle.

3. Turn the aircraft toward the desired MB the number of degrees determined for the
interception angle, which as indicated (in two above) is twice the initial RB.

4. Maintain this interception heading until the needle is deflected the same number of
degrees from the zero position as the angle of interception (minus any lead appropriate for
the rate at which the bearing is changing).

5. Turn and the RB (in a no wind condition and with proper compensation for the rate of the
ADF needle movement) should be 0° or directly off the nose.

NOTE: The rate of an ADF needle movement, or any bearing pointer for that matter, is faster
as aircraft position becomes closer to the station or waypoint (WP).

Interception of an outbound MB can be accomplished by the same procedures as for the

inbound intercept, except that it is necessary to substitute the 180° position for the zero
position on the needle.

The following are some of the inherent problems associated with reception of these stations:

a. Infrequent identification of the station.

b. Identification of foreign language stations may be impossible without some knowledge of

the language.

c. Transmitter sites are not always collocated with studio facilities.

d. Termination of service without notice.

e. Weather systems causing erratic and unreliable reception of signal.

f. Atmospheric disturbances causing erratic and unreliable reception of signal.

g. No flight checks conducted to verify the suitability and reliability of the facility and its signal
for use in air navigation.

h. Fluctuation (bending) of signal due to shoreline/mountain effect.

i. Standard broadcast stations are not dedicated for air navigation purposes

Typical errors are:

• Interference from other stations

 • Static (thunderstorms)

• Night effect

• Coastal reaction

• Mountain effect

• Aircraft quadrantal error

• Synchronistic transmission

69 VOR
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) is the primary navigational aid (NAVAID)
used by civil aviation. The VOR ground station is oriented to magnetic north and transmits
azimuth information to the aircraft, providing 360 courses TO or FROM the VOR station. When
DME is installed with the VOR, it is referred to as a VOR/DME and provides both azimuth and
distance information. When military tactical air navigation (TACAN) equipment is installed
with the VOR, it is known as a VORTAC and provides both azimuth and distance information.

The courses oriented FROM the station are called radials. The VOR information received by an
aircraft is not influenced by aircraft attitude or heading. The VOR receiver measures and
presents information to indicate bearing TO or FROM the station. In addition to the navigation
signals transmitted by the VOR, a Morse code signal is transmitted concurrently to identify
the facility, as well as voice transmissions for communication and relay of weather and other
information.

VORs are classified according to their operational uses. The standard VOR facility has a power
output of approximately 200 watts, with a maximum usable range depending upon the aircraft
altitude, class of facility, location of the facility, terrain conditions within the usable area of
the facility, and other factors. Above and beyond certain altitude and distance limits, signal
interference from other VOR facilities and a weak signal make it unreliable. Coverage is
typically at least 40 miles at normal minimum instrument flight rules (IFR) altitudes.

VOR facilities operate within the 108.0 to 117.95 MHz frequency band and assignment
between 108.0 and 112.0 MHz is in even-tenth increments to preclude any conflict with ILS
localizer frequency assignment, which uses the odd tenths in this range.

VOR indicator instruments have at least the essential components:

• Omnibearing Selector (OBS)

• Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) Full needle deflection from the center position to
either side of the dial indicates the aircraft is 12° or more off course, assuming normal
needle sensitivity. The outer edge of the center circle is 2° off course; with each dot
representing an additional 2°.
• TO/FROM Indicator
• Flags or Other Signal Strength Indicators

The accuracy of course alignment of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or minus 1
degree.
Errors of a VOR are:

• Equipment errors (ground and airborne)

• Site errors, when the signal is reflected by objects near the beacon.

• Propagation errors (Scalloping effect and atmospheric ducting)

70 DME
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) transmits interrogating radio frequency (RF) pulses,
which are received by the DME antenna at the ground facility. The signal triggers ground
receiver equipment to respond to the interrogating aircraft. The airborne DME equipment
measures the elapsed time between the interrogation signal sent by the aircraft and reception
of the reply pulses from the ground station. This time measurement is converted into distance
in nautical miles (NM) from the station.

DME operates on frequencies in the UHF spectrum between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz.

DME Errors

A DME/DME fix (a location based on two DME lines of position from two DME stations)
provides a more accurate aircraft location than using a VOR and a DME fix. DME signals are
line-of-sight; the mileage readout is the straight line distance from the aircraft to the DME
ground facility and is commonly referred to as slant range distance. This error is smallest at
low altitudes and/or at long ranges. It is greatest when the aircraft is closer to the facility, at
which time the DME receiver displays altitude (in NM) above the facility. Slant range error is
negligible if the aircraft is one mile or more from the ground facility for each 1,000 feet of
altitude above the elevation of the facility.

71 ILS
Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) provides both course and altitude guidance to a specific
runway. The ILS system is used to execute a precision instrument approach procedure or
precision approach. The system consists of the following components:

1. A localizer providing horizontal (left/right) guidance along the extended

centerline of the runway.
2. A glideslope (GS) providing vertical (up/down) guidance toward the runway
touchdown point, usually at a 3° slope.
3. Marker beacons providing range information along the approach path.
4. Approach lights assisting in the transition from instrument to visual flight.

ILS approaches are categorized into three different types of approaches based on the
equipment at the airport and the experience level of the pilot. Category I approaches provide
for approach height above touchdown of not less than 200 feet. Category II approaches
provide for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 100 feet. Category III
approaches provide lower minimums for approaches without a decision height minimum.

Since the glidepath is much narrower than the localizer course (approximately 1.4° from full
up to full down deflection), the needle is very sensitive to displacement of the aircraft from
on-path alignment.

ILS Errors
The ILS and its components are subject to certain errors, which are listed below. Localizer and
GS signals are subject to the same type of bounce from hard objects as space waves.

1. Reflection. Surface vehicles and even other aircraft flying below 5,000 feet above ground
level (AGL) may disturb the signal for aircraft on the approach.

2. False courses. In addition to the desired course, GS facilities inherently produce additional
courses at higher vertical angles. The angle of the lowest of these false courses occurs at
approximately 9°– 12°. An aircraft flying the LOC/GS course at a constant altitude would
observe gyrations of both the GS needle and GS warning flag as the aircraft passed through
the various false courses. Getting established on one of these false courses results in either
confusion (reversed GS needle indications) or in the need for a very high descent rate.
However, if the approach is conducted at the altitudes specified on the appropriate approach
chart, these false courses are not encountered.

72 GPS
Global Positioning System (GPS) The GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system that
broadcasts a signal that is used by receivers to determine precise position anywhere in the
world.

GPS operation is based on the concept of ranging and triangulation from a group of satellites
in space that act as precise reference points. The receiver uses data from a minimum of four
satellites above the mask angle (the lowest angle above the horizon at which it can use a
satellite). The aircraft GPS receiver measures distance from a satellite using the travel time of
a radio signal. Each satellite transmits a specific code, called a course/acquisition (CA) code,
which contains information about satellite position, the GPS system time, and the health and
accuracy of the transmitted data. The distance derived from this method of computing
distance is called a pseudo-range because it is not a direct measurement of distance, but a
measurement based on time. In addition to knowing the distance to a satellite, a receiver
needs to know the satellite’s exact position in space, its ephemeris.

GPS Errors

GPS navigational capability may not be available at certain geographic locations. Loss of
signals may also occur in valleys surrounded by high terrain, and any time the aircraft’s GPS
antenna is “shadowed” by the aircraft’s structure (e.g., when the aircraft is banked). Some
VHF transmissions may cause “harmonic interference.” GPS position data can be affected by
equipment characteristics and various geometric factors, which typically cause errors of less
than 100 feet. Satellite atomic clock inaccuracies, receiver/processors, signals reflected from
hard objects (multi-path), ionospheric and tropospheric delays, and satellite data transmission
errors may cause small position errors or momentary loss of the GPS signal.

Meteorology
➢ Advectionfog
Advection fog forms due to moist air moving over a colder surface, and the resulting
cooling of the near-surface air to below its dew-point temperature. Advection fog
occurs over both water (e.g., steam fog) and land.
Advection fog is relatively shallow and accompanied by a surface based inversion. The
depth of this fog increases with increasing wind speed. Other favorable conditions
include:

• Light winds, 3 to 9 knots.

• Coastal areas where moist air is advected over water cooled by upwelling.
• In winter when warm, moist air flows over colder land.

➢ DALR (Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate)

The Lapse Rate is the rate at temperature changes with height in the Atmosphere. If
the lapse rate is positive, the temperature decreases with height; conversely if
negative, the temperature increases with height. “Dry” air is air with a relative
humidity of less than 100%. Therefore, a relative humidity of 99.9% is considered as
dry. A more correct word to describe this situation for stability and adiabatic purposes
is “unsaturated”. For unsaturated air, the lapse rate is 3°C per 1000 feet; this is called
the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR).

➢ SALR (Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate)

Saturated air that is either forced to rise or descend within the atmosphere will change
its temperature, on average by 0.6°C per 100 m (1.8°C/1000 ft). This change of
temperature is called the Saturated or Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate, (SALR). The SALR
varies strongly with the moisture content, which when saturated, depends on
temperature, and pressure of the air parcel.. At higher altitudes and latitudes, where
there is generally less water content in the air, and therefore less latent heat to
release, the SALR is closer to 3°C per thousand feet.

➢ DALR-SALR-ELR Stability
If the ELR is greater than the ALR, rising air will be warmer than the surrounding air
and therefore keep rising; the atmosphere is then said to be unstable. (ELR>ALR)
If ELR is greater than SALR, the air is said to be absolutely unstable, since the air,
whether saturated or unsaturated, will always have a higher temperature than it
surroundings. (ELR>SALR)
When the ELR is less than the SALR and greater than the DALR, then the air is
considered conditionally unstable: the condition being whether the air is saturated or
not. (ELR<SALR & ELR>DALR)
If the ELR is less than the ALR, then the rising air will be cooler than the surrounding
air and will sink - the atmosphere is said to be stable. (ELR<ALR)
If the ELR is less than the DALR, the air is said to be absolutely stable, since the air,
whether saturated or unsaturated, will always be cooler than the surrounding air.
(ELR<DALR)
The distinctions between stability and instability as noted above are the foundation of
weather analysis, in particular for afternoon airmass thunderstorm development or
stable conditions. The most complex situation is when the troposphere is considered
conditionally unstable, since a trigger may be needed to enhance either the stability
or instabiliy factor.

➢ ELR
The ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate) is the actual rate at which the ambient
temperature changes with height.

