1.

Soils and Plant

Nutrients
Outline
I. Objectives

II. Introduction: What is Soil?

III. The Soil Profile

IV. Physical Properties of Soil

a. Color

b. Texture

c. Structure

d. Water-Holding Capacity

e. How to Remediate Compaction

V. Organic Matter

VI. Chemical Properties of Soil

a. Cation Exchange Capacity

VII. Soil Testing

a. How to Use a Soil Test Report

b. Soil pH

c. Nutrient Availability and pH

d. Adjusting pH

VIII. Plant Nutrition and Fertilization

a. Soil Nutrients

b. Fertilizers

c. When to Apply Fertilizer

IX. The Biology of Soil

X. Frequently Asked Questions

XI. Further Reading

XII. Chapter Text Hyperlinks

XIII. For More Information

 a. NC State and NC State Extension publications

b. Internet Resources

XIV. Contributors

I. Objectives
This chapter teaches people to:

1. Identify the physical properties of soil and describe how they impact the suitability of soil for
growing plants.

2. Describe organic matter and how it can used to improve the soil.

3. Explain how to collect a soil sample and how to use a soil test report.

4. For each of the six macronutrients, describe symptoms of deficiency and of excess.

5. Identify strategies to reduce the impact of fertilizer on water quality.

6. Identify the variety of soil-dwellers, their benefits, and strategies for promoting their health.

II. Introduction: What Is Soil?

Soil is a living, breathing, natural entity composed of solids, liquids, and gases. Soil has five major
functions:

1. Provides a habitat for organisms

2. Recycles waste products

3. Filters water

4. Serves as an engineering material

5. Provides a medium for plant growth1

Our focus will be on the fifth function. In this role, soil provides structural stability for plants and
retains and relinquishes water and the nutrients necessary for plant growth.

An ideal soil for plant growth contains 50% porespace and 50% solids, with the porespace filled with
equal parts air and water. This distribution rarely occurs because porespace varies with soil texture
and soil management. For example, tilling increases porespace, while poor drainage and compaction
reduce it.

Soil solids are a blend of mineral materials and organic matter. The mineral materials are typically
weathered rock of varying sizes called sand, silt, and clay. The organic matter consists of decaying
plant and microbial residues. The relative amounts of porespace and mineral and organic matter
vary greatly among different soil types. But for plant growth, most soil scientists agree that 50%
porespace, 45% mineral matter, and 5% organic matter make up an ideal ratio (Figure 1–1a). The
distribution of soils and porespace in compacted and poorly drained soil is illustrated in Figure 1–1b
and Figure 1–1c.

Even a small amount of organic matter can have a dramatic effect on the physical, chemical, and
biological properties of soil.

1Brady,N. C. and R. R. Weil. 2004. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils, 2nd Edition. Atlanta,
GA: Prentice Hall
.

Figure 1–1a. The distribution of solids Figure 1–1b. The distribution of solids
and porespace in an ideal soil. and porespace in a compacted soil.

Figure 1–1c. The distribution of solids

and porespace in a poorly drained
soil.
III. The Soil Profile
Most naturally occurring, undisturbed soils have three distinct layers of variable thicknesses. The
layers are the topsoil, subsoil, and parent material. Each layer can have two or more sublayers
called horizons. Collectively, the horizons make up the soil profile. The predominate parent material
varies by location in North Carolina. In the NC piedmont and mountains, the parent material is typically
weathered bedrock known as saprolite. In the river bottoms and stream terraces of the NC
piedmont and mountains, the parent materials are the floodplain sediments delivered from upstream
where erosion has occurred. In the NC coastal plain, the parent materials are marine sediments
deposited over eons as the oceans go through the natural cycles of advance and retreat. In the
easternmost NC coastal plain, the dominant parent material is organic matter. These organic soils
are typically found in areas that just 50,000 years ago were below sea level. Such areas are swamps
where plants grow and thrive. But these areas are too wet for the plant residues (leaves, branches,
roots, trunks, and the like) to efficiently decompose.

Soils’ properties vary with the soil depth. The surface soil, or topsoil layer (O and A horizon in
Figure 1–2), usually contains less clay, but more organic matter and air, than the lower soil layers.
Topsoil is usually more fertile than the other layers and has the greatest concentration of plant roots.

The subsurface layer (B and C horizon in Figure 1–2), known as subsoil, usually has a higher clay
content and lower organic matter content than the topsoil.

Soil properties often limit the depth to which plant roots can penetrate. For example, roots will not
grow through an impenetrable layer. That layer may be bedrock (Figure 1–3), compacted soil, or a
chemical barrier, such as an acidic (very low) pH. A high water table can also restrict root growth due
to poor soil aeration. Few big trees grow in shallow soils because big trees are unable to develop a
root system strong enough to prevent them from toppling over. Shallow soils also tend to be more
drought-prone because they hold less water and thus dry out faster than deeper soils. Water lost to
runoff on shallow soils would instead be absorbed by a deeper soil. In addition, deep soils allow the
roots to explore a greater volume, which means the roots can retain more water and plant nutrients.

Soils change in three dimensions. The first dimension is from the top to the bottom of the soil profile.
The other two dimensions are north to south and east to west. The practical meaning of this three-
dimensional variability is that as you move across a state, a county, or even a field, the soils change.
Five factors of soil formation account for this variation:

1. Parent material

2. Biological activity

3. Climate

4. Topography

5. Time
Differences in even one of these factors will result in a different soil type. Soils forming from different
parent materials differ. Soils forming from the same parent material in varying climates differ. Soils at
the top of a hill differ from soils at the bottom. The top of the hill loses material due to natural
erosion; the bottom gains the material from above. Considering the number of possible
combinations of these five factors, it is not surprising that more than 450 unique soil series are
currently mapped in North Carolina. Globally, more than 20,000 different soil series occur.
Neighborhood level soil series can be found by typing “Web Soil Survey” into any Internet search
engine.

Figure 1–2. Soil horizons.

Figure 1–3. The Craggey soil series; an

example of shallow soil.

IV. Physical Properties of Soil

The physical properties of soil are characteristics that can be seen, felt, or measured. These include
color, texture, structure, and water-holding capacity. Such properties usually determine the suitability
of soil as a growth medium. Some physical properties, such as texture, are not economically feasible
to change on a large scale.

A soil’s fertility, which is a chemical property, is easier to change than the soil’s physical properties.

Organic matter, the soil minerals present, and the drainage conditions all influence soil color. Color
alone is not an indicator of soil quality, but color does provide clues about certain conditions. For
example, light or pale colors in grainy topsoil are frequently associated with low organic matter
content, high sand content, and excessive leaching. Dark soil colors may result from poor drainage or
high organic matter content. Shades of red indicate a clay soil is well-aerated, while shades of gray
indicate inadequate drainage (Figure 1–4). In well-drained soils of the North Carolina Mountains and
Piedmont, the subsoil colors are often shades of red, brown, and yellow. In poorly drained soils, the
subsoil is grayer in color.Color

Texture
Soil texture, which refers to the proportions of sand, silt, and clay, influences nearly every aspect of
soil use and management. Sand is the largest particle (at 2.0 to 0.05 mm), silt is much smaller (0.05
to 0.002 mm), and clay is the smallest (less than 0.002 mm) (Figure 1–5). To compare particle sizes,
imagine that a sand particle is the size of a basketball. On that scale, a silt particle would be the size
of a marble, and a particle of clay would be a pinpoint. How fine (clayey) or coarse (sandy) a soil is will
determine many of the soil’s physical and chemical properties.

Much of a soil particle’s ability to react with water and nutrients is related to the amount of surface
area available (Table 1–1). When the individual particle size is small, more individual particles will fit in a
given space, and thus make more surface area available. Clay, with its tiny particle size and platelike
structure, holds water and nutrients effectively, while sand, which has a large chunky structure, does
not. In addition to being smaller, clay particles are composed of different minerals than sand and silt,
and a clay particle’s structure is more like a stack of paper plates than a grain of sand (Figure 1–6).

Table 1–1. Particle type, number of particles per gram, and the average surface area per
gram.

Particle Type Diameter Number of Particles per Specific surface area

(mm) gram (cm2/g)

Clay < 0.002 90,260,853,000 8,000,000

Coarse sand 1.00-0.50 720 23

Fine sand 0.25-0.10 46,000 91

Medium sand 0.50-0.25 5,700 45

Silt 0.05-0.002 5,776,000 454

Very coarse 2.00-1.00 90 11

sand

Very fine sand 0.10-0.05 722,000 227

Rocks and Gravel

Rocks and gravel, which are large, coarse materials, can be found in many soils, but they are not
considered when determining soil texture. Although some rocks and gravel in the soil will not
affect plant nutrient uptake, they can make the soil difficult to dig. If the garden is mostly rocks or
 gravel, the soil will have a reduced water- and nutrient-holding capacity, and will be unfit for
growing plants. In such a situation, it may be easiest to install raised beds and import soil.

Adding organic matter is a more economically feasible alternative for improving soil. Adding organic
matter does not change a soil’s texture—the percentage of sand, silt, and clay in the soil—but adding
organic matter will alter soil structure by increasing the porespace and improving drainage.
Gardeners can be successful with any soil texture, as long as they know the attributes and limitations
of that soil.The relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay determine a soil’s textural class (Figure 1–7).
For example, a soil that is 12% sand, 55% clay, and 33% silt is in the clay textural class. Soil texture is a
permanent feature, not easily changed by human activity. Consider a typical mineral soil that is 6
inches deep on 1 acre. That soil weighs about 2 million pounds. To change the sand content just 1%
would require adding 20,000 pounds (or 10 tons) of sand. A 1% change in sand content would have
minimal effect. A significant effect might require a 10% change, which would mean adding 100 tons of
sand.

