EXPERIMENT NO 1

Objective: - To determine the tensile strength of mild steel specimen through

Universal Testing Machine

Specimen and equipments

 Universal testing machine (fig7.a)
 Specimen as shown in the( fig7.b)
 Of different ferrous and non ferrous materials

Theory
The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of a test piece are fixed
into grips connected to a straining device and to a loadmeasuring device. If the applied load is
small enough, the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed solid
will return to its original position as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large, the
material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension curve (fig.8), which is
recoverable immediately after unloading, is termed as elastic and rest of the curve, which
represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed plastic. The stress
below which the deformation is essentially entirely elastic is known as the yield strength of
material. In some materials (like mild steel) the onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden
drop in load indicating both an upper and lower yield point. However, some materials do not
exhibit a sharp yield point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot
compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load passes trough a maximum and then begins
to decrease. As this stage the’ Ultimate strength ‘, which is defined as the ratio of the specimen to
original cross –sectional area, reaches a maximum value. Further loading will eventually cause
‘neck’ formation and rupture. Usually a tension test is conducted at room temperature and the
tensile load is applied slowly. During this test either round or flat specimens (fig.7) may be used.
The round specimens may have smooth, shouldered or threaded ends. The load on the specimen
is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on the type of testing machine.

Figure. 8
 Stress-strain diagram

Procedure
Measure the dimensions of a specimen
a) Diameter, d= ,
b) Total length of a specimen, L=
c) Cross sectional area , Ao= ,
d) Mark gage length (Lo) at three different portions on the specimen,
covering effective length of a specimen.(this is required so that
necked portion will remain between any two points of gage length
on the specimen.)

2. Grip the specimen in the fixed head of a machine. (Portion of the specimen
has to be gripped as shown in the fig.7.

3. Fix the extensometer within the gauge length marked on the specimen.
Adjust the dial of extensometer at zero.

4. Adjust the dial of a machine to zero, to read load applied.

5. Select suitable increments of loads to be applied so that corresponding elongation can be
measured from dial gauge

6. Keep speed of machine uniform. Record yield point, maximum load point, point of breaking of
specimen.

7. Remove the specimen from machine and study the fracture observes type of fracture.

8. Measure dimensions of tested specimen. Fit the broken parts together and measure reduced
diameter and final gage length.

Observations
Specimen prepared from M.S bar/CI/Al
1. Diameter , d = mm
2. Gage length, (lo)= 5Xd= mm
3. Original cross sectional area of the specimen, Ao = mm2
4. Final gage length obtained, Lo’=
5. Final diameter obtained = mm

Observation table 1
Sr. Load applied Area of a Stress Modulus of
No (N) specimen N/mm 2 elasticity (E)
(p) (Ao) N/mm 2

Observation table 1

Sr. Contraction Deformation Lateral Linear Poisson

No in in length strain strain ratio
diameter (dd) (mm)
(mm)

Results
1. Calculate stress and strain for every interval of applied load. Draw stress-strain
curve with help of observation table.
2. Compute the following;

a. Modulus of elasticity
Hook’s law states that stress is always proportional to strain within elastic limit. The ratio of stress
and strain is constant, called modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus (E)
 E= Stress/strain =Constant

b. Yield stress (fy);

The point, at which strain increases without increase in stress, is known as
Yield point. Stress measured at yield point is called yield stress.
c. Tensile strength:
Maximum carrying capacity of a material in tension is called tensile strength
Tensile strength= maximum tensile load/ original cross sectional
Area.
d. Percentage elongation:
The extension produced in a gage length, expressed as a percentage
of its original value(LO)
% Elongation=[(LO’ – Lo)/Lo] X 100
where Lo’ is final gage length after fracture.

e. Percentage reduction in area:

= [(AoAo’)/ Ao ] X100
where Ao’ is final reduced cross sectional area after fracture.
 EXPERIMENT NO 2

To study welding equipments and prepare a lap joint by arc welding

APPARATUS / TOOLS USED:

1. Electric arc welding machine

2. A well insulated electrode holder.
3. Cables and cable connectors.
4. Earthing clamps.
5. Welding helmet and / or Hand screen.
6. Safety goggles.
7. Hand gloves.
8. Aprons and sleeves.
9. Welding Electrodes.
10. Welder’s chipping hammer.
11. Wire brush etc.
RAW MATERIAL: Two mild steel pieces 100 X 50 x 5mm thick.

