Soft Magnetics

Application Guide

p. 30-1 February 2003 Rev. B

 Table of Contents

Introduction .............................................. 30.3 Industry Applications of

Arnold Core Products ...................... 30.25, 26
Basics of Magnetics .................... 30.4 – 30.11
1. Frequency and Application .................................... 30.25
1. Energy.......................................................................... 30.4
2. Low-frequency Applications.................................... 30.25
2. Units of Measure ........................................................ 30.4
Power Conversion (Transformers) .................... 30.25
3. Simple Magnetic Theory............................................ 30.4
Power Storage (Inductors) ................................ 30.25
4. Permeability ............................................................ 30.5, 6
3. High-frequency Applications ............................ 30.25, 26
5. Saturation.................................................................... 30.6
Filters.................................................................... 30.25
6. BH (or Hysteresis) Loop.......................................... 30.6, 7
Mag Amps and Saturable Reactors .................. 30.25
7. Magnetic Energy .................................................... 30.7, 8
Transformers ................................................ 30.25, 26
8. Magnetic Circuits.................................................... 30.8, 9
4. Major Industry Groups ............................................ 30.26
9. Electrical Properties of Magnetic Circuits ................ 30.9
10. Soft Magnetic Materials .......................................... 30.10
Core Loss.............................................................. 30.10 Appendix
Energy Storage vs. Energy Transfer............ 30.10, 11 Recommended Application Charts .......... 30.27 – 30.35

Applications and Descriptions

of Arnold Product Lines............ 30.12 – 30.24
1. Description of Applications .............................. 30.12, 13
2. Types of Materials ...................................... 30.13 – 30.24
Soft Ferrite .................................................... 30.13, 14
Scrapless Laminates ............................................ 30.14
Powdered Iron .............................................. 30.14, 15
MPP ................................................................ 30.16, 17
HI-FLUX ™ .............................................................. 30.17
SUPER-MSS ™ (Sendust) ...................................... 30.18
Toroidal Tape Cores .............................. 30.18 – 30.22
Cut Tape Cores.............................................. 30.22, 23
Bobbin Tape Wound Cores................................ 30.23
Silectron Toroids ................................................ 30.24
Silectron C and E Cores ...................................... 30.24
Distributed Gap Cores .......................................... 30.24

p. 30.2 February 2003 Rev. A

 Introduction

Magnetism…
The earth itself has magnetism. Ages ago, seagoing The following training document provides some of the
navigators learned how to use this phenomenon to sail information and understanding needed to use magnetic
their ships accurately from one port to another. products successfully. You’ll find general information on
magnetic theory and specific information on magnetic core
All of us are aware that the earth spins on an axis, the types and applications. It requires a modest understanding
opposite ends of which have been designated as the of electrical circuits and basic principles of electronics, so
geographic north and south poles. These geographic poles some preparatory study would be beneficial for anyone
are near the earth’s magnetic poles. without such background.
Invisible magnetic lines of force completely surround the There are many ways to get up to speed in this subject. The
earth. Oversimplified (but adequate for this discussion), possibilities include a basic electronics course of study or
these lines enter the earth at one pole, pass through the one of the programmed learning packages on the market.
earth, exit at the other pole, and then loop back to the first For example, the Heath Company offers a variety of
pole. They are useful not only to the mariner on the high electronics educational products.
seas but also to the airplane pilot aloft.
Ancient mariners learned that certain substances, known as
lodestones, would always point approximately north or
south when suspended on a string. If the lodestone was
deliberately moved from this position, it would slowly
return to its original orientation. This gave evidence of a
strange force which man could use.
Long after the mariner’s compass became a universally
useful navigational instrument, other pioneering scientists
observed that a voltage could be measured between the
ends of a piece of wire moved across magnetic lines of
force. They also learned that, if the ends of a long enough
wire were touched together, a tiny spark could be seen
when the wire was moved very rapidly. Gradually, as these
phenomenon were observed by scientists and word of
their observations was circulated, the relationship
between electricity and magnetism was discovered.
Although they did not understand the causes at first, they
eventually developed the idea that something was flowing
in the wire. In due course, new words such as voltage,
current, resistance, and impedance began to creep into the
strange, new jargon of science. Each new discovery added
to the previous knowledge and, through such evolution,
order developed out of conflicting opinions. That process
continues today, although the points of discussion and
discovery are now many times more specific in nature than
the general concepts developed in the past.
Virtually everyone has an intuitive understanding of simple
magnetic devices like the lodestone. However, an individual
designing today’s sophisticated magnetic products for the
commercial market place must have a deeper knowledge
and understanding of the subject.

p. 30.3 February 2003 Rev. A

 Basics of Magnetics

Energy Simple Magnetic Theory

Arnold serves industries and individuals deeply Fundamental to all magnetic theory is the concept
involved with conversion and utilization of magnetic that a magnetic field is produced when a current
energy. Their actual final products can range passes through a conductor. The direction and
anywhere from computers to electrical power distri- intensity of this magnetic field is a funtion of the
bution to automobiles. This manual provides an direction and amplitude of the current.
understanding of the basic phenomenon of
The simple circuit shown in Figure 1 depicts how
magnetics and how Arnold products allow it to be
electrical energy is converted to magnetic energy. A
put to practical use.
current source, in this case a battery, is attached to a
Any energy form––be it electrical, thermal, chemical, length of conducting wire. Because the electrical
or mechanical––is only of value to us if it can be used circuit is closed, current flows. This current is called
in our everyday life. This is called doing work. To do the excitation current and, when used with a certain
work for us, energy must be converted from one coil geometry, results in what is referred to as the
form to another. The products that Arnold Magnetizing Force, or MMF per unit length, or the H
manufactures facilitate this conversion and make it of the coil. The unit of the measure is Oersted in CGS
efficient enough to be of practical use. It is certainly
possible to make permanent magnet (PM) motors
with lodestone motor arcs and transformers from cut-
up tin cans. But, how efficient would they be, and Current Flow
would they allow the design of the everyday electro-
magnetic devices that have become necessities to us?
Understanding the formation and utilization of + _
energy is very important.

Battery
Units of Measurement Flux Lines
Before getting too involved in a discussion of
magnetics, you should spend some time on one of
the most controversial subjects you will encounter:
the system of units that information/literature/design Fig. 1
documentation should be using. Arnold Engineering
has traditionally used the CGS (centimeter-gram-
second) system. Its principal advantages are that the units and AMP-turn per meter in SI units. Units of
units are nicely “sized” for real-world magnetic MMF (magneto-motive force) are Gilbert in CGS and
materials, and that the permeability of free space is AMP-turn in SI systems.
equal to one. (This last point will be defined more 1 AMP-TURN per METER = .0125 OERSTED
clearly later in this document.)
The flow of current creates a “force field” that is
Unfortunately, CGS units receive only passing concentric to the conductor. This field was arbitrarily
mention in formal training in electromagnetic theory. called a magnetic field by 19th century researchers,
The system of choice in academic and scientific and a measure of its magnitude was called Flux, or
communities is the MKS (meter-kilogram-second) lines of flux, or B. In other words, some amount of
system or, as it is often called, the SI (System amps of current creates some amount of lines of flux.
International) system. These units tend to be a little The resulting magnetic field is a pool of potential
more awkward in size, and the permeability of free energy. The unit of flux is the Weber or the Volt-
space is an exponential number. On the other hand, second in the SI system, and the Maxwell in CGS.
mathematical operations are much simpler when
going from energy to power to flux density, etc. 1 WEBER = 1 VOLT-SECOND
1 WEBER = 108 MAXWELLS

p. 30.4 February 2003 Rev. A

 Basics of Magnetics (Cont.)

I Tesla in SI units. Occasionally an engineer will use

A
“lines per square inch” as a unit of induction, but
this is not common.
1 TESLA = 10,000 GAUSS
1 TESLA = 1 WEBER PER METER2
1 GAUSS = 1 MAXWELL PER CM2
Flux density is one of the components used to
Magnetic determine the amount of magnetic energy stored
Flux in a given geometry. The other component is the
I MMF, described previously.
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of magnetic
The other important concept that became
flux resulting from current flow in a coil.
apparent was that, in a situation where a magnetic
material was inserted into a coil (see Figure 3), the
flux (or flux density) was actually the result of two
constituents––one being the contribution of the
coil itself, the other the contribution of the iron
A
core. These two parts are additive, and the total
flux is the sum of the two.
FLUX core + FLUX coil = FLUX total
The significance of this is best demonstrated by the
use of normal and intrinsic demagnetization curves
in Arnold’s permanent magnet literature. The
intrinsic curve is representative of the magnet’s
Magnetic contribution, and the normal curve is the magnet
Flux plus the coil. There will be further discussion of this
later in this document.
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of increased
magnetic flux with a ferromagnetic core.
Permeability
From this simple beginning, scientists manipulated
the phenomenon to perform work more efficiently. Not all magnetic materials respond equally to the
The single loop of wire was made into a multiple- applied MMF. In other words, different materials
turn coil (see Figure 2), proportionately increasing exhibit different flux densities when subjected to
the amount of lines of flux produced by a limited the same magnetization levels. To account for this,
amount of current. Many times the only way early scientists developed a term to describe the mathe-
researchers had to measure the amount of flux matical ratio of flux density to magnetizing force.
produced by a certain configuration was to observe This ratio, called Permeability, is a measure of the
the amount of attractive force a coil exhibited. It magnetic sensitivity of the material.
was only a matter of time before someone came Every magnetic material has a permeability that is
upon the idea of putting an iron “core” inside the numerically greater than the value of the perme-
coil conductors (see Figure 3) and, naturally ability of free space. This means that magnetic
enough, the amount of force produced increased materials are more responsive to the applied MMF
drastically over all previous experiments. than the “air” that they occupy. Since the value of
Two important concepts began to evolve from this a magnetic material’s permeability is expressed
early research. relative to the permeability of free space, it will be
numerically the same in either CGS or SI systems.
The first is that the presence of an iron “core” The value of the permeability of free space,
obviously increased the concentration of lines of however, is quite different in the two systems.
flux within the coil of wire. This further solidified
the notion of flux density, or the number of lines Absolute permeability of free space = 1 (CGS) or
of flux per unit of cross-sectional area. Flux density 4␲ x 10-7 (MKS)
is also sometimes referred to as induction. The unit The relative permeability of hard ferrite is slightly
of measure of flux density is Gauss in CGS units and greater than 1

p. 30.5 February 2003 Rev. A

 Basics of Magnetics (Cont.)