Typically, laboratory procedures are used to determine the soil texture. It is possible, however, to use
the procedure outlined in Figure 1–8 to determine the textural class by the “feel” method. It takes
practice and calibration, but it can provide a reasonable estimate of the soil texture.

Sandy or Coarsely Textured Soils (Figure 1–9)

Low in organic matter content and native fertility.

Rapidly permeable and do not hold soil moisture.

Nutrient leaching is a concern, so proper fertilization is a must. Apply smaller amounts of

nutrients, and apply them more frequently.

Low in cation exchange and buffer capacities.

Well-suited for road foundations and building sites.

Feel gritty.

Loamy or Medium-Textured Soils (Figure 1–10)

Contains more organic matter.

Permit slower movement of water and are better able to retain moisture and nutrients.

Are generally more fertile.

Have higher cation exchange and buffer capacities.

Feel crumbly.

Clayey or Finely Textured Soils (Figure 1–11)

Higher nutrient-holding capacity.
 Higher available water-holding capacity.

Finely textured soils exhibit properties that are somewhat difficult to manage or overcome.

Often too sticky when wet and too hard when dry to cultivate.

May have shrink-and-swell characteristics that affect construction uses.

Feel slippery.

How Do Soil Types Affect Gardeners?

Compaction. Compaction occurs when pressure is applied to soil particles and the air and water
are pushed out of the porespaces. Large, cubic sand particles are not easily compacted. Clay
particles, small and platelike, are easily aligned and can compact, especially when wet.
Compaction inhibits the movement of water, gases (air), and roots. Compacted soils have less
infiltration, greater runoff, a higher risk of erosion, and more restricted root growth than soils
without compaction. Water drains slowly, which may increase the likelihood of plant root diseases.

Erosion. Sand particles are heavy, so they are not easily picked up and moved by water or
wind. Clay particles are sticky, so they are not easily moved. Silty loam particles are light and not
sticky, so erosive forces easily move them. Eroded soils are usually harder to till and have lower
productivity than soils without erosion. The main causes of soil erosion in North Carolina are
insufficient vegetative or mulch cover, and improper equipment and methods used to prepare
and till the soil (Figure 1–12).

Soil erosion can be minimized by following a few preventive measures:

Choose plants suited to the soil so they establish well.

Mulch the surface each year with organic materials 1 inch to 3 inches deep.

Adequately fertilize to promote vigorous, but not excessive, plant growth.

Create a water diversion, such as a grass waterway, to capture and slow water movement.

Align rows to follow the land’s contour so that water flowing downhill is slowed.

Use proper tillage methods, such as not tilling when the soil is overly wet and not overtilling.

Plant a winter cover crop.

Consider installing rain gardens to capture sediment and runoff.

Surface Area. The most active part of a soil particle is its surface area. A particle’s surface is
where nutrient exchange takes place. Sand particles have a small surface area relative to their
mass, meaning they do not hold onto nutrients well. Clay particles have a large surface area
relative to their mass, so a small amount of clay can add a significant amount of surface area to a
soil, increasing the nutrient-holding capacity.
Structure

Soil structure refers to the grouping of individual soil particles into larger pieces called peds or
aggregates. The structure of topsoil is usually granular and resembles chocolate cookie crumbs
(Figure 1–13). Good granular structure allows rapid movement of air and water within the soil. Poor
granular structure decreases movement of air and water. Good soil structure allows for extensive
root development; poor structure can limit root growth. Supplying an adequate amount of organic
matter and working the soil only when it is not excessively wet promotes good topsoil structure.

Water-Holding Capacity
Water enters the soil from precipitation or irrigation. It exits by draining from the soil, evaporating
from the surface, and through transpiration from plant leaves. Water-holding capacity—the
retention of water moving through soil—depends on differences in soil porespace. Ideal soils are half
porespace with equal amounts of air and water filling the pores. Too much air means plants will wilt.
Too much water means reduced plant vigor and susceptibility to root rot, which occurs due to
anaerobic conditions.

Soils differ in the number of large (macro), medium (meso), and small (micro) pores. Macropores,
which are more common in sandy soils, take up water more quickly and drain faster than meso- and
micropores. This rapid draining from macropores is called “gravitational water” because the weaker
forces of adhesion and cohesion in macropores cannot overcome gravity's pull. Within 24 hours
after a saturating rain, gravitational water reaches the lower soil horizons, and the soil is at field
capacity: the meso- and micropores are still full of water because their adhesive and cohesive
forces are stronger than gravity. Water in the mesopores is available to plants. But when the
mesopores lose water as the soil dries through plant uptake and transpiration, soil moisture reaches
the permanent wilting point. At the permanent wilting point, micropores are still full of water, but this
water is so tightly held that it is not plant-available. Note that plants may wilt before the permanent
wilting point if the plant transpires water through the leaves faster than it can take water up from
the soil through its roots. This is why plants may wilt on hot days and then recover once the sun
goes down and why plants can balance uptake with transpiration (Figure 1–14).

How to Remediate Compaction

Compaction is a likely problem if there has been recent construction or other traffic over the area.
Deep cultivation, which is mixing the top 6 inches to 2 feet of soil with a tiller, disk, or hand tools, may
be needed to loosen the soil. Incorporation of organic matter during deep cultivation can help to
rehabilitate soil structure by creating aggregates and both macropores (for drainage) and
mesopores (for plant-available water). Digging or cultivating soil when it is wet or excessively dry can
destroy structure.

Be wary of quick fixes, such as starting over with a truckload of topsoil. Unfortunately, there are no
standards on material sold as “topsoil.” New problems may be brought on site, such as weed seeds
and disease organisms. Adding new topsoil to existing soil may also create drainage problems when
water moves through the purchased topsoil and reaches the compacted layer. The water can pool
and create unfavorable conditions for root growth.

Clay soils, which tend to hold excessive amounts of water and become compacted easily, present
some tricky problems. Common mistakes are adding sand or peat moss to improve drainage.
Adding sand to clay will reduce soil structure, lowering porespace. Adding peat moss will increase the
clay soil's high moisture-holding capacity. The best advice is to add smaller amounts of organic
matter consistently every year, minimize compaction, and let soil biology naturally improve the
structure over time.

Urban Soils
As the locally grown food movement gains momentum, more people are gardening in urban
areas. Urban soils can be host to contaminants such as lead, pesticide residue, or petroleum
products. Before gardening and especially before producing any food on an urban soil, it is
important to understand the history of the land and to properly identify any possible
contaminants. SoilFacts: Minimizing the Risks of Soil Contaminants in Urban Gardens (NC State
Extension publication number AG-439-78) provides in-depth information about risk levels for
individual soil contaminates, remediation techniques, and resources for professionals that can
assist with analysis and consulting.

Here are some tips for gardening in contaminated soils:

Garden design:
Plant ornamentals in contaminated areas and locate edibles as far from contaminants as
possible.

Do not plant near roads or buildings.

Consider using raised beds with imported soil (Figure 1–15).

Soil Management:
Raising the pH of the soil may help to slow the uptake of some contaminants by a plant.

Organic matter, such as compost, may bind some contaminants in the soil.

If large-scale remediation is necessary, contact a professional for help with excavation, washing,
or vapor removal.

Planting Considerations:
Avoid root crops where edible portions come into direct contact with soil.

Shoot and leaf crops (lettuce, cabbage, broccoli, celery, rhubarb) will have less of a contamination
risk.

Fruit crops (tomato, zucchini, beans, peppers) will have the least amount of contamination risk.
Garden Hygiene:
Wear gloves and wash hands and clothes after gardening.

Do not wear garden shoes in the house.

Watch children closely so no soil is ingested.

Wash produce in mild detergent, remove the first leaves of leafy crops (those closest to the
ground), and peel root crops.
 Figure 1–4. Color as an indicator of
drainage. The soil on the left is the
Cecil series, a well-drained mineral soil
typical of the NC piedmont. The soil on
the right is the Coxville series, a poorly
drained mineral soil found in the NC
coastal plain.

Figure 1–5. Relative sizes of sand, silt,

and clay.

Figure 1–6. The image on the left

shows a close-up of sand particles
which appear grainy as seen by the
naked eye. The right shows the
platelike texture of clay visible only
under a microscope.
Figure 1–7. Pyramid diagram showing
soil types are based on the
percentage of clay, sand, and silt each
contains.
 Figure 1–8. Feel method for soil
Figure 1–9. Sandy soils are low in
textural class determination.
fertility and do not hold onto soil
moisture.

Attribution: USDA, NRCS  CC BY-SA - 4.0

Figure 1–10. Loamy soils feel crumbly, Figure 1–11. Clay soils are sticky when
and generally are darker because wet and very hard when dry.
they contain organic matter.
Attribution: Soil Science, NC State  CC
Attribution: USDA, NRCS  CC BY-SA - 4.0 BY - 2.0

Figure 1–13. Examples of granular soil

structure (looks like chocolate cookie
crumbs) in topsoil.

Figure 1–12. The soil on this hill eroded

 because of runoff and lack of
vegetation.