➢ Frontalfog
Associated with frontal zones and frontal passages, this type of fog can be divided into
three types: warm-front pre-frontal fog; cold front post-frontal fog; and frontal-
passage fog. Pre and post-frontal fog are caused by rain falling into cold stable air thus
raising the dew point. Frontal passage fog can occur in a number of situations: when
warm and cold air masses, each near saturation, are mixed by very light winds in the
frontal zone; when relatively warm air is suddenly cooled over moist ground with the
passage of a well marked precipitation cold front; and in low-latitude summer, where
evaporation of frontal-passage rain water cools the surface and overlying air and adds
sufficient moisture to form fog.
Frontal fog forms from the evaporation of warm precipitation as it falls into drier,
colder air in a frontal system.
• Pre-frontal, or warm-frontal, fog is the most common and often occurs over
widespread areas ahead of warm fronts.
• Post-frontal, or cold-frontal, fog occurs less frequently than warm-frontal fog.
Frontal fog occurs at a warm front or occlusion. The main cause is precipitation
lowering the cloud base to the ground.
Subsidiary causes are:
Evaporation of standing water on the ground.
Mixing of saturated air with non-saturated air below.
The fog can form along a belt up to 200 nm wide which then travels with the front.
Can be increased by orographic lifting. Will be dispersed by the passing of the front.

➢ Land breeze
In the night, land quickly loses its’ heat whiles the water retains its’ warmth. This
means the air over the water is warmer, less dense and begins to rise. Low pressure is
created over the water. Cold and dense air over the land begins to move to the water
surface to replace the warmer rising air. The cool breeze from the land is called a land
breeze.
 ➢ Mistral
Valley winds are caused by air funnelling through a mountain gap or down a valley.
The Mistral, which is a good example of such a wind, blows down the Rhône Valley
between the Massif Central and the Alps to the French Mediterranean coast and
beyond. It is usually a winter wind with high pressure over Central France and low
pressure over the Gulf of Genoa. Temperatures are low with winter Mistral
temperatures well below zero, flying conditions are turbulent and the winds are
strong, 40 to 75 kts.
➢ Radiation fog (ground or valley fog)
Radiation fog is caused by radiation of the earth’s heat at night, and the subsequent
conductive cooling of the air in contact with the ground to below dew point. If there
is a light wind, then fog will form, in calm conditions the result will be the formation
of dew. The fog is not usually more than a few hundred feet thick.
Conditions necessary for radiation fog to form.
• Clear sky - to increase the rate of terrestrial radiation.
• High relative humidity - so that a little cooling will be enough to cause
saturation and condensation.
• Light wind - of 2 - 8 kts to mix the layers of air causing turbulence so that
droplets will be kept in suspension and so that warmer air from above can be
brought into contact with the cold ground to thicken the fog.
Times of occurrence

• Autumn and winter.

• Night and early morning. The lowest temperatures are early morning.
Additionally, the first insolation provides thermal turbulence and light
winds.
Location

• Over land - not over sea because there is little DV of temperature.

• Firstly in valleys because of the katabatic effect.
• In anticyclones, ridges and cols.
Dispersal
By insolation causing convection which will lift the fog. It will also help to
evaporate the lower layers.
By a strong wind lifting the fog to form stratus cloud.
➢ Sea breeze
In the day, when the sun is up, the land heats up very quickly and the air above it
warms up a lot more than the air over the water. The warm air over the land is less
dense and begins to rise. Low pressure is created. The air pressure over the water is
higher with cold dense air, which moves to occupy the space created over the land.
The cool air that comes along is called a sea breeze.

➢ Sea smoke or Steam fog (arctic sea smoke)

Steaming fog, or as it is sometimes called, Arctic Smoke, occurs over sea in polar
regions, eg the fjords of Greenland, Iceland and the sea areas of high latitudes. It is
caused by cold air from a land mass moving over a warmer moist surface or sea. The
small amount of evaporation from the sea is enough to cause saturation and
condensation but the air itself must be very stable.
The fog can be persistent and up to 500 ft thick - may drift inland. Will be dispersed
by an increase in windspeed or change of direction. Usually only significant in Arctic
regions, but the ‘steam’ may be seen at any latitude when cold air moves over a wet
surface. ‘Steam’ rising from a wet road after a very heavy summer shower is a good
example.

In northern latitudes, steam fog forms when water vapor is added to air that is much
colder, then condenses into fog. It is commonly seen as wisps of vapor emanating from
the surface of water. This fog is most common in middle latitudes near lakes and rivers
during autumn and early winter, when waters are still warm and colder air masses
prevail. A strong inversion confines the upward mixing to a relatively shallow layer
within which the fog collects and assumes a uniform density. Under these conditions,
the visibility is often 3/16 mile (300 meters) or less.

➢ Thermal equator
The zone of highest mean temperature over the Earth, either in the annual or long-
term average or at a given moment. On the long-term average, it is located around
5°N latitude. This position north of the geographical equator results from the generally
rather higher temperature of the northern hemisphere as compared with the
southern hemisphere; this is because the glaciated Antarctic continent maintains
colder summers in the southern hemisphere than does the Arctic, with a much smaller
land area, in the northern hemisphere.
The thermal equator (also known as "the heat equator") is a belt encircling the Earth,
defined by the set of locations having the highest mean annual temperature at each
longitude around the globe. Because local temperatures are sensitive to the
geography of a region, mountain ranges and ocean currents ensure that smooth
temperature gradients (such as might be found if the Earth were uniform in
composition and devoid of surface irregularities) are impossible, the location of the
thermal equator is not identical to that of the geographic Equator.

➢ Triggers
A trigger mechanism is any process that initiates precipitation or storm development.
It is in reference to a process that causes a precipitation or storm event and without
this process precipitation or storms would not have occurred. Common trigger
mechanism examples are lifting mechanisms, increase of low level moisture, daytime
heating, instability and wind shear. The most common type of trigger mechanism that
will be referenced are lifting mechanisms such as fronts and other low level
convergence boundaries. Severe weather situations will often have several triggers.

➢ Winds, Ghimbli
The Ghibli is a hot, dry, usually south to southeasterly dust-bearing desert wind that
occurs in Libya throughout the year, but most frequently in spring and early summer.
Ghibli is a local name for the Sirocco. In analogy to the Sirocco the Ghibli is caused by
Mediterranean depressions tracking east entraining hot air from the desert region
ahead of them.
Ghiblis can last for days and can make life miserable and is therefore feared by the
desert dwellers of North Africa. El-ghibli can have profound effect on the landscape
by moving vast quantities of sand. The passage of the depression is marked by a cold
front bringing Mediterranean air and a sudden drop (up to 20&deg;C) in temperature.
 ➢ Winds, Haboob
The haboob is a strong sand-/dustorm that occurs along the southern edges of the
Sahara, the Sudan. The name comes from the Arabic habb, meaning 'wind' or 'to blow'.
The haboob is often associated with thunderstorms and even small tornadoes. A
haboob usually lasts about three hours and are strongest in April and May, but occur
in every month except November. The wind direction may be north (in winter) or east,
southeast or south (in summer). However, typically, the storm is experienced late in
the day during summer, followed by some rain. The city of Khartoum, Sudan
experiences an average number of about 24 hoboobs every year.
A haboob storm-front may transport and deposit large quantities of sand or dust
material, which move as an extremely dense wall that can reach a height of 1000
metres (about 3,000 feet). Like its cousins the Sirocco (Mediterranean), the Khamsin
(Egypt), and the Harmattan (West Africa) the Haboob derives from the the vast Sahara
anticyclone interacting with moist air-masses from either the Gulf of Guinea or in
winter from the Mediterranean.
In North America, sand- and duststorm walls associated with severe thunderstorms
are also called haboobs. They are often caused by the gust-front of cold air from a
supercell thunderstorm (downdraft). They are especially frequent in Arizona and
Texas with wind speeds around 30 to 50 mph.

➢ Winds, Harmattan
Harmattan, hot, dry wind that blows from the northeast or east in the western Sahara
and is strongest in late fall and winter (late November to mid-March). It usually carries
large amounts of dust, which it transports hundreds of kilometres out over the Atlantic
Ocean; the dust often interferes with aircraft operations and settles on the decks of
ships.
The harmattan is a trade wind strengthened by a low-pressure centre over the north
coast of the Gulf of Guinea and a high-pressure centre located over northwestern
Africa in winter and over the adjacent Atlantic Ocean during other seasons. In the
summer it is undercut by the cooler winds of the southwest monsoon, blowing in from
the ocean; this forces the harmattan to rise to an altitude of about 900 to 1,800 metres
(about 3,000 to 6,000 feet). The interaction between the harmattan and the monsoon
sometimes produces West African tornadoes.

➢ Winds, Khamsin
The Khamsin is an oppressive, hot, dry and dusty south or south-east wind occurring
in N. Africa, around the E Mediterranean and the Arabian Peninsula intermittently in
late winter and early summer, but most frequently between April and June. A
counterpart of the sirocco , it is a southerly wind over Egypt blowing from the Sahara
Desert and an easterly over the Negev Desert and parts of Saudi Arabia. The term is
also applied to very strong southerly or south-westerly winds over the Red Sea.
Like the sirocco, the khamsin is usually blowing ahead of depressions which move
eastward or north-eastward in the Mediterranean Sea or across N. Africa, with high
pressure to the east. The name is derived from the Arabic, khamsun or hamsin,
meaning fifty, for the approximate period of days during which it blows. Less
frequently the khamsin might also occur in winter as a cold, dusty wind. In other parts
of N Africa and the Mediterranean similar winds are variously known as sirocco , ghibli
and leveche.

➢ Winds, Sciroco
The term Sirocco (sometimes also spelled Scirocco) is an all-inclusive name given to
hot and subsequently humid southeast to southwest winds originating as hot, dry
desert-air over Northern Africa, flowing northward into the southern Mediterranean
basin.
Siroccos occur in advance of surface and upper level depressions moving eastward
across the southern Mediterranean Sea or northern Africa. These cyclones originate
either over North Africa or sometimes south of the Alps, primarily in the Gulf of Genoa
in the latter case.
Depending on where you are, the Sirocco is inhibiting substantially different
characteristics and has many different local names, too. Along the northern African
coast the hot air originates directly from the Sahara desert, producing hot, dry and
dusty conditions. Visibility becomes very poor and the fine blowing dust might result
in damage to instruments and equipment. On rare occasions the Sirocco is picking up
enough dust and sand to produce even sandstorms.
However, the term Sirocco is not used in North Africa, where it is called chom (hot) or
arifi (thirsty); Simoom in Palestine, Jordan, Syria, and the desert of Arabia; Ghibli (or
Chibli, Gibla, Gibleh) in Libya; Chili (or Chichili) in Tunisia and S Algeria; Khamsin (or
Chamsin, Khamasseen) in Egypt and around the Red Sea and Sharavin Israel.
As the air travels northward across the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco picks up much
moisture because of its high temperature, and reaches Spain (known as Leveche,
Solano, Jaloque or Xaloque), Portugal as Xaroco, France as Marin, Malta, Sicily,
southern Italy as Scirocco, Croatia as Jugo and even Greece as a very enervating, hot,
humid wind. In some parts of the Mediterranean region the word may be used for any
warm oppressing southerly wind, often of foehn type. For example, in the extreme
southwest of Greece a warm foehn crossing the coastal mountains is named Sirocco
di Levante and a sirocco wind on Madeira and the Canaries is known as Leste.
As it travels northward, it causes clouds, fog and rain over northern Mediterranean
areas. The sweltering, sultry and close waether during an Sirocco event causes
headaches and insomnia for many. The hot humid wind causes overnight
temperatures of 30&deg;C and above, while thermometer may well reac 40&deg;C
during daytime. Extreme temperature differences (up to 20&deg;C) may occur with
the following cold front and its dust may reach even Britain and northern Europe.
Sirocco events tend to occur year-round without a favored month or season. However,
strong gale-force siroccos are most common during the spring. The average duration
of continuous gale force winds during a Scirocco is 10 to 12 hours and occasionally as
long as 36 hours. The onset of a gale-force Sirocco often occurs as a surface low moves
into the Gulf of Gabes from Tunisia, combined with the passage of a deep 500 mb
trough extending well into north Africa and positioned west of the Gulf of Gabes. The
gale-force Sirocco is most common during the spring and may reach wind forces
between 5 and 8 Bft.
 ➢ CAT
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) as the name says is the formation of turbulent air without
visible moisture content. Examples are:
1. Low-Level CAT caused by temperature inversions, local surface
winds and terrain-generated winds.
2. Jetstreams, where the most dangerous Cat can be found level
or just above the jet core.
3. Fronts (produced by horizontal windshear)
4. Thunderstorms (under or near)
5. Wake turbulence.
CAT are difficult to detect. They can only be estimated by weather observations of the
prevailing conditions. Rapid wind and/or temperature changes, and the presence of
Cb, lenticular clouds, fronts or jetstreams are a good indication of CAT.

