CS6004 CYBER FORENSICS

UNIT – II

Dr.A.Kathirvel, Professor, Dept of CSE

M N M Jain Engineering College, Chennai
 UNIT - II
E-MAIL SECURITY & FIREWALLS

PGP – S/MIME – Internet Firewalls for Trusted

System: Roles of Firewalls – Firewall
related terminology- Types of Firewalls –
Firewall designs – SET for E-Commerce
Transactions.

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 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)

• widely used de facto secure email

• developed by Phil Zimmermann
• selected best available crypto algs to use
integrated into a single program
• available on Unix, PC, Macintosh and Amiga
systems
• originally free, now have commercial versions
available also

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 PGP Services

1 Authentication
2. Confidentiality
3. Compression
4.E-mail Compatibility
5.Segmentation & Reassembly

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5
 PGP Operation – Authentication
1. sender creates a message
2. SHA-1 used to generate 160-bit hash code of
message
3. hash code is encrypted with RSA using the
sender's private key, and result is attached to
message
4. receiver uses RSA or DSS with sender's public
key to decrypt and recover hash code
5. receiver generates new hash code for message
and compares with decrypted hash code, if
match, message is accepted as authentic

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 PGP Operation – Confidentiality
1. sender generates message and random 128-bit
number to be used as session key for this message
only
2. message is encrypted, using CAST-128 / IDEA/3DES
with session key
3. session key is encrypted using RSA with recipient's
public key, then attached to message
4. receiver uses RSA with its private key to decrypt and
recover session key
5. session key is used to decrypt message

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 PGP Operation – Confidentiality &
Authentication

• uses both services on same message

–create signature & attach to message
–encrypt both message & signature
–attach RSA encrypted session key

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 PGP Operation – Compression

• by default PGP compresses message after

signing but before encrypting
– One can store uncompressed message & signature
for later verification
– & because compression is non deterministic
• uses ZIP compression algorithm

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 PGP Operation – Email Compatibility

• when using PGP will have binary data to send

(encrypted message etc)
• however email was designed only for text
• hence PGP must encode raw binary data into
printable ASCII characters
• uses radix-64 algorithm
– maps 3 bytes to 4 printable chars(ASCII)
– also appends a CRC
• PGP also segments messages if too big
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PGP Operation

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Segmentation & Reassembly
• PGP subdivides the
original message(if
length >50000
octects) which is too
large to small
enough to send via
mail.
• On the receiving
end, PGP
reassemble entire
original block

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 PGP Session Keys

• need a session key for each message

– of varying sizes: 56-bit DES, 128-bit CAST or
IDEA, 168-bit Triple-DES
• generated using ANSI X12.17 mode
• uses random inputs taken from previous
uses and from keystroke timing of user

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 PGP Public & Private Keys
• since many public/private keys may be in
use, need to identify which is actually used
to encrypt session key in a message
– could send full public-key with every message
– but this is inefficient
• rather use a key identifier based on key
– is least significant 64-bits of the key
– will very likely be unique
• also use key ID in signatures
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 PGP Key Rings

• each PGP user has a pair of keyrings:

– public-key ring contains all the public-keys of
other PGP users known to this user, indexed by
key ID
– private-key ring contains the public/private key
pair(s) for this user, indexed by key ID & encrypted
keyed from a hashed passphrase

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 PGP Key Management
• rather than relying on certificate authorities
• in PGP every user is own CA
– can sign keys for users they know directly
• forms a “web of trust”
– trust keys have signed
– can trust keys others have signed if have a chain of
signatures to them
• key ring includes trust indicators
• users can also revoke their keys

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S/MIME (Secure/Multipurpose Internet
Mail Extensions)
• security enhancement to MIME email
– original Internet RFC822 email was text only
– MIME provided support for varying content types
and multi-part messages
– with encoding of binary data to textual form
– S/MIME added security enhancements
• have S/MIME support in various modern mail
agents: MS Outlook, Netscape etc

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 S/MIME Functions
• enveloped data
– encrypted content and associated keys
• signed data
– encoded message + signed digest
• clear-signed data
– cleartext message + encoded signed digest
• signed & enveloped data
– nesting of signed & encrypted entities

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 S/MIME Cryptographic Algorithms

• hash functions: SHA-1 & MD5

• digital signatures: DSS & RSA
• session key encryption: ElGamal & RSA
• message encryption: Triple-DES, RC2/40 and
others
• have a procedure to decide which algorithms
to use

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 S/MIME Certificate Processing

• S/MIME uses X.509 v3 certificates

• managed using a hybrid of a strict X.509 CA
hierarchy & PGP’s web of trust
• each client has a list of trusted CA’s certs
• and own public/private key pairs & certs
• certificates must be signed by trusted CA’s

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 INTRODUCTION TO FIREWALL
• now everyone want to be on the Internet and to
interconnect networks
• has persistent security concerns
– can’t easily secure every system in org
• typically use a Firewall
• to provide perimeter defence
• as part of comprehensive security strategy

