Heredity is the passing of traits from parent to offspring.

Molecules of DNA carry information

that codes for various proteins. These proteins interact with the environment, causing observable
patterns of life. The complex mechanisms that replicate and reproduce DNA and the organisms it
creates can be recombined and mutated during the process, leading to new and various forms of
life. All organisms, from the simplest bacteriato the largest eukaryotes, use DNA as the main
form of heredity.

Genetics is the study of genes and inheritance in living organisms. This branch of science has a
fascinating history, stretching from the 19th century when scientists began to study how
organisms inherited traits from their parents, to the present day when we can read the “source
code” of living things letter-by-letter.
Genetics started out with curiosity about why things are the way things are – why do children
resemble one parent more than another? Why do some species resemble each other more closely
than others?
It has evolved into an almost universal answer handbook for biology. By reading the “source
code” or “blueprint” for an organism, scientists today are often able to pinpoint exactly where an
organism came from, how it has changed over time, what diseases it might develop, and how its
life processes are similar to or different from those of other organisms.

The parental generation is denoted as the P1 generation. The offspring of the P1 generation are
the F1 generation (first filial). The self-fertilizing F1 generation produced the F2 generation
(second filial).

F1 Generation Definition
The F1 generation refers to the first filial generation. Filial generations are the nomenclature
given to subsequent sets of offspring from controlled or observed reproduction. The initial
generation is given the letter “P” for parental generation. The first set of offspring from these
parents is then known as the F1 generation. The F1 generation can reproduce to create the F2
generation, and so forth. Scientists use this designation to track groups of offspring as they
observe the genetics of various generations.
gene is an extremely specific sequence of nucleotide monomers that has the ability to completely
or partially control the expression of one or more traits in every type of living organism. Genes
are formed from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and, in the case of some viruses, ribonucleic acid
(RNA) polymers.

Overview
It was Wilhelm Johannsen who first used the term ‘gene’, using his botany background to study
the genetic traits of plants. Modern genetics no longer accepts earlier theories that depict the
gene as a singular piece of information that can only produce a single protein. We now know that
one gene is capable of providing multiple, different transcription units of messenger RNA
(mRNA), depending on where the replication process begins. A single gene may also make up
just a small section of an mRNA transcription unit; again, according to where on the gene the
transcription process is initiated.

It is now understood that genes are able to perform a second function without either losing their
original function or going through the replication process. This phenomenon, known as ‘protein
moonlighting’, means a gene can be edited without being incorrectly copied. The common
definition of a single gene controlling a single function is outdated; although genetic research
remains in its infancy, it is clear that a single gene can have multitudinous roles

Gametes are reproductive cells (sex cells) that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new
cell called a zygote. Male gametes are sperm and female gametes are ova (eggs). In seed-bearing
plants, pollen is the male sperm producing gametophyte. Female gametes (ovules) are contained
within the plant ovary. In animals, gametes are produced in male and female gonads. Sperm are
motile and have a long, tail-like projection called a flagellum. However, ova are non-motile and
relatively large in comparison to the male gamete.