Attribution: J. Kelley  CC BY - 2.0

Figure 1–15. Gardening in urban areas

requires careful consideration of soil
conditions. If contaminated or poorly
drained soils are present, raised beds
may be necessary.

Attribution: David Crummey, Flickr  CC

BY - 2.0

Figure 1–14. Plants can wilt during the

hot part of the day, but recover once
the sun goes down. Plants can
balance water uptake with water loss
through transpiration.

Attribution: Scot Nelson, Flickr  CC BY - 2.0

V. Organic Matter
Organic matter consists of the remains of plants and animals and gives soil a gray to very-dark-
brown color. Organic matter is home to many soil organisms.

Earthworms, insects, bacteria, fungi, and animals use organic matter as food, breaking it down to
obtain energy and essential nutrients. Humus is the portion of organic matter that remains after
most decomposition has taken place (Figure 1–16).

When organic matter decomposes in the soil, carbon dioxide is released and replaces some of the
oxygen in soil pores. Carbon dioxide is dissolved by water in soil to form a weak acid. This solution
reacts with soil minerals to release nutrients that can be taken up by plants. The digested and
decomposing organic matter also helps develop good air-water relationships. In sandy soil, organic
material occupies some of the space between the sand grains. This binds them together and
increases water-holding capacity. In a finely textured or clay soil, organic material creates aggregates
of soil particles. This allows water to move more rapidly around soil particles.

The amount of organic matter in the soil depends primarily on rainfall, air temperature, the kinds of
plants that have been growing in a soil, management practices, soil temperature, and drainage. Soils
that are tilled frequently are usually low in organic matter because tilling decreases residue particle
size and increases the amount of air in the soil, increasing the rate of organic matter decomposition.
Poorly drained soils tend to have a high percentage of organic matter because low oxygen levels
limit decomposition organisms. To build organic matter in garden soil, till in compost when the garden
is first created, but do not till in subsequent years. Instead, apply thin layers (1 inch to 3 inches), of
organic mulch or compost to the soil surface each year (Figure 1–17). This material will break down,
and the organic matter levels in the soil will gradually increase.

Improving the Soil

Good aeration and drainage, as well as the ability to hold adequate moisture and nutrients, are
key components of an ideal soil environment. Although there is no cookbook recipe for creating
this ideal environment, these are some of the most important strategies for improving soil
quality:

Minimize soil compaction (do not walk on garden beds or work wet soil) (Figure 1–18).

Reduce drainage problems.

Decrease erosion.

Plant a cover crop (Figure 1–19).

Incorporate organic matter.

Provide a 1- to 3-inch layer of organic mulch on the soil’s surface.

Organic amendments can improve soils that suffer from high compaction, poor drainage, and
erosion. Materials such as compost, manures, and pine bark are more effective and economical than
vermiculite, peat moss, sand, topsoil, or perlite. Table 1–2 reviews the amounts of organic material to
be added to soil per 100 square feet. When working in small areas, a general rule of thumb is to
incorporate a 3- to 6-inch layer of organic material into the soil. The organic matter must be
decomposed before plants can use the nutrients. The rate of decomposition of organic matter by
soil organisms is affected by moisture, temperature, particle size, the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, and
nitrogen availability. The proper balance of carbon and nitrogen is needed for rapid decomposition,
as are warm temperatures and adequate moisture. When using straw, leaves, or sawdust (which are
high in carbon), add nitrogen fertilizer while the material is decomposing. Soil microbes use nitrogen
during decomposition and may deprive plants, resulting in slow or stunted plant growth.
Incorporating organic matter some months before planting the garden allows the material time to
decompose and have plant-available nutrients in place for good plant growth.
Table 1–2. Organic materials and their application rates.

Organic Material Amount to Be Added per 100 Square Feet

Compost 10–20 cubic feet

Corncobs 50 pounds (2 bushels)

Hay 60 pounds (1 bale)

Leaves 75 pounds (3–4 bushels)

Sawdust 50 pounds (2 bushels)

Straw 60 pounds (1 bale)

Wood chips 50 pounds (2 bushels)

Incorporating Soil Amendments

Conditioning soil requires increasing organic matter content to 25% by volume. Incorporating a
minimum of 2 inches of material into the top 6 inches of soil will create approximately 8 inches of
amended soil. These additions raise the planting bed, improving drainage and making plants
more visible. Incorporating more than 50% organic matter may negatively affect plant growth. Be
careful when using organic material, making certain that it is fully composted and not merely
aged. Microbes attracted to partially decomposed materials will compete with plants for
nutrients, especially nitrogen and sulfur, resulting in nutrient deficiencies and poor plant growth.

The best organic matter amendments for clay soils are pine bark (less than 1⁄2 inch in diameter)
and composted leaf mold. The following amendments are not recommended because they do
not adequately improve the physical properties of clay soil: peat moss, sand, hardwood bark,
wood chips, and pine straw.

For sandy soils, organic matter amendments, such as pine bark or compost, will improve water
retention.
 Figure 1–16. Humus is the organic
matter that remains after most
decomposition has occurred.

Attribution: Guitarclass, Flickr  CC BY-NC-

SA - 4.0

Figure 1–17. Mulching with a 1-3 inch

layer of organic material will help to
build good air and water relationships
in the soil as well as add nutrients for
uptake by plants.

Attribution: Kathleen Moore  CC BY - 2.0

Figure 1–19. A cover crop of white rye

grass was planted in this annual
flower bed. It is being turned under to
add nutrients to the soil before
planting.

Attribution: Linda N., Flickr  CC BY - 2.0

 Figure 1–18. To avoid compaction in
the vegetable garden recycled plastic
lattice was laid down to walk on.

Attribution: Sam Saunders, Flickr  CC BY-

SA - 4.0

VI. Chemical Properties of Soil

There are strong relationships between soil physical properties and soil chemical properties. For
example, surface area is directly related to chemical reactivity.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The negative ends of two magnets repel each other. The negative end of one magnet attracts the
positive end of another magnet. This same principle affects the retention of plant nutrients in soil.
Some plant nutrients are cations, which have a positive charge, and some are anions, which have
a negative charge. Just like the opposite poles on magnets, cations will be attracted to anions.

Soil particles are similar to a magnet, attracting and retaining oppositely charged ions and holding
them against the downward movement of water through the soil profile. The nutrients held by the
soil in this manner are called “exchangeable cations” and can be displaced or exchanged only by
other cations that take their place. Thus, the negative charge on a soil is called the cation
exchange capacity (CEC). Soils with high CEC not only hold more nutrients, they are better able to
buffer or avoid rapid changes in the soil solution levels of these nutrients. A soil test will tell you the
CEC number of your soil. Soils high in clay, silt, or organic matter will have a CEC number of 10 or
greater, and no remediation is needed. Sandy soils will have a CEC number between 1 and 5. Adding
organic matter to these soils will help increase the CEC.

Too Much of a Good Thing: Nitrogen Leaching

Just like magnets, negative charges repel negative charges. Soils with high CEC tend not to hold
anions. As a result, water moving through the soil profile will leach negatively charged nutrients,
such as chloride, nitrate, and sulfate out of the root zone. This leaching can result in
contamination of groundwater, streams, and lakes or have other environmental implications
(Figure 1–20). Excess fertilizer becomes a contaminant and can have adverse effects on human
 health. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has set standards for nutrients in groundwater
used for drinking water. This is one of many reasons that appropriate levels of fertilization are
essential.

Figure 1–20. The milky blue-green

swirls are a phytoplankton bloom in
Lake Ontario as seen from space. This
bloom is, in part, from nutrient loading
(nitrogen and phosphorus) and
runoff.

Attribution: NASA  CC BY - 2.0

VII. Soil Testing

Soil testing provides valuable information on pH and plant-available nutrients. Test your soil before
planting and every two to three years thereafter. Inexpensive soil test kits are unreliable. To
accurately determine your soil characteristics and the proper amount of lime and fertilizer to apply,
contact the NC Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services (NCDA&CS). The accuracy of these
reports, however, depends on the quality of the sample submitted.

Tips for Collecting a Good Soil Sample

Collect samples with stainless steel or chrome-plated tools. Using brass, bronze, or galvanized
materials could contaminate the sample.

The bucket in which material is collected should be made of plastic.

Make sure the collection bucket is clean because even small amounts of residual lime or fertilizer
can affect the test results.

Avoid taking samples from areas that are obviously different from the norm, such as wet spots,
compost piles, animal urine spots, and brush piles, or from under eaves or sites where trash has
been burned.
 Remove large pieces of organic material, such as roots, stalks, and leaves, from the sample.

For gardens, new lawns, and other cultivated areas, sample to the depth the soil has been, or
will be, tilled. For established lawns, collect the sample 2 to 4 inches deep. For trees and shrubs,
take a sample to a depth of 6 inches near the plant's drip line. Even if the soil looks the same,
take separate samples for flower beds, vegetable gardens, fruit orchards, shrub borders, and
lawn areas.

If using a trowel or spade, dig a hole, then take a slice of soil down one side. Repeat this
procedure in five to eight spots for each area to be tested. Mix these cores together to obtain
one composite sample. If the soil is very wet, it could be more difficult to mix, but do not attempt
to heat the soil to dry it (Figure 1–21).

Place about a pint of the composite sample for each area sampled in a soil testing box and label
with a return address on the side of the box. Make up a code that will be easy to remember,
such as “flawn” for front lawn, “byard” for back yard, or “veg” for vegetable garden. Any
combination of letters and numbers can be used. Make notes about where the samples came
from so that when you receive the results, you can easily identify how to treat the areas
differently based on the results.