➢ Gusts, gust front

Gust is a sudden, brief increase in speed of the wind. According to U.S. weather
observing practice, gusts are reported when the peak wind speed reaches at least 16
knots and the variation in wind speed between the peaks and lulls is at least 9 knots.
The duration of a gust is usually less than 20 seconds.
A squall is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction. It lasts
for some minutes and can cover a wide area. It is often associated with cumulonimbus
cloud and cold fronts.
A gale is a condition where the wind speed exceeds 33 kt, or if the wind gusts exceed
42 kt.
Gust front, is a storm-scale or mesoscale boundary separating thunderstorm-cooled
air (outflow) from the surrounding air; similar in effect to a cold front, with passage
marked by a wind shift and usually a drop in temperature and a related pressure jump.
Outflow boundaries can persist for 24 hours or more after the thunderstorms that
generated them dissipate, and can travel hundreds of kilometers from their area of
origin. New thunderstorms often develop along outflow boundaries, especially near
the point of intersection with another boundary. Gust fronts create low-level wind
shear which can be hazardous to planes when they takeoff or land.

➢ Pressure gradient force

The force acting from the high pressure area (H) to the low pressure area (L) is called
the Pressure Gradient Force. The spacing between isobars is indicative of the relative
strength of the pressure gradient force.
Air will flow from high pressure toward lower pressure until the pressures are
equalized. In other words the flow is from excess pressure toward deficit pressure
until the pressures are equalized. The pressure gradient force is the force produced
when air with different pressures are placed next to each other.
Pressure differences occur in the atmosphere due to differences in the density of air.
Warm air is less dense than cold air. The height of the atmosphere (thickness) is higher
when the air is warm. As air warms the volume of the air increases and this causes an
expansion of the air. Cooling air contracts. When warm air is placed next to cold air
the density differences between the air masses sets up a pressure difference also.

➢ Geostrophic wind
The Geostrophic Wind is said to have only two forces. These must be working opposite
from each other and in balance. These two forces are:
• Pressure Gradient Force, (PGF), is the force that acts from a high pressure to a
low pressure.
• Coriolis Force, (CF), is the force caused by the rotation of the earth.
Air under the influence of both the pressure gradient force and Coriolis force tends to
move parallel to isobars in conditions where friction is low (1000 meters above the
surface of the Earth) and isobars are straight. Winds of this type are usually called
geostrophic winds. Geostrophic winds come about because pressure gradient force
and Coriolis force come into balance after the air begins to move.
A geostrophic wind flows parallel to the isobars. In this model of wind flow in the
Northern Hemisphere, wind begins as a flow of air perpendicular to the isobars
(measured in millibars) under the primary influence of the pressure gradient force
(PGF). As the movement begins, the Coriolis force (CF) begins to influence the moving
air causing it to deflect to the right of its path. This deflection continues until the
pressure gradient force and Coriolis force are opposite and in balance with each other.
 ➢ Cols
An atmospheric col is the equivalent of its namesake, too - a region of weak pressure
gradient between two ridges and two troughs. However, highs and lows may be many
hundreds or even thousands of miles across.

73 FOEHN WIND
The Föhn Wind is a warm dry wind which blows on the downwind side of a mountain range.
It is a local wind in the Alps. A similar wind on the east of the Rocky Mountains in Canada is
called the Chinook. There is also the Santa Anna to the east of the Andes in South America,
and to the east of the High Sierras in California.

If moist air is forced to rise up a mountain side, it will quickly become saturated and will cool
adiabatically as it rises. After reaching the condensation level, cloud will form and the air will
cool at the SALR. If the air is stable, it will follow the line of the mountain on the downwind
side and descend. Some moisture may be lost at the top of the climb through precipitation
(this is now thought to be a secondary effect) and air descending the lee slope will warm at
the DALR.

The result is a warm, dry wind blowing on the downwind side of the mountain. Temperature
increases of 10°C can occur. The drying and warming of air in this way creates many
dangerous mountain fires, and are most notable along the coast of California.

The föhn (German) is a generic term for warm strong and often very dry downslope winds that
descend in the lee of a mountain barrier. Originally applied to winds in the European Alps
region, the term is now used for all similar winds. Föhn type winds (such as the chinook or the
helm wind) are known for their rapid temperature rise, their desiccating effect and the rapid
disappearance of snow cover.

The usual situation is this: A weather system is moving across a mountain range.

(1) Relatively stable, mild (e.g 20+deg C) but moist air starts at sea-level and has to cross the
3000m-mountain range situated parallel to it. The air is now forced to ascend and to glide up
and over the windward mountain slopes. While initially decompressing and thus cooling at
the dry adiabatic lapse rate of 1 deg C/100m, the air will eventually become saturated and the
water vapour will condensate. Thus clouds will form and rain is setting in. The height where
this happens is called condensation-level (at 600m a.s.l. in our example).

(2) Condensation releases heat and the further lifted air will cool somewhat slower now, lets
say at a typical rate between 0.5 and 0.65 deg C/100m. This is called the wet or saturated
adiabatic lapse rate. Once over the the mountain crest, the air will also have reached it's
lowest temperature - somewhat around 1 deg C in our example.

(3) A so-called lee wave forms downwind of the obstacle. The downward motion of the initial
wave forces the now-dry air to plummet from relatively high levels to the foothills, now
warming by compression at the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Thus for every 100m drop in
elevation, temperature raises 1 deg C again. The wind speed increases and the vigourous
foehn storm can easily reach gale force.

(4) Air temperature on the lee-side is now significantly higher than the same air on the upslope
side of the mountains.

A foehn like situation can last from less than an hour to several days. The high crest of the
wave creates a distinctive elongated cloud parallel to the mountains, known as a föhn wall
(aka. chinook arch or helm cloud). Further wave crests more distant to the obstacle form the
popular lenticularis clouds.

74 TYPES OF FOG
Fog is often described as a stratus cloud resting near the ground. Fog forms when the
temperature and dew point of the air approach the same value (i.e., dew-point spread is less
than 5°F) either through cooling of the air (producing advection, radiation, or upslope fog) or
by adding enough moisture to raise the dew point (producing steam or frontal fog). When
composed of ice crystals, it is called ice fog.

(1) Advection fog

Advection fog forms due to moist air moving over a colder surface, and the resulting cooling
of the near-surface air to below its dew-point temperature. Advection fog occurs over both
water (e.g., steam fog) and land.
Advection fog is relatively shallow and accompanied by a surface based inversion. The depth
of this fog increases with increasing wind speed. Other favorable conditions include:

• Light winds, 3 to 9 knots.

• Coastal areas where moist air is advected over water cooled by upwelling.

• In winter when warm, moist air flows over colder land.

(2) Radiation fog (ground or valley fog)

Radiation fog is caused by radiation of the earth’s heat at night, and the subsequent
conductive cooling of the air in contact with the ground to below dew point. If there is a light
wind, then fog will form, in calm conditions the result will be the formation of dew. The fog is
not usually more than a few hundred feet thick.

(3) (3) Upslope fog (Cheyenne fog)

This type occurs when sloping terrain lifts air, cooling it adiabatically to its dew point and
saturation. Upslope fog may be viewed as either a stratus cloud or fog, depending on the point
of reference of the observer. Upslope fog generally forms at the higher elevations and builds
downward into valleys. This fog can maintain itself at higher wind speeds because of increased
lift and adiabatic cooling. Upslope winds more than 10 to 12 knots usually result in stratus
rather than fog. The east slope of the Rocky Mountains is a prime location for this type of fog.

(4) Steam fog (arctic sea smoke)

Steaming fog, or as it is sometimes called, Arctic Smoke, occurs over sea in polar regions, eg
the fjords of Greenland, Iceland and the sea areas of high latitudes. It is caused by cold air
from a land mass moving over a warmer moist surface or sea. The small amount of
evaporation from the sea is enough to cause saturation and condensation but the air itself
must be very stable.

(5) Frontal fog

Frontal fog occurs at a warm front or occlusion. The main cause is precipitation lowering the
cloud base to the ground.

(6) Ice fog

Ice fog is composed of ice crystals instead of water droplets and forms in extremely cold, arctic
air (–29°C (–20°F) and colder). Ice fog of significant density is found near human habitation, in
extremely cold air, and where burning of hydrocarbon fuels adds large quantities of water
vapor to the air. Steam vents, motor vehicle exhausts, and jet exhausts are major sources of
water vapor that produce ice fog. A strong low level inversion contributes to ice fog formation
by trapping and concentrating the moisture in a shallow layer.

75 MIST - FOG - HAZE DIFFERENCES

Mist and fog are often used interchangeably - and they are closely related - but there is a key
difference which depends on how far you can see through them. Fog is defined as 'Obscurity
in the surface layers of the atmosphere, which is caused by a suspension of water droplets'.
By international agreement (particularly for aviation purposes) fog is the name given to
resulting visibility less than 1 km, however the term in forecasts for the public generally relates
to visibility less than 180 m. Fog is a cloud that reaches ground level, even if that "ground" is
a hill or mountaintop. Fog is denser than mist and tends to last longer.