Relative permeability of neo-fe = slightly greater described above. This is the hysteresisgram, or as it
than 1 is more commonly called, the Hysteresis Loop or
BH Loop. Since it is of such basic importance to
Relative permeability of samarium-co. = slightly
magnetic designers, some explanation of its
greater than 1
features will be given.
Relative perm. of alnico = 3 - 7
The BH loop is obtained by exciting the magnetic
“ “ “ MPP = 14 - 350 material sample with a controlled, and varied,
MMF and simultaneously recording the resulting
“ “ “ powdered iron = 8 - 75 flux density induced in the sample. Generally the
“ “ “ Silectron = up to 30,000 format is to excite the sample to saturation in the
positive direction and then instantaneously reverse
“ “ “ Supermalloy = up to 300,000 direction and excite it in the negative direction.
Unfortunately, the permeability of magnetic The final step is to reverse direction again and
materials is not constant. It is observed that perme- return to the positive saturation point.
abilities will change over a several-decade range as The sample may or may not be driven into
the excitation level is varied. Also, real-world saturation during the test sequence. This point is of
materials are affected by their environment, and particular significance in permanent magnets,
things like temperature and mechanical shock can where the full potential of a material can only be
have a profound effect on the actual value of realized if it is completely saturated when
permeability. magnetized. As a practical footnote, it should be
mentioned that, in the case of all permanent
magnet materials and a few soft magnetic
Saturation materials, the excitation source is actually an
electromagnet where the amp-turns are indirectly
Although magnetic materials are more susceptible applied to the sample.
to excitation than air, they have the drawback of
limited flux capacity. As the applied excitation Figure 4 shows a typical BH or hysteresis loop. Flux
becomes higher and higher, the material reaches a density, B, is displayed on the vertical axis and
point where its permeability approaches the magnetizing force, H, is on the horizontal axis.
permeability of free space and it cannot hold any Note that positive and negative values of both
more magnetic energy. This point is referred to as parameters are utilized. One variation of the BH
Saturation and is characterized by the material’s loop is the demagnetization curve commonly used
Saturation Flux Density. to display the properties of permanent magnet
materials. The “demag” curve only represents the
Saturation is strictly a material property; it is not a second quadrant of the full BH loop. This is where
function of the excitation current. Many engineers the material has been magnetized and now a
tend to be misguided on this point. A material’s gradual demagnetizing MMF is being applied (and
saturation flux density is only a result of its thus the term demag).
metallurgy and its operating temperature.
(However, the excitation level at which this
saturation occurs is a function of just about Maximum residual Peak induction
induction – Retentivity (Bm), gausses
everything.) (Br), guasses
Most materials do not have a well-defined (Bm,
saturation flux density. If an engineer specifies that 2nd Quadrant Hm)
(Br,O)
Induction (B),

a material have a minimum saturation flux density, Maximum coercive 1st Quadrant
he should also specify at what excitation level this force – Coercivity
guasses

(Hc) oersteds Peak magnetizing

flux density is to be measured. There are no hard force (Hm),
and fast rules as to where a material is, by oersteds
definition, saturated. (O, Hc) (O,O) Magnetizing force
(H), oersteds

3rd Quadrant Excitation current

BH Loop
4th Quadrant
In order to differentiate the properties of specific
materials more easily, a measurement technique
was devised that clearly shows all the phenomenon Fig. 4

p. 30.6 February 2003 Rev. A

 Basics of Magnetics (Cont.)

For accurate results, the magnetic material sample The remainder of the BH loop is simply a mirror
being measured should start out completely image of the first two quadrants. The sample is
demagnetized. This would be the axis point (0,0) driven to (-Bm,-Hm), then (-Br, 0) then (0, +Hc ) and
on the BH loop in Figure 4. At that point the finally back to (+Bm,+Hm).
excitation current is zero and the sample contains
As mentioned earlier, the flux in the “air space”
no flux. As excitation is increased slowly in the
within the exciting coil does contribute to the
positive direction, flux builds up in the material,
total, or normal, flux observed or measured in the
also in the positive direction. Generally, the
BH loop. Some hysteresisgraphs, as the instruments
excitation is increased until saturation occurs; but,
are called, are equipped to correct for this and
since this is not always the case, we will assume in
display the intrinsic BH loop of the material. Other
this discussion that the material is not saturated.
instruments do not. This additional flux contri-
(The occurrence of saturation does not change the
bution is only of significance in those situations
following test sequence.) This point of maximum
(such as Arnox and Neo-Fe) where it takes a large
excitation is signified on Figure 4 by (+Bm,+Hm),
where +Bm is the maximum flux density observed MMF to magnetize and demagnetize the material,
and +Hm is the maximum MMF applied. Current or for materials such as low-permeability powder
then is slowly decreased to zero, to the point on cores where it takes a significant amount of MMF
the curve labeled (+Br,0). But, as indicated in Figure to saturate the material. This subject is dealt with
4, the flux does not return to zero. Instead flux only rarely in the case of soft magnetic products
density assumes what is called the residual flux of but, in PM literature, both the normal and intrinsic
the sample. The symbol for Residual Flux is Br. demagnetization curves usually are given for high-
coercivity materials (see Figure 5). For intrinsic BH
One of the distinguishing characteristics of real- loops, an additional “i” subscript is added to all the
world magnetic materials is that they have defining parameters described above. In other
“memory” of their previous excitation condition. words, Hci is the intrinsic coercivity of the sample,
This results in a “lag”in the response of the whereas Hc is the normal coercivity. Both normal
material when excitation is varied. The residual flux and intrinsic demagnetization curves are of signif-
is a manifestation of this phenomenon. (It should icance to the PM circuit designer.
be noted that all magnetic materials, including
core products, have residual flux values.) This lag is
referred to as Hysteresis, from which the name
hyteresisgram or hysteresis loop is taken.

al
rm
Now the excitation is increased in the negative

No
direction, and a demagnetizing force is applied
against the sample’s inherent residual flux. Br Intrinsic
Eventually the magnetic energy, in the form of
flux, is forced out of the sample and the flux
Hci Hc
density returns to zero. This is point (0,-Hc). The
amount of negative MMF required to demagnetize O
a material from Br is called the Coercivity of the
sample material. Obviously, the coercive force is
-Br
designated by Hc. The unit for coercivity is the
same as that for magnetizing force, either amp-
turn per meter or oersted.
This parameter differentiates “hard,” or
permanent, magnetic materials from “soft”, or
core type, materials. Soft magnetic materials are
quite easily demagnetized. Hard magnetic
materials are quite difficult to demagnetize, so Fig. 5
they are able to retain the magnetic energy stored
in them better. In either case, unless something
comes along to demagnetize them, magnetic Magnetic Energy
energy will be stored in magnetic materials indefi-
nitely. More discussion on this point will follow in As originally stated, the intent and purpose of
later sections. high-performance magnetic materials is to convert,
store and utilize magnetic energy more efficiently.

p. 30.7 February 2003 Rev. A

 Basics of Magnetics (Cont.)

By definition, magnetic energy is the product of Magnetic Circuits

the flux density in the magnetic circuit and the
magnetizing force it took to excite the material to It is quite convenient to draw an analogy between
that flux level. the more common electrical circuit and something
called a Magnetic Circuit. A magnetic circuit is
Energy = B x H essentially a schematic of the magnetic path,
arranged in a closed loop, where the MMF sources
The unit of energy in the SI system is the Joule, in
(PMs and windings with applied currents) and MMF
the CGS system it is the ERG. In permanent magnet
drops (areas with low permeability) are repre-
design a special energy density, or energy product,
sented. To complete the analogy, “resistances” are
is also used to indicate energy and storage
against the applied MMF instead of the applied
properties per unit volume. The CGS unit of energy
current, as is the case in the electrical circuit (see
product is the Gauss-Oersted. The SI unit is the
Figure 6).
Joule Per Meter3.
1 joule = 107 ergs = Flux

1 joule per meter = 125.63 gauss-oersted

3

Now the differences between permanent magnets I

and core products start to become more apparent.
Soft magnetic materials, or core products, do have Coil
(MMF N
the ability to store magnetic energy that has been Source) Air Gap
converted from electrical energy; but it is normally (Large MMF
short-term in nature because of the ease with S Drop)
N
which these types of materials are demagnetized.
This is desirable in electronic and electrical circuits NS
where cores are normally used because it allows
PM Iron
magnetic energy to be converted easily back into (MMF Source) (Low MMF Drop)
electrical energy and reintroduced to the electrical
Fig. 6 Typical Magnetic Circuit
circuit.
Hard magnetic materials (PMs) are comparatively To facilitate the analysis of magnetic devices, the
difficult to demagnetize, so the energy storage concept of Reluctance was introduced. This is the
time frame should be quite long. The portion of magnetic circuit “resistance” referred to above.
the BH loop that shows the sample’s normal state This mathematical tool not only considers the
of energy storage is, as already described, the permeability of that section of the magnetic circuit,
demagnetization portion of the curve from (+Br,0) but also its dimensions and shape.
to (0,-Hc).
The path that the lines of flux will take in a given
If hard magnetic materials dissipated their stored geometry is analogous to current in an electrical
energy back into the magnetizing electrical circuit circuit. Electrical current tends to take the path of
quickly, as do soft materials, they would be of no least resistance. Magnetic flux tends to take the
value to us. Instead, they use this energy to course of least resistance. Reluctance is inversely
establish a magnetic field external to the magnet proportional to permeability and directly propor-
itself. This external field does work for us by inter- tional to the length of the magnetic circuit.
acting with, for instance, the conductor current in a
PM motor. Presumably, unless something causes it Minimum reluctance is realized when the perme-
to become demagnetized, the permanent magnet ability of the magnetic materials are high, when
will maintain this external field indefinitely. One of the Air Gap in the magnetic path is reduced, and
the common misconceptions of novice PM motor the configuration tends toward the material
designers is that, somehow, the energy stored in forming a closed loop (see Figure 7). In a PM
the magnet is being consumed as the motor is circuit, the effect of reluctance is to demagnetize
operated normally. This is not true. the material. Higher operating flux densities can be
realized if the air gap (reluctance) in the PM circuit
As explained before, the product of the flux density is reduced.
and the magnetizing force is a measure of the
magnetic energy stored in the permanent magnet. Generally, air gap is introduced into magnetic
circuits in two ways: a Discrete air gap and a
Distributed air gap (see Figures 8 and 9,

p. 30.8 February 2003 Rev. A

 Basics of Magnetics (Cont.)

respectively). Discrete air gaps are significant in There are other ways to obtain an air gap without
both PM and soft magnetic circuits; distributed air introducing a physical space into the circuit. One
gap is only applicable to powder core products. common occurrence is in a C-core where the
normal manufacturing process (specifically the
High Reluctance Medium Reluctance Low Reluctance impregnation system) tends to lower the perme-
d e f ability of the material, creating an effective air gap.
Additionally, dynamic effects such as core loss tend
to create an effective air gap by reducing the net
permeability of the material.