TYPES OF JOINT:

PROCEDURE:
 1. Mild steel pieces are cleaned to remove any dirt, grease or oxides present on the
external surfaces of the work parts.
2. Preparation of edges on pieces is done to suit the Lap joint.
3. Marking on mild steel pieces is done, according to dimensions provided.
4. Proper earthing connections of the Arc welding m/c is done .
5. Current / voltage of the welding m/c is set as per the dimensions (thickness) of the
work pieces.
6. Metallic pieces, having gone through edge preparation, is placed so as to make a T
joint.
7. Welding of work pieces is done to complete the T joint.
8. Slag is removed from the freshly prepared weld, as it cools down, with the help of
chipping hammer and wire brush.
RESULT:

The welding job of given dimensions is welded successfully.

PRECAUTIONS :

1. The work piece should be cleaned and edge preparation should be done properly.
2. Welding current should be adjusted properly to prepare a good quality weld.
3. Adequate protection must be taken while welding two pieces to prevent any damage
to eyes and body.

EXPERIMENT NO 3

Linear and angular measurements using Vernier caliper,

micrometer, slip gauges and sine-bar

APPARATUS – Vernier caliper, Vernier height gauge, micrometer and measuring paths, Sine
Bar .Slip gauge .Work piece

VERNIER INSTRUMENTS –
The principle of vernier is that when two scales or division slightly different in size is used, the
difference between them can be utilized to enhance the accuracy of measurement. The vernier
caliper essentially consists of two steel rules and these can
slides along each other .one of the scales i.e. main scale is engraved on a solid L-shaped frame
.on these scales cm graduations are divided into 20 parts so that 1 small division =0.05 cm. one
end of frame consists a fixed jaw which is shaped into a contact tip at its extremity The three
elements of vernier caliper i.e. beam, fixed jaw, sliding jaw permits substantial improvements
in the commonly used measuring techniques over direct measurement .the alignment of the
distance boundaries with the corresponding graduations of the rule is ensured by means of the
positive contacts members .the datum of the measurement can be made to coincide precisely
with one of the boundaries of the distance to be measured. A sliding jaw which moves along
the guiding surface provided by main scale is coupled to the vernier scale .the sliding jaw has
its left extremity contains another measuring tip. The adjustment of movable jaw can be done
by the adjusting screw. First the whole movable jaw assembly is adjusted so that the two
measuring tips just touch the parts to be measured. Then lock nut be is tightened. Final
adjustment depends upon the sense of correct feel is made by adjusting screw. The movement
of the adjustment screw makes the part containing locking nut and sliding jaw to move; as the
adjusting screw rotates on
a screw which is a way fixed to the movable jaw. After final adjustment ha s been made the
locking nut is also tightened and the reading s noted down. The measuring tips are so designed
to measure inside as well as outside dimension.
PROCEDURE
1. The whole movable jaw assembly is adjusted so that the two measuring tip just touch the
parts to be measured.
2. then lock nut is tightened .
3. Final adjustment depending upon the sense of correct feel is made by the adjusting screw.
4. measure the main scale readings i.e. the line coincides with ‘o’ mark of vernier scale .and
noted down the reading.
5. The measuring tip is so designed as to measure inside as well as outside dimension.
6. Calculate MSR, VSR AND TSR.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR VERNIEAR