Mist is defined as 'when there is such obscurity and the associated visibility is equal to or
exceeds 1000 m'. Like fog, mist is still the result of the suspension of water droplets, but simply
at a lower density. Mist typically is quicker to dissipate and can rapidly disappear with even
slight winds, it’s also what you see when you can see your breath on a cold day. Mist forms
wherever water droplets are suspended in the air by temperature inversion, volcanic activity,
or changes in humidity.

Haze is a slightly different phenomenon which is a suspension of extremely small, dry particles
in the air (not water droplets) which are invisible to the naked eye, but sufficient to give the
air an opalescent appearance. Most of the time, haze occurs in areas far from the original
source of the pollutants, which are carried by wind currents to where they ultimately gather.
Haze forms when light reflects off airborne pollution particles and interferes with visibility.

So, in conclusion, the defining difference between mist and fog is visibility; if it is less than
1,000 meters we call it 'fog' and if visibility is greater than 1,000 meters we call it 'mist'.

76 STAGES OF THUNDERSTORM
Thunderstorms are local storms accompanied by lightning and thunder and a variety of
weather phenomena, such as heavy rain, hail or - in winter - snow, high winds and sudden
temperature changes. Thunderstorms originate when intense heating causes a parcel of moist
air to rise from the earth's surface into upper levels of the atmosphere, a process called
convection. Thunderstorms are therefore also known as convective storms.

Cumulonimbus (Cb) clouds, in which Thunderstorms are found, form when three conditions
are met:

• There must be a deep layer of unstable air.

• The air must be warm and moist.
• A trigger mechanism must cause the warm moist air to rise:
▪ Heating of the layer of air close to the surface.
▪ Rising ground forcing the air upwards (orographic uplift).
▪ A front forcing the air upwards.

A Cumulonimbus Cloud develops in three distinct phases:

Building Phase. A pocket of warm air begins to ascend as a result of one of the triggers
mentioned above. As the moist air rises, it becomes saturated, cloud forms, and the latent
heat released as the moisture condenses further warms the air and it continues to rise. The
air within the cloud is warmer than the air outside it and more air is drawn into the cloud from
the base as well as the sides. The cloud grows in height rapidly, faster than many aircraft can
climb, extending from the surface to a great height, sometimes as far as the Tropopause. as
the temperature of the rising air drops below freezing point, the water droplets become super
cooled and join together to become larger and larger.
Mature Phase. As the top of the cloud reaches great heights, precipitation begins to fall. The
falling rain, snow and/or ice (Hail) cools the surrounding air creating downdrafts. The friction
between ice particles descending through the cloud, and ice particles being carried aloft by
the updrafts, creates a static charge in the cloud with the top of the cloud having a positive
charge and the bottom of the cloud having a negative charge. Eventually the difference in
potential is so great that powerful electrical discharges (Lightning) occur, accompanied by
Thunder. The top of the cloud begins to flatten out and Cirrus like cloud, consisting of ice
crystals, spreads out creating a distinctive anvil shape.

Dissipation Phase. The cooling effect of the downdrafts on the air beneath the cloud reduces
the strength of the updrafts and until the updrafts eventually stop and the lower cloud begins
to dissipate. The upper cloud will then linger for some time afterwards.

The active cycle of the Cb cell lasts little more than an hour but many Thunderstorms contain
several active Cb cells in various stages of development meaning that a storm can last several
hours and extend over a large area. The active cells are often embedded in a larger cloud mass
consisting of the remains of decayed cells as well as other cloud types at various levels. This
can make the active cells very difficult to detect visually and appropriate use of Radar is
required to safely avoid active weather.

77 MICROBURST
A Downburst is created by an area of significantly rain-cooled, descending air that, after hitting
ground level, spreads out in all directions producing strong winds. A Downburst affecting an
area 4 km in diameter or less is commonly referred to as a Microburst. As a Cumulonimbus
cloud becomes mature, strong downdrafts occur, usually associated with precipitation in the
form of Rain, Hail, or Virga. These downdrafts can be very powerful, with vertical winds of
6,000 ft per minute. When a strong downdraft, referred to as a downburst or microburst, hits
the surface, the wind diverts horizontally outwards. Downdrafts ahead of a cumulonimbus
cloud push warm surface air upwards, a little like a cold frontal system, often creating a wall
of cloud commonly referred to as a Gust Front.

Downbursts are a particular hazard to aircraft at low level, especially on take-off or landing.
An aircraft approaching a downburst will first encounter a strong headwind, which will lead
to an increase in indicated airspeed. When trying to fly a set airspeed on approach, a pilot
might therefore be tempted to reduce power. This would be very dangerous because, as the
aircraft passes thorough the downburst, the wind becomes a tailwind and the indicated
airspeed and lift drops. The significant downward force of air in the downburst may be enough
to force the aircraft into the ground or at least cause it to lose a significant amount of height.
The subsequent loss of performance, as the aircraft encounters tailwinds, may cause further
loss of height and be enough to cause the aircraft to stall. Once caught in a downburst, escape
is only possible by flying straight ahead; whichever way an aircraft turns, it will encounter the
tail winds and the associated performance impact. If the aircraft is in a turn at that point then
the stalling speed will be higher, possibly making the situation worse.

Detecting a downburst is not easy. The effects are usually localized and, if the precipitation
evaporates before reaching the ground (Virga), may not necessarily be associated with heavy
rain or hail. Many airports, which experience regular severe thunderstorms, have systems in
place to detect wind shear, often comprising anemometers in a network around the airport.
In the USA, this system is known as low level wind shear alerting system (LLWAS). A
sophisticated system for detecting wind shear which combines a network of anemometers
with Doppler weather radar and a LIDAR (LIght Detection And Ranging) wind shear warning
system which can detect the movement of much smaller particles. Many modern aircraft, such
as the B777, have predictive wind shear (PWS) warning systems which collect wind velocity
data gathered by the weather radar to identify the existence of wind shear.

Thorough weather briefings, contingency planning , appropriate use of the weather radar,
listening to ATIS at regular intervals, access to up to date actual weather conditions, warnings
and forecasts, asking for reports from other pilots, as well as looking for the visual clues
(cumulonimbus clouds, mammatus clouds, gust fronts, heavy precipitation, lightning, etc),
and familiarity with local weather phenomena (at certain times of the year, some airports
have predictable thunderstorm activity which can be avoided by careful scheduling of flights),
all help to provide the flight crew with the best chance of avoiding downbursts and making
the right decisions to safeguard the safety of the flight.

Macrobursts are slightly larger in area than microbursts and are said to affect an area between
3 and 5 miles across as the entire cold air outflow leaves the thunderstorm or group of
thunderstorms (classification Dr. Ted Fujita.). These are typically of more than 5 minutes
duration.

78 TYPE OF CLOUDS
Clouds are grouped in three main classes, based on where they are located in the atmosphere
- low, middle or high. This triple division of clouds is based on the range or altitude (etage,
level) on which a cloud genus normally occurs. In addition, the World Meteorological
Organization (International Cloud Atlas, 1956) classifies 10 cloud genera (types) in three major
groups (cumulus or heap clouds, stratus or sheet clouds, and cirrus or fibrous clouds) by
criteria essentially based on cloud form. However, as the cloud form is influenced by the level
or etage where the cloud formed both classifications lead to the same results.
Clouds are described according to whether they are heaped, fibrous, layered or rain bearing
and are further classified depending on the altitude of the base of the cloud.
The four groups of clouds are:
Cirriform (fibrous)
Cumuliform (heaped)
Stratiform (layered)
Nimbus (rain-bearing)
Clouds are further divided depending on the base of the cloud above sea level, giving us ten
basic cloud types:
High level cloud
High level cloud refers to cloud with a base above 20,000 feet.
Cirrus (Ci) - thin fibrous cloud
Cirrocumulus (Cc) - thin granular layer of small lumps of cloud
Cirrostratus (Cs) - thin uniform cover of cloud
Mid level cloud
Mid level cloud is cloud with a base above about 6,500 feet. (alto means medium)
Altocumulus (Ac) - thin layer of lumps or heaps of cloud
Altostratus (As) - thin uniform layer of cloud
Low level cloud
Low level cloud, described as having a base below about 6,500 feet, is of most interest to pilots
and controllers because of the impact on the safe conduct of flight particularly with regard to
poor visibility, turbulence and structural damage, icing, and runway contamination.
Nimbostratus (Ns) - thick layer of rain bearing cloud.
Stratocumulus (Sc) - layer of relatively small lumps and heaps (cumuliform) of cloud
Stratus (St) - layer of uniform cloud
Cumulus (Cu) - cumuliform clouds
Cumulonimbus (Cb) - Thunderstorms
Other Cloud Types
Other cloud types of especial significance to aviation are:
Stratus Fractus and Cumulus Fractus - fragments of stratus or cumulus below the base of Ns
or As.
Altocumulus Castellanus - a mass of small cumuliform clouds sharing the same base indicating
growth of mid level cloud in an unstable atmosphere.
Lenticularis - lens shaped clouds formed in standing waves over mountains often associated
with severe turbulence
Noctilucent Clouds - thin clouds of ice crystals which occur at great height in the Mesosphere.

79 CB CLOUDS (ISOL-OCNL-FRQ-EMBD)
Cumulonimbus is a heavy and dense cloud of considerable vertical extent in the form of a
mountain or huge tower, often associated with heavy precipitation, lightning and thunder.
The mature Cumulonimbus cloud has a distinctive flat, anvil shaped top.
The Cumulonimbus cloud (Cb) forms when three conditions are met:
• There must be a deep layer of unstable air.
• The air must be warm and moist.
• A trigger mechanism must cause the warm moist air to rise
Types of Cumulonimbus
Convection. Caused by heating of the layer of air close to the surface. This type of Cb
commonly forms in the late afternoon after the peak diurnal heating. Thunderstorms of this
type are a daily occurrence in many areas of the tropics. The storms are usually single Cb cells
rather than clusters of cells and so can generally be avoided by flying around them.
Orographic Uplift. Caused by rising ground forcing the air upwards (Orographic Lift). These
storms form when a general flow of moist unstable air passes over higher terrain, such as a
ridge line or mountain range. Such storms often form in a line along the ground feature and
are therefore more challenging to avoid than single cells.
Mass Ascent. Caused when a weather front forces the air upwards. As with orographic lift,
the Cb cells form in a line along the front, frequently embedded within wider frontal cloud,
therefore presenting a challenge to aircraft trying to navigate through the front.
Abbreviations used for reporting only TCU and CB clouds: ISOL, OCNL, ENBD, FRQ:
ISOL CB / TCU shall be considered isolated if they consist of individual features which affect,
or are forecast to affect, an area with a maximum spatial coverage less than 50 per cent of the
area concerned at a fixed time or during the period of validity
OCNL CB / TCU shall be considered occasional if they consist of well-separated features which
affect, or are forecast to affect, an area with a maximum spatial coverage between 50 and 75
per cent of the area concerned at a fixed time or during the period of validity
FRQ CB/TCU shall be considered frequent if there is little or no separation between adjacent
thunderstorms with a maximum spatial coverage greater than 75 per cent of the area
affected, or forecast to be affected by the phenomenon at a fixed time or during the period
of validity
EMBD CB/TCU shall be considered embedded if they are embedded within cloud layers and
cannot be readily seen due to darkness

80 JET STREAM
Jetstream, Turbulence and avoid
Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong wind in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
The winds blow from west to east in jet streams but the flow often shifts to the north and
south. Jet streams follow the boundaries between hot and cold air. Since these hot and cold
air boundaries are most pronounced in winter, jet streams are the strongest for both the
northern and southern hemisphere winters.
The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, at 9–12 km (30,000–39,000 ft) above sea level,
and the higher altitude and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at 10–16 km (33,000–52,000
ft). The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a
subtropical jet. The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes
of North America, Europe, and Asia and their intervening oceans, while the southern
hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round.
Jet streams are the product of two factors: the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that
produces the large scale Polar, Ferrel, and Hadley circulation cells, and the action of the
Coriolis force acting on those moving masses. The Coriolis force is caused by the planet's
rotation on its axis.
Meteorologists use the location of some of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting.
The main commercial relevance of the jet streams is in air travel, as flight time can be
dramatically affected by either flying with the flow or against, which results in significant fuel
and time cost savings for airlines. Clear-air turbulence, a potential hazard to aircraft passenger
safety, is often found in a jet stream's vicinity.
The CAT is strongest on the cold air side of the jet, next to and just under the axis of the jet.
Clear-air turbulence can cause aircraft to plunge and so present a passenger safety hazard
that has caused fatal accidents.

