MODERN MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (PEME 5306)

LECTURE NOTES ON
Modern Manufacturing Process

PREPARED BY

Dr PRAMOD KUMAR PARIDA

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (BPUT)

BHUBANRSWAR

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Syllabus
Module I (12 hours)
ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM): Introduction, equipment, tool materials & tool size, abrasive
slurry, cutting tool system design:- Effect of parameters on Material removal rate, tool wear,
Accuracy, surface finish, applications, advantages & Disadvantages of USM.
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM): Introduction, Equipment, Variables in AJM: Carrier Gas,
Type of abrasive work material, stand off distance (SOD), nozzle design, shape of cut. Process
characteristics-Material removal rate, Nozzle wear, Accuracy & surface finish. Applications,
advantages & Disadvantages of AJM.
Water Jet Machining: Principle, Equipment, Operation, Application, Advantages and limitations
of Water Jet machining.
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM): Introduction, study of ECM machine, elements of
ECM process: ECM Process characteristics – Material removal rate, Accuracy, surface finish,
Applications, Electrochemical turning, Grinding, Honing, deburring, Advantages, Limitations.
CHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM): Introduction, elements of process, chemical blanking process,
process characteristics of CHM: material removal rate, accuracy, surface finish, Hydrogen
embrittlement, advantages & application of CHM.
Module II (13 hours)
ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM): Introduction, mechanism of metal removal,
dielectric fluid, spark generator, EDM tools (electrodes) Electrode feed control, EDM process
characteristics: metal removal rate, accuracy, surface finish, Heat Affected Zone. Machine tool
selection, Application, electrical discharge grinding, wire EDM.
PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM): Introduction, equipment, non-thermal generation of plasma,
selection of gas, Mechanism of metal removal, PAM parameters, process characteristics.
Applications, Advantages and limitations.
LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM): Introduction, equipment of LBM mechanism of metal
removal, LBM parameters, Process characteristics, Applications, Advantages & limitations.
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM): Principles, equipment, operations, applications,
advantages and limitation of EBM.
Module III (11 hours)
Introduction to Surface engineering, High speed machining and grinding: Application of
advanced coatings in high performance modern cutting tools and high performance super-
abrasive grinding wheels, Micro and nano machining of glasses and ceramics. Theory and
application of chemical processing: Chemical Machining, Aching of semi conductors, Coating
and Electroless forming, PVD and CVD; Introduction to Reverse Engineering, Concurrent
Engineering and Rapid prototyping:
Text Books:
1. Modern machining process, Pandey and Shan, Tata McGraw Hill 2000
2. Manufacturing Engg. & Technology, Kalpakjian , Pearson Education
3. Manufacturing Science, A.Ghosh& A.K. Mallik, EWP
Reference Books
1. Metals Handbook: Machining Volume 16, Joseph R. Davis (Editor), American Society of
Metals.
2. Surface Wear Analysis, Treatment & Prevention - ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
U.S.A., 1st Ed. 1995
3. Production Technology, HMT, Tata McGraw Hill. 2001
4. Modern Machining Process, Aditya. 2002
5. Non-Conventional Machining, P.K.Mishra, The Institution of Engineers (India) Test book
series, Narosa Publishing House – 2005.
6. Introduction to Rapid Prototyping, A Ghosh, North West Publication

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COURSE OUTCOMES
The course is consists of all non-conventional manufacturing processes. It
starts with classification of manufacturing processes and necessity of non-
conventional manufacturing processes. This course dealt with details about
the mechanism of material removal, sources of energy used for material
removal, working principle, the set up or equipment and relative
advantages and disadvantages. It gives a clear cut idea about the
processes, its use in specific industrial application etc.

Module I
Modern or Non Traditional Manufacturing Processes
Modern or Non-traditional manufacturing processes is defined as a group
of processes that remove excess material by various techniques involving
mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these
energies but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for
traditional manufacturing processes.

Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional

machining processes such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling. Non-
traditional machining processes, also called advanced manufacturing
processes, are employed where traditional machining processes are not
feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined
below.

 Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining

 When the workpiece is too flexible or slender
 When the shape of the part is too complex
Several types of non-traditional machining processes have been developed
to meet extra required machining conditions. When these processes are

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employed properly, they offer many advantages over non-traditional

machining processes. The common non-traditional machining processes
are described in this section.

Modern manufacturing processes are classified according to the type of

fundamental machining energy employed. A detail classification f the
machining process based on the type of energy used , the mechanism of
metal removal, the source of energy requirements etc is given below:

Classification of machining processes

Type of Mechanism Transfer Energy source Processes

Energy of Metal Media
Removal
Mechanical Erosion High Pneumatic/Hydraulic AJM, USM,
velocity pressure WJM
particle
Shear Physical Cutting tool Conventional
contact machining
Electro Ion Electrolyte High current ECM, ECG
chemical displacement
Chemical Ablative Reactive Corrosive agent CHM
relation environment
Thermoelectric Fusion Hot gases Ionized material IBM, PAM
Electrons High voltage EDM
Vaporization Radiation Amplified light LBM
Ion stream Ionized material PAM

AJM: Abrasive Jet Machining

CHM:Chemical machining
ECG: Electrochemical Grinding
ECM:Electrochemical Machining
EDM:Electro Discharge Machining
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IBM: Ion Beam Machining

LBM: Laser Beam Machining
PAM: Plasma Arc Machining
USM:Ultrasonic Machining
WJM:Water Jet Machining
ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM):
USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used
to erode holes or cavities on hard or brittle workpiece by using shaped
tools, high frequency mechanical motion and an abrasive slurry. USM
offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials such
as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and increasing
complex operations to provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles. It is
therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are
difficult to machine by traditional manufacturing processes. The hard
particles in slurry are accelerated toward the surface of the workpiece by a
tool oscillating at a frequency up to 100 KHz - through repeated abrasions,
the tool machines a cavity of a cross section identical to its own. A
schematic representation of USM is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Schematic of ultrasonic machine tool

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USM is primarily targeted for the machining of hard and brittle

materials(dielectric or conductive) such as boron carbide, ceramics,
titanium carbides, rubies, quartz etc. USM is a versatile machining process
as far as properties of materials are concerned. This process is able to
effectively machine all materials whether they are electrically conductive or
insulator.

For an effective cutting operation, the following parameters need to be

carefully considered:

 The machining tool must be selected to be highly wear resistant, such

as high-carbon steels.
 The abrasives (25-60 m in dia.) in the (water-based, up to 40% solid
volume) slurry includes: Boron carbide, silicon carbide and aluminum
oxide.
Mechanisms of Material Removal in USM and its modeling
As has been mentioned earlier, USM is generally used for machining brittle
work material. Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of
the hard abrasive grits on the brittle work material. As the tool vibrates, it
leads to indentation of the abrasive grits. During indentation, due to
Hertzian contact stresses, cracks would develop just below the contact site,
then as indentation progresses the cracks would propagate due to increase
in stress and ultimately lead to brittle fracture of the work material under
each individual interaction site between the abrasive grits and the
workpiece. The tool material should be such that indentation by the
abrasive grits does not lead to brittle failure. Thus the tools are made of
tough, strong and ductile materials like steel, stainless steel and other
ductile metallic alloys. Other than this brittle failure of the work material due

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to indentation some material removal may occur due to free flowing impact
of the abrasives against the work material and related solid-solid impact
erosion, but it is estimated to be rather insignificant. Thus, in the current
model, material removal would be assumed to take place only due to
impact of abrasives between tool and workpiece, followed by indentation
and brittle fracture of the workpiece. The model does consider the
deformation of the tool. In the current model, all the abrasives are
considered to be identical in shape and size. An abrasive particle is
considered to be spherical but with local spherical bulges as shown in Fig.
9.2.2. The abrasive particles are characterised by the average grit
diameter, dg. It is further assumed that the local spherical bulges have a
uniform diameter, db and which is related to the grit diameter by db = μdg2 .
Thus an abrasive is characterised by μ and dg.