SR NO. MSR VSR LC TSR

1
 2
3

MICROMETER
The micrometer screw gauge essentially consists of an accurate screw having about 10 or 20
threads per command revolve in a fixed nut. The end of screw forms one measuring tip and the
other measuring tip constitute by a stationary anvil in the base of the frame. The screw is
threaded for certain length and is plane after wards. The plane portion is called sleeve and its
end is the measuring surface. The spindle is advanced or retarted by turning a thumble
connected to the spindle. The spindle is the slide fit over the barrel and barrel is the fixed part
attached within frame. The barrel is graduated in units of 0.05 cm i.e. 20 div. per cm, which is
the lead odd screw for in complete revolution. The thumble has got 25 div. around its periphery
on circular portions .thus its sub divides each revolution of the screw in 25 = parts.i.e each div.
corresponds to 0.02 cm.
A lock nut is provided for locking a dimension by preventing motion if the spindle. Ratchet
stop is provided at the end of the thimble cap maintain sufficient and uniform measuring
pressure so that standard conditions of measurement are attained. Ratchet stop consists of an
overriding clutch held by weak spring. When the spindle is brought into contact with the work
at the correct measuring pressure, the clutch starts slipping and no further movement of the
spindle take space by the rotation of ratchet. In the backward movement it is positive due to
shape of ratchet.

PROCERDURE:
1. Take sample piece and slowly move the screw in clockwise direction and
clock the nut
2. Now measure the circular part and line coinciding with main scale.
3. Calculate MSR, VSR AND TSR. Take down the reading and follow the same
procedure.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR VERNIEAR

SR MSR VSR LC TSR

NO.
1
2
3
4

To perform linear measurement using vernier caliper and micrometer is successfully

completed.
To measure taper angle of given work piece by sine bar, slip gauges and dial gauge.

PROCEDURE:
Measurements of Taper Angle:
1. Set the work piece to measure the taper angle using sine bar and dial gauge.
2. Transverse the dial gauge plunger over the ramp of work piece.
3. Note down the initial reading, final reading and the length of the traverse.
4. Alternately, try to king the inclined surface of the work piece ,whose taper angle is
to be measure ,to the horizontal plane by placing suitable combination of slip gauge under
the lower end of the work piece.
5. Note down the length of the slip gauge.
6. Calculate the taper angle through the formula given.

Setting the given sine bar to the given angle:

1. Take note of the given angle for which the top surface of the sine bar is to be set.
2. Theoretically calculate the height of the slip gauge required to lift one end of sine
bar
Such that top surface of the sine bar make the required slope.
3. Insert the selected combination of slip gauge under one end of the sine bar.
4. Use dial gauge with stand and traverse the plunger of the dial gauge over a know
length and check the slope of the sine bar.
SINE BAR DIAGRAM
 =

Observation table:

Dial gauge: dial gauge is an instrument to measure the small variation in linear measurement up
to accuracy of 0.001 mm . It is also known as a dial indicator. It is named so because the
measurement results are displayed in a magnified way by mean of a dial.

Construction: Fig shows the schematic view of dial gauge. It consists of a plunger at the lower
end which is spring loaded and can slide up or down. The plunger can operate a compound gear
train mechanism through a rack and pinion arrangement .the linear movement of the plunger is
converted into the rotary movement of a pointer with large magnifications. The deflection of the
pointer is read against a circular scale of the dial. The small linear variations at the plunger are
magnified on a circular dial indicated by a pointer.

Application: 1. Dial gauge is used to check the variation in tolerances during inspection.

2. It helps in setting or checking angles using a sine bar.

3. It can measure small deflections of beams or any other such situations .

4. Dial gauge can be used as comparators as well as limit gauge.

Slip gauge-
The instrument serves the calibration of gauge from 0.5 to 100 mm length. The slip gauge to be
measured is compared with reference master whose deviation at center is exactly known. With two
measuring probes, one at the top and the other at the base plate, this differential measurement gives
reliable measurements with extremely high accuracy. The manual remote control allows to move
the slip gauge smoothly without jerk and interference from body heat.

Slip gauge Diagram

RESULT:

The angle measurement is.........

 EXPERIMENT NO.-4

Study of lathe machine and its operation

INTRODUCTION

Lathe is the machine tool which is used to perform several operations on the work
piece .Lathe is useful in making several parts which is further assembled to make
new machine. Hence lathe is known as “mother of machines”.

TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Lathe machine 2. Cutting tool 3. Outside Caliper 4. Steel Rule

5. Vernier Caliper

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Mild steel rod

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LATHE

In lathe, the work piece is held in the chuck, a work holding device. The cutting
tool is mounted in the tool post. The chuck is rotated by means of power. When the
chuck rotates, the work piece also rotates. The tool is moved against the rotating
work piece by giving small amount of depth of cut. The material is removed in the
form of chips. Continuous feed and depth of cut is given until the required
dimensions are obtained in the work piece.
Construction:

Main components of lathe machine are as follows-

Bed: Usually made of cast iron. Provides a heavy rigid frame on which all the main
components are mounted.