µ = 10 µ = 100 µ = 1000
Electrical Properties
of the Magnetic Circuit
Devices made with Arnold magnetic materials
generally are used in conjunction with electrical
current to perform useful work. This is almost
always true of soft magnetic products and quite
µ = 1000 µ = 1000 µ = 1000 often true of hard magnetics as well (as in a PM
a b c motor, for instance). Whenever the device is
Medium High Low connected to a circuit that provides current, it will
Reluctance Path Reluctance Path Reluctance Path exhibit certain electrical properties in that circuit.
Fig. 7 The most significant of these is Inductance.

A discrete air gap, as used in a gapped C-Core or

in a PM motor, is best described by a situation
where a very few (usually one or two) compara- B
tively large air gaps are introduced into a basically Fig. 9
high-permeability material that is part of the path
of the circuit. Inductance, along with resistance and capacitance,
is one of the three basic parameters of any
A distributed air gap actually refers to a very large electrical circuit. Inductance determines the
number of small air gaps throughout the core. electrical Impedance that the device presents to the
Examples of distributed air gap are Molybdenum electrical circuit. This, in turn, dictates the electrical
Permalloy Powder (MPP) and powdered iron cores. current that will flow. The unit of inductance in
Because it minimizes second-order effects such as both SI and CGS systems is the Henry. The unit of
leakage and fringing flux, distributed air gap impedance in both systems is the Ohm.
allows the opportunity to obtain much larger
effective air gaps in the magnetic path. Mathematically, inductance is inversely propor-
tional to the reluctance of the magnetic circuit of
Air Gap the device. Thus a core with a large air gap (a high-
reluctance magnetic circuit) will provide very little
impedance to the electrical circuit. Likewise, a PM
motor designed with a very large clearance
between the rotor and the arc magnet will tend to
provide less impedance to the circuit supplying the
electrical power.
When a magnetic material saturates, permeability
decreases and reluctance increases rapidly.
Consequently, the impedance of that device tends
toward zero and it begins to disappear from the
electrical circuit.
Fig. 8 Cutting a small section out of an iron ring
to make an air gap increases the total
reluctance and therefore reduces the
total flux.

p. 30.9 February 2003 Rev. A

 Basics of Magnetics (Cont.)

Soft Magnetic Materials Energy Storage vs. Energy Transfer

Soft magnetic products (or core products, as As discussed previously, energy storage is a
they’re more commonly called at Arnold) offered fundamental mechanism in magnetic theory. In
by Arnold consist of the Molybdenum Permalloy soft magnetic materials this is exploited to
Powder (MPP), HI-FLUX™ and SUPER-MSS™ cores. introduce “time delay” into electrical currents.
In addition, a wide variety of tape wound For instance, this time delay can be used to
products are available from National-Arnold differentiate between frequencies or filter out
Magnetics. Additional soft magnetic materials, in unwanted frequencies in the excitation current.
unfinished form, are sold through the Rolled As a rule, cores used for this application require
Products Division of Arnold. Discussion will be basic alterations to the magnetic circuit to
restricted to finished cores in this document. enhance its energy storage.

Core Loss Magnetizing Force – H

(Applied amp-turns)
Core loss is of minimal importance in hard
magnetic materials but is extremely important in Eddy Currents
soft magnetics. Core loss represents an ineffi-
ciency, so it is highly disdained by the designer. In
many instances, core loss will render a particular
material unusable in an application. The most
glaring example would be the high-frequency
power-conversion transformer industry, which is
dominated by soft ferrites. In general, the
products offered by Arnold are too lossy, however
there are many important exceptions. For
example, flyback transformers operated in a
lower range of high switching frequency. Arnold Magnetic Field – B
powder core products are quite useful for high- Fig. 10 Energy Loss in form of heat
frequency power conversion inductors. The
reason for this will be explained in a later section.
The unit of core loss in both SI and CGS systems is The Inductor or the Choke explicitly utilizes the
the Watt. concept of storing electrical energy in the form
of magnetic energy. The flux build-up in the
1 watt = 1 joule per second core is proportional to the applied current and
Core loss is realized by two major components: to the effective permeability of the core
Hysteresis Loss and Eddy Current Loss. material. The magnetic energy is converted back
into electrical energy as soon as the exciting
Hysteresis loss results from the fact that not all current is removed.
energy required to magnetize a material is recov-
erable when it is demagnetized. The wider and It was stated previously that energy stored in a
taller the hysteresis loop, the more hysteresis loss a magnetic circuit (or core) is proportional to the
material has. applied excitation current multiplied by the
resulting flux. Consequently, to increase the
Eddy current loss is the result of small circulating amount of energy stored in a given core
currents (eddy currents, not unlike eddy currents (assuming that the basic dimensions don’t
produced in the wake of a boat) that are induced change), there are only two possible alternatives:
when the flux density changes in the magnetic increase the flux or increase the applied amp-
material (see Figure 10). The amplitude of these turns. Since all materials have an inherent and
small currents is dependent on the Electrical unchangeable saturation flux that limits the
Resistivity of the material. Products produced by obtainable flux density, the only possibility is to
Arnold have low resistivities. As a point of somehow increase the applied current necessary
comparison, soft ferrites, while having large to force the core into saturation: in other words,
hysteresis losses, have very high resistivities and to “desensitize” the core to the magnetizing
quite low eddy current losses. This is the reason current. This is quite easy to accomplish simply by
they are the material of choice at high-frequency. mechanically lowering the effective permeability
(increasing the reluctance) of the device. This is
almost always done by introducing an air gap
into the magnetic circuit.

p. 30.10 February 2003 Rev. A

 Basics of Magnetics (Cont.)

Energy Transfer is a special case of energy from the efficiency of the transfer. Usually every
storage that is somewhat more difficult to attempt is made to minimize exciting energy.
understand than energy storage, which is basic The user wants maximum permeability in the
to all magnetic devices. core of a transformer, so air gap—either real or
apparent—is minimized.
Energy transfer in a magnetic device is most
typically represented by a two-winding The desirable conversion/storage mechanism is
Transformer, where excitation current flows in where magnetic energy stored in the core is
one winding and an induced voltage appears in almost instantaneously transferred to the
the other winding. At first glimpse, you might be secondary winding and the electrical load
tempted to say that no energy storage is taking attached to it. The core never really “sees” this
place in a typical transformer. This is not the case. magnetic energy, and the magnetic circuit does
In fact, two energy conversion/storage not have to support any flux created by the
mechanisms are taking place. conversion. The energy consumption of the load
attached to the secondary winding is said to be
The first is the familiar “time delay” energy
“reflected” into the primary circuit.
storage already described. This is generally
undesirable in a transformer because it detracts

p. 30.11 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines

Descriptions of Applications amplifier to the input grid of the next vacuum

tube. This particular application of RF trans-
Devices using soft magnetic materials are used formers still has some importance in the
extensively throughout the electronics and electronics industry.
power-distribution industries. Selecting the right
material and core type for a given application Other RF transformers include Baluns trans-
can be difficult and confusing. In this discussion, formers, which are used for impedance matching
we will adhere to the differentiation between of circuits.
inductors and transformers and expand upon
Precision Transformers. Precision transformers
variations in each of these groups.
are special devices used in “sensing” and instru-
Power Transformers. The primary purpose of a mentation applications.
power transformer is to convert AC energy from
One very common type of precision transformer
one combination of voltage and current to
is the Current Transformer, or CT. CTs usually
another and simultaneously provide electrical
have one turn of high-current-carrying wire for a
isolation between the primary and the secondary
primary winding. The secondary high-turn-count
windings. Power transformers usually have two
winding produces a low-level current propor-
or more separate windings. The ratio of the
tional to the turns ratio of the windings and to
number of turns in the primary winding to the
the current in the primary. CTs are used exten-
number of turns in the secondary winding
sively in both the electronics/power-conversion
determines whether the voltage is “stepped up”
and the power-distribution industries.
or “stepped down.” Disregarding winding and
core losses, total watts input to the primary of Another precision transformer is called the Flux
the transformer is equal to the watts output Gate Magnetometer. This transformer is used to
from the secondary winding. Quite typically, a detect very low-level magnetic fields or very small
power transformer will have more than one changes in a magnetic field. These devices have
secondary winding and the output power is applications in electronic compasses as well as
apportioned according to the turns in the navigation systems. Since flux gate magne-
individual windings. tometers can detect the distortion in the earth’s
magnetic field caused by the presence of armored
The majority of power transformers fall into two
vehicles and ships, they are used as triggering
categories: Low-Frequency power transformers
devices for mines and other types of armament.
used at frequencies less than 1000 Hertz and
High-Frequency power transformers used at A third type of precision transformer is the Hall
frequencies above 1000 Hertz. These definitions Effect Transducer, which has a gap in the
are not universal, and 1000 Hz was chosen only magnetic path of the core in which a Hall effect
as an arbitrary reference point. Variations of device is placed. The flux generated in the core
power transformers include: by the current in the winding (often just one
turn) causes the Hall effect device to produce an
Wide (frequency) band transformers.
output voltage proportional to the flux level.
Impedance matching transformers.
Saturable Reactors. Saturable reactors are used
Pulse transformers. for voltage and current control and are very
effective at high power levels. A special core
RF Transformers. RF (radio frequency) trans- winding is placed on the saturable reactor, and
formers usually operate at low power levels DC current that passes through this winding will
above 500 KHz. These devices are essentially the drive the device into and out of magnetic
same as a power transformer, except that their saturation. This, in effect, changes the device’s
primary application is to couple AC signals from flux transfer ratio, and subsequently the output
an output stage of an amplifier to the input of power of the device is controlled. Large electric
the next stage while electrically decoupling the industrial furnaces, welders, and high-power
DC component of the signal. RF transformers are voltage regulators commonly use saturable
used extensively when coupling the high- reactors.
potential plate output of a vacuum tube