Schematic representation of abrasive grit

During indentation by the abrasive grit onto the workpiece and the tool, the
local spherical bulges contact the surfaces and the indentation process is
characterised by db rather than by dg. Fig. 9.2.3 shows the interaction
between the abrasive grit and the workpiece and tool.

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Interaction between grit and workpiece and tool

And then the indentation process starts and finally completes with an
indentation of δw and δt on the work and tool respectively.

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The tool vibrates in a harmonic motion. Thus only during its first quarter of
its cycle it can derive an abrasive towards interaction with the tool and
workpiece as shown in Fig. below. Out of this quarter cycle, some part is
used to engage the tool with abrasive particle as shown in Fig. below. Thus
the time of indentation τ can be roughly estimated as

Interaction between grit and workpiece and tool to depict the workpiece and tool deformations

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Process Parameters and their effects:

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Effect of machining parameters on MRR

Equipment:

The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill press.

However, it has additional features to carry out USM of brittle work
material. The workpiece is mounted on a vice, which can be located at the
desired position under the tool using a 2 axis table. The table can further be

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lowered or raised to accommodate work of different thickness. The typical

elements of an USM are (Fig.)

 Slurry delivery and return system

 Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during
machining
 The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration Version 2
ME, IIT Kharagpur
 The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration
to the required amplitude of 15 – 50 μm and accommodates the tool
at its tip.

Schematic view of an Ultrasonic Machine

The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. The transducer is

driven by suitable signal generator followed by power amplifier. The
transducer for USM works on the following principle

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• Piezoelectric effect

• Magnetostrictive effect

• Electrostrictive effect Magnetostrictive transducers are most popular and

robust amongst all.

Fig. below shows a typical magnetostrictive transducer along with horn.

The horn or concentrator is a wave-guide, which amplifies and
concentrates the vibration to the tool from the transducer.

Working of horn as mechanical amplifier of amplitude of vibration

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Different Horns used in USM

Applications

The beauty of USM is that it can make non round shapes in hard and brittle
materials. Ultrasonically machined non round-hole part is shown in Figure
2.

Figure 2: A non-round hole made by USM

Advantage of USM

USM processis a non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no changes in the

microstructures, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers
virtually stress free machined surfaces.

 Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical

conductivity
 Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials
 Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher
structural integrity.
 USM does not produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal
surface
Some disadvantages of USM

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 USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal

rates than traditional fabrication processes.
 Tool wears fast in USM.
 Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.

Water Jet Machining

Water jet machining can reduce the costs and speed up the processes by
eliminating or reducing expensive secondary machining process. Since no
heat is applied on the materials, cut edges are clean with minimal burr.
Problems such as cracked edge defects, crystalisation, hardening, reduced
wealdability and machinability are reduced in this process.

Water jet technology uses the principle of pressurising water to extremely

high pressures, and allowing the water to escape through a very small
opening called “orifice” or “jewel”. Water jet cutting uses the beam of water
exiting the orifice to cut soft materials. This method is not suitable for
cutting hard materials. The inlet water is typically pressurised between
1300 – 4000 bars. This high pressure is forced through a tiny hole in the
jewel, which is typically o.18 to 0.4 mm in diameter.A picture of water jet
machining process is shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Water jet cutting

(http://www.waterjets.org/about_abrasivejets.html)

Applications

Water jet cutting is mostly used to cut lower strength materials such as
wood, plastics and aluminium. When abrasives are added, (abrasive water
jet cutting) stronger materials such as steel and tool steel can be cut.

Advantages of water jet cutting

 There is no heat generated in water jet cutting; which is especially

useful for cutting tool steel and other metals where excessive heat
may change the properties of the material.
 Unlike machining or grinding, water jet cutting does not produce any
dust or particles that are harmful if inhaled.
 Other advantages are similar to abrasive water jet cutting

Disadvantages of water jet cutting

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 One of the main disadvantages of water jet cutting is that a limited

number of materials can be cut economically.
 Thick parts cannot be cut by this process economically and
accurately
 Taper is also a problem with water jet cutting in very thick materials.
Taper is when the jet exits the part at different angle than it enters the
part, and cause dimensional inaccuracy.
Abrasive Jet Machining
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM): Introduction, Equipment, Variables in AJM: Carrier Gas,
Type of abrasive work material, stand off distance (SOD), nozzle design, shape of cut. Process
characteristics-Material removal rate, Nozzle wear, Accuracy & surface finish. Applications,
advantages & Disadvantages of AJM.
Abrasive jet machcuining is an extended version of water jet cutting; in
which the water jet contains abrasive particles such as silicon carbide or
aluminium oxide in order to increase the material removal rate above that
of water jet machining. Almost any type of material ranging from hard brittle
materials such as ceramics, metals and glass to extremely soft materials
such as foam and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. The
narrow cutting stream and computer controlled movement enables this
process to produce parts accurately and efficiently. This machining process
is especially ideal for cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or
thermal cut. Metallic, non-metallic and advanced composite materials of
various thicknesses can be cut by this process. This process is particularly
suitable for heat sensitive materials that cannot be machined by processes
that produce heat while machining.

The schematic of abrasive water jet cutting is shown in Figure 15 which is

similar to water jet cutting apart from some more features underneath the
jewel; namely abrasive, guard and mixing tube. In this process, high

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velocity water exiting the jewel creates a vacuum which sucks abrasive
from the abrasive line, which mixes with the water in the mixing tube to
form a high velocity beam of abrasives.

Figure 4: Abrasive water jet machining

(http://www.waterjets.org/about_abrasivejets.html)

Applications

Abrasive water jet cutting is highly used in aerospace, automotive and

electronics industries. In aerospace industries, parts such as titanium
bodies for military aircrafts, engine components (aluminium, titanium, heat
resistant alloys), aluminium body parts and interior cabin parts are made
using abrasive water jet cutting.

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In automotive industries, parts like interior trim (head liners, trunk liners,
door panels) and fibre glass body components and bumpers are made by
this process. Similarly, in electronics industries, circuit boards and cable
stripping are made by abrasive water jet cutting.
Advantages of abrasive water jet cutting
 In most of the cases, no secondary finishing required
 No cutter induced distortion
 Low cutting forces on workpieces
 Limited tooling requirements
 Little to no cutting burr
 Typical finish 125-250 microns
 Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages
 No heat affected zone
 Localises structural changes
 No cutter induced metal contamination
 Eliminates thermal distortion
 No slag or cutting dross
 Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any
angle.
Limitations of abrasive water jet cutting
 Cannot drill flat bottom
 Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
 Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently
used for rough cutting.
 The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital
cost and high noise levels during operation.