Legs –These are the supports which bear the entire weight of machine.

Headstock - Headstock is mounted permanently on the inner guide ways at the left hand
side of the leg bed. The headstock houses a hollow spindle and the mechanism for driving
the spindle at multiple speeds.

• Gearbox: inside the headstock, providing multiple speeds with a geometric ratio
by moving levers.

• Tailstock: Fits on the inner ways of the bed and can slide towards any position
the headstock to fit the length of the work piece. An optional taper turning and
drilling attachment would be mounted to it.

• Carriage It is situated between the head stock and tail stock. It is used to hold and
move the tool post on the bed vertically and horizontally. It slides on the guide
ways. Carriage is made by cast iron.

Saddle

It is the part of the carriage which slides along the bed way and support the Cross-
slide, compound rest and Tool post.

• Cross Slide: Mounted on the traverse slide of the carriage, and uses a hand wheel
to feed tools into the work piece.

• Tool Post: To mount tool holders in which the cutting bits are clamped.

Compound Rest-The compound Rest will be placed over the cross slide and it
consists of a graduated circular base which is having swiveling nature.
Types of Lathe Operations

1) Plain Turning 2) Facing 3) Step Turning

4) Taper Turning 5) Thread cutting 6) Knurling

7) Drilling 8)Boring 9)Reaming 10) Chamfering

GIVEN WORK PIECE (FIG: 1)

FINISHED WORK PIECE (FIG: 2)

RESULT:

The given work piece as shown in fig (1) is subjected to facing, plain turning and
step turning operations to become a finished work piece as shown in fig (2)
 Experiment No. 5
Aim:- Study of drilling machine
Apparatus:- 1. Drilling Machine with standard accessories
2. Work piece

Material:- Mild Steel round rod of diameter 20 mm.

Introduction:-
Drilling is the process of making cylindrical holes in the work piece. It is one
of the most important machine tool in the workshop. Drilling machine is one of
the simplest, moderate and accurate machine tool. It consists of a spindle, which
imports rotary motion to the drilling tool. The tool used for drilling holes is called
the drill bit. In this the rotary motion is given to the tool and the work is stationery.
Drilling is a process of making a hole in an object by forcing a rotating tool called
drill. The same operation can be performed in a lathe by holding the drill
stationary and rotating work.
 Working principle:-
The rotating edge of the drill exerts a large force on the work piece and the

hole is generated. The removal of metal in a drilling operation is by shearing and

extrusion.

Fig: Working principle of drilling machine

Types of drilling machines:-

1. Portable drilling m/c.,

2. Sensitive drilling m/c.

3. Gang drilling m/c.
4. Radial drilling m/c.

5. Automatic drilling m/c etc.

Radial drilling machine:-

It is intended for drilling small and large holes on a heavy work piece.
This consists of a heavy round vertical column, mounted on a large base. The
column supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered to accommodate
work piece of different heights. The arm may be swung around to any position
over work bed. The three movements in radial drilling machines when combined
together permit to be located at any desired point on a large work piece for
drilling.

Parts of a drilling m/c:-

 Base, column, Radical arm, Elevating screw, Drill head, Drill
spindle, Table, Motor for elevating the arm, Motor for driving spindle.

1. Base :- The base is a heavy casting that supports the machine structure; it
provides rigid mounting for the column and stability for the machine. The
base is usually provided with holes and slots which help to Bolt the base to a
table or bench and allow the work-holding device or the work piece to be
fastened to the base.

2. Column: -The column is a vertical post that Column holds the worktable
and the head containing the driving mechanism. The column may be of round
or box section.

3. Table:- The table, either rectangular or round. Drill machine/press in shape

supports the work piece and is carried by the vertical column. The surface of the
table is 90-degree to the column and it can be raised, lowered and swiveled around
it. The table can be clamp/hold the required the work piece.