A zygote is the cell formed when two gametes fuse during fertilization. The DNA material from
the two cells is combined in the resulting zygote. The cellular mechanisms present in the gametes
also function in the zygote, but the newly fused DNA produces a different effect in the new cell.
In single-celled organisms, the zygote becomes a fully functioning organism, and can divide
through mitosis to produce offspring. The organism can also produce gametes to reproduce
sexually with other cells.
Multicellular organisms use a similar process, producing gametes that fuse during fertilization to
produce a zygote. The zygote then undergoes many round of mitosis to produce an entire
organism. Depending on the size of the organism at birth, the development time of the young can
vary. The African elephant, for instance, has a gestation time of over 20 months, or over a year
and a half. Some rodents, on the other hand, only need two weeks or so before babies can be
born. It all depends on how many cells are needed in the final organism, and how developed the
organism is at birth.
In most animals, the gamete cells are converted to haploid cells before reproduction, in a process
known as meiosis. By reducing the number of alleles in each gene to 1, a zygote formed by two
haploid gametes will have the proper number of alleles. This is important in most animals, as the
wrong number of chromosomes or alleles can produce negative effects. The well-known genetic
defect Down Syndrome is caused by an extra 21st chromosome in humans. In most vertebrates
besides fish, extra copies of alleles are usually detrimental.
In plants, the condition of more than two alleles in a zygote is not always detrimental. Often,
plants have many copies of a gene with different alleles. Many plants do not undergo meiosis
before reproducing by accident, and therefore are prone to accumulating many copies of a
chromosomes as generations continue to reproduce. The zygote that forms from accidental
gametes can create a novel varieties of plants. Many commercial agricultural crops are the results
of polyploidy affecting the plant in some way, either making them bigger or making their fruits
sterile so people cannot grow them and must buy more. Besides these differences in plants, a
zygote is still formed when two gametes fuse. In many higher plants, the zygote forms when
the pollen fertilizes an egg inside of ovules in the flower. The process is detailed in the following
image.
In fungi, the process of forming a zygote is a little different, because fungi have somewhat
different lifecycles. Many fungi are haploid the majority of the time. Sometimes haploid cells
combine through a process of karyogamy, or combining of nuclei. This produces
a diploidorganism for a short time. During this time, important genetic variation and
recombination can take place, allowing fungi to remain adaptive in the face of adversity.

True breeding organisms are those that can transit certain traits to all their
offspring. True breeding organisms appear to be similar to each other in
appearance, respond similarly to the environment and are homogenous for many
characteristics that differentiate them from other members of the same species.

For instance, all Bulldogs have thick folds of skin over their brows, an obvious
‘underbite’ where the lower jaw projects in front of the upper jaw, and short
tails. They are considered true breeding for these physical characteristics.

In plants, the commonly used example is the pea plant used by Mendel for his
initial experiments in genetics. These plants underwent self-fertilization and
therefore, over many generations had become homozygous at most genetic loci.
Some others are those that have been created by genetic modification, such as
the ‘golden rice’ variety that has been selected for its ability to produce high
levels of beta carotene.
A dominant trait is an inherited characteristic that appears in an offspring if it is
contributed from a parent through a dominant allele. Traits, also known
as phenotypes, may include features such as eye color, hair color, immunity or
susceptibility to certain diseases and facial features such as dimples and freckles.

In sexually reproducing species, each individual has two pairs of chromosomes;

humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, and so 46 chromosomes in total. The
chromosomes contain thousands of geneswhich code for the proteins that express
and control all of the biochemical and physical features of an organism; this set
of genes is an organism’s genotype.

Within each chromosome, there are two copies of each gene. Each chromosome
carries the same gene in the same position (called a locus) so that they are
paired. However, each locus may have two different versions of each gene: one
received from the mother and one from the father. Each of the alternative
versions of a gene is called an allele. Alleles come in two different
forms: recessive (denoted as a small letter, e.g., a) and dominant (denoted as a
capital letter, e.g., A).

If an individual carries the same two alleles for a gene, they are homozygous for
that gene (aa or AA); this is the case whether the alleles are recessive or
dominant. If the two alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous for the
gene (Aa).

Assuming Mendelian Genetics, which is a simplified explanatory tool:

 A recessive trait will only be expressed if the offspring has two copies of
the recessive allele that codes for the trait (recessive homozygous, aa).
  A dominant trait will always be expressed in the offspring if the
dominant allele is present, even if there is only one copy of it
(heterozygous or dominant homozygous, Aa or AA).

