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Functional Analysis by R. Vittal Rao: Lecture 7: Convergence - June 13, 2012

The document discusses convergence in metric spaces. It defines key concepts such as limit points, closure of a set, and Cauchy sequences. A sequence in a metric space converges if the distance between its terms and a limit point becomes arbitrarily small as the sequence progresses. A metric space is complete if every Cauchy sequence converges in that space. Examples of complete metric spaces include real numbers and function spaces, while rational numbers and spaces of polynomials are incomplete.

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135 views

Functional Analysis by R. Vittal Rao: Lecture 7: Convergence - June 13, 2012

The document discusses convergence in metric spaces. It defines key concepts such as limit points, closure of a set, and Cauchy sequences. A sequence in a metric space converges if the distance between its terms and a limit point becomes arbitrarily small as the sequence progresses. A metric space is complete if every Cauchy sequence converges in that space. Examples of complete metric spaces include real numbers and function spaces, while rational numbers and spaces of polynomials are incomplete.

Uploaded by

Rudin
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Functional Analysis by R.

Vittal Rao

Lecture 7: Convergence - June 13, 2012

Recall 7.1 Definition 7.1 Limit Point


Consider metric space (X, ρ). Let (X, ρ) be a metric space. Let A ⊆ X. A point x0 ∈ X (not
necessarily in A) is called a limit point of A if
1. A subset A ≤ X is an open set if A◦ = A, i.e ∀a ∈ A, ∃r >
0 3 Br (a) ⊆ A ∀r > 0 Br (x0 ) r {x0 } ∩ A , φ
2. Let G be the collection of all open sets in (X, ρ). (i.e. every open ball centred at x0 has at least one point of A (other
(a) X, φ ∈ G than the centre) inside A).
S DA denotes the set of all limit points of A.
(b) {Aα } ∈ T ⇒ α Aα ∈ G
(c) A1 , . . . , AN ∈ T ⇒ N
T
i=1 Ai ∈ G
Suppose x0 is a limit point of A. Take any r > 0 and look at Br (x0 ).
3. A◦ is the largest open set contained in A and is the union ∃x1 ∈ A, x1 , x0 3 x1 ∈ Br (x0 )
ρ(x ,x )
of all possible open sets contained in A. ∴ ρ(x1 , x0 ) > 0 Let r1 = 12 0 > 0
Look at Br1 (x0 )
4. A is said to be a closed set if A’ is an open set.
Since x0 is a limit point of A,
5. Let F be the collection of all the closed sets in (X, ρ). ∃x2 , x0 and x2 ∈ A 3 x2 ∈ Br1 (x0 ) ⊆ Br (x0 )
Continuing this process we see that x0 is a limit point of A iff
(a) X, φ ∈ F ∀r > 0, Br (x0 ) ∩ A is an infinite set.
T
(b) {Aα } ∈ F ⇒ α Aα ∈ F
(c) A1 , . . . , AN ∈ F ⇒ Nj=1 ∈ F
S
x1

6. Closure of A, denoted by A is the intersection of all closed


sets containing A and it is the smallest set containing A. x2

x0 r
r1

1
CHAPTER 7. CONVERGENCE - JUNE 13, 2012

Example 7.1 Proof of Claim 3


Consider metric space (R, |·|) and A ⊆ R. We have to prove that DA ⊆ A
1. A = [0,1). Suppose not. Then ∃a ∈ DA 3 a < A
0
Every point in [0,1] is a limit point of A and no other ⇒ a ∈ DA 3 a ∈ A
0
point is a limit point of A. ⇒ a ∈ DA 3 ∃r > 0 3 Br (a) ⊆ A
∴ DA = [0, 1]. ⇒ a ∈ DA 3 ∃r > 0 3 Br (a) ∩ A = φ
2. A = [0,1]. Again, DA = [0, 1]. ⇒ a ∈ DA 3 ∃r > 0 3 Br (a) ∩ A = φ
⇒ a is not a limit point of A
3. A = N. No point is a limit point of N. ∴ DA = φ. ⇒ a < DA ⇒ contradiction.