4. Drilling head:- The drilling head, mounted close to the top of the column,
houses the driving arrangement and variable speed pulleys. These units transmit
rotary motion at different speeds to the drill spindle. The hand feed lever is used to
control the vertical movement of the spindle sleeve and the cutting tool.
The system is called the sensitive drilling machine/press as the operator is able to
sense the progress of drill with hand-faced.

Fig: PARTS OF A DRILLING MACHINE

Procedure :-
1. The given work piece is first fitted to get required length, breadth and thickness
wet chalk is applied on four sides and with the scriber lines are drawn to get center
hole at required location.
2. The centers are punched with a Punch and hammer.
3. The work piece is fixed firmly in the vice of the Drilling Machine

4. 3/8” drill bit is fixed firmly in the chuck and drilling is performed giving uniform
depths.
Hole drilled
along with

3 5
0

(a) Given work piece (b) Finished work piece

Fig: Drilling Experiment Diagram

5. The drill bit is removed from the drill chuck and is replaced by a reamer.

6. The reaming operation is performed on the hole which has been previously drilled.

7. The work is removed from the vice for performing tapping operation.
8. The job is fixed firmly in a bench vice.

9. Tap is fixed in the tap handle and pressure applied on the taps to obtain internal
thread.
Precautions:- While performing reaming and tapping operations lubricant
should be used to minimize friction.
 Experiment No. 6
Object : To verify ‘ Bernoulli’s Theorem ’.

Apparatus : Bernoulli’s apparatus, Controlling valve at inlet and outlet, Discharge

Measuring Tank, Scale, Stopwatch etc.

Formula :
Total Energy = P/w + V2/2g +Z = Constant

Where,
P / w = Pressure energy
V2 / 2g = Kinetic energy
Z = Potential energy

Theory : The Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of non Viscousin
compressible fluid in a steady state of flow, remains constant along a stream line
Daniel Bernoulli’s enunciated in 1738 that is “ In any stream flowing steadily
without friction, the total energy contained in a given mass is some at energy
contained in a given mass is some at energy point in its path of flow.” This
statement is called Bernoulli’s theorem with reference to section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2
along the length of steady flow in the stream tube shown in fig. The total energy at
section 1 – 1 is equal to the total energy - at section 2 – 2 as stated in Bernoulli’s
theorem.

With usual notations, the expression for total energy contained in a unit wt of fluid
at section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 is given by
 Total energy at Section 1 – 1 = P1 / W + V12 / 2g +Z1
Total energy at section 2 – 2 = P2 / W + V22 / 2g +Z2
Where,
P1 / W = pressure energy at section 1 – 1
V12 / 2g = Kinetic energy at section 1 – 1
Z1 = Potential energy at section 1 – 1
P2 / W = Pressure energy at section 2 – 2
V22/ 2g = Kinetic energy at section 2 – 2
Z2 = Potential energy at section 2 – 2
Thus applying Bernoulli’s theorem between section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 we find
P1 / W + V12 / 2g + Z1 = P2/ W + V22 / 2g + Z2
In MKS system the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
measured in meter of fluid column per unit wt offluid equation is modified by taking
into loss of energy due to frictionbetween section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 is written as

P1 / W + V12 / 2g + Z1 = P2 / W + V22 / 2g + Z2 + ( ∆H )1 / 2

Where ( ∆H ) 1 / 2 represents the loss of energy between section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2

Observation :
Area of collecting tank = A = L x B = ______ x _______ = ________ cm2
Difference in water level in collecting tank = ∆h = ________ cm
Time required for rise of water level by 10 cm = ∆t = ________ sec.

EXPERIMENT NO. 7

Aim:- Study of Cochran boiler

Apparatus Used:- Cochran boiler (low pressure boiler).