81 WARM, COLD FRONTS

Fronts, ColdFront, OccludedFront, Ridge, Trough, WarmFront, Inversions
A weather (state of atmosphere) front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different
densities, and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena outside the tropics. The air
masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity. Cold fronts may
feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be
preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform
precipitation and fog.

Cold front Forms when a cold air mass pushes under a warm air mass, forcing the warm air to
rise. Thunderheads can form as the moisture in the warm air mass rises, cools, and condenses.
As the front moves through, cool, fair weather is likely to follow.

Warm front: Forms when a moist, warm air mass slides up and over a cold air mass. As the
warm air mass rises, it condenses into a broad area of clouds. A warm front brings gentle rain
or light snow, followed by warmer, milder weather.

Occluded Front: Forms when a warm air mass gets caught between two cold air masses.
Because cold fronts move faster than warm fronts, they can catch up to and overtake their
related warm front. When they do, an occluded front is formed. Occluded fronts are indicative
of mature storm systems (i.e., those about to dissipate).The warm air mass rises as the cool
air masses push and meet in the middle. The temperature drops as the warm air mass is
occluded, or “cut off,” from the ground and pushed upward. Can bring strong winds and heavy
precipitation.

Stationary front: Forms when warm and cold air meet and neither air mass has the force to
move the other. They remain stationary, or “standing still.” Where the warm and cold air
meet, clouds and fog form, and it may rain or snow. Can bring many days of clouds and
precipitation.

Ridges and troughs are often mentioned on the weather forecast. A ridge is an elongated area
of relatively high pressure extending from the center of a high-pressure region. A trough is an
elongated (extended) region of relatively low atmospheric pressure, often associated with
fronts. Troughs tend to bring in cooler and cloudier weather as they approach while ridges
tend to bring in warmer and drier weather as they approach.
In the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere a trough is usually seen as a southerly bulge
in the height contours. The lowest heights are generally located to the north of the trough. In
an inverted trough situation, the height contours bulge to the north. An inverted trough
bulges to the north.

With increasing height, air temperature within the troposphere and mesosphere drops
uniformly with altitude at a rate of approximately 6.5 degrees Celsius per 1000 meters - known
as the environmental lapse rate. However, sometimes this normal overall decline is reversed.
A point or layer at which the temperature increases with height is called inversion or inversion
layer.

Temperature inversions frequently occur in anticyclones, but are also common in depressions
when air in the middle troposphere subsides. Inversions may occur at any height, but the large
temperature inversions at the tropopause and mesopause are stable and permanent features
of the Earth's atmosphere.

82 LOW, HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS

The Earth's atmosphere exerts a pressure on the surface. Pressure is measured in hectoPascals
(hPa), also called millibars. Standard pressure at sea level is defined as 1013hPa, but we can
see large areas of either high or low pressure. On a weather chart, lines joining places with
equal sea-level pressures are called isobars. Charts showing isobars are useful because they
identify features such as anticyclones (areas of high pressure) and depressions (areas of low
pressure).

A low-pressure area, or "low", is a region where the atmospheric pressure at sea level is
below that of surrounding locations. Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind
divergence that occur in upper levels of the troposphere. The formation process of a low-
pressure area is known as cyclogenesis.

High-pressure systems are frequently associated with light winds at the surface and
subsidence through the lower portion of the troposphere. In general, subsidence will dry out
an air mass by adiabatic or compressional heating. Thus, high pressure typically brings clear
skies.
83 CAVOK
DEFINITION
CAVOK (cloud and visibility OK) when the following conditions exist simultaneously:

• Visibility is 10km or more

• No CB or TCU and no cloud below 5000 feet or Minimum Sector Altitude (whichever
is the greater)

No significant weather at or in the vicinity of the aerodrome.

84 SIGNIFICANT WEATHER CHART

SYMBOLOGY, CAT
85 METAR, TAF, SPECI, SIGMENT, SWC
BECMG, NOSIG, TEMPO, 6 DIGITS DECODE, 8 FIGURE GROUP - RSG (RUNWAY
STATE GROUP)
➢ Meteorological Terminal Air Report (METAR)

Aerodrome routine meteorological reports. The reports are usually taken every hour unless
changing conditions dictate a special report. Metars are broadcast on the ATIS along with
other pertinent airfield info such as runways and approaches in use. The elements of these
messages are normally given in the order below. Some elements or groups may be omitted
when they are not needed or do not apply:

i.e. METAR LBBG 041600Z 12012MPS 090V150 1400 R04/P1500N R22/P1500U +SN BKN022
OVC050 M04/M07 Q1020 NOSIG 8849//91=

Code Name The indicator group e.g. METAR, SPECI, or TREND as appropriate. Where
a number of METARs are issued in the same bulletin, this, along with a date time group may
be in the bulletin header.

Location The ICAO indicator of the reporting station eg. EGLL

Date/Time of Report The day of the month and the time of the observation in hours
and minutes UTC e.g. 191350Z.

AUTO The optional code word AUTO indicates that the report has been prepared by
an automated observing system.

Surface Wind

The mean wind direction in degrees true to the nearest 10 degrees, from which the
wind is blowing and the mean wind speed in knots over the 10 minute period immediately
preceding the observation e.g. 35015KT = 350 degrees true/15 kts; VRB05KT = variable/5 kts;
00000 = CALM. If gusts exceed the mean wind speed by 10kts or more in the 10 minutes
preceding the time of the report, a letter G and 2 more figures are added to indicate the
maximum wind speed e.g. 23018G30KT = 230 degrees true/18 kts gusting to a maximum of
30 kts. Reports may express wind speed in metres per second ('MPS) or Kilometres per hour
(KPH). Winds greater than 100 kts or more shall be preceded by the letter P and reported as
P99KT or P99MPS or P199KPH.

Visibility Reported in a four figure group (e.g. 0400 = 400 metres; 8000 = 8 km) up to
but excluding 10 km; 9999 = 10km or more; 0000 = less than 50 metres visibility.

Runway Visual Range (RVR):

• Aerodromes may include a letter indicator R followed by the runway designator, a"/"
and the touchdown zone RVR in metres, e.g. R06/0400. If the RVR is assessed on 2 or
more runways simultaneously then the RVR group will be repeated.

• Parallel runways will have L, C, or R added to the runway designator e.g. R24L/1100.

• If the RVR is greater than the maximum value that can be measured, P will precede
this value e.g. R24L/P1500.

• If the RVR is less than the minimum value that can be measured , M will precede this
value e.g. R24L/M0050.

• If RVR trends can be measured then U, D, or N will follow the RVR value to indicate
increasing, decreasing or no change respectively.

Weather Weather is indicated by up to 3 groups comprising symbols and letters from

the following:

- = slight + = Heavy BC = Patches BL = Blowing

DR = Low DU =
BR = Mist DS = Dust Storm
Drifting Widespread Dust

DZ = FC = Funnel Cloud
FG = Fog FU = Smoke
Drizzle (e.g. Tornado)

FZ =
GR = Hail GS = Small Hail HZ = Haze
Freezing

IC = PO = Dust
MI = Shallow PL = Ice Pellets
Diamond Dust Devils

RA = Rain SA = Sand SG = Snow Grains SH = Shower

SN = TS =
SQ = Squall SS = Sandstorm
Snow Thunderstorm
 VA = VC = In the UP = Unidentified
RE = Recent
Volcanic Ash vicinity (nearby) Precipitation

e.g - FZDZ = Slight Freezing Drizzle; + SHRASN = Heavy Shower of Rain and Snow; REUP
= Recent Unidentified Precipitation.

Cloud: Cloud amount is reported as FEW = few (1-2 oktas), SCT = scattered (3-4 oktas),
BKN = broken (5-7 oktas) or OVC = overcast (8 oktas), followed by the height of the cloud base
in hundreds of feet above aerodrome elevation e.g. SCT018 = scattered clouds at 1800 ft. Note
that in area and route forecasts, heights are AMSL or standard pressure altitudes.

Selection of cloud layers reported is made as follows:

• The lowest Layer;

• The next lowest layer of SCT or more;

• The next higher layer of BKN or more;

• Significant convective cloud (CB or TCU) if not already reported.

Sky obscured is given as VV followed by the vertical visibility in hundreds of feet.

When the vertical visibility has not been measured, the group will be VV///

When there are no clouds of operational significance to report, no CB or TCU and

CAVOK is not appropriate, the abbreviation NSC (No Significant Cloud) is used.

CAVOK The Visibility, Cloud, and Weather groups are replaved by the term CAVOK
(cloud and visibility OK) when the following conditions exist simultaneously:
 • Visibility is 10km or more

• No CB or TCU and no cloud below 5000 feet or Minimum Sector Altitude (whichever
is the greater)

• No significant weather at or in the vicinity of the aerodrome.

Temperature Air temperature and dewpoint are reported in whole degrees Celsius,
e.g. 10/07 = Temperature 10°C/ Dew point 7°C.

QNH QNH is stated to the nearest whole hectopascal (equivalent to a millibar)

rounded down and preceded by the letter Q e.g. Q1013 = QNH 1013 Hectopascals.

Recent Weather Significant recent weather observed in the period since the last
routine observation will be reported by using the code letters for weather preceded by the
letters RE e.g. RETS = Recent Thunderstorms.