Do not tape the boxes in any way. The lids are removed before the boxes go in the soil lab
ovens, and tape makes this process difficult. Do not put the soil in a plastic bag before placing it
in the box as doing so will prevent proper drying in the lab oven.

Fill out the soil test report sheet, giving as much information as possible. The required items are
name, address, county, sample codes, and the crops planned. Reports are sent by mail only if there is
a special request submitted to the lab. Otherwise, provide an email address on the form to receive
notification that the report is complete and online. Farmers also use the form, so some of the
information requested may not apply to gardeners (pounds of lime per acre, for example). Forms and
boxes are available from the NCDA&CS or any county Cooperative Extension center.

Learn more about collecting soil samples in SoilFacts: Careful Soil Sampling—The Key to Reliable Soil
Test Information (NC State Extension publication number AG-439-30). For detailed information about
the soil test results, refer to NCDA&CS Agronomic Division’s Understanding the Soil Test Report.

How to Use a Soil Test Report

Fertilizing trees and shrubs in a landscape should be based on the amount of rainfall, soil type, the
plant's age, the amount of current growth, and desired future growth. Overapplication of fertilizer to
home landscapes wastes money, contributes to pollution in our rivers, streams, lakes and estuaries,
and may damage or kill desired plants. In addition, excess fertilizer can increase the likelihood of
disease problems, lead to weak growth, attract pests, and increase the amount of pruning to keep
mature plants within appropriate boundaries. A soil test report provides accurate guidance for
applying fertilizer. Figure 1–22 shows the main components of a soil test report.

Example Soil Test Reports

Depending on the crop indicated when the soil sample was submitted, the soil test report provides
results in one of two ways:

Home garden scale: Recommendations for pounds of lime and a rate and grade of fertilizer per
1,000 square feet (for example, an area 50 feet by 20 feet or 10 feet by 100 feet).

Farm/Forest scale: Recommendations for tons of lime and a rate and grade of fertilizer per acre.

At the home gardener scale:

1. Measure the area to be limed or fertilized.

2. Multiply the length by the width to determine the number of square feet.

3. Divide by 1,000 to obtain the number of units to be treated.

4. Multiply the number of units by the pounds of material to treat 1,000 square feet. This calculation
will give the amount of fertilizer and lime needed (Figure 1–23).

Example 1: If the area is 500 feet by 20 feet, and the suggested lime or fertilizer treatment is 30
pounds per 1,000 square feet:

1. 500 × 20 = 10,000 square feet

2. Divide 10,000 by 1,000 = 10 units

3. Multiply 30 pounds times 10 units = 300 pounds of material (fertilizer or lime) per 10,000 square
feet

Example 2: If the area is 10 feet by 15 feet, and the suggested lime or fertilizer rate is 10 pounds per
1,000 square feet:

1. 10 × 15 = 150 square feet

2. Divide 150 by 1,000 = 0.15

3. Multiply 10 pounds times 0.15 units = 1.5 pounds of material per 150 square feet

Or, look at fertilizer/lime calculations as ratios:

If 5 pounds of fertilizer are applied per 1,000 square feet, how many pounds should be applied to 150
square feet (using the garden size in Example 2)?

5 lb/1,000 sq ft = X lb/150 sq ft

5 lb × 150 sq ft /1,000 sq ft = X lb

750/1,000 = .75 lb

Example soil test reports and their recommended fertilizer applications can be found in Figure 1–24,
Figure 1–25, Figure 1–26, and Figure 1–27.

Soil pH
Soil pH is a measure of the soil’s relative acidity or basicity. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of
7 is a neutral state, representing the value found in pure water. Values above 7.0 are basic, while
values below 7.0 are acidic. The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning each unit has a 10-fold increase of
acidity or basicity. Thus, compared to a pH of 7.0, a pH of 6.0 is ten times more acidic, and a pH of 5.0
is 100 times more acidic.

North Carolina soils tend to be acidic, as are nearly all soils in the Southeast. These soils were
acidified over thousands of years by inputs of acids from atmospheric sources (carbonic, sulfuric, and
nitric acid), the decay of plant and animal residues, and removal of basic cations by the natural
processes of leaching. If our native soils are not limed (basic), the pH is often in the 4.5 to 5.5 range.

Nutrient Availability and pH

The optimum pH for a plant varies with organic matter content and plant type. Plant nutrient
availability is strongly tied to the pH in the soil solution (Figure 1–28). Decreasing soil pH directly
increases the solubility of the plant nutrients manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and iron (Fe).
Acidic soils make these nutrients more available. At pH values less than about 5.5, toxic levels of Mn,
Zn, or aluminum (Al), a non-nutrient element very common in our southern soils, may be released. The
impact of pH on nutrient availability is very important—both for maximum plant availability and to
avoid potentially toxic levels at very low or very high pH.

The optimal pH for growth differs among plants. For example, regardless of organic matter content,
azaleas and blueberries are well-suited for a soil pH of about 5.0. In contrast, asparagus can tolerate
a basic soil with a pH up to 8.0. A soil pH of 6.5 to 7.0 is often considered “ideal” for most plants, but a
little research can help you identify the proper pH for the plants you wish to grow. After obtaining a
soil test report, you can take measures to adjust soil pH or select plants that will thrive at the current
pH. Extreme pH measures of 4.0 (acidic) or 10.0 (basic) will support little plant life and are very difficult
to modify.

Adjusting pH
If the soil pH is too basic for the desired plant, incorporating an acidic soil amendment such as pine
bark or compost, or applying elemental sulfur, will lower soil pH. Apply sulfur with caution; too much
can harm plants.

If the soil pH is too acidic, apply lime to raise the soil pH. There are two general classes of liming
materials: calcitic (without magnesium) and dolomitic (with magnesium). Calcitic lime is composed of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and can be used on soils high in magnesium. Dolomitic lime is a mixture of
calcium and magnesium carbonates (CaCO3 and MgCO3), which is the preferred liming material for
soils low in magnesium.

Knowing the soil type or even the current pH is not enough to determine the amount of lime needed.
The texture of the soil, organic matter content, crop to be grown, target pH, level of soil acidity, CEC,
type and amount of clay, and the current pH are all factors to consider in adjusting pH. Soils low in
organic matter or high in sand content require less lime to change the pH than clay soils or those with
high organic matter.
Lime is heavily regulated in North Carolina. Lime must be labeled with a guarantee of percent calcium
and magnesium. The percent of calcium carbonate equivalent also must be included on the label, as
well as the pounds of material that equal 1 ton of standard lime (Figure 1–29). Each type of lime must
meet a screening requirement for particle size. Lime pellets are formed from lime that has been finely
ground. The pelleted product is less dusty and easier to apply, but is slower to react with the soil.

Lime moves slowly in the soil and neutralizes acidity only in the area where it is applied. To be
effective, it should be spread and thoroughly incorporated. It takes several months for lime to react
in the soil, which is why it is good to soil test and plan for proper soil pH management. For
established lawns, gardens, and ornamentals that require lime, apply the recommended amount up
to 50 pounds of lime per 1,000 square feet in one application to the soil's surface. For recommended
rates over 50 pounds, wait several months to make a repeat application to avoid a surface buildup
of lime. For new plantings where the area will be tilled, apply the entire recommended amount at one
time.

Learn more in SoilFacts: Soil Acidity and Liming: Basic Information for Farmers and Gardeners (NC
State Extension publication number AG-439-51).
Figure 1–21. Collect soil samples using Figure 1–22. The main components of
plastic buckets, let soil air dry and a soil test report.
screen out any big chunks (rocks,
sticks). Mix several soil samples from
the same location before sending it in
for testing.

Attribution: Dwight Sipler, Flickr  CC BY -

2.0

Figure 1–24. Soil test report example

Figure 1–23. Soil test report example
2.
showing lime and fertilizer
recommendations.

Figure 1–26. Soil test report example

Figure 1–25. Soil test report example 4.
3
 3.

Figure 1–27. Soil test report example

5. Figure 1–28. Nutrient availability as
affected by soil pH. The wider areas
represent greater availability. The
blue bar shows the optimum pH level
for nutrient uptake by plants.

Figure 1–29. Label from a lime bag.

Attribution: Kathleen Moore  CC BY - 2.0

VIII. Plant Nutrition and Fertilization

Many people confuse plant nutrition with fertilization. Plant nutrition refers to the needs of the plant
and how a plant uses the basic chemical elements. Fertilization is the term used when these
elements are supplied to the soil as amendments. Adding fertilizer during unfavorable growing
conditions will not enhance plant growth and may actually harm or kill plants.

To complete their life cycle, plants need 17 essential nutrients, each in varying amounts (Table 1–3). Of
these nutrients, three are found in air and water: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
Combined, C, H, and O account for about 94% of a plant’s weight. The other 6% of a plant’s weight
includes the remaining 14 nutrients, all of which must come from the soil. Of these, nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), the primary macronutrients, are the most needed. Magnesium
(Mg), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S), the secondary macronutrients, are next in the amount needed. The
eight other elements—boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, and zinc—are
called micronutrients because they are needed in much smaller amounts than the macronutrients.

Table 1–3. Relative amounts (out of 100) of the essential nutrients required by most
plants.