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 What is a Firewall?
• a choke point of control and monitoring
• interconnects networks with differing trust
• imposes restrictions on network services
• auditing and controlling access
• provide NAT & usage monitoring
• implement VPNs using IPSec
• must be immune to penetration
• Effective means of protection a local system or network
of systems from network-based security threats while
affording access to the outside world via WAN`s or the
Internet
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 Firewall Limitations
• cannot protect from attacks bypassing it
– eg sneaker net, utility modems, trusted
organisations, trusted services (eg SSL/SSH)
• cannot protect against internal threats
– eg disgruntled or colluding employees
• cannot protect against access via WLAN
– if improperly secured against external use
• cannot protect against malware imported
via laptop, PDA, storage infected outside
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 Firewall Design Principles
• Information systems undergo a steady evolution
(from small LAN`s to Internet connectivity)
• Strong security features for all workstations and
servers not established
• The firewall is inserted between the premises
network and the Internet
• Aims:
– Establish a controlled link
– Protect the premises network from Internet-based
attacks
– Provide a single choke point 25
 Firewall Characteristics
• Design goals:
– All traffic from inside to outside must pass
through the firewall (physically blocking all
access to the local network except via the
firewall)
– Only authorized traffic (defined by the local
security police) will be allowed to pass
– The firewall itself is immune to penetration
(use of trusted system with a secure operating
system)
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 Firewall Characteristics
• Four general techniques:
• Service control
– Determines the types of Internet services that can be
accessed, inbound or outbound
• Direction control
– Determines the direction in which particular service
requests are allowed to flow
• User control
– Controls access to a service according to which user is
attempting to access it
• Behavior control
– Controls how particular services are used (e.g. filter e-
mail) 27
 Types of Firewalls

• Three common types of Firewalls:

–Packet-filtering routers
–Application-level gateways
–Circuit-level gateways
–(Bastion host)

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 Firewalls – Packet Filters
• simplest, fastest
firewall component
• foundation of any
firewall system
• examine each IP packet
(no context) and permit
or deny according to
rules
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 Firewalls – Packet Filters
•hence restrict access to services (ports)
•possible default policies
•that not expressly permitted is prohibited
•that not expressly prohibited is permitted

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Firewalls – Packet Filters

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 Attacks on Packet Filters
• IP address spoofing
– fake source address to be trusted
– add filters on router to block
• source routing attacks
– attacker sets a route other than default
– block source routed packets
• tiny fragment attacks
– split header info over several tiny packets
– either discard or reassemble before check

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 Firewalls – Stateful Packet Filters
• traditional packet filters do not examine higher
layer context
– ie matching return packets with outgoing flow
• stateful packet filters address this need
• they examine each IP packet in context
– keep track of client-server sessions
– check each packet validly belongs to one
• hence are better able to detect bogus packets
out of context
• may even inspect limited application data
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Firewalls - Application Level Gateway (or Proxy)

• have application specific gateway / proxy

• has full access to protocol
– user requests service from proxy
– proxy validates request as legal
– then actions request and returns result to user
– can log / audit traffic at application level
• need separate proxies for each service
– some services naturally support proxying
– others are more problematic

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Firewalls - Application Level Gateway (or Proxy)

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 Firewalls - Circuit Level Gateway
• relays two TCP connections
• imposes security by limiting which
such connections are allowed
• once created usually relays traffic
without examining contents
•typically used
when trust internal
users by allowing
general outbound
connections
•SOCKS is
commonly used
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 Bastion Host
• highly secure host system
• runs circuit / application level gateways
• or provides externally accessible services
• potentially exposed to "hostile" elements
• hence is secured to withstand this
– hardened O/S, essential services, extra auth
– proxies small, secure, independent, non-privileged
• may support 2 or more net connections
• may be trusted to enforce policy of trusted separation
between these net connections

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 Host-Based Firewalls
• s/w module used to secure individual host
– available in many operating systems
– or can be provided as an add-on package
• often used on servers
• advantages:
– can tailor filtering rules to host environment
– protection is provided independent of topology
– provides an additional layer of protection

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 Personal Firewalls
• controls traffic between PC/workstation and
Internet or enterprise network
• a software module on personal computer
• or in home/office DSL/cable/ISP router
• typically much less complex than other
firewall types
• primary role to deny unauthorized remote
access to the computer
• and monitor outgoing activity for malware
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Firewall Configurations

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Firewall Configurations

Virtual Private
Networks

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 Summary of Firewall Locations and
Topologies
• host-resident firewall
• screening router
• single bastion inline
• single bastion T
• double bastion inline
• double bastion T
• distributed firewall configuration

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 TRUSTED SYSTRM

• Way to enhance the ability of a system to defend

against intruders and malicious software.
• Trusted system uses Data Access control
Basic elements of access control system are
Subject,
Object &
Access right.

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 Access Matrix
• Sparse and implemented by decomposition in 2 ways.