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A component cut by abrasive water jet cutting is shown in Figure 5. As it

can be seen, large parts can but cut with very narrow kerf which reduces
material wastages.The complex shape part made by abrasive water jet
cutting is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5: Abrasive water jet cutting

Figure 6: Steel gear and rack cut with an abrasive water jet
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Module-II
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Electrochemical machining(ECM) is a metal-removal process based on the

principle of reverse electroplating. In this process, particles travel from the
anodic material (workpiece) toward the cathodic material (machining tool).
A current of electrolyte fluid carries away the deplated material before it has
a chance to reach the machining tool. The cavity produced is the female
mating image of the tool shape.

Figure7: ECM process

Similar to EDM, the workpiece hardness is not a factor, making ECM
suitable for machining difficult-to –machine materials. Difficult shapes can
be made by this process on materials regardless of their hardness. A
schematic representation of ECM process is shown in Figure 8. The ECM
tool is positioned very close to the workpiece and a low voltage, high

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amperage DC current is passed between the workpiece and electrode.

Some of the shapes made by ECM process is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 9: Parts made by ECM

Equipment used in ECM:

Schematic diagram of a electro chemical drilling unit

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Material Removal in ECM:

The total charge passed

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Dynamics of Electro chemical Machining:

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Advantages of ECM
 The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical
stress.
 No tool wear during ECM process.
 Fragile parts can be machined easily as there is no stress involved.
 ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.
 High surface finish (up to 25 µm in) can be achieved by ECM
process.
 Complex geometrical shapes in high-strength materials particularly in
the aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-
engine parts and nozzles can be machined repeatedly and
accurately.
 Deep holes can be made by this process.

Limitations of ECM
 ECM is not suitable to produce sharp square corners or flat bottoms
because of the tendency for the electrolyte to erode away sharp
profiles.
 ECM can be applied to most metals but, due to the high equipment
costs, is usually used primarily for highly specialised applications.

Material removal rate, MRR, in electrochemical machining:

MRR = C .I. h (cm3/min)
C: specific (material) removal rate (e.g., 0.2052 cm3/amp-min for
nickel);
I: current (amp);
h: current efficiency (90–100%).

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The rates at which metal can electrochemically remove are in proportion to

the current passed through the electrolyte and the elapsed time for that
operation.Many factors other than current influence the rate of machining.
These involve electrolyte type, rate of electrolyte flow, and some other
process conditions.
Chemical Machining (CM)

Chemical machining (CM) is the controlled dissolution of workpiece

material (etching) by means of a strong chemical reagent (etchant). In CM
material is removed from selected areas of workpiece by immersing it in a
chemical reagents or etchants; such as acids and alkaline solutions.
Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell action, as occurs
in corrosion or chemical dissolution of a metal. This controlled chemical
dissolution will simultaneously etch all exposed surfaces even though the
penetration rates of the material removal may be only 0.0025–0.1 mm/min.
The basic process takes many forms: chemical milling of pockets, contours,
overall metal removal, chemical blanking for etching through thin sheets;
photochemical machining (pcm) for etching by using of photosensitive
resists in microelectronics; chemical or electrochemical polishing where
weak chemical reagents are used (sometimes with remote electric assist)
for polishing or deburring and chemical jet machining where a single
chemically active jet is used.A schematic of chemical machining process is
shown in Figure 10.

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Figure 10: (a) Schematic of chemical machining process (b) Stages in producing a
profiled cavity by chemical machining (Kalpakjain&Schmid)

Chemical milling
In chemical milling, shallow cavities are produced on plates, sheets,
forgings and extrusions. The two key materials used in chemical milling
process are etchant and maskant. Etchants are acid or alkaline solutions
maintained within controlled ranges of chemical composition and
temperature. Maskants are specially designed elastomeric products that
are hand strippable and chemically resistant to the harsh etchants.
Steps in chemical milling
 Residual stress relieving: If the part to be machined has residual
stresses from the previous processing, these stresses first should be
relieved in order to prevent warping after chemical milling.
 Preparing: The surfaces are degreased and cleaned thoroughly to
ensure both good adhesion of the masking material and the uniform
material removal.
 Masking: Masking material is applied (coating or protecting areas not
to be etched).
 Etching: The exposed surfaces are machined chemically with
etchants.
 Demasking: After machining, the parts should be washed thoroughly
to prevent further reactions with or exposure to any etchant residues.
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Then the rest of the masking material is removed and the part is
cleaned and inspected.
Applications:
 Chemical milling is used in the aerospace industry to remove shallow
layers of material from large aircraft components missile skin panels
(Figure 11), extruded parts for airframes.

Figure 11: Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the
stiffness- to- weight ratio of the part (Kalpakjain&Schmid)

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Introduction

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-
traditional machining processes. The main attraction of EDM over
traditional machining processes such as metal cutting using different tools
and grinding is that this technique utilises thermoelectric process to erode
undesired materials from the workpiece by a series of discrete electrical

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sparks between the workpiece and the electrode. A picture of EDM

machine in operation is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Electrical discharge machine

The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive

material to remove the softer material whereas non-traditional
machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark or thermal
energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shape.
So, the hardness of the material is no longer a dominating factor for
EDM process. A schematic of an EDM process is shown in Figure 13,
where the tool and the workpiece are immersed in a dielectric fluid.

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Figure 13: Schematic of EDM process

EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored
in a capacitor bank, across a small gap between the tool (cathode) and the
workpiece (anode) typically in the order of 50 volts/10amps.
EDM – Components

The main components in EDM:

 Electric power supply

 Dielectric medium
 Work piece & tool
 Servo control unit.

The work piece and tool are electrically connected to a DC power supply.

The current density in the discharge of the channel is of the order of 10000
A/cm2 and power density is nearly 500 MW/cm2.

A gap, known as SPARK GAP in the range, from 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm is

maintained between the work piece and the tool.

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Dielectric slurry is forced through this gap at a pressure of 2 kgf/cm2 or

lesser.

EDM – Working Principle

 It is a process of metal removal based on the principle of material

removal by an interrupted electric spark discharge between
theelectrode tool and the work piece.
 In EDM, a potential difference is applied between the tool and
workpiece.
 Essential - Both tool and work material are to be conductors.
 The tool and work material are immersed in a dielectric medium.
 Generally kerosene or deionised water is used as the dielectric
medium.
 A gap is maintained between the tool and the workpiece.
 Depending upon the applied potential difference (50 to 450 V) and
the gap between the tool and workpiece, an electric field would be
established.
 Generally the tool is connected to the negative terminal (cathode) of
the generator and the workpiece is connected to positive terminal
(anode).
 As the electrons get accelerated, more positive ions and electrons
would get generated due to collisions.
 This cyclic process would increase the concentration of electrons and
ions in the dielectric medium between the tool and the job at the
spark gap.
 The concentration would be so high that the matter existing in that
channel could be characterised as “plasma”.
 The electrical resistance of such plasma channel would be very less.
 Thus all of a sudden, a large number of electrons will flow from tool to
job and ions from job to tool.
 This is called avalanche motion of electrons.
 Such movement of electrons and ions can be visually seen as a
spark.
 Thus the electrical energy is dissipated as the thermal energy of the
spark.
 The high speed electrons then impinge on the job and ions on the
tool.