p. 30.12 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

A variation of the saturable reactor is called the filtered. The desired signal passes through the
MAG AMP, which operates on the same control- common mode filter unimpeded.
winding concept as the saturable reactor. Mag
amps are used as variable series impedance in Energy Storage Inductors. Energy storage
squarewave and pulse applications, being driven inductors release the energy stored in them
into and out of saturation within a single cycle. when the voltage across the device is switched.
One popular application for a mag amp is as a These inductors typically are found, for instance,
post regulation technique on the output stage of in the output stage of switchmode power
Switchmode Power Supplies. supplies. In this application, the energy storage
filter (in conjunction with a filter capacitor)
To work effectively, saturable reactors and mag smoothes the ripple current that is superimposed
amps require magnetic material with a very on the DC output of the converter. Usually this
square loop to allow for a sharp transition into filter will also provide some EMI filtering of the
and out of saturation. inherent noise caused by the high-frequency
switching. These devices operate with high
Pure Inductors. Pure inductors are used at all
amounts of DC current and must maintain a
frequencies to provide an electronic circuit with
reasonably constant inductance (or core perme-
inductive reactance. Such a circuit may be in
ability) at high flux levels.
communications equipment, where the combi-
nation of inductive and capacitive reactance is The Flyback Transformer is a special type of
used to tune a stable frequency in an oscillator energy storage device that performs both energy
stage or to provide selective filtering in a band transfer and energy storage functions. It is used
pass filter. Larger pure inductors, called loading in low cost high-frequency power conversion.
coils, offset the effects of capacitance built up in The type of core used in this device must have
long lengths of conductor such as antennae or moderately high permeability for good flux
telephone lines. Pure inductors can be either transfer and, at the same time, high saturation
fixed or variable, depending on their application. flux density for better energy storage capacity.
EMI Filters. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is
produced by a multitude of electronic and
electrical devices including motors, light Types of Materials and Available
dimmers, digital computing devices, switchmode Shapes of Cores
power supplies, and motor speed controls. EMI Soft Ferrite. Soft ferrites are derived from iron
can be radiated through the air or transmitted oxide mined from the earth. Metals such as
through current-carrying conductors. It can nickel, zinc and manganese are added to the iron
interfere with communications, such as radio and oxide. Ferrite material is then pressed and fired
television signals, and can affect computer to form a crystalline structure that gives ferrite
devices that deal with low level high-frequency cores their properties. Subsequent grinding or
transmissions. coating operations may take place before the
EMI filters work in a combination of two ways: core is used.

EMI filters are designed in conjunction with a Manganese-Zinc soft ferrites typically have high
capacitor to form a highly efficient––and permeability and low eddy current losses; Nickel-
selective––band pass or band stop filter to Zinc ferrites have lower permeabilities with very
impede the unwanted noise. low eddy current losses. A variety of materials
spans the frequency range form 10 KHz to 1 GHz
Lossy EMI filters eliminate noise by converting it and up. Soft ferrites have low saturation flux
to heat (core loss). Lossy filters work well when densities, in the range of 2500 to 4000 gauss, but
the noise-component frequency is much higher are available in shapes that can be readily
than the frequency of the desired signal. gapped to handle more MMF at the sacrifice of
An often used type of EMI filter is the Common permeability. Because of their very low core loss
Mode Filter, which is wound with both at high frequency, ferrites are used extensively in
conductors of the power source in such a way switchmode power supplies as power trans-
that noise common to both conductors is formers, filter inductors, current transformers,
and mag amps.

p. 30.13 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

Ferrites are available in a wide variety of shapes Powdered Iron

and sizes with volumes up to about 500 cm.
Some other common applications for ferrites are Powdered iron cores are made from basically
rod antennas, common mode filters, RF trans- 99+% pure iron in the form of extremely small
formers, and pure inductors. particles. There are many different grades of
powdered iron material, ranging from cheap and
Ferrites were plagued for many years by their dirty sponge iron to the fairly expensive carbonyl
extremely wide physical and magnetic tolerances. powders. These materials are purchased in
Additionally, ferrites are hindered by rather large powder form, and the particles are mixed with
temperature dependence. Extensive research and insulating and binding materials and pressed to
development has improved, but not eliminated, finished shape at moderately high pressures.
all of the soft ferrite shortcomings. Because of Hard tooling (dies) is required.
their widespread manufacture and readily
available technical information, soft ferrites are Generally the binding agents are cured after the
the most widely used magnetic material at High- pressing operation, but the cores are not
Frequency. annealed. The intent is that the individual
particles not fuse or electrically short out.
Powdered iron cores are not sintered iron parts,
a common misconception (see Figure 11).
Scrapless Laminations and Shearings
Because the particles ideally are separated by an
Scrapless laminations are usually in the shape of
air gap (occupied by insulating and bonding
E-E’s, U-I’s, or E-I’s. They are punched from a
material, as well as air), a distributed air gap
continuous roll of thin-gauge magnetic
system is created. Although the raw material
material—most commonly silicon-iron, either
used, iron, has a moderately high permeability,
low grade non-oriented or high-grade oriented
the finished powdered iron core has a maximum
types. Nickel-iron or cobalt-iron thin-gauge
effective permeability of about 90.
materials are also available as laminations.
Powdered iron cores can be divided into three
Because of the way they are manufactured,
permeability categories: high, medium, and low.
tooling costs are high (the die). For low-quantity
requirements, chemical-etch techniques are used The high permeability category, 60 to 90, is used
to circumvent the tooling costs. Scrapless primarily for EMI and energy storage filters.
laminations are taken, one piece at a time, and Effective frequency range is up to about 75 KHz.
“stacked” up into a core––generally assembled
around the coil. Special stacking machinery is Medium-permeability powdered iron cores,
available to facilitate the construction of this with permeabilities from 20 to 50, are used as
type of device. The advantage of scrapless RF transformers, pure inductors, and energy
laminations is that, in high-volume applications, storage inductors. These materials are used at
it is the least expensive choice for low-frequency frequencies from 50 KHz to 2 MHz. They can
high-permeability requirements. handle higher flux densities and higher power
levels without saturating than can their ferrite
Shearings are widths of thin-gauge strip that are counterparts. This powdered iron family will
“sheared” to length. Sometimes the shearing is become more attractive to switchmode power
done with a miter, and sometimes “bolt holes” supply manufacturers as nominal frequencies
are stamped into each piece. Material is virtually of operation fall into the range of 250 KHz
always silicon iron. Shearings are “laid up” into to 1 MHz.
E-I and U-I shapes to form cores for large trans-
formers. The advantage of this type of
construction is that it allows fabrication of very
large transformers and inductors. The cores in
large substation transformers can easily weigh
many thousands of pounds.
Silicon-iron scrapless laminations and shearings
are the most widely used soft magnetic cores for
60 Hz applications.

p. 30.14 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

Raw
Materials Mixer

Mix with insulation

Shovel onto trays
for baking to dry
Press at 30-35 TSI

Cure
Paint and Cure Final Test

Deburr radius to
remove sharp edges
Fig. 11

Low-permeability powdered iron cores, with Disadvantages of powdered iron are:

permeabilities of 7 to 20, are used almost exclu-
sively in the RF range. Typical applications are RF 1. limited permeabilities available
transformers and pure inductors in the 2. relatively high core loss
frequency range from 2 MHz to 500 MHZ. Some 3. permeability varies with AC flux density
radar applications use powdered iron cores at
frequencies in excess of 1 GHz. Good flux Advantages of powdered iron are:
characteristics combined with low loss and good 1. low-cost energy storage
temperature stability make this type of core
material popular for applications in the 2. high energy storage per unit volume
communications industry. 3. temperature stable
The versatility of powdered iron pressing 4. relatively low-cost tooling
techniques allows for many varieties of sizes and 5. available in a variety of shapes
shapes. Cores are limited only to the extent of Because powdered iron cores are used for
today’s metal powder pressing technology. Most inductors, electrical testing is primarily to
powdered iron materials can be ground and determine the effective permeability of the core.
lightly machined for special shapes and Additional testing is occasionally done to
prototypes. determine saturation characteristics (DC bias
Because of inexpensive raw materials (iron), testing) and core loss properties (Q testing).
powdered iron cores are used frequently in low-
cost applications, such as consumer products.

p. 30.15 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

MPP

Mix raw materials Mill sheets Anneal

81% Ni, 2% Mo Melt and cast into powder powder
17% Fe into billets
Hot roll into sheets

Powder particles
insulated with
high-temperature
dielectric film
Sharp edges are broken

Powder sorted
by particle size
Cores pressed from powder

Cores are Final inspection

acid etched and packaging

Cores are annealed

Fig. 12 Paint and Cure

Another type of powder core manufactured by flux density, temperature and DC current. They
Arnold is the MPP core, pressed from powder are almost always used for inductors and other
made of 81% nickel, 2% molybdenum and 17% energy storage applications.
iron. We manufacture our own MPP powder MPP cores are normally sold pre-graded to a
from precisely controlled raw materials that are specific permeability tolerance. This feature
melted and cast into billets, which are hot-rolled makes them ideal for pure inductors, because the
into a brittle sheet. This sheet is then milled into precise inductance will be known before winding
powder form. Insulators are mixed into the MPP and the number of turns wound onto the core
powder before pressing into cores at high can be adjusted. MPP cores are also widely used
pressures. MPP cores are stress-relief annealed for energy storage inductors due to their low
after pressing (see Figure 12). inductance swing when DC bias is applied.
The normal effective permeability range for MPP The lower-permeability MPP cores can be used
is 14 through 350. In order to obtain such low at frequencies that exceed 500 KHz. As the
permeabilities from a material with such an permeability of the core increases, stability
inherently high permeability, a large amount of tends to decrease. The most popular MPP
distributed air gap is added. Because of this large permeabilities are in the 60 to 173 range,
amount of air gap and skewing of the hysteresis where all the advantages of the MPP product
loop, MPP cores are extremely stable relative to are most apparent.

p. 30.16 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

MPP has the advantage of having constant HI-FLUX

permeability as the flux density varies up to
about 3500 gauss. Above that level, permeability HI-FLUX cores are a variation of the standard
does tend to drop off. Other powdered core MPP cores; the composition is 50% nickel and
materials, such as powdered iron, have perme- 50% iron instead of 81% Ni / 2% Mo / 17 % Fe.
ability that varies with flux, adding to the The manufacturing procedure is nearly identical
instability of the device. to that for MPP. HI-FLUX cores are produced with
permeabilities of 14 to 160 in diameters up to
Disadvantages of MPP: 132 mm.
1. manufacturing cost is higher than that of HI-FLUX cores are designed to operate up to
powdered iron because of the high- about 6500 gauss, as opposed to the 3500-gauss
performance nickel/iron/molybdenum alloy limit of standard MPP. There is some sacrifice in
and high-temperature ceramic-type insulation. stability because less distributed air gap is
2. very high pressing pressures limit shapes to required to obtain the reduced permeabilities.
toroids only Core loss is also higher than MPP. Still, because of
their high flux and power-handling capabilities,
Advantages of MPP: HI-FLUX cores are used as energy storage
1. permeability is ultra temperature stable inductors and in flyback transformers in SMPS.
They are especially well suited for DC and line
2. high energy storage per unit volume frequency noise filter inductors (such as the
3. available graded into small increments of differential-mode choke in a switched mode
permeability range power supply). Their high saturation flux-density
4. lowest loss of the powder materials can be used to advantage because core loss is
negligible at the low frequencies of these appli-
5. permeability is stable with variations in AC flux
cations.
density
6. lowest magnetostriction coefficient of the The cost of HI-FLUX is approximately the same as
powder core materials MPP.