 Cochran boiler

Cochran boiler is a vertical, multi-tube, natural circulation, fire tube, internally fired,
low pressure boiler used for small capacity steam generation. It is available in
different sizes of evaporating capacity ranging from 150-3000 kg/hr& working
pressure up to 20 bar.
Specifications:-

Shell diameter 2.75m

Height 5.8m
Working pressure up to 20 bar
Steam generation capacity 150-3000kg/hr
Heating surface area 120 square meter
Thermal efficiency 68-75%

Construction & Working:-

This is a vertical fire tube boiler as shown in the figure. The fuel is fed into
the grate through the fuel door and lighted. The fuel is burnt on the grate and hot
gases go to the combustion chamber through a short flue tube. The combustion
continues in the combustion chamber. The hot gases pass through a no of fire
tubes and heat the surrounding water and convert it into steam. Since the steam
is lighter, it goes up the steam space. The crown of the boiler and the grate are
both hemispherical in shape.
The waste gases enter the smoke box and are released through the chimney.
The amount of waste gases leaving the chimney is controlled by means of a
damper manually. During shut down, the boiler attendant can enter the boiler
through the man hole. By opening the door in the smoke box, fire tubes and the
smoke box can be cleaned by a wire brush. The boiler is mounted with various
boiler mountings.
Out standing features:-

(1)Very compact & requires min. floor area.

(2)Any quality of fuel can be used with this boiler.

(3) Best for small capacity requirement

(4) Thermal efficiency is about 68-75%.

EXPERIMENT NO. 8

Study of Babcock Wilcox boiler

Babcock & Wilcox boiler

Babcock & Wilcox boiler is longitudinal drum, stationary, multi-tube, natural

circulation, externally fired, water tube & high pressure boiler. Evaporating
capacity ranging from 2000-40000 kg/hr& working pressure ranging from 11.5-
17.5bar but sometimes pressure may be as high as 42 bars.

Specifications:-
Diameter of shell 1.22-1.83m
Length of shell 6.096-9.144m
Steam generation capacity 20000-40000 kg/hr
Efficiency 60-80%

Construction&Working:-
This is a Water tube boiler. It consists of a steam water drum mounted on fire
brick work. Hot gases from the furnace pass through a zigzag path through the
fire brick baffles before going to the chimney through the damper. The damper
controls the rate of burning and thereby the steam generation. The damper is
operated by a chain passing through a set of pulleys.
Water from the steam drum comes down to the down take header and then
goes to the uptake header through a large no of water tubes, inclined at about 14
deg for better circulation. The wet steam from the steam drum comes to the wet
steam header through an ant priming pipe. The ant priming pipe removes some
moisture from the steam. Then, it passes through a large no of super heater tubes
and reaches the super heater header. From the super heater header it goes to the
steam turbine through the main steam valve.At the end of the down take header,
amud drum is connected from where impurities can be removed .Compared to a
fire tube boiler, evaporative capacity, pressure and thermal efficiency of this
boiler will be higher.

Outstanding features:-
 i(i) Evaporating capacity is high 20000-40000 kg/hr& operating pressure
ranging from 11.5-40 bar.
(ii) The defective tubes can be replaced easily.
(iii) Draught loss is minimum& efficiency is high
(iv) Whole structure is independent of brick work, hence boiler may be expand
or contract easily because entire structure rests on steel structure.
(v) Brick work is only provided to enclose the furnace & to passage the
hot gases.

Questions for viva- voce:-

 Explain the construction & working of various mountings of boiler?

 Explain the construction & function of accessories of a boiler?
 State the location and function of safety valve in a boiler?
 State any four salient features of low pressure boiler?
  Give the advantage of low pressure boiler?

EXPERIMENT NO.9

Aim: -To Study the construction details & working principal of 4-Stroke petrol
and two stroke petrol Engine.

Apparatus: - Models of 4-Stroke Engines.

Theory: - The working Principle of Engines.
• Four Stroke (S.I) Engine.
In a four stroke engine, the cycles of operations is completed in 4 strokes of piston
or 2 revolution of crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 180° & hence the fuel
cycle consists of 720° of crank rotation. The 4-Strokes are: -
 • Suction or Intake Stroke: - In starts at, when the piston is at top dead
centre & about to move downwards. The inlet valve is open at that time and
exhaust valve is closed due to suction created by the motion of the piston towards
the bottom dead centre, the charge containing air fuel mixture is drawn into the
cylinder. When the piston reaches BDC the suction stroke ends and inlet
valve is closed.

• Compression Stroke: - The charge taken into the cylinder during suction
stroke is compressed by return stroke of piston. During this stroke both the
valves are closed. The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now
compressed into the clearance volume. At the end, the mixture is ignited with
the help of electrode of spark plug. During the burning process the chemical
energy of fuel is converted to heat energy. The pressure is increased in the end
due to heat release.