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 The kinetic energy of the electrons and ions on impact with the
surface of the job and tool respectively would be converted into
thermal energy or heat flux.
 Such intense localized heat flux leads to extreme instantaneous
confined rise in temperature which would be in excess of 10,000oC.
 Such localized extreme rise in temperature leads to material removal.
 Material removal occurs due to instant vaporization of the material as
well as due to melting.
 The molten metal is not removed completely but only partially.
Electrode Material
Electrode material should be such that it would not undergo much tool wear
when it is impinged by positive ions. Thus the localized temperature rise
has to be less by tailoring or properly choosing its properties or even when
temperature increases, there would be less melting. Further, the tool
should be easily workable as intricate shaped geometric features are
machined in EDM.
Thus the basic characteristics of electrode materials are:

 High electrical conductivity – electrons are cold emitted more easily

and there is less bulk electrical heating
 High thermal conductivity
 Higher density
 High melting point – high melting point leads to less tool wear due to
less tool material melting for the same heat load
 Easy manufacturability
 Cost – cheape.g, Graphite ,Electrolytic oxygen free copper
,Tellurium copper – 99% Cu +0.5% tellurium ,Brass

Working principle of EDM

As shown in Figure 12, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is
applied across the narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece.
This high voltage induces an electric field in the insulating dielectric that is
present in narrow gap between electrode and workpiece. This cause
conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points
of strongest electrical field. When the potential difference between the

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electrode and the workpiece is sufficiently high, the dielectric breaks down
and a transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid, removing small
amount of material from the workpiece surface. The volume of the material
removed per spark discharge is typically in the range of 10-6 to 10-6 mm3.

The material removal rate, MRR, in EDM is calculated by the following

formula:
MRR = 40 I / Tm 1.23 (cm3/min)
Where, I is the current amp,
Tmis the melting temperature of workpiece in 0C

Mechanism of metal removal

Fundamentally, the electro sparking method of metal working involves an

electric erosion effect which connotes the breakdown of electrode material
accompanying any form of electric discharge. A necessary condition for
producing a discharge is the ionization of the dielectric that is splitting up of
its molecules into ions and electrons.
Consider the case of a discharge between two electrodes (tool cathode

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along the electric lines of force, thus forming current carrying bridges.
Discharge then occurs along one of these bridges as a result of ionization

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Dielectric Fluids
For dielectric fluids to be used in EDM process, it is essential that they
should
(i) Remain electrically non conductive until the required breakdown voltage is
reached, that is they should have high dielectric strength.

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Application of EDM
The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to-machine
materials. Parts with complex, precise and irregular shapes for forging,
press tools, extrusion dies, difficult internal shapes for aerospace and
medical applications can be made by EDM process. Some of the shapes
made by EDM process are shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14: Difficult internal parts made by EDM process

Advantages of EDM
The main advantages of DM are:
 By this process, materials of any hardness can be machined;
 No burrs are left in machined surface;
 One of the main advantages of this process is that thin and
fragile/brittle components can be machined without distortion;
 Complex internal shapes can be machined
Limitations of EDM
The main limitations of this process are:
 This process can only be employed in electrically conductive
materials;

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 Material removal rate is low and the process overall is slow compared
to conventional machining processes;
 Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur;
 Rough surface finish when at high rates of material removal.

Dielectric fluids

Dielectric fluids used in EDM process are hydrocarbon oils, kerosene and
deionised water. The functions of the dielectric fluid are to:

 Act as an insulator between the tool and the workpiece.

 Act as coolant.
 Act as a flushing medium for the removal of the chips.
The electrodes for EDM process usually are made of graphite, brass,
copper and copper-tungsten alloys.

Design considerations for EDM process are as follows:

 Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided.

 The surface smoothness value should not be specified too fine.
 Rough cut should be done by other machining process. Only finishing
operation should be done in this process as MRR for this process is
low.
Wire EDM

EDM, primarily, exists commercially in the form of die-sinking machines

and wire-cutting machines (Wire EDM). The concept of wire EDM is shown
in Figure 15. In this process, a slowly moving wire travels along a
prescribed path and removes material from the workpiece. Wire EDM uses
electro-thermal mechanisms to cut electrically conductive materials. The
material is removed by a series of discrete discharges between the wire
electrode and the workpiece in the presence of dielectric fluid, which
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creates a path for each discharge as the fluid becomes ionized in the gap.
The area where discharge takes place is heated to extremely high
temperature, so that the surface is melted and removed. The removed
particles are flushed away by the flowing dielectric fluids.

The wire EDM process can cut intricate components for the electric and
aerospace industries. This non-traditional machining process is widely used
to pattern tool steel for die manufacturing.

The wires for wire EDM is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum.
Zinc or brass coated wires are also used extensively in this process. The
wire used in this process should possess high tensile strength and good
electrical conductivity.

Figure 15: Wire erosion of an extrusion die

Wire EDM can also employ to cut cylindrical objects with high precision.
The sparked eroded extrusion dies are presented in Figure 16.

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Figure 16: Sparked eroded extrusion dies

This process is usually used in conjunction with CNC and will only work
when a part is to be cut completely through. The melting temperature of the
parts to be machined is an important parameter for this process rather than
strength or hardness. The surface quality and MRR of the machined
surface by wire EDM will depend on different machining parameters such
as applied peak current, and wire materials.

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Module-III
PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM):
Introduction
A plasma is defined as a superheated, electrically ionized gas. Plasma Arc
Cutting(PAC) uses a plasma stream operating at temperatures in the range
from 10,000 to 14,000 ºC to cut metal by melting. The cutting action takes
place by directing the high velocity plasma stream at the work, thus melting
it and blowing the molten metal through the kerf. Plasma is encountered in
electrical discharges, such as fluorescent tubes and electric arcs, lightning,
high temperature combustion flames and the sun. Most application of PAC
involve cutting of flat metal sheets and plates. Operations include hole
piercing and cutting along a defined path. It was initially employed to cut
metals that are difficult to machine by conventional methods. However, in
recent years, PAC has also been used to cut plain carbon steel, stainless
steel and aluminium.
Principle:
When heated to elevated temperatures, gases turn into a distinctly different
type of matter, which is plasma. When gases are heated by an applied
electric field, an igniter supplies the initial electrons, which accelerate in the
field before colliding and ionizing the atoms. The free electrons, in turn, get
accelerated and cause further ionization and heating of the gases. The
avalanche continues till a steady state is obtained in which the rate of
production of the free charges is balanced by recombination and loss of the
free charges to the walls and electrodes. The actual heating of the gas
takes place due to the energy liberated when free ions and electrons
recombine into atoms or when atoms recombine into molecules

Types of Plasma Arc Cutting system:

There are different types of plasma arc cutting operations are here. So
there are 2 main configurations are there.
 non-transferred mode,
 transfer mode

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So this plasma gas is flowing surrounding this cathode. So this surrounding

this cathode this plasma gas is coming and it is passing, this high velocity
plasma gas is passing through this nozzle here. So it is passing through the
nozzle. When it is passing through this nozzle, it is ionized, this plasma gas
high pressurized, high velocity plasma gas is ionized and using this non-
transferred mode any kind of material whether it is electrically conducting or
electrically non-conducting, any kind of material can be cut or machined.
So this non-transferred arc, arc between electrode and nozzle so this is arc
is generated between this electrode and this nozzle.
So here electrode this cathode and nozzle is connected to the anode and
electrothermal efficiency of this kind of non-transferred arc is 65 to 70%. So
it has a very low efficiency, low efficiency than this transferred mode. So
ionizes high velocity gas streaming towards the workpiece when it is
passing through this cathode or electrode and the nozzle so high velocity
plasma jet is actually here, it is ionizes. So workpiece conductivity is not a