Primary Nutrients

Carbon (C) 45

Oxygen (O) 45

Hydrogen (H) 6

Nitrogen (N) 1.5

Potassium (K) 1

Phosphorus (P) 0.2

Secondary Nutrients

Calcium (Ca) 0.5

Magnesium (Mg) 0.2

Sulfur (S) 0.1

Micronutrients

Iron (Fe) 0.01

Chlorine (Cl) 0.01

Manganese (Mn) 0.005

Boron (B) 0.002

Zinc (Zn) 0.002

Copper (Cu) 0.0006

Molybdenum (Mo) 0.00001

Amounts unknown for Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co)

Soil Nutrients
For a plant to absorb an element, it must be in a chemical form used by the plant and dissolved in the
soil water. In addition to those nutrients already dissolved in soil water, nutrients can be present in
the soil in these forms:

Undissolved or granular form, as from newly applied fertilizer

Chemicals bound to soil particles

The chemical structure of soil organic matter released by microbial decomposition

Undissolved or granular nutrients, and those that are chemically bound to soil particles, are not
immediately useful, although they have the potential to benefit the plant. For many plant nutrients,
the soil acts as a bank. Withdrawals are made from the soil solution, much as you would withdraw
money from a checking account. The undissolved pool of soil nutrients is like a savings account.
When checking funds are low, transfers are made from the savings account to the checking account.
When a checking account is flush with money, some can be moved to savings for long-term
retention. In the same way, for many plant nutrients, when the soil solution has excess nutrients,
some bind to the soil to become temporarily unavailable, and some react with other chemical
elements to form insoluble minerals, which can dissolve again later.

Several factors improve a plant's ability to use nutrients:

 Type of soil: The more clay and organic matter a soil has, the higher its CEC will be, and the
more cationic (positively charged) nutrients it will retain.

Soil pH: The pH affects how tightly nutrients are bound to soil particles. If the soil pH is extremely
high (basic) or very low (acidic), many nutrients become inaccessible to the plant because they
are no longer dissolved in the soil water.

Types of nutrients in the soil: Some nutrients affect the availability of other nutrients. In fact,
an apparent deficiency of one nutrient may actually be caused by a large amount of another.

Amount of soil water: Too much rain leaches nutrients from the soil. If there is too little water,
the nutrients cannot dissolve and move into the plant.

Anything that affects the plant's growth: If growing conditions are good, a plant will absorb
nutrients from the soil. If the plant experiences extremes in temperature, incorrect light levels, or
waterlogged or compacted soil, it will have a limited ability to absorb nutrients. Also, plants in
dormant stages absorb few nutrients.

The presence or absence of nutrients can cause outward symptoms to appear on the plant. Table 1–
4 reviews the essential nutrients for plant growth and symptoms that may appear if a plant is
suffering a deficency or an excess of that nutrient.

Table 1–4. Essential nutrients for plant growth.

 MACRONUTRIENTS

Nutrient Why Nutrient is Deficiency Excess Symptoms Comments

Needed Symptoms

Nitrogen (N) • Responsible • Reduced • Succulent growth; • High N under low

for rapid growth leaves are dark light can cause
foliage growth (Figure 1–30) green, thick, and leaf curl
and green • Light-green brittle • Uptake inhibited
color to yellow • Poor fruit set by high P levels
• Easily leaches foliage • Excess ammonia
from soil (chlorosis) can induce calcium
• Mobile in • Reds and deficiency
plant, moving purples may
to new growth intensify with
some plants
• Reduced
lateral
breaks
• Symptoms
appear first
on older
growth
Phosphorus • Promotes • Reduced Shows up as • Rapidly fixed on
(P) root formation growth micronutrient soil particles
and growth • Leaves deficiency of Zn, Fe, • When applied
• Affects dark-green; or Co under acid
quality of purple or red conditions, fixed
seed, fruit, and color in older with Fe, Mn, and
flower leaves, Al
production especially on • High P interferes
• Increased the with micronutrient
disease underside of and N absorption
resistance the leaf • Used in
• Does not along the relatively small
leach from soil veins amounts when
readily (Figure 1–31) compared to N
• Mobile in • Leaf shape and K
plant, moving may be • Availability is
to new distorted lowest in cold
growth. • Thin stems soils
• Limited
root growth
Potassium • Helps plants • Reduced Causes N • High N/low K
(K) overcome growth deficiency and may favors
drought stress • Shortened affect the uptake vegetative
• Improves internodes of other nutrients growth
winter • Margins of • Low N/high K
hardiness older leaves promotes
• Increases become reproductive
disease chlorotic and growth (flower,
resistance burned fruit)
• Improves the • Necrotic • Calcium excess
rigidity of (dead) spots impedes uptake
stalks on older of K
• Leaches from leaves
soil (Figure 1–32)
• Mobile in • Reduction
plant of lateral
breaks and
tendency to
wilt readily
• Poorly
developed
root systems
• Weak
stalks
Magnesium • Leaches from • Reduction • Interferes with Ca • Mg is commonly
(Mg) sandy soil in growth uptake deficient in foliage
• Mobile in • Yellowish, • Small necrotic plants because it
plant bronze, or spots in older is leached and
reddish color leaves not replaced
of older • Smaller veins in • Epsom salts at a
leaves, while older leaves may rate of 1
veins remain turn brown teaspoon per
green • In advanced gallon may be
(Figure 1–33) stage, young used two times a
• Leaf leaves may be year
margins may spotted • Mg can be
curl absorbed by
downward leaves if sprayed
or upward in a weak solution
with a • Dolomitic
puckering limestone can be
effect applied in
outdoor
situations to
rectify a
deficiency
Calcium (Ca) • Moderately • Inhibition of • Interferes with Mg Ca is rarely
leachable bud growth absorption deficient if the
• Limited • Roots can • High Ca usually correct pH is
mobility in turn black causes high pH maintained
plant and rot
• Essential for • Young
growth of leaves are
shoot and scalloped
root tips and
abnormally
green
• Leaf tips
may stick
together
• Cupping of
maturing
leaves
• Blossom
end rot of
many fruits
(Figure 1–34)
• Pits on root
vegetables;
stem
structure is
weak
• Premature
shedding of
fruit and
buds
Sulfur (S) • Leachable • Rarely Sulfur excess is Sulfur excess is
• Not mobile deficient usually in the form difficult to control,
• Contributes • General of air pollution but rarely a
to odor and yellowing of problem
taste of some the young
vegetables leaves, then
the entire
plant
(Figure 1–35)
• Veins
lighter in
color than
adjoining
interveinal
area
• Roots and
stems are
small, hard,
and woody

MICRONUTRIENTS

Nutrient Why Nutrient is Deficiency Excess Symptoms Comments

Needed Symptoms

Iron (Fe) • Accumulates • Interveinal Rare except on

in the oldest chlorosis flooded soils
leaves and is primarily on
relatively young tissue,
immobile which may
• Necessary for become
the white
maintenance (Figure 1–36)
of chlorophyll • Fe
deficiency
may occur
even if Fe is
in the soil
when: soil is
high in Ca;
soil is poorly
drained; soil
is oxygen
deficient;
nematodes
attack roots;
or soil is high
in Mn, pH, or
P
• Fe should
be added in
the chelate
form; the
type of
chelate
needed
depends
upon the soil
pH
• Foliar
fertilization
will
temporarily
correct the
deficiency
• May be
deficient in
centipede
grass where
pH and P are
high
Boron (B) • Important in • Failure to • Tips and edges
enabling set seed of leaves exhibit
photosynthetic • Internal necrotic spots
coalescing into a
transfer breakdown
marginal scorch
• Very of fruit or
(similar to high-
immobile in vegetable
soluble salts)
plants • Death of (Figure 1–38)
apical buds, • Oldest leaves are
giving rise to affected first • Can
witches' occur in low pH
broom soils • Plants are
• Failure of easily damaged by
root tip to excess application
•Looks like Mg
elongate
deficiency,green
normally
veins on a yellow
• Young leaf.
leaves
become
thick,
leathery, and
chlorotic
(Figure 1–37)
• Rust-
colored
cracks and
corking on
young
stems,
petioles, and
flower stalks
(such as
heart rot of
beets, stern
crack of
celery)
• Breakdown
occurs at the
base of the
youngest
shoots
Zinc (Zn) Needed for • Young • Severe stunting,
enzyme leaves are reddening
activity very small, • Poor germination
sometimes • Older leaves wilt
missing leaf • Entire leaf is
blades affected by
• Short chlorosis; edges
internodes and main vein
• Distorted often retain more
or puckered color
leaf margins • Can be caused by
• Interveinal galvanized metal.
chlorosis
(Figure 1–39)

Copper (Cu) Needed for • New • Can occur at low

enzyme growth small, pH
activity misshapen, • Shows up as Fe
wilted deficiency
(Figure 1–40)
• In some
species,
young
leaves may
show
interveinal
chlorosis
while tips of
older leaves
remain
green
Manganese Needed for • Interveinal • Reduction in
(Mn) enzyme chlorosis growth, brown
activity with smallest spotting on leaves
leaves • Shows up as Fe
remaining deficiency
green, • Found under
producing a strongly acidic
checkered conditions
effect
(Figure 1–41)
• Grey or tan
spots usually
develop in
chlorotic
areas
• Dead spots
may drop
out of the
leaf
• Poor bloom
size and
color
• Induced by
excessively
high pH
Molybdenum Needed for • Interveinal • Intense yellow or
(Mo) enzyme chlorosis on purple color in
activity older or leaves
midstem • Rarely observed
leaves
(Figure 1–42)
• Twisted
leaves
whiptail
• Marginal
scorching
and rolling or
cupping of
leaves
• Nitrogen
deficiency
symptoms
may develop

Chlorine (Cl) Needed for • Wilted • Salt injury

enzyme leaves which • Leaf burn
activity become • May increase
bronze, then succulence
chlorotic,
then die
• Club roots

Cobalt (Co) • Needed by Little is Little is known

plants recently known about its toxicity
established about its symptoms
• Essential for deficiency
nitrogen symptoms
fixation

Nickel (Ni) • Needed by Little is Little is known

plants recently known about its toxicity
established about its symptoms
• Essential for deficiency
seed symptoms
development
Fertilizers
Fertilizers provide some elements that might be lacking in the soil and stimulate healthy, vigorous
growth. How much and when to apply fertilizers should be based on observing plant performance, a
reliable soil test, and an understanding of the factors that affect growth: light, water, temperature,
pests, and nutrition. Simply applying fertilizer because a plant is not growing adequately will not solve
many plant problems (insects, disease, or poor drainage, for example), and, in fact, excess nitrogen
can often increase insect and disease infestation.