• Expansion Stroke: - The burnt gases escape out and the exhaust valve
opens but inlet valve remaining closed the piston moves from BDC to TDC
and sweeps the burnt gases out at almost atmospheric pressure. The exhaust
valve gets closed at the end of this stroke. Thus, for one complete cycle of engine,
there is only one power stroke while crank shaft makes 2 revolutions.

• Exhaust Stroke: - During the upward motion of the piston, the exhaust valve
is open and inlet valve is closed. The piston moves up in cylinder pushing out the
burnt gases through the exhaust valve. As the piston reaches the TDC, again
the inlet valve opens and fresh charge is taken in during next downward
movement of the piston and the cycle is repeated
Working Principles of 2-Stroke petrol engine

The working principle of 2-Stroke petrol engine is discussed below:-

1) 1st Stroke: To start with let us assume the piston to be at its B.D.C. position.
The arrangement of the ports is such that the piston performs two jobs
simultaneously.
As the piston starts rising from its B.D.C. position it closes the transfer port and
the exhaust port. The charge (mixture, of the air and petrol) which is already there
in the cylinder, as the result of the previous running of the engine is compressed
at the same time with the upward movement of the piston vacuum is created in
the crank case (which is gas tight). As son as the inlet port is uncovered; the fresh
change in sucked in the crank case. The charging is continued until the crank case
and the space in the cylinder beneath the piston is filled with the charge. As the
end of third stroke, the piston reached the T.D.C. position.
2) 2nd Stroke: Slightly before the completion of the compression stroke, the
compressed charge is ignited by means ofa
Spark produce at the spark plug.
Figure of Two stroke SI Engine

Pressure is exerted on the crank of the piston due to the combustion of the piston
is pushed in the downward direction producing some useful power. The
downward movement of the will first close the inlet port and then it will compress
the charge already sucked in the crank case.Just the end of power stroke, the piston
uncovered the exhaust port and the transfer port simultaneously the expanded
gases start escaping through the exhaust port and the same time the fresh charge
which is already compressed in the crank case, rushed into the cylinder through
the transfer port and thus the cycle is repeated again.
The fresh charge coming into the cylinder also helps in exhausting the burnt gases
out of the cylinder through the exhaust port. This is known as scavenging.

Construction Details

• Cylinder: - It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a

reciprocating produces.

• Piston: - It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the

moving boundary of combustion system. It fits in cylinder perfectly.

• Combustion Chamber: - It is the space enclosed in the upper part of

cylinder, by the cylinder head & the piston top during combustion process.

• Inlet Manifold: - The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet
valve of engine.

• Exhaust Manifold: - The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the
exhaust valve of engine.

• Inlet / Exhaust Valves: - They are provided on the cylinder head to head
to regulate the charge coming into or going out of the chamber.

• Spark Plug: - It is used to initiate the combustion process in S.I engines.

• Connected Rod: - It connects piston & the crank shaft.

• Crank shaft: - It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful
rotary motion of output shaft.
 • Gudgeon pins: - It forms a link between connection rod and the piston.

• Cam shaft: - It controls the opening & closing of the valves.

• Cam: - They open the valves at the correct tunes.

• Carburetor: - Used in S.I engine for atomizing & vaporizing and mixture
it with air in varying proportion.

Viva Questions

1. Describe the working principle of 2-Stroke petrol Engine?

2. Describe the working principle of 4-Stroke petrol Engine?

3. What is Suction Stroke?

4. What is compression Stroke?

5. Describe Expansion / Power Stroke?

6. Describe Exhaust Stroke?

 EXPERIMENT NO.10

Aim: - To study the constructional details & working principles involved in a

2-Stroke & 4-Stroke Diesel Engines.

Apparatus: -Model of 2-Stroke / 4-Stroke Diesel Engine.

Theory: -

• Four Stroke (C.I.) Engine.

In four strokes C.I. Engine compression ratio is from 16 to 20. During
suction stroke air is inducted. In C.I. engines high pressure. Fuel pump and
injectors are provided to inject the fuel into combustion chamber and ignition
chamber system is not necessary.