Wind Shear In a METAR, civil aerodromes may include wind shear if reported along
the take off or approach paths in the lowest 1600 ft with reference to the runway. WS is used
to begin the group, e.g. WS TKOF RWY20. If the wind shear is affecting all runways, WS ALL
RWY is reported.

Aerodrome Colour State UK military and USAFE aerodromes will include the
abbreviated colour state at the end of the message and ad the forecast colour state after the
TREND.

Runway State Group (RSG) An 8-figure group which may be added to METAR from
civil aerodromes.

• Runway designator (first two digits)

27 = Rwy 27 or 27L

77 = Rwy 27R (50 added to the designator for "right" runway)

88 = All runways

99 = repetition of the last message as no new information received.

• Runway Deposits (third digit)

0 = Clear and dry

1 = Damp

2 = Wet or water patches

3 = Rime or frost covered (depth normally less than 1mm)

4 = Dry snow

5 = Wet snow

6 = Slush

7 = Ice

8 = compacted or rolled snow

 9 = frozen ruts or ridges

/ = type of deposit not reported (e.g. due to rwy clearance in progress)

• Extent of runway contamination (fourth digit)

1 = 10% or less

2 = 11% to 25%

5 = 26% to 50%

9 = 51% to 100%

/ = not reported (e.g. due to rwy clearance in progress)

• Depth of Deposit

the quoted depth is the mean of a number of readings or, if operationally significant,
the greatest depth measured.

00 = less than 1mm

01 = 1mm etc

to

90 = 90mm

91 = not used

92 = 10cm

93 = 15cm

94 = 20cm

95 = 25cm

96 = 30cm

97 = 35cm

98 = 40cm or more

99 = Rwy(s) non-operational due to snow, slush, ice, large drifts or runway clearance,
but depth not reported.

// = depth of deposit operationally not significant or measurable.

• Friction Coefficient or Braking Action (seventh and eighth digits)

The mean value is transmitted or, if operationally significant, the lowest value, e.g.:

28 = friction coefficient 0.28

38 = friction coefficient 0.38

or

91 = Braking action: Poor

 92 = Braking action: Medium/Poor

93 = Braking action: Medium

94 = Braking action: Medium/Good

95 = Braking action: Good

99 = Figures unreliable (e.g. if equipment has been used which does not measure
satisfactorily in slush or snow.)

// = Braking action not reported (e.g. runway not operational; aerodrome closed; etc.)

Note: If contamination conditions cease to exist, the abbreviation CLRD is used, e.g.

24CLRD93 = Rwy 24 cleared; Braking action: Medium/Good

88CLRD95 = All rwys cleared; Braking Action: Good

TREND TREND forecasts are indicated by BECMG (Becoming) or TEMPO (temporary)

which may be followed by a time group (hours and minutes UTC) preceded by one of the letter
indicated FM (from), TL (until), AT (at)

e.g. BECMG FM1030 TL1130

NOSIG replaces the TREND group when no significant changes are forecast to occur
during the 2 hour forecast period.

To indicate the end of significant weather the abbreviation NSW, (No Significant
Weather) is used.

Only those elements for which a significant change is expected should be included in
a TREND.

➢ Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)

A Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) is a concise statement of the expected meteorological

conditions at an airport during a specified period (usually 24 hours). TAFs are issued four times
daily at 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, and 18Z, and updated as conditions warrant. Each ICAO state may
modify the code as needed. The TAF code, as described here, is the one used in the United
States. TAFs use the same weather code found in METAR weather reports.

TAF Report Elements

TAF

KOKC 051130Z 051212 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030 TEMPO 1316 1 1/2SM BR

FM1600 16010KT P6SM SKC

BECMG 2224 20013G20KT 4SM SHRA OVC020 PROB40 0006 2SM TSRA OVC008CB

BECMG 0608 21015KT P6SM NSW SCT040 =

A TAF report contains the following sequence of elements in the following order:

1. Type of Report
 2. ICAO Station Identifier

3. Date and Time of Origin

4. Valid Period Date and Time

5. Forecast Meteorological Conditions

The international TAF also contains forecast temperature, icing, and turbulence. These three
elements are not included in National Weather Service (NWS) prepared TAFs. The U.S. has no
requirement to forecast temperatures in an aerodrome forecast and the NWS will continue
to forecast icing and turbulence in AIRMETs and SIGMETs.

Type of Report: ie. (TAF)

The report type header will always appear as the first element in the TAF forecast. There are
two types of TAF reports, a routine forecast, TAF, and an amended forecast, TAF AMD. An
amended TAF is issued when the current TAF no longer adequately describes the ongoing
weather or the forecaster feels the TAF is not representative of the current or expected
weather.

Corrected (COR) or delayed (RTD) TAFs are identified only in the communications header
which precedes the forecast text.

ICAO Station Identifier: ie. (KOKC)

The TAF code uses the ICAO four-letter location identifiers. In the conterminous United States,
the three-letter identifier is prefixed with a K. For example SEA (Seattle) becomes KSEA.
Elsewhere, the first one or two letters of the ICAO identifier indicate in which region of the
world and country (or state) the station is. Pacific locations such as Alaska, Hawaii, and the
Marianas islands start with P followed by an A, H, or G respectively. The last two letters reflect
the specific station identification. If the location's three-letter identification begins with an A,
H, or G, the P is just added to the beginning. If the location's three-letter identification does
not begin with an A, H, or G, the last letter is dropped and the P is added to the beginning.

Date and Time of Origin: ie. (051130Z)

This element is the UTC date and time the forecast is actually prepared. The format is a two-
digit date and four-digit time followed, without a space, by the letter Z. Routine TAFs are
prepared and filed approximately one-half hour prior to scheduled issuance times. TAFs are
scheduled for issuance foure times daily at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z.

Example:

091050Z - Forecast prepared on the ninth day of the month at 1050Z.

Valid Period Date and Time: ie. (051212)

The UTC valid period of the forecast is a two-digit date followed by the two-digit beginning
hour and two-digit ending hour. Routine TAFs are valid for 24-hours. Valid periods beginning
at 0000Z shall be indicated as 00. Valid periods ending at 0000Z shall be indicated as 24. The
24 indication applies to all time group ending times.

In the case of an amended forecast, or a forecast which is corrected or delayed, the valid
period may be for less than 24 hours. Where an airport or terminal operates on a part-time
basis (less than 24 hours/day) the TAFs issued for those locations will have the abbreviated
statement NIL AMD SKED AFT (closing time)Z, added to the end of the forecast. For the TAFS
issued while these locations are closed, the word NIL will appear in place of the forecast text.
A delayed (RTD) forecast will then be issued for these locations after two complete
observations are received.

Examples:

091212 - Forecast valid from the ninth at 1200Z til the tenth at 1200Z.

110024 - Forecast valid from the eleventh at 0000Z till the twelfth at 0000Z.

010524 - Amended forecast valid from the first at 0500Z till the second at 0000Z.

Forecast Meteorological Conditions

This is the body of the TAF. The basic format is:

Wind - Visibility - Weather - Sky Condition - Optional Data (Wind Shear)

The wind, visibility, and sky condition elements are always included in the initial time group
of the forecast. Weather is included in the initial time group only if significant to aviation. If a
significant, lasting change in any of the elements is expected during the valid period, a new
time period with changes is included. It should be noted that, with the exception of a FM
group, the new time period will include only those elements which are expected to change;
i.e., if a lowering of the visibility is expected but the wind is expected to remain the same, the
new time period reflecting the lower visibility would not include a forecast wind. The forecast
wind would remain the same as in the previous time period.

Any temporary conditions expected during a specific time period are included with that time
period.

Wind: ie. (14008KT)

The wind group includes forecast surface winds. The surface wind is the expected wind
direction (first three digits) and speed (last two or three digits if 100 knots or greater). The
contraction KT follows to denote the units of wind speed in knots. Wind gusts are noted by
the letter G appended to the wind speed followed by the highest expected gust (two or three
digits if 100 knots or greater).

Calm winds (three knots or less) are encoded as 00000KT.

Variable winds are encoded when it is impossible to forecast a wind direction due to winds
associated with convective activity or low wind speeds. A variable wind direction is noted
by VRBwhere the three digit direction usually appears.

Examples:

18010KT - Wind one eight zero at one zero knots

35012G20KT - Wind three five zero at one two gust two zero knots

00000KT - Wind calm

VRB16G28KT - Wind variable at one six gust two eight knots

Visibility: ie. (5SM)

The expected prevailing visibility is forecast in statute miles and fractions of statute miles
followed by SM to note the units of measure. Statute miles followed by fractions of statute
miles are separated with a space, for example, 1 1/2SM. Forecast visibility greater than 6
statute miles is indicated by coding P6SM. Directional or variable visibility is not forecasted
and the visibility group is omitted if missing.

Examples:

1/2SM - Visibility one-half statute mile

2 1/4SM - Visibility two and one-quarter statute miles

5SM - Visibility five statute miles

P6SM - Visibility more than six statute miles

Weather: ie. (BR)

The expected weather phenomenon or phenomena is coded in TAF reports using the same
format, qualifiers, and phenomena contractions as METAR reports (except UP).

• UP Unknown precipitation (automated stations only)

If no significant weather is expected to occur during a specific time period in the forecast, the
weather group is omitted for that time period. If, after a time period in which significant
weather has been forecast, a change to a forecast of no significant weather occurs, the
contraction NSW(No Significant Weather) will apear as the weather group in the new time
period. However, NSW is only included in the BECMG or TEMPO groups.

Sky Condition: ie. (BKN030)

TAF sky condition forecasts use the METAR format. Cumulonimbus clouds (CB) are the only
cloud type forecast in TAFs.

When the sky is obscured due to a surface-based phenomenon, vertical visibility (VV) into the
obscuration is forecast. The format for vertical visibility is VV followed by a three-digit height
in hundreds of feet.

Note: Ceiling layers are not designated in the TAF code. For aviation purposes, the ceiling is
the lowest broken or overcast layer or vertical visibility into a complete obscuration.

Examples:

SKC - Sky clear

SCT005 BKN025CB BKN250 - Five hundred scattered, ceiling two thousand five
hundred broken cumulonimbus clouds, two five thousand broken.

VV008 - Indefinite ceiling eight hundred

Optional Data (Wind Shear)

Wind shear is the forecast of non-convective low level winds (up to 2000 feet) and is entered
after the sky conditions when wind shear is expected. The forecast includes the height of the
wind shear followed by the wind direction and wind speed at the indicated height. Height is
given in hundreds of feet AGL up to and including 2,000 feet. Wind shear is encoded with the
contraction WS followed by a three-digit height, slant character, and winds at the height
indicated in the same format as surface winds. The wind shear element is omitted if not
expected to occur.

Example:

WS010/18040KT - Low level wind shear at one thousand, wind one eight zero at four
zero.

Probability Forecast: ie. (PROB40 0006)

The probability or chance of thunderstorms or other precipitation events occuring, along with
associated weather conditions (wind, visibility, and sky conditions).