All fertilizers are labeled with three numbers, giving the percentage (by weight) of nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). This is referred to as the fertilizer grade.

A 100-pound bag of fertilizer labeled 0-20-10 has 0 pounds of N, 20 pounds of P (reported as P2O5), 10
pounds of K (reported as K2O), and 70 pounds of filler. Filler is added to make the fertilizer easier to
spread and to reduce the likelihood of burning plants with too much fertilizer (the fertilizer salts can
pull water out of the plant). A fertilizer may also contain secondary macronutrients or micronutrients
not listed on the label because the manufacturer does not want to guarantee their exact amounts.

Fertilizers can be divided into two broad categories: natural and synthetic.

Natural fertilizers are commonly misnamed “organic.” “Natural fertilizers” is a more accurate
description because these materials can be both complex chemical substances containing carbon
(organic materials) or inorganic ores, such as rock phosphate, which are mined. Natural fertilizers
containing organic materials include manures and composts, animal byproducts (such as bone meal,
blood meal, feather meal), and seed meals. Natural fertilizers that are inorganic ores include
potassium and lime.

Natural fertilizers typically release nutrients at a slower rate and over a longer period than synthetic
fertilizers because microorganisms are involved in a breakdown and release cycle called
mineralization. Moisture, temperature, and the microbial species and populations in the soil affect
mineralization. Some water-soluble natural fertilizers, such as fish emulsion, are available when rapid
nutrient delivery is desired.

When using natural fertilizers, it is helpful to incorporate them and provide adequate moisture for
active microbial populations. When packaged as fertilizers, natural fertilizers will have the nutrient
analysis stated on the labels. How much to use varies with the nutrient content of the material. The
age of the material is also a factor. Producers are not required by law to state the nutrient content
on bulk organic materials, such as compost, manure, and sludges. The source of these materials
should be investigated and possible analysis performed at the Plant, Waste, Solution, and Media Lab
at the NCDA&CS Agronomic Division before applying large amounts to a home garden.

The age of the natural fertilizers is another important factor. When natural material decays and is
rained on, it loses nutrients, especially potassium and, to some extent, nitrogen. Even natural
sources of nutrients can be overapplied and damage plants. Fresh manures, for example, may injure
plants by adding excessive nitrogen or potassium, especially when applied in large quantities.
Natural fertilizers can be expensive if applied in amounts adequate to supply nutrients for good plant
growth, but have the added benefit of improving soil structure and plant vigor. When applying
natural fertilizers, calculate as closely as possible the amounts of nutrients being supplied. Always err
on the low side of application rates, then test the soil and augment as recommended on the soil test
report. The nutrient content may need to be supplemented with other natural or synthetic materials
to achieve a balanced ratio of nutrients.

Synthetic fertilizers are made through industrial processes or mined from deposits in the earth.
They are purified, mixed, blended, and altered for easy handling and application. Most are
noncarbonaceous chemicals from nonliving sources and are usually cheaper than natural fertilizers. In
general, nutrients are more rapidly available to plants because they are more water-soluble or in a
form plants can use. The disadvantage is that it may be easier to overapply a synthetic fertilizer than
a natural one, which may result in fertilizer burn. In addition, synthetic fertilizers may not support
beneficial microbial populations to the same extent as natural fertilizers.

Special-purpose fertilizers are packaged for plants such as camellias, rhododendrons, and azaleas
(Figure 1–43). Some of the compounds used in these fertilizers have an acid reaction that can be
beneficial to acid-loving plants if the soil they are growing in is naturally neutral or alkaline; however,
most soils in North Carolina are usually acidic so these special fertilizers are unnecessary.

Fertilizer spikes or pellets are fertilizers compressed into a form placed in the soil or pots
(Figure1–44). They are convenient, but are expensive per unit of fertilizer and do not provide uniform
distribution. Nutrients are often concentrated around the spikes or pellets.

Liquid fertilizer can be purchased as a dry powder or as a concentrated liquid (Figure 1–45). Liquid
fertilizers are frequently used for houseplants or as a starter solution for transplants. They tend to
be more expensive per unit of fertilizer because they are made from refined chemicals.

Foliar fertilizers are dry powders or concentrated liquids that are mixed with water and sprayed on
plants (Figure 1–46). Foliar feeding is used when insufficient fertilizer was applied before planting,
when a quick growth response is wanted, when micronutrients are locked in the soil, or when the soil
is too cold for the plant to use fertilizer in the soil. Foliar-applied nutrients are absorbed and used by
the plant quite rapidly. They are expensive per unit of nutrient and only give short-term fertilization
(completely absorbed within one to two days). Relying totally on foliar fertilization can be time
consuming because the fertilizer must be applied regularly. Improper foliar application of fertilizers
can also lead to plant tissue burn.

Learn more about fertilizer usage and nutrient concentrations in the North Carolina Agricultural
Chemicals Manual, Chapter IV – Fertilizer Use.

Fertilizer Terms
Fertilizer analysis: The minimum amount of each element in a fertilizer as stated on the label,
such as 16-4-8.

Fertilizer ratio: The relative proportion of N P O and K O The ratios of 16 4 8 and 8 2 4 are
 Fertilizer ratio: The relative proportion of N, P2O5, and K2O. The ratios of 16-4-8 and 8-2-4 are
both 4:1:2, which means 4 parts nitrogen to 1 part phosphorus to 2 parts potassium.

Balanced fertilizer: A fertilizer containing equal parts of each major element, such as 10-10-10.

Complete fertilizer: A fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Examples of

commonly used fertilizers are 10-10-10, 16-4-8, and 12-4-8.

Incomplete fertilizer: A fertilizer missing one or two of the macronutrients, such as 0-20-0.
Weed and feed fertilizers: A combination of fertilizer and herbicide. They are often used on
lawns to prevent certain weeds from germinating, or to kill existing broadleaf weeds.

High analysis: A fertilizer containing 30% or more active nutrients, such as ammonium nitrate 33-
0-0. The cost per bag is usually more, but the cost per pound of nutrient is less, lowering the cost
for fertilizing a given area.

Incomplete fertilizers can be used separately or combined to supply the needed nutrients, often at a
reduced cost compared to using a complete fertilizer. For example, gardeners who have a soil with
sufficient P and K can save money by applying a nitrogen-only fertilizer, such as ammonium nitrate
(34-0-0). If a soil test indicates N and K are needed, but not P, use an appropriate amount of
ammonium nitrate and muriate of potash (0-0-60), a naturally occurring material composed almost
entirely of potassium, processed to remove impurities and concentrate the product. If a soil needs
only P, use triple super phosphate (0-46-0), or for an organic nutrient source apply bone meal
(approximately 3-15-0; note that this will add some N) or compost.

Regardless of the fertilizers used, be aware that excess fertilizer can damage plants and
move into our stormwater systems, which can cause serious environmental problems.

Plant Nutrients and the Environment

Fertilizer misuse causes environmental and water quality issues. Nitrogen fertilizers, for instance,
break down into ammonium and nitrate. The nitrate form of N, while essential for plant growth, is
highly mobile and can move through the soil after rainfall or irrigation and contaminate drinking
water supplies. Phosphorus holds tightly to soil particles and does not leach through the soil, but
affects water quality through runoff and soil erosion. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus are
associated with algal blooms (heavy growth of aquatic plants) and limited oxygen, and cause fish kills
in lakes, bays, and nonflowing water bodies.

There are several ways to reduce fertilizers’ impacts on water quality:

Apply only materials that are recommended based on results of a soil test. If possible, use slow-
release fertilizers and incorporate into the soil. Avoid applying excess nitrogen and phosphorus
fertilizer.

Calibrate fertilizer spreaders properly and clean spreaders over the lawn area instead of a hard
surface.
 Keep the amount of hard surfaces in a landscape to a minimum. When installing a new sidewalk
or patio, consider using gravel, porous concrete, stepping-stones, wood decking, or bricks on a
sand base (Figure 1–47).

Avoid applying fertilizer to hard surfaces, such as sidewalks, patios, driveways, and streets.
Sweep up material that falls on hard surfaces.

Maximize water absorption by aerating lawns and incorporating organic matter in planting beds
and gardens.

Prevent runoff by turning off irrigation when the soil is no longer absorbing water.

Avoid applying fertilizer in natural drainage areas or ditches.