 Construction Details
1. Suction: - During suction stroke, air is inducted through inlet valve.
 2. Compression: - The air inducted is compressed into the clearance
volume.

3. Expansion: - Fuel injection starts nearly at the end of thecompression

stroke. The rate of injection is such that the combustion maintains the pressure
constant inspired of piston movement on its expansion stroke increasing the
volume. After injection of fuel, the products of combustion chamber expand.

4. Exhaust: - The piston travelling from BDC to TDC pushes out the
products of combustion out of cylinder.

• Two Stroke (C.I.) Engine.

In two stroke engines, the cycle is completed in one revolution of the

crankshaft. In 2-stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the
charge compressed in crankcase or by a blower. The induction of
compressed charge moves out of the exhaust ports. Therefore, no piston
strokes are required for these 2 operations. Two strokes are sufficient to complete
the cycle one for compressing the fresh charge and other for expansion or
power stroke.

1. Compression: - The air or charge is inducted into the crankcase

through the spring loaded inlet valve when the pressure in crankcase is
reduced due to upward motion of piston.

2. Compression stroke: This stroke starts with the piston at B.D.C.

position. Both the inlet and exhaust values are closed.The air sucked during the
suction stroke is compressed as the piston moves in the upward direction. A few
degree before the completion of compression stroke, a very fine spray of diesel is
injected into the compressed air. The fuel ignites spontaneously.

3. Expansion stroke: Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. The
heat energy released by the combustion of the fuel, results in the rise in pressure
of the gases. This high pressure rise drives the piston in the downward direction,
thereby producing some useful work. This stroke is called as power stroke.
4. Exhaust stroke: This stroke starts with the piston at the B.D.C. position.
The inlet value remains closed whereas the exhaust value is opened. The upward
movement of the piston pushes the burnt gases out of the cylinder through the
exhaust valve. At the end of exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve is also closed.
The four-strokes complete one cycle which may repeat again to produce power.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF 2 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

1. 1st Stroke – As the piston starts rising from its B.D.C. position, it closes the
transfer and the exhaust port. The air which is already there in the cylinder is
compressed. At the same time with the upward movement of the piston, vacuum
is created in the crank case. As soon as the inlet port is uncovered the fresh air is
sucked in the crank case. The charging is continued until the crank case and the
space in the cylinder beneath the piston in filled with the air.
2. 2nd Stroke – Slightly before the completion of the compression stroke a
very fine spray of diesel is injected into the compressed air (which is at a very
high temperature). The fuel ignites spontaneously.

Figure of Two stroke CI Engine

Pressure is exerted on the crown of the piston due to the combustion of the air
and the piston is pushed in the downward direction producing some useful power.
The downward movement of the piston will first close the inlet port and then it
will compress the air already sucked in the crank caseJust at the end of power
stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port simultaneously.
The expanded gases start escaping through the exhaust port and at the same time
the fresh air which is alredy compressed in the crank case, rushes into the cylinder
through the transfer port and thus the cycle is repeated again.
Construction Details

1. Cylinder: - In it the piston makes a reciprocating process motion.

2. Piston: - It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the

moving boundary of the combustion system. It fits into cylinder.

3. Combustion Chamber: - The space enclosed in the upper part of

the cylinder, by the head and the piston top during the combustion process.

4. Inlet/ Outlet ports: - They are provided on the side of cylinder to regulate
the charge coming in and out of cylinder.

5. Fuel Injector: - It injects the fuel in combustion chamber to initiate

combustion process for power stroke.

6. Connecting Rod: - It interconnects crank shaft and the piston.

7. Fly Wheel: - The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete
cycle of operation of the engine fluctuates cow sing change in angular velocity of
shaft. In order to achiever uniform torque an internal mass is attached to the
output shaft & this is called as fly wheel.

Viva Questions
 1. Describe the working principle of 2-Stroke Diesel Engine?

2. Describe the working principle of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine?

3. What is compression Stroke?

4. Describe Expansion / Power Stroke?

5. What are the construction details of a four stroke Diesel Engine?

6. What is the main deference in 2-Stroke Diesel Engine and 4-Stroke

Diesel

Engine?