4. A = Q (the set of all rational numbers)


Every x ∈ R is a limit point. ∴ DA = R.
5. A = I (the set of all irrational numbers)
Every x ∈ R is a limit point. ∴ DA = R.
6. A = { n1 }n∈N , x = 0 is the only limit point of A. ∴ DA = {0}

Definition 7.2 Â = A ∪ DA

1. Claim 1 : Â is a closed set (and A ⊆ Â).


2. Claim 2 : A ⊆ Â (∵ A is the smallest closed set containing A)

3. Claim 3 : DA ⊆ A
4. Claim 4 : Â ⊆ A ( ∵ A ⊆ A, DA ⊆ A)
Corollary : A = Â (from claim 2 and 4)

Proof of Claim 1
It is enough to show that Â0 is open, i.e.
a ∈ Â0 ⇒ a is an interior point of Â0 , i.e.
a ∈ Â0 ⇒ ∃r > 0 3 Br (a) ⊆ Â0 .
Suppose not. Then ∃a ∈ Â0 3 ∀r > 0, Br (a) ∩ Â , φ
⇒ a is a limit point of Â.
x ∈ Â ⇒ a ∈ DA ⇒ a ∈ Â ⇒ Contradiction.

2
CHAPTER 7. CONVERGENCE - JUNE 13, 2012

Convergence in real line and in a general metric space


(R, |·|) (X, ρ)
Let {xn } be a sequence of real numbers and x0 ∈ R. Let {xn } be a sequence in metric space (X, ρ) and x0 ∈ X.
Then we say that {xn } converges to x0 Then we say that {xn } converges to x0
if ∀ > 0 ∃ a positive integer N 3 n ≥ N ⇒ |xn − x0 | <  if ∀ > 0∃ a positive integer N 3 n ≥ N ⇒ ρ(xn , x0 ) < 
If a sequence of real numbers converges then the limit is unique. Similar argument holds and any sequence converging
Proof : must have a unique limit.
Suppose xn → x0 and xn → y0
To show that, x0 = y0 i.e. |x0 − y0 | = 0
But we know that |x0 − y0 | ≥ 0
So we have to show that ∀1 > 0, |x0 − y0 | < 1
By convergence, given any  > 0 we can find
N1 3 n ≥ N1 ⇒ |xn − x0 | <  and similarly,
N2 3 n ≥ N2 ⇒ |xn − y0 | < 
Let N = max(N1 , N2 )
Then n ≥ N ⇒ |xn − x0 | <  & |xn − y0 | < 
∴ |xN − x0 | <  & |xN − y0 | < 
⇒ |x0 − y0 | ≤ |x0 − xN | + |xN − y0 | < 2
Choose  = 21 and the proof follows.
xn → x0 ⇒ ∀1 > 0, ∃N1 3 n ≥ N1 ⇒ |xn − x0 | < 1 Similarly a sequence {xn } in (X, ρ) is said to be a Cauchy Sequence if
Now n, m ≥ N1 ⇒ |xn − x0 | < 1 & |xm − x0 | < 1 ∀ > 0, ∃N 3 n, m ≥ N ⇒ ρ(xn , xm ) < 
⇒ |xn − xm | ≤ |xn − x0 | + |x0 − xm | ≤ 21 Same argument shows {xn } convergent ⇒ {xn } Cauchy sequence.
Given any  > 0, choose 1 = 2
and get ∃N 3 n, m ≥ N ⇒ |xn − xm | < 
This leads to the following definition :
A sequence of real numbers {xn } is said to be a Cauchy Sequence if
∀ > 0∃N 3 n, m ≥ N ⇒ |xn − xm | < 
In (R, |·|), {xn } convergent ⇒ {xn } Cauchy sequence.

3
CHAPTER 7. CONVERGENCE - JUNE 13, 2012

The real number system construction(or axiomatization) gives us


that every Cauchy Sequence in R must converge. This property
need not be true in a general metric space. Therefore, we classify
metric spaces depending on whether this property holds or not.

Definition 7.3 Complete Metric Space


A metric space (X, ρ) is said to be a Complete Metric Space if
every Cauchy sequence in (X, ρ) converges in (X, ρ) .

Example 7.2 Complete Metric Spaces

1. (R, | · |)
p p
2. l (R), l (C) 1≤p≤∞
N N
p p
3. l (R), l (C) 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞

4. l∞ (R), l∞ (C)
5. C∞ [0, 1]
R

Example 7.3 Incomplete Metric Spaces

1. (Q, |·|)
2. PR [0, 1] (set of all polynomials) with
ρ(p, q) = maxt∈[0,1] |p(t) − q(t)|
R1 1

p [0, 1] 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞ ρ( f, g) = ( 0 | f (t) − g(t)| dt)


3. CR p p

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