Testing of MPP cores centers on the evaluation of Disadvantages of HI-FLUX:

core permeability. One additional step is to 1. higher core loss than MPP
“grade” the cores into small increments of
permeability. Core-loss, saturation, and 2. manufacturing cost is higher than that of
temperature response testing are also done powdered iron because of the high-
routinely. performance nickel / iron alloy and high-
temperature ceramic-type insulation.
The applicable catalog for MPP is Magnetic 3. very high pressing pressures limit shapes to
Powder Cores. toroids only
The part number system is pretty straightforward Advantages of HI-FLUX:
and usually will be in the format of “A-xxxyyy-2”.
The “xxx” indicates a more-or-less random 1. temperature stability
number for the dimension/permeability specifi- 2. high energy storage per unit volume
cation for that particular core; and “yyy” is the
3. available graded into small increments of
AL number, in millihenries per 1000 turns, for the
permeability range
core. The AL factor, also used in powdered iron
and soft ferrite core literature, is simply the 4. higher Bmax than MPP
inductance that would result from putting the 5. permeabilities up to 160 compared to less than
designated number of turns on the core. It takes 100 for powdered iron
into account not only the permeability of the
core but also the dimensions of it. The units of AL Electrical testing would be the same as MPP.
will be millihenries per 1000 turns or micro- Part numbering HI-FLUX cores follows the format
henries per 100 turns. of “HF-xxxyyy-2” where “xxx” is a number
indicating outside diameter / inside diameter
dimension set of the core and “yyy” is the
permeability of the material. The applicable
catalog is Magnetic Powder Cores.

p. 30.17 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

SUPER-MSS Torodial Tape Cores

SUPER-MSS is another variation of the basic MPP As the name implies, this type of core is torodial
core. The material is an iron / silicon / aluminum in shape and is manufactured from “tape.” The
composition manufactured in a manner similar tape in this case is thin-gauge iron alloy material
to MPP. The magnetic alloy used in SUPER-MSS is that has been slit to a predetermined width.
a refined form of ”Sendust”.
Materials used depend on the desired combi-
Available permeabilities are 26, 60, 75, 90 and nation of permeability, saturation flux, core loss,
125. Notable attributes of SUPER-MSS are low and squareness; they include the following:
loss compared to powdered iron, low cost
1. Deltamax (50% Ni / 50% Fe)
compared to HI-FLUX and MPP, and a very low
magnetostriction coefficient relative to 2. 4750 (47% Ni/ 53% Fe)
powdered iron. Because of the low magne- 3. 4-79 Mo-Permalloy (80% Ni / 4% Mo /
tostriction, it produces very low mechanical noise 16% Fe)
levels when excitation is applied, which makes it 4. Square Permalloy (80% Ni / 4% Mo / 16% Fe)
popular in EMI inductors where low-frequency
AC is being filtered. Core loss is higher than that 5. Supermalloy (80 % Ni / 4% Mo / 16% Fe)
of MPP but less than HI-FLUX and substantially 6. Supermendur (49% Co / 2% V / 49% Fe)
lower than that of powdered iron. Like other 7. 2V Permendur (49% Co / 2% V / 49% Fe)
powder cores, SUPER-MSS is low in permeability
8. Square loop iron based amorphous Namglass I
and thus well-suited for energy storage inductor
applications. 9. Linear iron based amorphous Namglass II
10. Ultra-square loop cobalt based amorphous
Because cheaper raw materials are used, SUPER-
Namglass III
MSS is less costly than either MPP or HI-FLUX.
Manufacturing of tape cores is quite similar,
Disadvantages of SUPER-MSS are:
regardless of material type. In all cases, an
1. limited permeabilities available compared insulative coating is applied to surfaces of the
to MPP thin-gauge strip to eliminate layer-to-layer
2. higher core loss than MPP shorting, and the strip is wound spirally around
an arbor piece (mandrel) which defines the ID of
3. available only in toroids the toroid. The wound core is then stress-relief
Advantages of SUPER-MSS are: annealed.

1. significantly lower loss compared to powdered The anneal for some materials takes place with a
iron with little added cost DC field applied to the core to enhance the
properties of that material. After annealing, the
2. low-cost energy storage
toroid is put into a core “case” with a protective
3. high energy storage per unit volume damping medium. Toroidal tape cores are quite
4. temperature stable strain-sensitive, and the case is necessary to
5. low magnetostriction, low noise prevent degradation of properties (see Figure 13).

Testing would be the same as HI-FLUX.

The applicable catalog is Magnetic Powder Cores.

p. 30.18 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

Material spirally
Thick material is rolled wound onto mandrel Cores are annealed
to thickness
Slit material to width Insulative coating applied

Pre-case test Final Test

Put cores into cases

with damping medium

Cut

Cut

Temperature
Vacuum impregnate cores stabilize cores
Cores are cut Strip cores and
Fig. 13 check dimensions

Final Test

National-Arnold Magnetics, a Arnold company, is Disadvantages of Deltamax tape cores are:

one of the largest producers of tape wound
cores. 1. requires care for maximum properties

Description of available materials. 2. higher core loss than Permalloy-type material

Deltamax is a very square-loop material, 3. expensive

meaning that the BR value is very nearly the 4. limited frequency response due to core loss
same as BSAT. This type of response is desireable
in some special-function transformers and Advantages of Deltamax tape cores are:
inductors such as MAG AMPS and Inverter 1. very square hysteresis loop
Transfomers. More on these applications will be
2. saturation of about 15000 gauss
covered in later sections.
Testing of Deltamax tape cores is almost always
Raw-material costs are high. Processing Deltamax,
with the standard CCFR (constant current / flux
as well as all other tape cores, is such that cores
reset) test. This method measures the dynamic
are fairly expensive. Applications tend to be
square loop response of the core and permits
military and industrial. Deltamax tape cores are
identification of important material parameters.
available in 4, 2, 1 and 1/2 mil tape thicknesses.

p. 30.19 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

4750 is quite similar to Deltamax metallurgically. Square Permalloy is a variation of the basic
Instead of having a square hysteresis loop, Permalloy-type material for which the anneal
however, 4750 has a rounded loop with a has been modified for square-loop response.
higher maximum permeability than Deltamax. Although not as square as Deltamax, for
instance, it is square enough to operate satisfac-
4750 is also an expensive material, so appli-
torily in magamps and inverter transformers,
cations tend to be more specialized. Low-loss
especially at frequencies up to about 80 KHz (in
power transformers and current transformers
1 mil material).
are two frequent applications of 4750. 4750
tape cores are available in 4, 2, and 1 mil tape Applications tend to be military and industrial.
thicknesses. Square Permalloy tape cores are available in 4,
2, 1, and 1/2 mil tape thickness.
Disadvantages of 4750 tape cores are:
Disadvantages of Square Permalloy tape
1. requires case for maximum properties cores are:
2. higher core loss than Permalloy-type material
1. requires case for maximum properties
3. expensive
2. expensive
4. limited frequency response due to core loss
3. limited frequency response due to moderate
Advantages of 4750 tape cores are: core loss
1. high permeability 4. limited Bmax (8000 gauss)
2. saturation of about 15000 gauss Advantages of Square Permalloy tape cores are:
Because cores are utilized for their high perme- 1. square hysteresis loop
ability, testing centers on that parameter. Initial 2. low core loss
permeability (measured at low flux densities) is
usually specified. Testing of Square Permalloy tape cores is almost
always with the standard CCFR (constant current
4-79 Mo-Permalloy—more commonly known as / flux reset) test. This method measures the
Permalloy—is a very-high-permeability, low- dynamic square loop response of the core and
core-loss material which normally exhibits a permits identification of important material
rounded hystersis loop. parameters.
As with the other tape cores, Permalloy most Supermalloy is another variation of the high-
often is used in specialized applications. nickel, Permalloy-type alloy. It is state-of-the art
Current transformers and high-frequency tape core material, as far as highest perme-
power transformers are typical. 4-79 Permalloy ability is concerned. Applications take
tape cores are available in 4, 2, 1, and 1/2 mil advantage of such properties; for instance,
tape thicknesses. current transformers.
Disadvantages of Permalloy tape cores are: As with the other tape cores, Supermalloy is
1. requires case for maximum properties most often used in speciallized applications.
Typical markets would be military, industrial,
2. expensive
and research. Supermalloy tape cores are
3. low Bmax (8000 gauss) available in 4, 2, 1, and 1/2 mil tape thickness.
Advantages of Permalloy tape cores are: Disadvantages of supermalloy tape cores are:
1. high permeability 1. requires case for maximum properties
2. low core loss 2. expensive
3. low coercivity 3. low Bmax (8000 gauss)
Because cores are utilized for their high perme- Advantages of Supermalloy tape core are:
ability, testing centers on that parameter. Initial
permeability (measured at low flux densities) 1. highest permeability
usually is specified. 2. low core loss
3. very low coercivity