A recessive gene is a gene whose effects are masked in the presence of a

dominant gene. Every organism that has DNA packed into chromosomes has two
alleles, or forms of a gene, for each gene: one inherited from their mother, and
one inherited from their father. A recessive gene is only expressed when an
organism has two recessive alleles for that gene. This is also known as being
homozygous recessive. If an organism has one dominant and one recessive
allele, it will show the dominant trait.
A recessive trait is a trait that is expressed when an organism has two recessive
alleles, or forms of a gene. Traits are characteristics of organisms that can be
observed; this includes physical characteristics such as hair and eye color, and
also characteristics that may not be readily apparent, e.g. shape of blood cells.
Every organism that organizes its DNA into chromosomes has two alleles for a
trait, one from their mother and one from their father. Alleles can be dominant
or recessive. Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles, so a
recessive trait is only expressed when an organism has two recessive alleles for a
gene.
A recessive allele is a variety of genetic codethat does not create a phenotype if
a dominant allele is present. In a dominant/recessive relationship between two
alleles, the recessive allele’s effects are masked by the more dramatic effects of
the dominant allele. An allele is a specific variation of a gene, or specific segment
of DNA. Different alleles produce slightly different proteins, which function in
different ways.
Genotype vs. Phenotype

The genetic makeup of an organism is called its genotype and its observable traits
are its phenotype. In other words, what a person looks like is the result of his or
her DNA. A great example that explains this concept is Gregor Mendel’s
experiments with true-breeding yellow and green pea plants (P1). The phenotype
of the plants is their color, yellow and green. When Mendel crossed these two
plants, all the offspring (F1) were yellow. But the green color was not lost as it
showed up again in the next generation (F2). Mendel didn’t know it at the time,
but the underlying genotypes of the green and yellow plants were responsible for
the traits seen in the F1generation.

Both the green and yellow P1 pea plants had identical alleles for the gene that
controls their color, meaning they were homozygous. When two green or two
yellow plants were bred together, all the offspring of the green plants were
green, and all the offspring of the yellow plants were yellow. However, when a
green plant was crossed with a yellow plant, all the F1 offspring were yellow. This
is because the F1 generation was heterozygousfor the color trait, meaning they
had different alleles for color. And, of the two alleles for the color gene, yellow
was dominant making all the F1 plants yellow. The pea plant alleles in F2would
have to be homozygous recessive for the plant to be green

Comparison Chart
Genotype Phenotype
The observable
traits of an No Yes
organism?

The genetic
makeup of an Yes No
organism?

How is it DNA sequencing, PCR assay, if By looking at

observed? needed (see image below) the organism

Refers to the
information Yes No
coded on alleles

Examples
include hair
No Yes
color, eye color,
height

Partially, one allele from each

Is it inherited? No
parent

Only the
All heredityinformation for
What does it genes that
the organism even genes that
contain (show)? are
are unexpressed.
expressed.

 Phenotypic Ratio – The ratio of one phenotypes to the others in a

population, which is different than the genotypic ratio.

The genotypic ratio shows the number of times a characteristic of

an organism will be seen in the offspring when genes for certain traits are
crossed. This more easily understood by using the Punnett squaremethod and a
basic monohybrid cross as shown in Figure 1.
Homozygous refers to having identical alleles for a single trait. An allele
represents one particular form of a gene. Alleles can exist in different forms and
diploid organisms typically have two alleles for a given trait. These alleles are
inherited from parents during sexual reproduction. Upon fertilization, alleles are
randomly united as homologous chromosomes pair up. A human cell, for
example, contains 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes. One
chromosome in each pair is donated from the mother and the other from the
father.

The alleles on these chromosomes determine traits or characteristics in

organisms.

In diploid organisms, heterozygous refers to an individual having two different

alleles for a specific trait. An allele is a version of a gene or specific DNA
sequence on a chromosome. Alleles are inherited through sexual reproduction as
the resulting offspring inherit half of their chromosomes from the mother and
half from the father. The cells in diploid organisms contain sets of homologous
chromosomes, which are paired chromosomes that have the same genes at the
same positions along each chromosome pair.