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constant. So any kind of material, any kind of workpiece material, whether it

is electrically conducting or non-conducting, any kind of material can be cut
by this plasma, non-transferred mode of plasma arc cutting operation.
But in this transferred mode you can see here this is the electrode here and
this positive terminal is connected to the workpiece. So here the main
constant is that this workpiece should be electrically conducting material.
So this kind of transferred mode can be used only for electrically
conducting mode of electrically conducting workpiece material. So here
plasma gas is coming surrounding this electrode and while it is passing
through this so it is ionized here in this zone it is ionized while it is passing
through this nozzle it is ionized.
So electrical efficiency, electrothermal efficiency of this kind of transfer
mode, it is higher than this non-transfer mode, here it is 85 to 90%
electrothermal efficiency for transferred mode or plasma arc nozzle. So
arcing is generated between the electrode and the workpiece and arc heats
of this coaxial-flowing gas so this is coaxial flowing plasma gas okay so
maintains it in a plasma state. So here this workpiece is electrically
conducting. So these are the 2 modes arc mode, one is the non-transferred
and second one is the transferred arc mode.

Equipment

Elements of Plasma Arc system are

 power supply
 Gas supply
 Cooling water system
 Control console
 Plasma tourch
So first one is the power supply. Second one is the gas supply, plasma gas
supply system, then cooling water system. So you have to cool down this
nozzle as well as the plasma jet you have to cool down and then control
console. So this plasma jet can be controlled by using a CNC machining
system or this working table may be controlled by using a CNC machining
system, CNC system so that any complicated contour can be cut from the
workpiece material and also the fifth one is the fifth one of the plasma arc
system, plasma arc cutting system is the plasma torch.

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Mechanism of material removal:

The metal removal in PAM is basically due to the high temperature

produced. The heating of the work piece is, as a result of anode heating,
due to direct electron bombardment plus convection heating from the high
temperature plasma that accompanies the arc. The heat produced is
sufficient to raise the work piece temperature above its melting point and
the high velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal away.

Process Parameters:
Parameters that govern the performance of PAM can be divided into three
categories:
1. Those associated with the design and operation of the torch –
electrical power delivered , the gases used to form the plasma, the
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flow rate of the gases through the torch, the orifice diameter through
the nozzle duct.
2. Those associated with the physical configuration of the set up – torch
standoff, angle to the work, depth of cut, feed into the work and
speed of the work toward the torch.
3. Environment in which the work is performed – cooling that is done on
the bar, any protective type of atmosphere used to reduce oxidation
for the exposed high temperature machined surface and any means
that might be utilized to spread out or deflect the arc and plasma
impingement area.

Gas Cutting PAM

1.Oxidation of the work piece melted 1. Plasma is generated by subjecting
generates the heat to melt the a volume of gas to electron
material for (e.g) in cutting steel, fuel bombardment of an electric arc. The
gas is used to heat it to 7600-8700C anode heating due to direct electron
at while steel reacts rapidly with bombardment plus convective heating
oxygen to form iron oxide. The heat from the high temp plasma raises the
generated by the burning iron is material to the molten point and the
sufficient ot melt the iron oxide. high velocity gas stream effectively
2.Oxy-fuel gas cutting is mostly blows the material away.
limited to only ferrous metal 2.Because of the high temp involved,
especially plain carbon steels. the process can be used on almost all
3.Cutting speed are lower for (e.g) in material including those white are
cutting mild steel 19mm thick can be resistant to oxy- fuel gas cutting
cut at 500 mm /min. 3. Cutting speeds are higher and
4.Operating costs are higher leave a narrower kerf. They can cut
5.Limited to the max. temperature of mild steel 19mm thick at the rate of
the chemical reaction (burning) 1775mm /min.
6.Cost of equipment is lower. 4. Operating costs are lower. Ratio of
Surfaces are less smoother than savings in favor of PAM is about 3:1
those cut by PAM 5. Seems to be unlimited. The greater
the power used, the greater the
volume of kerf material that can be
removed.
6. High initial cost of the equipment.
7.Surfaces cut by plasma torch are
smoother but the edges are rounded.

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Advantages
 The main advantage of PAM is speed. For example, mild steel of
6mm thick can be cut at 3m/min
 The plasma arc can be used to cut any metal or even to non
conducting materials like concrete etc., since it is primarily a melting
process
 Due to high speed of cutting the deformation of sheet metals is
reduced while the width of the cut is minimum
 Owing to the high productivity of the plasma arc cutting coupled with
the tendency to use cheap and easily available plasma-forming media
(air, water, ammonia etc.,), PAC is finding ever increasing
application.
 Smooth cuts free from contaminants are obtained in the process
 Profile cutting of metals especially of stainless steel and aluminium
can be very easily done by PAM
 Operating costs are less when compared to oxy-fuel torch
 Can be automated

Limitations
 The main disadvantage of PAC is the high initial cost of the
equipment. However, it can be made economical, if the quantity
involved is large and the thickness is up to 50mm.
 Well-attached drops on the underside of the cut can be a problem
and there will be heat affected zone (HAZ). The depth of HAZ
depends on the material and its thickness
 Smoke and noise
 Sharp corners are difficult to produce because of the wide diameter of
the plasma stream
 Burr is often produced
 Taper on the work-piece may occur

Applications
 Chiefly used to cut stainless steel and aluminium alloys. It is preferred
to oxy-fuel cutting because it produces comparatively smoother cuts
and is free from contamination

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 Other metals which are resistant to oxy-fuel cutting and hence cut by
PAC are magnesium, titanium, copper, nickel and alloys of copper
and nickel
 PAC can be used for stack cutting, plate beveling, shape cutting and
piercing.
 It can also be used for underwater cutting.
 The plasma jets are used for welding materials like titanium, stainless
steel etc.,
 Plasma arc is used for depositing filler metal on surface to obtain
desired properties like corrosion resistance, wear resistance,
toughness or anti-friction properties – Plasma arc surfacing
 The plasma arc can also be used for spraying a prepared surface of
the base material with droplets of molten metal to obtain a surface of
required thickness

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Laser–Beam Machining (LBM)

Laser-beam machining is a thermal material-removal process that utilizes a

high-energy, coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the
surface of metallic and non-metallic workpieces. Lasers can be used to cut,
drill, weld and mark. LBM is particularly suitable for making accurately
placed holes. A schematic of laser beam machining is shown in Figure 17.
Different types of lasers are available for manufacturing operations which
are as follows:
 CO2 (pulsed or continuous wave): It is a gas laser that emits light in
the infrared region. It can provide up to 25 kW in continuous-wave
mode.
 Nd:YAG: Neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet (Y3Al5O12)
laser is a solid-state laser which can deliver light through a fibre-optic
cable. It can provide up to 50 kW power in pulsed mode and 1 kW in
continuous-wave mode.