p. 30.20 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

Because cores are utilized for their high perme- Advantages of 2V Permendur tape cores are:
ability, testing centers on that parameter. Initial
permeability (measured at low flux densities) is 1. high magnetostriction
usually specified. 2. saturation of about 21000 gauss
Supermendur is a cobalt-iron alloy for which Because cores are utilized for their high perme-
the anneal has been modified (includes d.c. ability, testing centers on that parameter. Initial
stress) for square-loop response. Its most permeability (measured at low flux densities) is
notable characteristic is a Bmax of 23 to 24 usually specified. 2V Permendur also is tested
Kgauss. Although not as square as Deltamax, it for Bmax and occasionally for core loss.
is square enough to operate satisfactorily in 400 Namglass I is one of the so-called amorphous
Hz magamps and inverter transformers. Because alloys. Raw material is purchased 1 mil thick
it generally is available only in 4 mil tape thick- and slit to the proper width. None of the
ness, frequencies usually are limited to 400 Hz. amorphous materials can be rolled down to
Applications are almost always military in thinner thicknesses. Namglass I is a moderately
nature. square-loop material that finds use in specialized
transformers such as Pulse Transformers.
Disadvantages of Supermendur tape cores are:
Raw material costs are quite high, so markets
1. requires case for maximum properties tend to be in more-specialized industrial areas,
2. very expensive such as medical applications.
3. limited frequency response due to high Disadvantages of Namglass I tape cores are:
core loss
4. 4 mil tape only 1. requires case for maximum properties
2. higher core loss than permalloy-type material
Advantages of Supermendur tape cores are:
3. very expensive
1. square hysteresis loop 4. limited frequency response due to core loss
2. highest Bmax
Advantages of Namglass I tape cores are:
Testing of Supermendur toroidal tape cores is
almost always with the standard CCFR (constant 1. low magnetostriction
current / flux reset) test. This method measures 2. saturation of about 14000 gauss
the dynamic square loop response of the core 3. high volume resistivity
and permits identification of important material
parameters. Namglass I is tested for Bmax and for core loss.

2V Permendur is basically the same alloy as Namglass II is another amorphous alloy, similar
Supermendur. Instead of a square hysteresis in composition to Namglass I. Namglass II is a
loop, however, 2V Permendur has a rounded linear permeability material that finds use in
loop with a higher maximum permeability than specialized transformers such as Pulse
Supermendur. Bmax is slightly lower at 21 to 22 Transformers and also in Common-Mode
Kgauss, 2V Permendur is notable for its very Inductors.
high magnetostriction coefficient. Disadvantages of Namglass II tape cores are:
Applications usually are military or industrial. 2V 1. requires case for maximum properties
Permendur tape cores are available in 4 and 2
2. very expensive
mil tape thickness.
3. moderate permeability (approx. 5000)
Disadvantages of 2V Permendur tape cores are:
Advantages of Namglass II tapes cores are:
1. requires case for maximum properties
1. low magnetostriction
2. higher cores loss than Permalloy-type
material 2. saturation of about 14000 gauss
3. very expensive 3. high volume resistivity
4. limited frequency response due to high 4. low high-frequency core loss
core loss Namglass II is tested for Bmax for core loss, and
for permeability.

p. 30.21 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

Namglass III is another amorphous alloy. impregnated with epoxy and cut in half. Three-
Namglass III is an ultra-square-loop material phase cores also are produced—something that
that finds use, almost exclusively, in high- would be physically impossible with a toroid.
frequency magamps. Its metallurgical compo- Because of this flexibility, there is almost no
sition is quite different from the other two limit to the size that a cut core can be
amorphous materials, in that Namglass III manufactured. On tape-core materials, however,
contains cobalt. there is a maximum strip width of 2.00" on thin-
gauge material. (see Figure 13).
Namglass III is finding ever-increasing appli-
cation in industrial and military power-supply Cut cores do not have cases like tape cores; they
designs. are impregnated for mechanical rigidity.
However, epoxy impregnation of tape-wound
Disadvantages of Namglass III tape cores are:
cores tends to re-stress the fragile material,
1. requires case for maximum properties reducing permeability and increasing core loss.
2. very expensive As a rule, the performance of the cut tape cores
will be significantly worse than the cased toroid.
3. low Bmax (approx. 5500) The amount of degradation is not always
Advantages of Namglass III tape cores are: predictable, but can be of the order of 30%
more core loss and half the permeability. The
1. lowest magnetostriction tradeoffs are that cut cores are much easier to
2. ultra-square-loop response wind and additional air gap can be added to
3. highest-volume resistivity the core. This last point means that this type of
core can be used not only for transformers but
4. lowest high-frequency core loss also for inductors. The cut tape core generally is
5. lowest coercivity considered a high-performance alternative to
the Silectron C-Core.
Namglass III toroidal tape cores are evaluated
with the standard CCFR (constant current / flux One thing cut tape cores do have in common
reset) test. This method measures the dynamic with toroidal versions is the cost factor: Both are
square-loop response of the core and permits expensive. Applications tend to be more exotic
identification of important material and specialized in nature.
parameters. Occasionally, Namglass III is also
tested for core loss. Disadvantages of cut tape cores are:
1. expensive
2. higher core loss than toroid
Cut Tape Cores 3. lower permeability than toroid
The term “tape core” can refer not only to the 4. hard to make large cores of thinner tape
conventional toroid but also to C and E-Cores
made of tape-core materials. The practice is Advantages of cut tape cores are:
justified because the cores are wound and 1. can insert discrete air gap
annealed in the same place as the toroidal
versions. 2. can wind with foils and large-diameter wire
3. easier to wind than toroids
The magnetic materials are the same as for
toroids with the exception of amorphous 4. lower core loss than Silectron C-Cores
material, which is not available in cut core form 5. Supermendur cut cores allow highest energy
at this time. The manufacturing procedure is capacity
similar but, instead of being cased, the cores are

p. 30.22 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

Testing of cut tape cores is primarily to evaluate Because of high material costs and high labor
them for core loss and exciting losses. content, bobbin cores tend to be extremely
Occasionally Bmax will be evaluated. expensive on a per-pound basis.

Material spirally
Thick material is rolled wound onto bobbin Cores are annealed
to thickness
Slit material to width Insulative coating applied

Pre-case test Paint Final Test

Put on protective sleeve
Fig. 14

Bobbin Tape Wound Cores Disadvantages of bobbin cores are:

A special variant of tape core, the bobbin core is 1. expensive
similar to the standard toroid tape core except
that, because build-ups of ultra-thin tape 2. poor use of space due to presence of bobbin
generally are quite small, the material is wound 3. bobbin must be machined to size
on a stainless steel bobbin. Strips used in 4. difficult to manufacture
standard tape-wound toroids are limited to 1/2
mil thickness, but bobbin cores can be Advantages of bobbin cores are:
manufactured from tape as thin as 1/8 mil. 1. can wind in ultra-thin tape
Manufacturing is similar to the standard toroidal
tape core, except that the bobbin defines the ID 2. can be made with very small OD/ID/HT
of the core instead of mandrel. Materials 3. very high permeability
commonly used are Deltamax and Permalloy (see 4. impervious to shock because tape is attached
Figure 14). to bobbin
Bobbin cores are characterized by very high Testing of bobbin cores normally follows a
permeability at low flux levels, square loop special pulse test sequence that was designed
response, and very low coercivity. They originally around the “core memory” application. It is
were conceived for “core memory” applications. somewhat similar to a CCFR test and does an
Needless to say, this industry is all but extinct and adequate job of revealing important parameters.
what is left utilizes soft ferrites. The most Some bobbin core customers provide highly
popular application today is in various specialized test fixtures that perform application-
Magnetometer designs. This would include oriented testing on the cores they purchase.
compasses, fusing devices for armament,
sonobuoys, etc. All of these utilize the very high
permeability of the core material. Another
growing application for bobbin cores is as
inverter transformers in small, board-mount DC-
DC converters.

p. 30.23 February 2003 Rev. A

 Applications and Descriptions of Arnold Product Lines (Cont.)

Silectron Toroids Silectron is a low-cost material, and applications

cover the full spectrum of the marketplace.
Silectron is a grain-oriented, 3.25% Si / 96% Fe
alloy. One popular core configuration made of this Disadvantages of Silectron C-Cores are:
material is the toroid, not unlike the toroidal tape
1. high core loss
core. Manufacturing of Silectron toroids is virtually
identical to that of toroid tape cores. This type of 2. moderate permeability material
core is available in a core case, like tape cores, and 3. air gap lowers permeability
with epoxy impregnation or epoxy impregnation/
epoxy coating. As with cut tape cores, the impreg- Advantages of Silectron C-Cores are:
nation process does degrade the properties of the 1. available in three-phase form
material.
2. coil is easy to wind
Silectron has a moderately high permeability and 3. coil can utilize foils and heavy-gauge wire
high flux density. Applications for Silectron toroids
4. can insert varying amounts of air gap
are current transformers, low-frequency power
transformers, and low-frequency magamps. 5. inexpensive
Silectron toroids are available in 11, 9, 4, 2, and 1 6. high flux capacity
mil tape thicknesses.
Testing of Silectron C-Cores is predominately
Because of Silectron’s high flux density and low centered on core loss and exciting losses. 1 and 2
cost, applications are more general in nature than mil C-Cores are routinely tested for pulse perme-
nickel-iron, cobalt-iron, or amorphous toroids. ability, but this also reveals information about core
loss and exciting energy. Special permeability
Disadvantages of Silectron toroids are:
testing, similar to that performed on powder cores
1. higher core loss than tape core is done occasionally.
2. difficult to wind due to toroidal shape
Advantages of Silectron toroids are: Distributed Gap Cores
1. relatively inexpensive DG (distributed gap, sometimes called “take
2. high Bmax apart”) cores are a special variation of the
Silectron C-Core. It is similar in shape to a C-Core,
Testing of Silectron is almost always for cores loss
but the air gap is “distributed” over a portion of
and exciting loss. Occasionally, Bmax or BH loop
the magnetic length. Winding is accomplished by
testing is conducted.
a special winding machine. The core is not
impregnated, and it is assembled onto the coil by
the customer. Anneal is the same as other
Silectron C and E-cores Silectron cores. Only thicker material (9 to 12 mil)
Cut cores made of Silectron are manufactured is utilized.
identically to cut tape cores. The type of insulation This type of core is used almost exclusively for 60
used on the tape and the method of anneal may Hz distribution transformers.
differ but, for the most part, the process is the
same. One major difference is that Silectron is not Testing is to determine core loss and exciting
stymied by the 2.00" restriction on tape width. losses.