Although homologous chromosomes have the same genes, they may have
different alleles for those genes. Alleles determine how particular traits are
expressed or observed.
Hybrid
In biology, hybrid has two meanings.
The first meaning is the result of interbreeding between two animals or plants of different taxa.
Hybrids between different species within the same genus are sometimes known as interspecific
hybrids or crosses.
Hybrids between different sub-species within a species are known as intra-specific hybrids.
Hybrids between different genera are sometimes known as intergeneric hybrids.
Extremely rare interfamilial hybrids have been known to occur (such as the guineafowl hybrids).
The second meaning of "hybrid" is crosses between populations, breeds or cultivars of a single
species.
This second meaning is often used in plant and animal breeding.
An example of an intraspecific hybrid is a hybrid between a Bengal tiger and an Amur (Siberian)
tiger.
Interspecific hybrids are bred by mating two species, normally from within the same genus.
The offspring display traits and characteristics of both parents.
The offspring of an interspecific cross very often are sterile, this hybrid sterility prevents the
movement of genes from one species to the other, keeping both species distinct.
Sterility is often attributed to the different number of chromosomes the two species have, for
example donkeys have 62 chromosomes, while horses have 64 chromosomes, and mules and
hinnies have 63 chromosomes.
Mules, hinnies, and other normally sterile interspecific hybrids cannot produce viable gametes
because the extra chromosome cannot make a homologous pair at meiosis, meiosis is disrupted,
and viable sperm and eggs are not formed.
However, fertility in female mules has been reported with a donkey as the father.
Most often other mechanisms are used by plants and animals to keep gametic isolation and species
distinction.
Species often have different mating or courtship patterns or behavours, the breeding seasons
maybe distinct and even if mating does occur antigenic reactions to the sperm of other species
prevent fertilization or embryo development.
The Lonicera fly is the first known animal species that resulted from natural hybridization.
Until the discovery of the Lonicera fly, this process was known to occur in nature only among plants.

Hybrid vigor is the increase in certain characteristics like growth rate, size,
fertility, yield etc. of a particular hybrid organism over its parents. Hybrid
vigor is also known by some other names, including heterosis and inbreeding
enhancement. Hybrid vigor occurs because the hybrid offspring’s traits are
enhanced due to the mixing of genetic contributions of its parents.
Hybrid vigor and inbreeding depression are two phenomena that were
first examined in a systematic manner by legendary biologist and
geologist Charles Darwin. You may have heard about inbreeding
depression in discussions relating to risks associated with marrying
within the family. (We have also written an article related to that subject,
which you can read here).
While inbreeding depression refers to the decline in certain
characteristics upon self-fertilization or certain other forms of
inbreeding, hybrid vigor is quite different. In fact, it is just the opposite!

A dihybrid cross is a breeding experiment between P generation (parental

generation) organisms that differ in two traits. The individuals in this type of
cross are homozygous for a specific trait. Traits are characteristics that are
determined by segments of DNA called genes. Diploidorganisms inherit
two alleles for each gene. An allele is an alternate version of a gene that is
inherited (one from each parent) during sexual reproduction.

In a dihybrid cross, the parent organisms have different pairs of alleles for
each trait being studied. One parent possesses homozygous dominant alleles,
and the other possesses homozygous recessive alleles. The offspring, or F1
generation, produced from the genetic cross of such individuals are
all heterozygous for the specific traits. This means that all of the F1 individuals
possess a hybrid genotype and express the dominant phenotypes for each
trait.

In biology, meiosis is the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides
to generate four haploid cells often called gametes.
Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including single-
celled organisms) that reproduce sexually.
A few eukaryotes, notably the Bdelloid rotifers, have lost the ability to carry out meiosis and have
acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis.
Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual processes such as
mitosis or binary fission.
During meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell, which is composed of long segments of DNA
packaged into chromosomes, undergoes DNA replication followed by two rounds of division,
resulting in haploid cells called gametes.
Each gamete contains one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the
original cell.
These resultant haploid cells can fuse with other haploid cells of the opposite sex or mating type
during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote.
Thus, the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of two genomes that
occurs at fertilization.
Because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each
gamete, and thus each zygote, will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA.
In other words, meiosis and sexual reproduction produce genetic variation.
Meiosis uses many of the same biochemical mechanisms employed during mitosis to accomplish
the redistribution of chromosomes.
There are several features unique to meiosis, most importantly the pairing and genetic
recombination between homologous chromosomes.