Figure 17: Laser beam machining schematic

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Laser beam cutting (drilling)

 In drilling, energy transferred (e.g., via a Nd:YAG laser) into the

workpiece melts the material at the point of contact, which
subsequently changes into a plasma and leaves the region.
 A gas jet (typically, oxygen) can further facilitate this phase
transformation and departure of material removed.
 Laser drilling should be targeted for hard materials and hole
geometries that are difficult to achieve with other methods.
A typical SEM micrograph hole drilled by laser beam machining process
employed in making a hole is shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18: SEM micrograph hole drilled in 250 micro meter thick Silicon Nitride with
3rd harmonic Nd: YAG laser
Laser beam cutting (milling)

 A laser spot reflected onto the surface of a workpiece travels along a

prescribed trajectory and cuts into the material.

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 Continuous-wave mode (CO2) gas lasers are very suitable for laser
cutting providing high-average power, yielding high material-removal
rates, and smooth cutting surfaces.
Advantage of laser cutting
 No limit to cutting path as the laser point can move any path.
 The process is stress less allowing very fragile materials to be laser
cut without any support.
 Very hard and abrasive material can be cut.
 Sticky materials are also can be cut by this process.
 It is a cost effective and flexible process.
 High accuracy parts can be machined.
 No cutting lubricants required
 No tool wear
 Narrow heat effected zone
Limitations of laser cutting
 Uneconomic on high volumes compared to stamping
 Limitations on thickness due to taper
 High capital cost
 High maintenance cost
 Assist or cover gas required
Applications
 LBM can make very accurate holes as small as 0.005 mm in
refractory metals ceramics, and composite material without warping
the workpieces.
 This process is used widely for drilling and cutting of metallic and
non-metallic materials.
 Laser beam machining is being used extensively in the electronic and
automotive industries.

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Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

In electron beam machining process there is a bombardment of high

velocity stream of electrons on the work-piece surface so this electrons are
bombarded on the work piece surface with a very high velocity, around
66% velocity of the sunlight so because of this bombardment of electrons
on the work piece surface the materials into a small area on the work piece
surface it melts and vaporizes and temperature rises to a very high
temperature. So material on the work piece surface melts and vaporizes
and machining is going on.
So this process actually it is used for machining thousands of holes on a
thin sheet which is used in aerospace industry, food processing industry,
cloth industries and very high aspect ratio for making of very high aspect
ratio holes, thousands of holes on a work piece surface irrespective of the
material property like metallurgical property, mechanical property of the
material.
So this material maybe electrically conducting or electrically non-
conducting or maybe ceramics, metals, or any kind of metal, any kind of
ceramics it works. So here there is a filament which is heated with a very
high temperature. So because of this heating of this filament so electrons
emanates from that cathode, cathode filament or these filament may be
heated from a radiation from a another body, from the radiation from a
another body on a solid block of cathode, on a solid block of filament also it
can be generated. So these electrons emits from the cathode, cathode
filament and it passes through a magnetic lens to coincide to concentrate
or to reduce the diameter of the electron beam and it bombards on the
work piece surface.

Types of EBM

Electron beam machining process there are 2 types of methods are there.
One is the thermal type. Another one is the non-thermal type. So in
normal in non-thermal type this electron beams are used for generating
chemical reactions. So for generating chemical reactions the electron
beams are used. So this non-thermal type we are not going to discuss. We
are going to discuss only thermal type of electron beam machining process.

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In thermal type this cathode is heated to a very high temperature. So this

stream of large number of electrons comes as a small diameter beam,
electron beam.

So this stream of large number of electrons emits from the cathode, from a
heated cathode. It comes out as a small diameter beam. So it moves
towards the workpiece with a very high velocity and it bombards, machining
is going on due to the bombardment of these electrons on a very small
localized area. So as it is bombarded on a very small localized area, huge
amount of temperature is generated on the workpiece surface. So
machining is going on due to the melting and vaporization of this material
from the workpiece surface from a much localized area.

Equipment and working of EBM

Fig. below shows the schematic representation of an electron beam gun,
which is the heart of any electron beam machining facility. The basic
functions of any electron beam gun are to generate free electrons at the
cathode, accelerate them to a sufficiently high velocity and to focus them

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over a small spot size. Further, the beam needs to be manoeuvred if

required by the gun.
The cathode as can be seen in Fig. is generally made of tungsten or
tantalum. Such cathode filaments are heated, often inductively, to a
0
temperature of around 2500 C. Such heating leads to thermo-ionic
emission of electrons, which is further enhanced by maintaining very low
vacuum within the chamber of the electron beam gun. Moreover, this
cathode cartridge is highly negatively biased so that the thermo-ionic
electrons are strongly repelled away form the cathode. This cathode is
often in the form of a cartridge so that it can be changed very quickly to
reduce down time in case of failure.

Electron beam gun

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Just after the cathode, there is an annular bias grid. A high negative bias is
applied to this grid so that the electrons generated by this cathode do not
diverge and approach the next element, the annular anode, in the form of a
beam. The annular anode now attracts the electron beam and gradually
gets accelerated. As they leave the anode section, the electrons may
achieve a velocity as high as half the velocity of light.
The nature of biasing just after the cathode controls the flow of electrons
and the biased grid is used as a switch to operate the electron beam gun in
pulsed mode.
After the anode, the electron beam passes through a series of magnetic
lenses and apertures. The magnetic lenses shape the beam and try to
reduce the divergence. Apertures on the other hand allow only the
convergent electrons to pass and capture the divergent low energy
electrons from the fringes. This way, the aperture and the magnetic lenses
improve the quality of the electron beam.
Then the electron beam passes through the final section of the
electromagnetic lens and deflection coil. The electromagnetic lens focuses
the electron beam to a desired spot. The deflection coil can manoeuvre the
electron beam, though by small amount, to improve shape of the machined
holes.
Generally in between the electron beam gun and the workpiece, which is
also under vacuum, there would be a series of slotted rotating discs. Such
discs allow the electron beam to pass and machine materials but helpfully
prevent metal fumes and vapour generated during machining to reach the
gun. Thus it is essential to synchronize the motion of the rotating disc and
pulsing of the electron beam gun.
Electron beam guns are also provided with illumination facility and a
telescope for alignment of the beam with the workpiece.
Workpiece is mounted on a CNC table so that holes of any shape can be
machined using the CNC control and beam deflection in-built in the gun.
One of the major requirements of EBM operation of electron beam gun is
maintenance of desired vacuum. Level of vacuum within the gun is in the
-4 -6
order of 10 to 10 Torr. {1 Torr = 1mm of Hg} Maintenance of suitable
vacuum is essential so that electrons do not loose their energy and a
significant life of the cathode cartridge is obtained. Such vacuum is
achieved and maintained using a combination of rotary pump and diffusion
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pump. Diffusion pump, as shown in Fig. 9.6.4 is attached to the diffusion

pump port of the electron beam gun (vide Fig. 9.6.3).
Diffusion pump is essentially an oil heater. As the oil is heated the oil
vapour rushes upward where gradually converging structure as shown in
Fig. 9.6.4 is present. The nozzles change the direction of motion of the oil
vapour and the oil vapour starts moving downward at a high velocity as jet.
Such high velocity jets of oil vapour entrain any air molecules present
within the gun. This oil is evacuated by a rotary pump via the backing line.
The oil vapour condenses due to presence of cooling water jacket around
the diffusion pump.