Minimize soil erosion by using ground covers, windbreaks, terraces, and mulches.

Mulch under trees and shrubs to reduce impact of falling water.

Maintain a lawn border around planting areas and plant a grass strip between rows in fruit and
vegetable gardens.

Plant cover crops on bare soil, such as barren vegetable gardens.

Use a rain barrel under drains to collect runoff and direct excess runoff from roofs onto grassy
areas (Figure 1–48).

When to Apply Fertilizer

Soil type affects the frequency of fertilizer application. Sandy soils require more frequent applications
of smaller amounts of nitrogen and potash than do clay soils because these nutrients leach more
readily in sandy soils. Other factors that affect application frequency include the plant to be grown,
the amount of plant growth desired, the amount of water, and the type and release rate of fertilizer
applied.

The best time to apply fertilizer and the most effective method of applying it depend on the type of
plants being grown. Leafy vegetables require more nitrogen than root crops. Corn is a heavy
nitrogen feeder and may require several small nitrogen applications when actively growing. Most
established woody plants perform well without fertilization, or with just one application per year.
Young plants may benefit from several light applications of fertilizer per year.

Fertilizer is needed when plants are actively growing, never when they are dormant. Nitrogen
application will have its greatest effect three to four weeks after application. Excess or improperly
timed nitrogen can delay flowering and fruiting or promote tender new growth vulnerable to frost or
freeze damage.

Research has shown it is best to broadcast or incorporate fertilizer uniformly over an area rather
than concentrating fertilizer in holes or bands in the soil. The most effective method of fertilizing a
large area is with a fertilizer spreader; for home gardens, hand fertilization works fine. For new
plantings, incorporate fertilizer into the soil and mix it thoroughly. For established plantings, surface
application is appropriate.

When fertilizing from overhead, make certain plant foliage is dry and use a broom to brush fertilizer
off the foliage, or water thoroughly after applying fertilizer to remove it from plant leaves to prevent
burn spots. It is not necessary to remove mulch when fertilizing; irrigation or rainfall will carry fertilizer
to the roots. Fertilization should be reduced or delayed during dry weather because the salts in the
fertilizer can burn roots if there is inadequate moisture.

Calibrating a Spreader
Fertilizers are more effective if they are applied at the proper rate and with uniform coverage. To
accomplish this, calibrate the spreader, which requires a little labor and math.

The two types of spreaders used to apply fertilizer and lime are drop spreaders (Figure 1–49)
and rotary spreaders (Figure 1–50). The amount of fertilizer that is spread depends on the
opening setting, the type of fertilizer, and the speed at which the spreader is pushed. The drop
spreader has a series of holes at the base that can be adjusted to apply different amounts of
material. With the rotary spreader, the fertilizer falls into a rotating plate and is spread by the
centrifugal force of the plate spinning. Instructions for calibrating a spreader should be available
on the Internet at the home page for the spreader manufacturer.
 Figure 1–30. Nitrogen deficiency on in
Bacopa sp. Note the severely reduced Figure 1–31. Phosporus deficiency
growth and light green-yellow leaves. exhibiting as purple leaves on this
lettuce.
Attribution: Paul Nelson
Attribution: Scot Nelson, Flickr  CC BY-NC-
SA - 4.0

Figure 1–32. Potassium deficiency,

chlorotic flecking and necrotic spots
on older leaves.

Attribution: Scot Nelson, Flickr  CC BY-NC-

SA - 4.0

Figure 1–33. Magnesium deficiency

appears in first in older leaves. On this
bean plant the veins remain green
while the rest of the leaf turns yellow.

Attribution: Paul Nelson

 Figure 1–34. Blossom end rot on a
Figure 1–35. Sulfur deficiency rarely
tomato is due to calcium deficiency.
occurs but on this strawflower it has
Attribution: Scot Nelson, Flickr  CC BY-SA - affected the shoot size and leaves
4.0
with a yellowing of the veins.

Attribution: Paul Nelson

Figure 1–36. Iron deficiency, interveinal

chrolorosis on young leaves. Figure 1–37. This geranium is deficient
in boron which is evident by the thick
leathery chlorotic younger leaves.
Attribution: Scot Nelson, Flickr  CC BY-NC-
SA - 4.0 Attribution: Paul Nelson

Figure 1–38. Boron toxicity on a rose

bush. Can look like the inverted "V" of Figure 1–39. Zinc deficiency shows
green on a yellow leaf that is very small young leaves and
characteristic of magnesium deficiency interveinal chlorosis.
but uptake off too much boron by the
but uptake off too much boron by the
plant often occurs when pH is too low. Attribution: Scot Nelson, Flickr  CC BY-NC-
SA - 4.0
Attribution: Malcolm Manners, Flickr  CC
BY - 2.0

Figure 1–40. Copper deficiency in this

daisy appears as small misshapen
growth. Figure 1–41. Manganese deficiency in a
chrysanthemum exhibited as reduced
Attribution: Paul Nelson
growth while the youngest leaves
remain green.

Attribution: Paul Nelson

Figure 1–42. Molybdenum deficiency

on poinsettia.

Attribution: Paul Nelson

Figure 1–43. A fertilizer specially

formulated for acidic plants such as
azaleas or rhododendrons. These
fertilizers are usually unnecessary in
North Carolina’s acidic soils.
 Attribution: Kathleen Moore  CC BY - 2.0

Figure 1–44. Fertilizer spikes are Figure 1–45. Liquid fertilizer can be
compressed fertilizer that can be found at any local garden center.
pushed into the soil.
Attribution: Kathleen Moore  CC BY - 2.0
Attribution: Kathleen Moore  CC BY - 2.0

Figure 1–46. Foliar fertilizers are dry Figure 1–47. This homeowner used
powders mixed with liquid and then permeable pavers for their driveway
sprayed on the leaves of plants. allowing grass to grow in the spaces
and reducing runoff from the
Attribution: Jerry Norbury, Flickr  CC BY- property.
ND - 4.0
Attribution: NY State Stormwater  CC BY
- 2.0
 Figure 1–48. A rain barrel catches
runoff from a roof top and can be
used to water other plants in the
landscape.

Attribution: Arlington County, VA  CC BY-

SA - 4.0

Figure 1–49. A drop spreader has a

cylindrical spinning mechanism
(bottom right) that releases fertilizer
directly below the spreader as it is
pushed along.

Attribution: Chris Alberti, Ira Rozenski

 CC BY - 2.0
 Figure 1–50. A rotary spreader.
Bottom left shows the orange disk
that spins when the wheels turn.
Bottom right shows the spinning
mechanism inside the spreader that
moves the fertilizer onto the plate
below.

Attribution: Kathleen Moore  CC BY - 2.0

IX. The Biology of Soil

There is more life below the soil surface than there is above. Soil life consists of burrowing animals,
such as moles and earthworms, insects, and other soil creatures that are difficult or impossible to see
without a microscope, such as mites, springtails, nematodes, viruses, algae, bacteria, yeast,
actinomycetes, fungi, and protozoa. There are about 50 billion microbes in 1 tablespoon of soil. In
a typical soil, each gram (what a standard paperclip weighs) likely contains these organisms, listed
from largest to smallest:

Nematodes—10 to 5,000

Algae—1,000 to 500,000

Protozoa—1,000 to 500,000

Fungi—5,000 to 1,000,000

Actinomycetes—1,000,000 to 20,000,000

Bacteria—3,000,000 to 500,000,000
Soil-dwellers move through the soil, creating channels that improve aeration and drainage.
Nematodes and protozoa swim in the film of water around soil particles and feed on bacteria. Mites
eat fungi, and fungi decompose soil organic matter. The microorganisms’ primary role is to break
down organic matter to obtain energy. Microorganisms help release essential nutrients and carbon
dioxide and perform key roles in nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles, denitrification,
immobilization, and mineralization. Microbes must have a constant supply of organic matter, or their
numbers will decline. Conditions that favor soil life also promote plant growth.

Unfavorable soil conditions, such as high temperatures, compaction, or oversaturation can injure
beneficial soil life. This can lead to a proliferation of disease-causing fungi, bacteria, or viruses. To
read more about common soil diseases see chapter 5,“Diseases and Disorders.” Plants that are
stressed by disease are often more susceptible to insect damage. More information on insects can
be found in chapter 4, “Insects.” To learn more about managing insects and diseases, please see
chapter 8, “IPM.”

To promote soil organisms, incorporate organic matter, till as little as possible, minimize soil
compaction, maintain favorable soil pH and fertility, and use organic mulch on the soil surface.

X. Frequently Asked Questions

1. Do I have to get a soil test report or can you just tell me how much fertilizer to add?

A soil test is the only accurate way to determine the amount of fertilizer needed for each individual
yard. A soil test is a process by which nutrients are chemically removed from the soil and measured
for their “plant available content” within the sample. The quantity of nutrients extracted is used to
determine the type and amount of fertilizer to be recommended. The pH and acidity of the soil
sample is also measured and used to determine if lime is needed and how much. Soil testing is
provided by the North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (NCDA&CS). There
is a small fee for each soil sample submitted to the NCDA&CS during December through March, which
is the peak season for soil testing in North Carolina. There is no fee for soil samples submitted to the
NCDA&CS during the rest of the year (April through November). Samples must be mailed in to the
NCDA&CS and boxes are available at their main office, 4300 Reedy Creek Road, Raleigh, NC, or at
any county Cooperative Extension office. More information and forms are available on the NCDA&CS
website.