Like uncut Silectron cores, Silectron C-Cores have

moderately high permeability. Without added air
gap, they find use in low-frequency power trans-
formers and pulse transformers. With air gap
added, they are used in inductor applications.
The only limitation to its use is core loss.

p. 30.24 February 2003 Rev. A

 Industry Applications of Arnold Core Products

In general, the choice of magnetic material is the Silectron toroids

result of a trade-off between saturation flux Permalloy, Supermalloy, and Deltamax cut cores
density, energy loss and cost.
Permalloy, Supermalloy, Namglass I, and
As a rule, Arnold core products can be used as Namglass II toroid tape cores
either transformers or inductors.
MPP, SUPER-MSS, HI-FLUX
Keep in mind the distinction between inductors
(energy storage) and transformers (energy Power Inductors
transfer) as you review the following analysis
Silectron C-Cores
showing specific usage.
Permalloy, Supermalloy, and Deltamax cut cores
MPP, SUPER-MSS, HI-FLUX
Low-frequency power conversion would include
the following specific applications, which could EMI Inductors
turn up in any number of industries. What is
Silectron C-Cores
actually being described is an electrical function,
not a job-specific device. Permalloy, Supermalloy, and Deltamax cut cores
Namglass I and Namglass II toroid tape cores
Distribution power transformers
MPP, SUPER-MSS, HI-FLUX
Silectron C and E-Cores
Silectron toroids
Supermendur C and E-Cores (400 HZ) High-frequency applications for which Arnold
products can be used would be as follows.
DG cores
D.C. Filters
Welding Transformers
MPP, SUPER-MSS, HI-FLUX
Silectron C-Cores
Silectron C-Cores
Rectifier Transformers Permalloy, Supermalloy, and Deltamax cut cores
Silectron C and E-Cores
A.C. Filters
Supermendur C and E-Cores
MPP, SUPER-MSS, HI-FLUX
Mag Amps and Saturable Reactors Permalloy, Supermalloy, and Deltamax cut cores
Silectron C-Cores
High Q Filters
Silectron toroids
MPP
Supermendur toroid tape cores
Deltamax toroid tape cores Mag Amp and Saturable Reactor
Square Permalloy toroid tape cores Square Permalloy and Namglass III toroid tape
core
Pulse transformers
Power transformers
Silectron C-Cores
Namglass II, Permalloy, and Supermalloy toroid
Permalloy, Supermalloy, Deltamax, and
tape cores
Supermendur cut cores
Permalloy, Supermalloy, and Deltamax cut cores
Permalloy, Supermalloy, Deltamax, Namglass I,
Namglass II, and Supermendur toroid tape cores Bobbin cores
Silectron toroids
Flyback Transformers
Instrumentation (current and potential MPP, HI-FLUX and SUPER-MSS
transformers)
Silectron C-Cores

p. 30.25 February 2003 Rev. A

 Industry Applications of Arnold Core Products (Cont.)

Instrumentation (current transformers, MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS for D.C./A.C. filters

magnetometers) Silectron C-Cores for current transfomers
Permalloy and Supermalloy toroid tape core
Permalloy Bobbins cores Electrical utility hardware
DG cores for distribution transformers
Silectron C-cores used for power factor adjusting
Looking at major industry groups and typical inductors
applications, the list would be as follows.
Silectron C-Cores and toroids for current trans-
Computer formers and for potential transformers
High-frequency power conversion
Medical equipment
High-frequency applications
C-cores for HV transfomers
Low-frequency power conversion
C-cores for EMI filters
All listed in Low-Frequency power conversion
except for welding transformers, pulse trans- MPP, HI-FLUX and SUPER-MSS for EMI Filters
formers, and instrumentation magnetics High-frequency power conversion.
Special Silectron structures See High-Frequency Applications
High-performance laminated motor parts C-Cores for high-efficiency 60 HZ power
transformers
Automotive
Welding and other metal processing
High frequency
C-Cores for high frequency induction furnaces
Permalloy bobbin cores for magnetometers
used in compasses. C-Cores for step-down welding transformers
MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS and Silectron for Silectron toroids for current transformers
magnetics used in special ignition systems Silectron toroids for mag amp control
Low frequency Toroid tape for current transformers
Welding transformers Toroid tape core for mag amp control
Special Silectron structures for fuel-injection
systems Telecommunications
MPP for loading coils
Motor speed control/Light dimmer High-frequency power conversion.
C-Cores for EMI and A.C. filters See High-Frequency Applications
SUPER-MSS for EMI and A.C. filters Low-frequency power conversion.
See Low-Frequency conversion
Silectron toroids for current transformers
Toroid tape cores for current transformers Military hardware
SUPER-MSS for current transformers High-frequency power conversion.
Silectron toroids for mag amps See High-Frequency Applications
Toroid tape cores for mag amps Low-frequency power conversion.
See Low-Frequency conversion
Instrumentation
Lighting and Plasma Displays
Silectron toroids with gaps for hall effect
High-frequency power conversion.
current sense
See High-Frequency Applications
Toroid tape cores with gaps for hall effect
Low-frequency power conversion.
current sense
See Low-Frequency conversion
Permalloy bobbins cores for magnetometers
Silectron toroids for current transformers
Toroid tape cores for current transformers

p. 30.26 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

POWER TRANSFORMERS
Ferrites
Power Ferrites 10kHz–2 MHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Low Low High Perm, Low Loss at
Limited to 500 cm3 High Hz (Low Saturation Flux)

High Freq Ferrites 50kHz–1GHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Low Medium Good perm, Loss at High Hz
Limited to 250 cm3 (Low Saturation Flux)

MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS

MPP 5kHz–200 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm Medium High Very Stable (Low Perm usually
limits transformer applications
to flyback types.)

HI-FLUX 5kHz–50 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm Medium High Very Stable, High Saturation
(Low Perm usually limits
transfomer applications to
flyback types.)

SUPER-MSS 5 kHz–200 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm Medium Medium Very Stable, High Saturation
(Low Perm usually limits
transformer applications to
flyback types.)

Powdered Iron
High Perm NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss, Low Perm)

Medium Perm 25 kHz–1MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 Medium Low Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

Low Perm 1MHz–1 GHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 Medium Low Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

Tape Cores
Ni-Fe 50 Hz–100kHz -55 to 200 Toroids Unlimited Size High High Highest Perm, Square Loop,
High Saturation (High Cost,
Toroids)

Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 350 Toroids Unlimited Size Very High Medium High Perm, High Saturation Flux
(Core Loss, Toroids Only)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 450 Toroids Unlimited Size Very High Very High Highest Saturation Flux
(High Cost, 4 mil only,
Toroids only)

Amorphous 50 Hz–500 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids to 130 mm High High Low Loss, High Saturation Flux
(High Cost, Toroids Only)

p. 30.27 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart (Cont.)

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

POWER TRANSFORMERS (Cont.)

Cut Cores
Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High High Good Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Core Loss, Air Gap Effects)

Ni-Fe 50 Hz–100 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s High High High Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (High Cost, Air Gap Effects)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Very High Highest Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Highest Cost, Air Gap Effects)

Bobbin Core
Ni-Fe 5 kHz–1 MHz -55 to 200 Small Toroids Low High Low Loss, High Perm (Small Size,
Toroids)

Dist. Gap
Si-Fe 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Three Very High Low High Perm,Small Air Gap
(Low Frequency Only, Si-Fe Only)

Scrapless Lams and Shearings

Si-Fe, Co-Fe, 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Three Very High Low High Perm, Small Air Gap
and Ni-Fe Phase, Unlimited Size Unlimited Size (Low Frequency
Only, Si-Fe Only)

RF TRANSFORMERS
Ferrites
Power Ferrites 1 MHz-–5 MHz -55 to 150 Mostly Cyl, Pot Cores. Low Low High Perm, Tunable, High Q
Other small Shapes (Poor Stability, Mu Tolerance)

High Freq Ferrites 1 MHz–1 GHz -55 to 150 Toroids Pot Cores Low Medium Good perm, Tunable
Small Shapes High Q at High Frequency

MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS

MPP 1 MHz–2 MHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm Low High Very Stable (Low Perm,
Lower Q than Ferrite)

HI-FLUX NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)

SUPER-MSS NR NR NR NR NR

Powdered Iron
High Perm NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)

Medium Perm 1 MHz–10 MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 Medium Medium Good Stability

Low Perm 10 MHz–500 MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 Medium Medium Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

p. 30.28 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart (Cont.)

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

RF TRANSFORMERS (Cont.)
Tape Cores
Ni-Fe 1 MHz–2 MHz -55 to 200 Toroids Unlimited Size High High High Perm (Good Q at Low Flux
Only, High Cost, Torroids Only)

Si-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)

Co-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)

Amorphous 1 MHz–2 MHz -55 to 175 Toroids to 130 mm High High Low Loss, High Saturation Flux
(High Cost, Toroids Only)

Cut Cores
Si-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)

Ni-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)

Co-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)

Bobbin Core
Ni-Fe 1 MHz–5 MHz -55 to 200 Small Toroids Low High Low Loss, High Perm (Small Size
Low Flux for High Q)

Dist. Gap
Si-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)

Scrapless Lams and Shearings

Si-Fe, Co-Fe, NR NR NR NR NR (High Loss)
and Ni-Fe

PRECISION TRANSFORMERS
Ferrites
Power Ferrites 10 kHz–5 MHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Medium Low Good Perm, Low Loss at High
Limited to 500 cm3 Frequency (Low Saturation Flux)

High Freq NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS

MPP DC–500 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm. Very Low High Low Perm is useful in sensing
applications where high
frequency, small-signals are
superposed on high-current
conductors.

HI-FLUX NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

SUPER-MSS NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

p. 30.29 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart (Cont.)

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

PRECISION TRANSFORMERS (Cont.)