Electron Beam Process – Parameters

The process parameters, which directly affect the machining characteristics

in Electron Beam Machining, are:
• The accelerating voltage
• The beam current
• Pulse duration
• Energy per pulse
• Power per pulse
• Lens current
• Spot size
• Power density

As has already been mentioned in EBM the gun is operated in pulse mode.
This is achieved by appropriately biasing the biased grid located just after
the cathode. Switching pulses are given to the bias grid so as to achieve
pulse duration of as low as 50 μs to as long as 15 ms.
Beam current is directly related to the number of electrons emitted by the
cathode or available in the beam. Beam current once again can be as low
as 200 μamp to 1 amp.
Increasing the beam current directly increases the energy per pulse.
Similarly increase in pulse duration also enhances energy per pulse. High-
energy pulses (in excess of 100 J/pulse) can machine larger holes on
thicker plates.
The energy density and power density is governed by energy per pulse
duration and spot size. Spot size, on the other hand is controlled by the
degree of focusing achieved by the electromagnetic lenses. A higher

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energy density, i.e., for a lower spot size, the material removal would be
faster though the size of the hole would be smaller.
The plane of focusing would be on the surface of the workpiece or just
below the surface of the workpiece. This controls the kerf shape or the
shape of the hole as schematically shown in Fig. 9.6.5.

Typical kerf shape of electron beam drilled hole

As has been indicated earlier, the final deflection coil can manoeuvre the
electron beam providing holes of non-circular cross-section as required.

Advantages
 EBM provides very high drilling rates when small holes with large
aspect ratio are to be drilled.
 Moreover it can machine almost any material irrespective of their
mechanical properties. As it applies no mechanical cutting force, work
holding and fixturing cost is very less.

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 Further for the same reason fragile and brittle materials can also be
processed.
 The heat affected zone in EBM is rather less due to shorter pulses.
 EBM can provide holes of any shape by combining beam deflection
using electromagnetic coils and the CNC table with high accuracy.

Limitations
 The primary limitations are the high capital cost of the equipment and
necessary regular maintenance applicable for any equipment using
vacuum system.
 Moreover in EBM there is significant amount of non-productive pump
down period for attaining desired vacuum.
 However this can be reduced to some extent using vacuum load
locks.
 Though heat affected zone is rather less in EBM but recast layer
formation cannot be avoided.

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Module-IV
Introduction to Surface engineering
The majority of material failure originates at surface by mechanism
involving wear, corrosion and fatigue. In case of metals, one technique for
controlling surface initiated failure is through use of alloying elements
throughout the bulk of these specimens to suitably modify the hardness,
chemical passivity or strength characteristics. However this method is
considered inefficient due to the use of costly strategic alloying elements
like Chromium(Cr) and Cobolt (Co). The reorganization that vast majority of
engineering components fails catastrophically in service through surface
related phenomena, led to the development of broad interdisciplinary
subject of “Surface Engineering”. Surface Engineering could be best
defined as design of surface and substrate together as a system to give
cost effective performance enhancement of which neither is capable of its
own. The definition of surface engineering is given as “The application of
traditional and innovative surface technologies to engineering components
and materials with properties unattainable in either the base metal or
surface materials”. Frequently the various surface technologies are applied
to existing design of engineering components but ideally surface
engineering involves design of component with knowledge of surface
treatment to be employed. OR As per Definition by ASM Handbook
treatment of the surface and near-surface regions of a material to allow the
surface to perform functions that are distinct from those functions
demanded from the bulk of the material. Surface engineering, is a discipline
of science and technology, which meets the expectations of modem
technical science: energy, material efficiency, as well as environment
friendliness.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE ENGINEERING

(I) Changing the Surface Metallurgy: None of these process changes the
surface chemistry, but they improve properties like wear and fatigue by
changing surface metallurgy
a) Localized surface hardening (flame, induction, laser, and electron-
beam hardening): Improves wear resistance through the development of a
hard martensitic surface.
(b) Laser melting: Improves wear resistance through grain refinement and
the formation offine dispersions of precipitates on the surface.

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c) Shot peening:
Shot peening is a surface enhancement process which produces beneficial
compressive residual stresses on metallic surfaces. This improves fatigue
strength and relieves tensile stresses that contribute to stress-corrosion
cracking.
(II) Changing the Surface Chemistry Surface modification processes
have advantage over coating primarily because they
(1) usually impart internal compressive stresses in near surface region
and
(2) Will not delaminate off the substrate.

The process includes:

(a) Chemical or electrochemical conversion treatment that produce
complex phosphates, chromates/oxides on metal surface.
(b) Thermo chemical diffusion heat treatment that involves the introduction
of interstitial elements like C, N or B into ferrous alloy surface at elevated
temperature.
(c)Pack cementation diffusion treatments that involve the introduction of
aluminium(Al), Cr or silicon(Si) into alloy surface.
(d) Surface modification by ion implantation, which involves introduction of
ionized species (virtually any element) into the substrate using ion beam of
high velocity electrons.
(e) Surface modification by combination oflaser beam melting and alloying.

(III) Adding a Surface Layer or Coating This involves an intentional

buildup or addition of new layer on metal substrate i.e. application of
coating or lining. A wide range of processes are used to deposit
metal/ceramic and Qrganic (paints or plastic and rubber coating).
Coating methods commonly used are:

I. Organic coatings and lining

II. Ceramic coatings
III. Hot dip metallic coatings
IV. Electroplating (metal or composite coating)
V. Weld overlays (metal or ceramic coating)
VI. Cladding (thick metal coating)
VII. Thermo reactive deposition/diffusion process (carbides, nitrides or
earbonitrides)

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Amongst all the above methods of coating deposition, ceramic coatings

have advantages since Ceramic materials are noted for their high hot
hardness and good chemical and thermal stability, making their surface
properties ideal for number of engineering products, which encounter
demanding operating conditions. The deposition of ceramic phases onto
conventional metallic materials results in good combination of bulk
toughness and load support with desirable surface characteristics and also
making forming of complex shapes easier.

METHODS OF DEPOSITING CERAMIC COATINGS:

1. Thermal Spraying:
2. Sol Gel technique
3. Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique (CVD)
4. Physical Vapor Deposition Technique (PVD)

Thermal Spraying Thermal spray is one ofthe most versatile deposition

processes for coating materials and its use for industrial applications has
been greatly increase. Thermal spraying is, in fact, a generic group
ofprocesses in which the coating material is fed to a heating zone, where it
becomes molten, and is then propelled to the surface to be coated .
Metallic, ceramic, cermets and some polymeric materials can be used in
the form ofpowder, wire, or rod for this purpose. (Fig 1.4.1)

Sol Gel technique The sol-gel technique is based on hydrolysis ofliquid

precursors at low temperature and formation ofcolloidal sols. (Fig 1.4.2)

Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique (CVD ) CVD involves flowing a

precursor gas or gases into a chamber containing one or more heated
objects to be coated. Chemical reactions occurs on or near the hot
surfaces resulting in deposition of thin films on the substrate, this is
accompanied by the production of chemical byproducts that are exhausted
out of chamber along with unreacted precursor gases.