2. How often should soil be tested?

If a soil test report indicates the pH and nutrient levels are in the range needed for plants to be
grown, you may not need to sample every year. As a general rule, sandy-textured soils should be
tested every 2-3 years and clay soils every 3-4 years. However, if nutrient or pH levels are
excessively high or low, you should submit a sample every year to determine how much
improvement has been achieved and what additional amendments should be made. In addition, if
problems occur during the growing season, collect a sample and have it analyzed.

3. Can I add Epsom salts to my plants?

Epsom salt (magnesium sulfate) can sometimes be beneficial, especially in sandy soils that may be
low in sulfur or magnesium. However, the best recourse is to rely upon a soil test and make
adjustments to the soil pH and nutrient content based on the soil test report’s lime and fertilizer
recommendations.

4. Why are my (azalea, blueberries, maple, rhododendron) leaves yellow?

Ruling out water issues, the likely culprit is pH. Azaleas, blueberries, maples, and rhododendrons are
acid-loving plants requiring a pH of 4.5-6.0 to thrive. Knowing your soil pH will help you select plants
that will thrive in your soil. Altering the pH of a soil is difficult, but can be done in small areas. Refer
back to Section VII on soil pH for more information.

5. My shrubs/trees are wilting, the leaves are brown on the edges, and are falling off.
What is causing this?
This could be the result of salt injury due to improper application of fertilizer. High salts decrease a
plants ability to extract water from the soil, and salts can move through the plant's vascular system
to the leaves where the water evaporates and concentrates the salt to toxic levels. Plants may
recover from salt/fertilizer injury if high levels of salts are reduced through repeated, deep irrigation.
The best defense against this problem is to obtain a soil test and follow the fertilizer
recommendations. Avoid the use of high salt fertilizers such as sodium nitrate; use slow release
fertilizers and apply correctly. Azaleas and blueberries are very susceptible to salt/fertilizer injury.

6. My soil is very heavy clay. What can I do?

There are several ways you can manage your clay soil.

The easiest thing you can do is select plants that do well in clay soil. Water moves slowly into clay
soil so be sure to irrigate slowly. A soaker hose is a good option.

Clay soil compacts very easily when wet so keep foot traffic and vehicles away from your garden
beds.

Adding organic matter like compost or pine bark to the soil is another option. Add a few inches
or organic matter to the top of the soil. This will need to be repeated for several years to see
results.

Build a raised bed on top of the clay soil and bring in soil from a reputable source. Loosen the
clay layer in the existing soil before adding new soil to the raised be so water can adequately
drain.

7. The soil in my lawn is compacted; what can I do to resolve this?

Foot traffic, mowing, recent home construction, and even rainfall can contribute to soil compaction,
which can be especially problematic in clay soils. Turf grass roots need air and water to grow. Core
aeration, which is the removal of small cores from the top few inches of soil to allow air, water, and
nutrients to enter the root zone of your turf. The result is reduced water runoff and enhanced water
and nutrient uptake, gas uptake, thatch breakdown, and heat and drought tolerance of your turf.
The best time to perform core aeration is when grass is actively growing. That means late spring or
early summer for warm-season grasses and fall for cool-season grasses. The soil should be moist,
but not wet. Be sure to mark sprinkler heads, shallow lines from the sprinkler, and underground utility,
cable, and septic lines to prevent damage. Soil cores should be left on the lawn; they will work their
way back into the soil within 2-4 weeks. Lawns may be fertilized, seeded, or top dressed with a soil
amendment immediately after coring, although ensure the timing of fertilization corresponds with the
recommendations on the maintenance calendar for your turf. Access maintenance calendars for
grasses on NC State's TurfFiles website. Lawns can be aerated once a year, especially under heavy
use conditions and with heavy clay soils. Note that spike aeration is not recommended, as this
method of aeration only further compacts the soil.

XI. Further Reading

Brady, Nyle C., and Ray R. Weil. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 14th ed. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc, 2007. Print.

Buol, S. W., et al. Soil Genesis and Classification. 6th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons
Inc., 2011. Print.

Dunne, Niall, ed. Healthy Soils for Sustainable Gardens. Brooklyn, New York: Brooklyn Botanic Garden,
2009. Print.

Maynard, Donald N., and George J. Hochmuth. Knott's Handbook for Vegetable Growers. 5th ed.
Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007. Print.

Soil Fertility Manual. 5th ed. Peachtree Corners, Georgia: International Plant Nutrition Institute, 2003.
Print.

XII. Chapter Text Hyperlinks

Soil Profile Photos

USDA Web Soil Survey

SoilFacts: Minimizing Risks of Soil Contaminants in Urban Gardens, AG-439-78

NCDA&CS Agronomic Services Soil Test Forms & Information

NCDA&CS Agronomic Services “Understanding the Soil Test Report”

NCDA&CS Agronomic Services Waste/Compost Analysis

SoilFacts: Careful Soil Sampling – The Key to Reliable Soil Test Information, AG-439-30

SoilFacts: Soil Acidity and Liming: Basic Information for Farmers and Gardeners, AG-439-51

North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual

XIII. For More Information
NC State and NC State Extension publications
Geographic Regions of NC: Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Mountains, by Public Schools of NC

NC State Soil Science Extension Portal

NC State Department of Crop & Soil Sciences Departmental Publications – Factsheets

Online Course: Soil 101: Introduction to Soil, by Dr. David Crouse

Dealing with Red Clay, NC State Extension, Cabarrus County Center (2007)

Soil, Water, and Crop Characteristics Important to Irrigation Scheduling, AG 452-1

A Gardener’s Guide to Protecting Water Quality, AG-612

A Gardener’s Guide to Fertilizing Trees & Shrubs, AG-613

Mulches, HIL-608

A Gardener’s Guide to Soil Testing, AG-614

Soil Test Forms & Information, by NCDA&CS Agronomic Services

Understanding the Soil Test Report, by NCDA&CS Agronomic Division

NC State University Plants database

NC State University Horticulture Publications

NC State University Horticulture Information Leaflets

NC State University Plant Disease Factsheets

NC State University Department of Entomology Insect Notes

North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual

Videos
N.C. Cooperative Extension

Collecting a Soil Sample by Watauga County, NC (1:58 mintues)

Understanding Your Soil Test Report by Watauga County, NC (5:19 minutes)

Podcasts
Getting Dirty In Your Garden

Internet Resources
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, “A Soil Profile”
Soil-Net.com, Cranfield University, UK

10 Easy Soil Tests, Find out if your soil is ready for planting, by Rodale’s OrganicLife

The Agronomy Guide, Soil Fertility Management, by Penn State Extension

Plant Hardiness Zone Map, by USDA Agricultural Research Service

AHS Plant Heat Zone Map, by American Horticultural Society

Geographic Regions of NC: Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Mountains, by Public Schools of NC

Videos
SOIL not DIRT, by Dr. Elaine Ingham of the Rodale Institute (15:01 minutes, May 1, 2011)

The Symphony of Soil, by Catherine Skousen (7 videos, 1 hour, 23 minutes, Aug 16, 2010)

2015: International Year of Soils (IYS), by The USDA NRCS (12 Videos, Jan-Dec 2015)

Unlock the Secrets in the Soil, by The USDA NRCS (32 Videos, Jan 29, 2015)

UNC-TV Homegrown

In The Garden with Bryce Lane

XIV. Contributors
Author: David Crouse, Extension Specialist, Soil Science

Contributions by Extension Agents: Jeana Myers

Contributions by Extension Master Gardener Volunteers: Deborah Green, Kim Curlee, Judy
Bates, Jackie Weedon, Karen Damari, Connie Schultz, Edna Burger

Content Editors: Lucy Bradley, Associate Professor and Extension Specialist, Urban Horticulture, NC
State University; Director, NC State Extension Master Gardener program; Kathleen Moore, Urban
Horticulturist

Copy Editor: Barbara Scott

How to cite this chapter:

Crouse, D.A. 2018. Soils and Plant Nutrients, Chapter 1. In: K.A. Moore, and. L.K. Bradley (eds).
North Carolina Extension Gardener Handbook. NC State Extension, Raleigh, NC.
<https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/extension-gardener-handbook/1-soils-and-plant-nutrients>
 Author
David Crouse
Undergraduate Teaching Coordinator Crop & Soil Sciences
Publication date: Feb. 14, 2018
AG-831

Other Publications in North Carolina

Extension Gardener Handbook
1. Soils and Plant Nutrients
2. Composting
3. Botany
4. Insects
5. Diseases and Disorders
6. Weeds
7. Diagnostics
8. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
9. Lawns
10. Herbaceous Ornamentals
11. Woody Ornamentals
12. Native Plants
13. Propagation
14. Small Fruits
15. Tree Fruit and Nuts
16. Vegetable Gardening
17. Organic Gardening
18. Plants Grown in Containers
19. Landscape Design
20. Wildlife
21. Youth, Community, and Therapeutic Gardening
Appendix A. Garden Journaling
Appendix B. Pesticides and Pesticide Safety
Appendix C. Diagnostic Tables
Appendix D. Garden Tools
Appendix E. Season Extenders and Greenhouses
Appendix F. History of Landscape Design
Appendix G. Permaculture Design
Appendix H. Community Gardening Resources
Glossary
North Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T State University commit themselves to positive
action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, national origin, religion, sex, age,
veteran status or disability. In addition, the two Universities welcome all persons without regard to sexual
orientation.

This publication printed on: July 11, 2019

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