The PROB40 group is used when the occurrence of thunderstorms or precipitation is in the
30% to less than 50% range, thus the probability value 40 is appended to
the PROB contraction. This is followed by a four-digit group giving the beginning hour and
ending hour of the time period during which the thunderstorms or precipitation is expected.

Note: PROB40 will not be shown during the first six hours of a forecast.

Examples:

PROB40 2102 1/2SM +TSRA - Chance between 2100Z and 0200Z of visibility one-half
thunderstorm, heavy rain.

PROB40 1014 1SM RASN - Chance between 1000Z and 1400Z of visibility one rain and
snow.

PROB40 2024 2SM FZRA - Chance between 2000Z and 0000Z of visibility two freezing
rain.

Forecast Change Indicators

The following change indicators are used when either a rapid, gradual, or temporary change
is expected in some or all of the forecast meteorological conditions. Each change indicator
marks a time group within the TAF report.

FROM Group: ie. (FM1600)

The FM group is used when a rapid change, usually occuring in less than one hour, in prevailing
conditions is expected. Typically, a rapid change of prevailing conditions to more or less a
completely new set of prevailing conditions is associated with a synoptic feature passing
through the terminal area (cold or warm frontal passage). Appended to the FM indicator is
the four-digit hour and minute the change is expected to begin and continues until the next
change group or until the end of the current forecast.

A FM group will mark the beginning of a new line in a TAF report. Each FM group contains all
the required elements -- wind, visibility, weather, and sky condition. Weather will be omitted
in FMgroups when it is not significant to aviation. FM groups will not include the contraction
NSW.
Examples:

FM0100 SKC - After 0100Z sky clear

FM1430 OVC020 - After 1430Z ceiling two thousand overcast

BECOMING Group: ie. (BECMG 2224)

The BECMG group is used when a gradual change in conditions is expected over a longer time
period, usually two hours. The time period when the change is expected is a four-digit group
with the beginning hour and ending hour of the change period which follows
the BECMG indicator. The gradual change will occur at an unspecified time within this time
period. Only the conditions are carried over from the previous time group.

Example:

OVC012 BECMG 1416 BKN020 - Ceiling one thousand two hundred overcast. Then a gradual
change to ceiling two thousand broken between 1400Z and 1600Z.

TEMPORARY Group: ie. (TEMPO 1316)

The TEMPO group is used for any conditions in wind, visibility, weather, or sky condition which
are expected to last for generally less than an hour at a time (occasional), and are expected to
occur during less than half the time period. The TEMPO indicator is followed by a four-digit
group giving the beginning hour and ending hour of the time period during which the
temporary conditions are expected. Only the changing forecast meteorological conditions are
included inTEMPO groups. The omitted conditions are carried over from the previous time
group.

Examples:

SCT030 TEMPO 1923 BKN030 - Three thousand scattered with occasional ceilings
three thousand broken between 1900Z and 2300Z.

4SM HZ TEMPO 0006 2SM BR HZ - Visibility four in haze with occasional visibility two
in mist and haze between 0000Z and 0600Z.

=: ie. (KOKC)

The = indicates the end of the individual TAF transmission. TAFs are bundled together and
transmitted as a single document. The = provides a convenient means of separating this
document into the individual TAF reports.

➢ SPECIal Weather Report

SPECI is an aviation special weather report issued when there is significant deterioration or
improvement in airport weather conditions, such as significant changes of surface winds,
visibility, cloud base height and occurrence of severe weather. The format of the SPECI report
is similar to that of the METAR and the elements used have the same meaning. The identifier
METAR or SPECI at the beginning of the weather report differentiates them. SPECI shall
contain all data elements found in a METAR plus additional plain language information which
elaborates on data in the body of the report. All SPECIs shall be made as soon as possible after
the relevant criteria are observed.

Wind direction changes by 45 degrees or more in less than 15

(1) WIND SHIFT. minutes and the wind speed is 10 knots or more throughout the
wind shift.

Surface visibility as reported in the body of the report decreases to

less than, or if below, increases to equal or exceed:

(a) 3 miles.

(b) 2 miles.
(2)VISIBILITY.
(c) 1 mile.

(d) The lowest standard instrument approach procedure minimum

as published in the National Ocean Service (NOS) U.S. Terminal
Procedures. If none published, use 1/2 mile.

The highest value from the designated RVR runway decreases to less
(3) RUNWAY VISUAL than, or if below, increases to equal or exceed 2,400 feet during the
RANGE (RVR). preceding 10 minutes. U.S. military stations may not report a SPECI
based on RVR.

(4) TORNADO,
FUNNEL (a) is observed.
CLOUD, OR (b) disappears from sight, or ends.
WATERSPOUT.

(a) begins (a SPECI is not required to report the beginning of a new

(5) THUNDERSTORM. thunderstorm if one is currently reported.)
(b) ends.

(a) hail begins or ends.

(6) PRECIPITATION. (b) freezing precipitation begins, ends, or changes intensity.
(c) ice pellets begin, end, or change intensity.

(7) SQUALLS. When squalls occur.

The ceiling (rounded off to reportable values) forms or dissipates

below, decreases to less than, or if below, increases to equal or
exceed:
(8) CEILING. (a) 3,000 feet.
(b) 1,500 feet.
(c) 1,000 feet.
(d) 500 feet.
(e) The lowest standard instrument approach procedure minimum
 as published in the National Ocean Service (NOS) U.S. Terminal
Procedures. If none published, use 200 feet.

A layer of clouds or obscurations aloft is present below 1,000 feet

(9) SKY CONDITION. and no layer aloft was reported below 1,000 feet in the preceding
METAR or SPECI.

(10) VOLCANIC
When an eruption is first noted.
ERUPTION.

(11) AIRCRAFT Upon notification of an Aircraft Mishap unless there has been an
MISHAP. intervening observation.

Any other meteorological situation designated by the responsible

(12) MISCELLANEOUS.
agency or which, in the opinion of the observer, is critical.
 ➢ SIGMET, or Significant Meteorological Information

SIGMET information is information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning the

occurrence or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena which may
affect the safety of aircraft operations. (ICAO Annex 3: Meteorology). There are two types of
SIGMETs - convective and non-convective. The criteria for a non-convective SIGMET to be
issued are severe or greater turbulence over a 3,000-square-mile (7,800 km2) area, severe or
greater icing over a 3,000-square-mile (7,800 km2) area or IMC over a 3,000-square-mile
(7,800 km2) area due to dust, sand, or volcanic ash.
A SIGMET gives a concise description of the phenomena in abbreviated plain language. The
following are examples of weather phenomena that may be described in a SIGMET:

• Thunderstorms
• Cyclones (Tropical Revolving Storms)
• Severe turbulence
• Severe icing
• Severe Mountain Waves
• Dust or Sand Storms
• Volcanic Ash

A Convective SIGMET is issued for convection over the Continental U.S. Convective SIGMETs
are issued for an area of embedded thunderstorms, a line of thunderstorms, thunderstorms
greater than or equal to VIP level 4 affecting 40% or more of an area at least 3000 square
miles, and severe surface weather including surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots,
hail at the surface greater than or equal to 3/4 inches in diameter, and tornadoes. Severe
thunderstorms are characterized by tornado(s), hail 3/4 inches or greater, or wind gusts 50
knots or greater. A Convective SIGMET is valid for 2 hours and they are issued every hour + 55
min.

➢ AIRMET, or Airmen's Meteorological Information

An AIRMET, or Airmen's Meteorological Information, is a concise description of weather

phenomena that are occurring or may occur (forecast) along an air route that may affect
aircraft safety. Compared to SIGMETs, AIRMETs cover less severe weather: moderate
turbulence and icing, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more, or widespread restricted
visibility.

AIRMETs are broadcast on the ATIS at ATC facilities, and are referred to as Weather Advisories.
AIRMETs are valid for six hours. NOTE: The definition has changed and no longer says "light
aircraft"; AIRMETs are intended for all aircraft.

There are three types of AIRMET, all identified by a phonetic letter: S (Sierra), T (Tango), and
Z (Zulu).

AIRMET SIERRA (Mountain obscuration or IFR) ceilings less than 1000 feet and/or visibility less
than 3 miles affecting over 50% of the area at one time; extensive mountain obscuration

AIRMET TANGO (Turbulence) Light - moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots
or more

AIRMET ZULU (Icing) Light - moderate icing, freezing levels

➢ SWC stands for Significant Weather Chart

86 ITCZ
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is a belt of low pressure which circles
the Earth generally near the equator where the trade winds of the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres come together. It is characterised by convective activity which
generates often vigorous thunderstorms over large areas. It is most active over
continental land masses by day and relatively less active over the oceans.
The position of the ITCZ varies with the seasons, and lags behind the sun's relative
position above the Earth's surface by about 1 to 2 months, and correlates generally to
the thermal equator. Since water has a higher heat capacity than land, the ITCZ
propagates poleward more prominently over land than over water, and over the
Northern Hemisphere than over the Southern Hemisphere. In July and August, over
the Atlantic and Pacific, the ITCZ is between 5 and 15 degrees north of the Equator,
but further north over the land masses of Africa and Asia. In eastern Asia, the ITCZ
may propagate up to 30 degrees north of the Equator. In January, over the Atlantic,
the ITCZ generally sits no further south than the Equator, but extends much further
south over South America, Southern Africa, and Australia. Over land, the ITCZ tends to
follow the sun's zenith point.
Where the trade winds are weak, the ITCZ is characterised by isolated Cumulus (Cu)
and Cumulonimbus (Cb) cells. However, where the trade winds are stronger, the ITCZ
can spawn a solid line of active Cb cells embedded with other cloud types developing
as a result of instability at higher levels. Cb tops can reach and sometimes exceed an
altitude of 55,000 feet, and the ITCZ can be as wide as 300 nautical miles in places
presenting a formidable obstacle to aircraft transit.

Aircraft flying through an active ITCZ (strong trade winds) will probably encounter
some or all the hazards associated with Cb clouds such as icing, turbulence, lightning,
and wind shear. However, it is in this zone that the most severe effects may often be
encountered. In particular, it is within the ITCZ that convective breakthroughs of the
tropopause often occur, with the majority occurring over land, especially in the second
half of each day. Convective penetration of the tropopause is less common over
oceanic areas where the phenomenon is more likely to occur in the early hours of each
day, generating more isolated cells. Research sponsored by NASA has shown that 1%
of tropical deep convective activity exceeds 46,000 ft altitude, with a small proportion
of this reaching much greater heights.
 ➢ ISA (International Standard Atmosphere)
The international reference is based on a sea-level temperature of 15°C at a pressure of
1013.25 hPa. The standard density of the air at sea level is 1.225 kg/m 3. Temperature
decreases with altitude at a constant rate of -6.5°C/1000m or -1.98°C/1000ft up to the
tropopause. The standard tropopause altitude is 11,000 m or 36,089 feet. From the
tropopause upward, the temperature remains at a constant value of -56.5°C.