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Schematic diagram of various processes for Ceramic thin film deposition

Physical Vapor Deposition Technique (PVD) PVD processes are

atomistic deposition processes in which material is vaporized from
solid/liquid source in form of atoms/molecules, transported in form of vapor
through a vacuum or low pressure gaseous or plasma environment to the
substrate where it condenses. PVD can be used to deposit films of metals
or alloys as well as compounds using reactive: deposition processes. The
main advantage of PVD processes compared to CVD processes is the low
deposition temperature (typically around 500°C).Because of low
temperature and high growth rates involved PVD coatings have high
compressive stresses while those formed under CVD have low tensile

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stresses. If the layer contains more atoms in interstitial positions than there
are vacancies in lattice and tensile stresses are formed like in case of CVD.
While if layer contains more Vacancies in interstitial position and atoms in
lattice compressive stresses are formed. In Addition to this other
advantages include excellent adhesion, good thickness uniformity, wide
range of coating and substrate materials is possible and no hydrogen
embrittlement problem. PVD Titanium Nitride (TiN) is superior to CVD TiN
coating in increasing the metal cutting performance of Cemented carbide
tools owing to the former's greater resistance to abrasive wear and its
associated higher surface fracture strength. This is due to fact that PVD
TiN coating microstructure and beneficial compressive residual stress both
of which contribute to higher micro hardness. However main disadvantage
of PVD process is they are generally line of sight between surface to be
coated and source. PVD thin films are widely used for surface protection,
optical and electronic applications. Following figure shows the useage of
thin films for various applications.
The largest application of PVD coatings is in surface protection for example
in metal cutting fleld-particularly for twist drills, gear cutting tools, forming
tools such as in cold backward impact of copper components, polymer
processing machinery(injector screws),moulds for plastic, in food industry
coating on stainless steel sleeve used for manufacturing of chocolate, in
metrology field thread gauges and slip gauges, in medical applications for
surgical tools, used in automotive parts of racing cam. Attractive golden
color of TiN has led to its increasing use as decorative coating in jewellary
applications. Cathode arc evaporation (CAE), one of the PVD processes
has high deposition rates to produce dense and excellent adhesive
coatings that offer a potential economical advantage. The industrial
utilization of CAE is largely confined to mechanical applications, in
particular to the deposition ofhard coatings on the cutting tools.

Micro and nano machining of glasses and ceramics

Material removal at micro/nano level with no constraint on the size of the
component being machined is called micro or nano machining respectively.
Some examples are
 Creating micro features or surface characteristics (especially surface
finish) in the micro/nano level.

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 Removal of material in the form of chips or debris having the size in

the range of microns.
 Machining of micro parts is not literally correct as macro machining

The need for high precision in manufacturing was felt by manufacturers

worldwide to improve interchangeability of components, improve quality
control and longer wear/fatigue life
 In the era of nanotechnology, deterministic high precision finishing
methods are of utmost importance and are the need of present
manufacturing scenario.
 Final finishing operations in manufacturing of precise parts are
always of concern owing to their most critical, labour intensive and
least controllable nature

Reverse Engineering,
Engineering is the process of designing, manufacturing, assembling, and
maintaining products and systems. There are two types of engineering,
forward engineering and reverse engineering. Forward engineering is the
traditional process of moving from high-level abstractions and logical
designs to the physical implementation of a system. In some situations,
there may be a physical part/product without any technical details, such as
drawings, bills-of-material, or without engineering data. The process of
duplicating an existing part, subassembly, or product, without drawings,
documentation, or a computer model is known as reverse engineering.
Reverse engineering is also defined as the process of obtaining a
geometric CAD model from 3-D points acquired by scanning/digitizing
existing parts/products. The process of digitally capturing the physical
entities of a component, referred to as reverse engineering (RE), is often
defined by researchers with respect to their specific task.
Reverse engineering is now widely used in numerous applications, such as
Manufacturing, industrial design, and jewelry design and reproduction For
example, when a new car is launched on the market, competing
manufacturers may buy one and disassemble it to learn how it was built
and how it works. In software engineering, good source code is often a

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variation of other good source code. In some situations, such as

automotive styling, designers give shape to their ideas by using clay,
plaster, wood, or foam rubber, but a CAD model is needed to manufacture
the part. As products become more organic in shape, designing in CAD
becomes more challenging and there is no guarantee that the CAD
representation will replicate the sculpted model exactly.
Reverse engineering provides a solution to this problem because the
physical model is the source of information for the CAD model. This is also
referred to as the physical-to-digital process depicted in Figure 1.2. Another
reason for reverse engineering is to compress product development cycle
times. In the intensely competitive global market, manufacturers are
constantly seeking new ways to shorten lead times to market a new
product.
Rapid product development (RPD) refers to recently developed
technologies and techniques that assist manufacturers and designers in
meeting the demands of shortened product development time. For
example, injection-molding companies need to shorten tool and die
development time drastically. By using reverse engineering, a three-
dimensional physical product or clay mock-up can be quickly captured in
the digital form, remodeled, and exported for rapid prototyping/tooling or
rapid manufacturing using multi-axis CNC machining techniques.

Concurrent Engineering
In concurrent engineering (CE) product is developed by a team involving
engineers from both the design section and the production shop. The
advantages of concurrent engineering are based on the economic leverage
of addressing all aspects of design of a product as early as possible. Hence
using concurrent engineering most of the design modification is
incorporated as early as possible. It is also true that the importance of early
modification is very significant and the ability of the early change to
influence the product cost is much larger as indicated. Hence using
concurrent engineering most of the design modifications are incorporated
as early as possible.

Rapid prototyping:
Though the principle of concurrent engineering (CE) is quite clear and the
advantages of the concept for improved quality and reduced cost are
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implicit, it is not possible to incorporate CE effectively in the absence of

some technique for quick development of prototype. To reduce the
development time and adopt concurrent engineering in its true spirit, quick
and inexpensive fabrication of prototype parts is essential and rapid
prototyping technology has made that possible.

A family of unique fabrication processes developed to make engineering

prototypes in minimum lead time based on a CAD model of the item
•The traditional method is machining
−Machining can require significant lead-times –several weeks, depending
on part complexity and difficulty in ordering materials
•RP allows a part to be made in hours or days given that a computer model
of the part has been generated on a CAD system

References

1. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology Fifth Edition -

SeropeKalpakjian and Steven R Sschmid. (Prentice Hall), 2006.
2. Manufacturing Technology, Volume 2. R L Timings & S P Wilkinson
(Longman) 2000.

3. Manufacturing Processes and Equipment – George Tlusty(Prentice

Hall).
4. E. Paul DeGarmo, J.T. Black, R.A. Kohsern, Materials and Processes
in Manufacturing, 8th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1997,
pp. 941–947.
5. Chemical Machining, Metals Handbook, vol. 3, Machining, 8th ed.,
American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, pp. 240–248.
6. http://www.dimeg.unipd.it/didattica/31/8_Non_conventional.pdf

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7. www.eng.morgan.edu

8. http://www.answers.com/topic/electrical-discharge-machining
9. http://www.exitech.co.uk/pdfFiles/Microhole%20Drilling%20using%20
Reshaped%20Pulsed%20Gaussian%20Laser%20Beam.pdf

10.http://www.google.co.uk/search?q=ultrasonic+machining+picture&hl=
en&start=10&sa=N

11.http://www.ebtecwelding.com/waterjet-cutting/wjetlimitations.html

12.http://www.waterjets.org/about_abrasivejets.html

13.http://www.waterjets.org/index.html

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