Ploidy refers to the number of sets of homologous chromosomes in the genome of a cell or
an organism. Each set is designated by n. The term diploid refers to a cell or an organism that has
two sets of chromosomes. In humans and other higher forms of living things, one of the two sets
is derived from the mother's gamete and the other is from the father's gamete that united
during fertilization. In a diploid state the haploid number is doubled, thus, this condition is also
known as 2n.

An example of a cell in a diploid state is a somaticcell. In humans, the somatic cells typically
contain 46 chromosomes in contrast to human haploid gametes(egg and sperm cells) that have
only 23 chromosomes.

Homologous chromosomes are chromosomepairs (one from each parent) that are
similar in length, gene position, and centromerelocation. The position of the
genes on each homologous chromosome is the same. However, the genes may
contain different alleles. Chromosomes are important molecules, as they
contain DNA and the genetic instructions for the direction of all cell activity. They
also carry genes that determine individual traits.
In genetics, a locus (plural loci) is a specific, fixed position on a chromosome where a
particular gene or genetic marker is located.[1] Each chromosome carries many genes, with
each gene occupying a different position or locus; in humans, the total number of protein-
coding genes in a complete haploid set of 23 chromosomes is estimated at 19,000–20,000.[2]
Genes may possess multiple variants known as alleles, and an allele may also be said to reside at
a particular locus. Diploid and polyploid cells whose chromosomes have the same allele at a
given locus are called homozygous with respect to that locus, while those that have different
alleles at a given locus are called heterozygous.[3] The ordered list of loci known for a
particular genome is called a gene map. Gene mapping is the process of determining the
specific locus or loci responsible for producing a particular phenotype or biological trait.

A somatic cell contains a genome comprised of paired chromosomes: the autosomes and sex
chromosomes. A sex chromosome is a type of chromosome responsible for the chromosomal
determination of the sex of an individual, e.g. whether a female or a male. Sex determination is
based on the genes responsible for the development of the corresponding sexual characteristics
of the organism. The sex chromosome occurs in pairs in somatic cellswhile singly in sex
cells (gametes).

In humans, there are two forms of sex chromosomes: the X chromosome and the Y chromosome.
A pair of X and Y results in a chromosomal male whereas a combination of X and X results in a
chromosomal female. Because they differ in form, size, or behavior, they are also referred to as
heterotypical chromosomes or heterochromosomes. This XX/XY sex-determination system is
one of the most familiar sex-determination systems and is applicable in human beings and many
other mammals. In this system, the sex of an organism is determined by the sex chromosomes
since these chromosomes bear the genes that control the development of reproductive organs and
other sexual characteristics of an organism.

An autosome is any of the chromosome not considered as a sex chromosome. It is chiefly

associated with the various metabolic functions of the cell except for sex determination. It occurs
in pairs in somatic cells and singly in sex cells(gametes). In humans, a somatic cell will normally
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (total=46 chromosomes). Twenty-two (22) of these pairs will
be autosomes, and only one of them will be a pair of sex chromosomes (the X and Y
chromosomes).

In sex cells like egg cell and sperm cell where chromosomes occur singly (total=23), 22 of them
are autosomes while the remaining one is a sex chromosome (either X or Y chromosome).

All the DNA that autosomes bear are collectively called atDNA or auDNA. Mutation involving a
gene or set of genes in an autosome resulting in a disease or manifestation of symptoms is the
underlying cause of the different autosomal genetic disorders, e.g. trisomy 21.