Therefore, the air which is considered as a perfect gas in the ISA model presents the following
characteristics:

At Mean Sea Level (MSL):

ISA temperature = T0 = +15°C = 288.15 K

Above MSL and below the tropopause (36,089 feet):

ISA temperature (ºC) = T0 - 1.98 x [Alt(feet)/1000]

For a quick determination of the standard temperature at a given altitude, the following
approximate formula can be used:

ISA temperature (ºC) = 15 - 2 x [Alt(feet)/1000]

Above the tropopause (36,089 feet):

ISA temperature = -56.5ºC = 216.65 K

This ISA model is used as a reference to compare real atmospheric conditions and the
corresponding engine/aircraft performance. The atmospheric conditions will therefore be
expressed as ISA +/- ΔISA at a given flight level. Pressure and density decrease with altitude.

87 TRADE WINDS
Trade Winds is defined as steady and persistent winds which blow on the Equatorial side of
the subtropical high-pressure systems in both Hemispheres.

When air moves, the Coriolis force deflects air either to the right of air motion in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left of air motion in the Southern Hemisphere.

Where the Trade Winds from each hemisphere approach each other, the rising air creates
instability which, depending on the strength of the winds, results in a line of cumulonimbus
clouds. This line of weather is known as the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ
is generally located near the Equator year-round, except in the Indian Ocean and central Asian
landmass in the Northern Hemisphere Summer.

Considering the air which moves from the subtropical high-pressure systems at around 30
degrees latitude towards the ITCZ which is located near the Equator, and considering the
effect of the Coriolis Force.

In the northern hemisphere the Trade Winds generally blow from the north east while in the
southern hemisphere they blow from the south east. The direction of the winds is influenced
by land masses so the Trade Winds tend to be more uniform over the oceans.
The weather associated with Trade Winds is generally fine for flying operations; scattered
small cumulus and stratocumulus with a base of around three thousand feet. However, as the
trade winds progress across the ocean, they gather moisture and the cloud becomes more
developed, and so the western side of the tropical oceans is cloudier than the eastern side.
Where the Trade Winds pass over land, for example the Hawaiian Islands, showers may form
as a result of orographic lift and instability caused by surface heating over the land.

The term “Trade Winds” is marine. Therefore the Trade Winds blow near the surface of the
Earth. The winds in upper levels (circa 20000 – 30000 feet) over the Trade Wind level are
generally called “Anti-Trade Winds”. These winds blow opposite to their surface-level
counterparts (eg. NE trades → SW anti-trades)

The principle of the Monsoon stems in part from the effect of trade wind movement over land
from water or water from land, and the location and displacement of the ITCZ.

88 BORA
The bora is a cold and typically very dry and often gusty katabatic wind (fall-wind) from the
north-east. Bora winds can occur anytime during the year. However, the peak frequency
occurs in the cold season (November - March). In general, the frequency of gale force bora
winds varies from one day per month, or less, in the summer to six days per month during
winter months. The term bora derives from boreas, the north. In other areas it is used as a
generic term for cold squalls moving downhill from uplands.
The bora is most common blowing down from the mountains on the eastern side of the
Adriatic Sea where it flows mainly from the northeast through gaps in the Dinaric Alps. On
occasion, the Bora can be very localized, extending only a few miles offshore. At other times,
the Bora will dominate the entire Adriatic Sea and, when the area of steep pressure gradiant
is large enough, the Bora can extend as far south as Malta. The strongest winds occur along
the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea from Trieste to the Albanian border
There are two primary weather patterns associated with the bora and both are locally
classified as being a white bora and a black bora. In either case, the pressure is higher on the
European side of the mountains and lower on the Mediterranean side. However, it always
takes a cold pool of air accumulating over the Balkan Peninsula at first. When the depth of
the cold air pool reaches the height of mountain passes, the bora will commence breaking
through the numerous passes that lie along the mountain barrier and sweeping westwards
towards the coast. Enhanced by funneling and topography.
The anticyclonic pattern - or white bora: A large high pressure cell is present over central
Europe and generally lower pressure without a well defined low pressure center to the
south over the Mediterranean Sea. The white bora is basically a dry and very gusty wind due
to its katabatic nature. A white bora is characterized by cold, clear weather and good
visibilities.
The cyclonic pattern - or black bora: A low pressure center (sometimes a so called Genoa
Low) is present in the southern Adriatic Sea or in the Ionian Sea so that the weather across
the area is cloudy and rainy. Black bora winds are less gusty than those in a white bora, but
might bring substantial amounts of rain or snow to the region. With the cyclonic pattern, the
black bora is often accompanied by low clouds and reduced visibilities associated with rain
and/or drizzle.
The greatest intensity of the bora occurs where the mountain peaks are at least 600 m (2000
ft) above sea level and not more than two or three miles inland. The bora does not usually
start with a sudden blast but will build up at a relatively moderate pace.

89 CEILING (BKN - OVC)

The CEILING is the height above ground or water of the lowest layer of clouds and is reported
as BKN (broken) or OVC (overcast), that cover more than half of the sky (more than 4 oktas)
relative to the ground. A minus sign preceding the designation BKN and OVC indicates that
the sky cover is thin. BKN and OVC do not constitute a ceiling. If clouds are present but cannot
be distinguished because of obscuring phenomena, the ceiling is reported as obscured (X). A
sky condition reported as partially obscured (-X) indicates that some span of the sky or cloud
layer is visible through the obscuration.
ICAO
The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below 6000
meters (20,000 feet) covering more than half the sky.
90 TROPOPAUSE
The tropopause is the upper limit of the troposphere and therefore constitutes the boundary
between it and the Stratosphere.
According to the World Meteorological Organisation, the "first tropopause" is conventionally
defined as the lowest level at which the lapse rate decreases to 2°C/km or less, provided also
that the average lapse rate between this level and all higher levels within 2 km does not
exceed 2°C/km. If the average lapse rate above this "first tropopause" between any level and
all higher levels within 1 km exceeds 3°C/km, then a "second tropopause" is defined by the
same criterion as the first. This second tropopause may be either within or above the 1 km
layer.
Near the mid-latitudes there may be two layers of tropopauses: polar and tropical. For
aviation purposes, however, significant weather charts generally show one tropopause, using
the average heights of the two tropopauses to denote its height in flight level.
Due to the changes in tropopause heights, especially in mid-latitude polar frontal systems, in
certain cases stratospheric air may be brought into the warm air troposphere as a result of
the lower tropopause height over the cold air and the jetstream associated with polar frontal
system. The airflow effect may “draw” stratospheric air from above and enter the warm air
troposphere by way of the jet stream.
The tropopause occurs at approximately 20,000 feet over the poles and at approximately
60,000 feet above the equator. The International Standard Atmosphere assumes that the
average height of the tropopause is 36,000 feet. Due to the tropospheric effect of
temperature decrease with height, in general the temperature at the Tropopause is lower
equatorward and higher poleward.
The location of the tropopause is of interest to flight crew because it indicates the altitude at
which temperature becomes constant with increasing altitude, which is an import factor in
performance and fuel calculations. It also gives an indication of the location of jet streams and
the high winds and turbulence associated with them. In general, clouds and weather occur
below the tropopause in the troposphere; however, deep tropical convective systems can
break through the tropopause, especially over land. Overshooting cumulonimbus tops are
examples of such situations.
The turbulence felt as a result of jet streams and other weather phenomena doesn't
necessarily end at the tropopause. Turbulence can continue well above the tropopause,
however the general rule to climb or descend to avoid turbulence most effectively (as opposed
to horizontally by directional changes) still applies.

Handy Formulas
**PUSH THE HEAD AND PULL THE TAIL** → intercepting NDB QDR/QDM

𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
glidepath height ( ft) = x distance (ft) ≈ (300 ft/nm)
60

𝑇𝐴𝑆
angle of bank in rate 1 turn = +7
10
 𝑇𝐴𝑆
radius of turn (NM) = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒× 60×𝜋

IAS → (position/instrument error) → RAS/CAS 􀃆 (compressibility) → EAS 􀃆 (density)

→ TAS

VOR’s variation at station / NDB’s variation at aircraft.

QDR + var. = QTE (QDR = magnetic from station / QTE = true from station)

QDM ± 180° = QDR (radial) / QDM = ’’bearings on the RMI’’ (QDR = magnetic to)

LSS (kt) = 38,94 √𝑇(°𝐾) [273°K = 0°C]

LSS = 661 kt (at sea level at ISA temp.= 288 k)
LSS = 573 kt (ISA tropopause temp.= 216,5 k)
mach no. = TAS / LSS

𝐸𝑥𝐻
time to PNR / PSR (radius of action) = 𝑂+𝐻 / E= safe endurance, H=GS home, O=GS out.
𝐷𝑥𝐻
distance to CP = / D=distance between airfields → point of equal time, moving
𝑂+𝐻
into the wind

DALR = 3 °C/1000ft
SALR = 1,8 °C/1000ft in temperate climates (not constant)
S.L - 1013mb – 27 ft/mb // 18000 ft – 500mb – 48 ft/mb

ATS comprises 3 services;

1. Air Traffic Services; Area Control Service / Approach Control Service /
Aerodrome Control Service
2. Flight Information Service
3. Allerting Service
Controlled airspace;
Class A: most airways, important control zones and control areas (IFR only).
Class B: upper airspace → IFR and VFR permitted (controlled).
Class C: IFR + VFR (controlled) → IFR is separated from IFR and VFR, VFR is separated
from IFR and receive traffic information about other VFR.
Class D: IFR + VFR (controlled) → IFR is separated from IFR and receive traffic
information in respect of VFR flights. VFR receive traffic information on all other
flights.
Class E: IFR + VFR permitted; IFR with air traffic control service and are separated from
other IFR. All flights receive traffic information as far as practicable (no control zones).
Class F: IFR + VFR permitted; IFR flights receive air traffic advisory service and all flights
receive flight information service if requested.
Class G: IFR + VFR permitted and receive flight information service if requested.
air traffic control service: IFR→ A, B, C, D and E / VFR→ B, C and D + all aerodrome
traffic at controlled aerodromes.

QUJ = true bearing to station.

QTE = true bearing from station.
QDR = magnetic bearing from station (radial).
QDM = magnetic bearing to station.

air masses → classification by their source region; polar/arctic/tropical and track

classification; continental and maritime.
(PM) polar maritime → cool, moist, conditionally unstable air (convective cloud,
showers and good visibility) 􀃆 west-north/west.
(AM) arctic maritime → north.
(PC) polar continental → only in winter present for in summer the surface
temperatures in the source region rises to 20-25°C and it becomes an area of mean
low pressure.
(TM) tropical maritime → source is warm, moist, and stable. Azores high → south-
west.
(TC) tropical continental→ comes from Turkey and eastern Mediterranean in summer
where it is stable and hot but not particular dry. 􀃆 summer air mass but summer
extends to the autumn in practice.