Powdered Iron
High Perm NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

Medium Perm NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

Low Perm NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

Tape Cores
Ni-Fe to appro 10 MHz -55 to 200 Toroids Unlimited Size High High Highest Perm, Best Accuracy,
High Sat. (High Cost, Toroids)

Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 350 Toroids Unlimited Size Very High Low Good Perm, High Saturation
Flux (Core Loss, Toroids Only)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 450 Toroids Unlimited Size Very High Very High Highest Saturation Flux,
Magnetostrictive (High Cost,
Losses)

Amorphous 50 Hz–2 MHz -55 to 175 Toroids Unlimited Size High Very Low Loss, High Saturation Flux
(High Cost, Toroids Only)

Cut Cores
Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Low Good Perm, High Saturation
Unlimited Size Flux (Core Loss, Air Gap Effects)

Ni-Fe 50 Hz–100 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s High High High Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (High Cost, Air Gap Effects)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Very High Highest Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Highest Cost, Air Gap Effects)

Bobbins Core
Ni-Fe to 2 MHz -55 to 200 Small Toroids Low High Low Loss, High Perm, Ultra thin
Tapes (Small Size, Toroids Only)

Dist. Gap
Si-Fe 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Very High Low High Perm, Small Air Gap
Three Phase (Low Frequency Only, Si-Fe Only)

Scrapless Lam and Shearing

Si-Fe, Co-Fe, 50–60Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Three Very High Low High Perm, Small Air Gap,
and Ni-Fe Phase, Unlimited Size Unlimited Size (Low Frequency
Only, 9-12 mil Si-Fe Only)

p. 30.30 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart (Cont.)

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

SATURABLE REACTORS
Ferrites
Power Ferrites 10kHz–2 MHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Low Low Good Perm, Low Core Loss
Limited to 500 cm3 (Low Saturation Flux,
High Hysteresis)

High Freq Ferrites NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS

MPP NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

HI-FLUX NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

SUPER-MSS NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

Powdered Iron
High Perm NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

Medium Perm NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

Low Perm NR NR NR NR NR (Low Perm)

Tape Cores
Ni-Fe 50 Hz–100 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids Unlimited Size High High Highest Perm, Square Loop,
High Saturation (High Cost,
Toroids)

Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 350 Toroids Unlimited Size Very High Medium Good Perm, High Saturation
Flux, Good Squareness
(Core Loss)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 450 Toroids Unlimited Size Very High Very High Highest Saturation Flux, Square
Loop (High Cost, 4 mil Only)

Amorphous 50 Hz–2 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids to 130 mm High High Low Loss, Ultra Square Loop
(High Cost, Toroids Only)

Cut Cores
Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Low Good Perm, High Saturation
Unlimited Size Flux (Core Loss, Air Gap Effects)

Ni-Fe 50 Hz–100 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s High High High Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (High Cost, Air Gap Effects)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Very High Very High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Highest Cost, Air Gap Effects)

Bobbin Core
Ni-Fe 5 kHz–2 MHz -55 to 200 Small Toroids Low High Low Loss, High Perm, Very Square
(Small Size, Toroids)

p. 30.31 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart (Cont.)

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

SATURABLE REACTORS (Cont.)

Dist. Gap
Si-Fe 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Very High Low High Perm, Small Air Gap
Three Phase (Low Frequency Only,
Thick mil Only)

Scrapless Lams and Shearings

Si-Fe, Co-Fe, 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Three Very High Low High Perm, Small Air Gap,
and Ni-Fe Phase, Unlimited Size Unlimited Size (Low Frequency
Only, Thick mil Si-Fe Only)

PURE INDUCTORS
Ferrites
Power Ferrites 10 kHz–5 MHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Low Low High Perm, Low Loss, Tunable
Limited to 500 cm3 (Low Saturation Flux, Poor
Stability)

High Freq Ferrites 50kHz–1 GHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Medium Medium Good perm, Low Loss, Tunable
Limited to 250 cm3 (Low Saturation, Poor Stability)

MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS

MPP DC-300 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm High High Very Stable, High Saturation,
Low Magnetostriction, Lowest
Loss of Powder Materials

HI-FLUX DC-100 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm Very High High Very Stable, Higher Saturation
than MPP or Super-MSS

SUPER-MSS DC-300 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm High Medium Very Stable, High Saturation,
Low Magnetostriction, Low Loss

Powdered Iron
High Perm 1 kHz–50 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids up to 132 mm High Low High Saturation, Low Cost
(Core Loss, Low Perm)

Medium Perm 50 kHz–2 MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 High Low Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

Low Perm 1 MHz–500 MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 High Medium Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

Tape Cores
Ni-Fe 50 Hz–500 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids Unlimited Size Low High Highest Perm, High Saturation
(High Cost, Low Energy)

Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 350 Toroids Unlimited Size Low Medium High Perm, High Saturation Flux
(Core Loss, Low Energy)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 450 Toroids Unlimited Size Low Very High Highest Saturation Flux (High
Cost, 4 mil Only, Low Energy)

Amorphous 50 Hz–500 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids to 130 mm Low High Low Loss, High Saturation Flux
(High Cost, Low Energy)

p. 30.32 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart (Cont.)

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

PURE INDUCTORS (Cont.)

Cut Cores
Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Medium Good Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Core Loss)

Ni-Fe 50 Hz–100 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s High High High Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (High Cost)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Very High Highest Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Highest Cost)

Bobbin Core
Ni-Fe 5 kHz–1 MHz -55 to 200 Small Toroids Very Low High Low Loss, High Perm
(Small Size,Toroids)

Dist. Gap
Si-Fe 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Low Low High Perm, Small Air Gap (Low
Three Phase Frequency Only, Thick mil Only)

Scrapless Lams and Shearings

Si-Fe, Co-Fe, 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Three Very High Low High Perm, Small Air Gap,
and Ni-Fe Phase, Unlimited Size Unlimited Size (Low Frequency
Only, Thick mil Si-Fe Only)

EMI FILTERS
Ferrites
Power Ferrites 10 kHz–5 MH -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Low Low High Perm, Low Loss
Limited to 500 cm3 (Low Saturation Flux,
Poor Stability)

High Freq Ferrites 50 kHz–1 GHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Medium Medium Good perm, Low Loss (Low
Limited to 250 cm3 Saturation Flux, Poor Stability)

MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS

MPP DC-1 MHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm High High Very Stable, High Saturation,
Low Magnetostriction,
Wide Range of Permeability

HI-FLUX DC-300 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm Very High High Very Stable, Higher Saturation
than MPP or Super-MSS

SUPER-MSS DC-1 MHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm High Medium Very Stable, High Saturation,
Low Magnetostriction

p. 30.33 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart (Cont.)

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

EMI FILTERS (Cont.)

Powdered Iron
High Perm 50 kHz–500 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids up to 132 mm High Low High Saturation, Low Cost
(Core Loss)

Medium Perm 50 kHz–2 MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 High Low Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

Low Perm 2 MHz–500 MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 High Medium Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

Tape Cores
Ni-Fe 50 Hz–2 MHz -55 to 200 Toroids Unlimited Size Low High Highest Perm, High Saturation
(High Cost, Low Energy)

Si-Fe 50 Hz–10kHz -55 to 350 Toroids Unlimited Size Low Medium High Perm, High Saturation Flux
(Core Loss, Low Energy)

Co-Fe 50 Hz-1 kHz -55 to 450 Toroids Unlimited Size Low Very High Highest Saturation Flux (High
Cost, 4 mil Only, Low Energy)

Amorphous 50 Hz–2 MHz -55 to 175 Toroids Unlimited Size Low High Low Loss, High Saturation Flux
(High Cost, Low Energy)

Cut Cores
Si-Fe 50 Hz–10 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Medium Good Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Core Loss, Requires Air Gap)

Ni-Fe 50 Hz–250 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s High High High Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (High Cost, Requires Air Gap)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Very High Highest Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Highest Cost, Requires Air Gap)

Bobbin Cores
Ni-Fe 5 kHz–1 MHz -55 to 200 Small Toroids Very Low High Low Loss, High Perm (Small Size,
Low Energy)

Dist. Gap
Si-Fe 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Medium Low High Perm, Small Air Gap (Low
Three Phase Frequency Only, Thick mil Only)

Scrapless Lams and Shearings

Si-Fe, Co-Fe, 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Three Very High Low High Perm, Unlimited Size (Low
and Ni-Fe Phase, Unlimited Size Frequency Only, Thick mil Si-Fe
Only, Requires Air Gap)

p. 30.34 February 2003 Rev. A

 Appendix Recommended Application Chart (Cont.)

TYPICAL TEMP.
FREQUENCY RANGE SIZE/SHAPE POWER ADVANTAGES/
MATERIAL RANGE °C LIMITATIONS CAPACITY COST (DISADVANTAGES)

ENERGY STORAGE INDUCTORS

Ferrites
Power Ferrites 10 kHz–500 kHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Medium Low High Perm, Low Loss, Tunable
Limited to 500 cm3 (Low Saturation, Requires Gap)

High Freq Ferrites 50 kHz–500 MHz -55 to 150 E’s, toroids, Pot Cores. Medium Medium Good perm, Low Loss, Tunable
Limited to 250 cm3 (Low Saturation, Poor Stability)

MPP, HI-FLUX, SUPER-MSS

MPP DC-300 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm High High Very Stable, High Saturation,
Low Magnetostriction, Lowest
Loss of Powder Materials

HI-FLUX DC-100 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm Very High High Very Stable, Higher Saturation
than MPP or Super-MSS

SUPER-MSS DC-300 kHz -55 to 200 Toroids up to 132 mm High Medium Very Stable, High Saturation,
Low Magnetostriction, Low Loss

Powdered Iron
High Perm 1 kHz–100 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids up to 132 mm High Low High Saturation, Low Cost
(Core Loss)

Medium Perm 50 kHz–2 MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 High Low Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

Low Perm 1 MHz–500 MHz -55 to 155 Unlimited to 350 cm3 High Medium Low Loss, Good Stability
(Low Perm)

Tape Cores
Ni-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Perm)

Si-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Perm)

Co-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Perm)

Amorphous NR NR NR NR NR (High Perm)

Cut Cores
Si-Fe 50 Hz–100 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Medium Good Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Core Loss, Requires Air Gap)

Ni-Fe 50 Hz–250 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s High High High Perm, High Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (High Cost, Requires Air Gap)

Co-Fe 50 Hz–1 kHz -55 to 175 Toroids, E’s & U’s Very High Very High Highest Saturation Flux
Unlimited Size (Highest Cost, Requires Air Gap)

Bobbin Core
Ni-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Perm)

Dist. Gap
Si-Fe NR NR NR NR NR (High Perm)

Scrapless Lams and Shearings

Si-Fe, Co-Fe, 50–60 Hz -55 to 200 Single Phase, Three Very High Low High Perm, Unlimited Size (Low
and Ni-Fe Phase, Unlimited Size Frequency Only, Requires Air Gap)

p. 30.35 February 2003 Rev. A

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