An allele is one of the possible forms of a gene. Most genes have two alleles, a

dominant allele and a recessive allele. If an organism is heterozygous for that trait, or

possesses one of each allele, then the dominant trait is expressed. A recessive allele is
only expressed if an organism is homozygous for that trait, or possesses two recessive

alleles. Alleles were first defined by Gregor Mendel in the law of segregation

Linked genes are genes that are likely to be inherited together because they are
physically close to one another on the same chromosome. During meiosis,
chromosomes are recombined, resulting in gene swaps between homologous
chromosomes. If genes are close together, the chances of being recombined are
higher than if they are far away from each other. It is impossible for linked genes
to be on different chromosomes

Sex linked genes are genes that are in the sex chromosomes and that are
therefore inherited differently between males and females. In mammals, where
the female has two X chromosomes (XX) and the male has one X and one
Y chromosome (XY), recessive genes on the X chromosome are more often
expressed in males because their only X chromosome has this gene, while
females may carry a defective recessive gene on one X chromosome that is
compensated by a healthy dominant gene on the other X chromosome. Common
examples of sex linked genes are those that code for colorblindness or those that
code for hemophilia (inability to make blood clots) in humans. In birds, on the
other hand, where the female has two different chromosomes (ZW) and the
male has two Z chromosomes (ZZ), it is the female who has higher chances of
expressing recessive genes on the Z chromosome because they cannot
compensate with the dominant gene on the W chromosome.

Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister

chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, which results in new allelic
combinations in the daughter cells.
Each diploid cell contains two copies of every chromosome, one derived from the
maternal gamete and the other from the paternal gamete. These pairs of
chromosomes, each derived from one parent, are
called homologous chromosomes. When diploid organisms undergo sexual
reproduction, they first produce haploid gametes through meiosis. During prophase
I of meiosis, homologous chromosome align with each other and exchange
genetic material, so that some of the resultant chromosomes are recombinants –
containing a mixture of genes derived from the maternal as well as the paternal
chromosomes.

Multiple Alleles
Alleles are alternative forms of a gene, and they are responsible for differences in phenotypic
expression of a given trait (e.g., brown eyes versus green eyes). A gene for which at least two
alleles exist is said to be polymorphic. Instances in which a particular gene may exist in three or
more allelic forms are known as multiple allele conditions. It is important to note that while
multiple alleles occur and are maintained within a population, any individual possesses only two
such alleles (at equivalent loci on homologouschromosomes).

A "polygene” or "multiple gene inheritance" is a member of a group of non-

epistatic genes that interact additively to influence a phenotypic trait. The term "monozygous" is
usually used to refer to a hypothetical gene as it is often difficult to characterise the effect of an
individual gene from the effects of other genes and the environment on a particular phenotype.
Advances in statistical methodology and high throughput sequencing are, however, allowing
researchers to locate candidate genes for the trait. In the case that such a gene is identified, it is
referred to as a quantitative trait locus(QTL). These genes are generally pleiotropic as well.
The genes that contribute to type 2 diabetes are thought to be mostly polygenes.[1] In July 2016,
scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genesfrom the last universal common
ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.[2]
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a molecule that contains the instructions an organism
needs to develop, live and reproduce. These instructions are found inside every cell,
and are passed down from parents to their children.

Variations are classified either as continuous, or quantitative (smoothly grading between

two extremes, with the majority of individuals at the centre, as height varies in human
populations); or as discontinuous, or qualitative (composed of well-defined classes,
as blood groups vary in humans). A discontinuous variation with several classes, none
of which is very small, is known as a polymorphic variation. The separation of most
higher organisms into males and females and the occurrence of several forms of
a butterfly of the same species, each coloured to blend with a different vegetation, are
examples of polymorphic variation.

A Mutation occurs when a DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to alter the genetic
message carried by that gene.

A Mutagen is an agent of substance that can bring about a permanent alteration to the physical
composition of a DNA gene such that the genetic message is changed.

Once the gene has been damaged or changed the mRNA transcribed from that gene will now
carry an altered message.

The polypeptide made by translating the altered mRNA will now contain a different sequence of
amino acids. The function of the protein made by folding this polypeptide will probably be
changed or lost. In this example, the enzyme that is catalyzing the production of flower color
pigment has been altered in such a way it no longer catalyzes the production of the red pigment.

No product (red pigment) is produced by the altered protein.

In subtle or very obvious ways, the phenotype of the organism carrying the mutation will be
changed. In this case the flower, without the pigment is no longer red