1. Decomposition by columns called as Access Control lists.

2. Decomposition by rows yields capability tickets which
specifies authorized objects and operation for a user.
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 Process Control List for Programs
Process 1 (Read, Execute)

Access Control List (ACL) ACL for Segment A:

Process 1 ( Read, Write)
ACL for Segment B:
Process 2 (Read)

Capability List for Process 1

Progress 1 (Read, Execute)
Segment A (Read, Write)
CL for Process 2:
Segment B (Read)
Capability List (CL)

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 Concept of trusted system
This is commonly found in military, where information
is categorized as
• unclassified (U),
• confidential (C),
• secret (S),
• top secret (TS), or
• beyond.
This concept is equally applicable in other areas,
where information can be organized into categories

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 Multilevel security
• When multiple categories or levels of data are defined, the
requirement is referred to as multilevel security.
• The general statement of the requirement for multilevel security is
that a subject at a high level may not convey information to a
subject at a lower or noncomparable level unless that flow
accurately reflects the will of an authorized user
• No read-up: A subject can only read an object of less or equal
security level. This is referred to in the literature as the simple
security property
• No write-down: A subject can write into an object of greater or
equal security level. This is referred to as the *-property
(pronounced star property)

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 Reference Monitor Concept
• These two rules( no read up and write down) , if properly enforced,
provide multilevel security. For a data processing system, the approach
that has been taken, and has been the object of much research and
development, is based on the reference monitor concept.
• The reference monitor is a controlling element in the hardware and
operating system of a computer that regulates the access of subjects to
objects on the basis of security parameters of the subject and object.
• The reference monitor has access to a file, known as the security kernel
database that lists the access privilege (security clearance) of each subject
and the protection attributes (classification level) of each object.
• The reference monitor enforces the security rules (no read-up, no write-
down) and has the following properties:
1. Complete Meditation 2. Isolation 3.Verifiability

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Reference Monitor Concept

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 Trojan Horse defense

• One way to secure against Trojan horse

attacks is the use of a secure, trusted
operating system
• The Trojan horse attack begins when a hostile
user, named Alice, gains legitimate access to
the system and installs both a Trojan horse
program and a private file to be used in the
attack as a “back-pocket”.

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Trojan Horse defense

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 Trojan horse defense example
• Alice gives read/write permission to herself and gives Bob write-only permission (Fig. a).
• Alice now induces Bob to invoke the Trojan horse program, perhaps by advertising it as a
useful utility. When the program detects that it is being executed by Bob, it reads the
sensitive character string from Bob’s file and copies it into Alice’s back-pocket file (Fig.b).
• Both the read and write operations satisfy the constraints imposed by access control lists.
Alice then has only to access her file at a later time to learn the value of the string.
• Now consider the use of a secure operating system in this scenario (Fig. 15.10c). Security
levels are assigned to subjects at logon on the basis of criteria such as the terminal from
which the computer is being accessed and the user involved, as identified by password/ID.
• In this example, there are two security levels, sensitive (gray) and public (white), ordered so
that sensitive is higher than public. Processes owned by Bob and Bob’s data file are assigned
the security level sensitive. Alice’s files and processes are restricted to public.
• If Bob invokes the Trojan horse program (Fig. 15.10d), that program acquires Bob’s level
security. It is therefore able, under the simple security property, to observe the sensitive
character string.
• When the program attempts to store the string in a public file (the back pocket file),
however, the *-property is violated and the attempt is disallowed by the reference monitor.
• Thus, the attempt to write into the back-pocket file is denied even though the access
control list permits it: The security policy takes precedence over the access control list
mechanism. 52
 Secure Electronic Transactions (SET)
• Protocol- to protect Internet credit card
transactions
• developed in 1996 by Mastercard, Visa etc
• not a payment system
• rather a set of security protocols & formats
– secure communications amongst parties
– trust from use of X.509v3 certificates
– privacy by restricted info to those who need it

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SET Components

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 SET Transaction
1. customer opens account
2. customer receives a certificate
3. merchants have their own certificates
4. customer places an order
5. merchant is verified
6. order and payment are sent
7. merchant requests payment authorization
8. merchant confirms order
9. merchant provides goods or service
10.merchant requests payment
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 Dual Signature
• customer creates dual messages
– order information (OI) for merchant
– payment information (PI) for bank
• neither party needs details of other
• but must know they are linked
• use a dual signature for this
– Signed(by encryption) and concatenated
hashes of OI & PI
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Purchase Request – Customer

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Purchase Request – Merchant

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 Purchase Request – Merchant
1. verifies cardholder certificates using CA signs
2. verifies dual signature using customer's public
signature key to ensure order has not been
tampered with in transit & that it was signed
using cardholder's private signature key
3. processes order and forwards the payment
information to the payment gateway for
authorization (described later)
4. sends a purchase response to cardholder
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 Payment Gateway Authorization

1. verifies all certificates

2. decrypts digital envelope of authorization block to obtain
symmetric key & then decrypts authorization block
3. verifies merchant's signature on authorization block
4. decrypts digital envelope of payment block to obtain
symmetric key & then decrypts payment block
5. verifies dual signature on payment block
6. verifies that transaction ID received from merchant matches
that in PI received (indirectly) from customer
7. requests & receives an authorization from issuer
8. sends authorization response back to merchant

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 Payment Capture
• merchant sends payment gateway a
payment capture request
• gateway checks request
• then causes funds to be transferred
to merchants account
• notifies merchant using capture
response
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