Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Motivation

Installation and integration of DGs in distribution systems can provide several technical,
economic, and environmental benefits. The technical benefits are power loss reduction,
voltage profile improvement, and power quality enhancement [1]. The environmental
benefits are the reduction of pollution and emission levels in the system. Economic benefits
aim to reduce the operational costs as much as possible and to increase the profits of all
system participants.
On the other hand, CBs installation in distribution system can produce reactive power that
able to improve load-bus voltage and to reduce the distribution power losses. Thus, the
required reactive power demand from the main grid is reduced [2].Added to that,the voltage
fluctuations caused by some types of DGs can be reduced by using (fixed-switched)
capacitor banks (CBs) [3]. Therefore, it is expected that a hybrid penetration of DGs and
CBs reduce distribution power losses, improve voltage profile and therefore enhance the
overall distribution system performance. But to achieve the earlier mentioned benefits and
to decrease voltage deviation (VD) problems, placement and sizing of DGs and CBs need to
be investigate using proper optimization tools [4].

1.2 Literature Survey

DG Units Placement: DG placement has been studied using several techniques. El-Sehiemy
and Ahmed [5] studied the insertion of the DGs into distribution systems and the effect of its
placement on protective devices setting. In [6], a cat swarm optimization method was
proposed for finding the optimal placement and sizing of DGs in the network to reduce total
power loss,total generation cost and emissions. Injeti and Kumar [7] proposed a particle
swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to find the optimal placement and sizing of the DGs in
distribution systems to minimize power loss. Saravanamutthukumaran and Kumarappan [8]
considered different load levels while finding the optimal placement of the DG using
multiobjective optimization technique.Aminietal.[9]utilized a two stages optimization
method for getting the optimal placement of renewable DG and electric vehicles parking
lots.

CBs Placement: Optimal placement and sizing of CBs can offer several benefits, such as
minimizing power loss cost and harmonic distortion level [10]. Optimization techniques for
CBs placement and sizing problem can be classified into many categories [11], such as
numerical methods, heuristic, and other optimization techniques. A review of CBs placement
and sizing techniques has been presented in [12]. In [13], the iterative allocation method of
CBs is introduced for reactive power planning problem.

Hybrid DGs/CBs Placement: Saonerkar and Bagde [14] proposed genetic algorithm for
getting the optimal placement and sizing of combined DGs and CBs in distribution systems.
Jannat and Savic [15] proposed a method for solving the placement and sizing problem
considering the effect of renewable energy uncertainty.

1.3 Paper Contribution

This study proposes the water cycle algorithm (WCA) to obtain the optimal DGs/CBs
placement and sizing in distribution systems. The proposed method aims to realize the
following benefits.
1) Studying the penetration of DGs and CBs to enhance the technical, environmental,
and economic issues of distribution systems.
2) Three technical objectives are satisfied that are: power loss reduction, voltage profile
improvement, and stability index enhancement.
3) Two economic issues are considered as minimizing the costs of generated power and
CBs.
4) Reducing the emission is considered as environmental benefit for achieving clean
operation.
5) Providing a controllable power factor strategy for flexible operation of distribution
systems.
6) Three operational cases of DGs/CBs are considered with single objective
optimization to find the effectiveness of the proposed WCA compared with other
techniques.
7) Two additional multiobjective cases are considered to estimate the technical,
economic, and environmental impacts of the optimal placement and sizing of DGs/CBs.
8) Appling the proposed method to standard and real radial distribution system.
9) Increasing the awareness of the importance of combined penetration of DGs and CBs
for enhancing the operation of electrical systems.
 Chapter 2

Problem Formulation
The objective functions (OFs), equality and inequality constrains are introduced for optimal
placement and sizing of DGs and CBs in distribution systems as follows.

2.1 Objective Functions

The proposed method aims to achieve three types of OFs: technical, economic, and
environmental OFs.

1) Technical OF: Three technical OFs are considered in this section. The first one aims to
minimize the distribution power losses (f1) that can be expressed as [6]

nL

f1 (x) = min ∑ R i ∗ |Ii |2 (1)

i=1
.

The second technical OF aims to improve the voltage profile and preserve better voltage
profile. This function can be described as [16]

N spec 2
vi − v
f2 (x) = min ∑ ( max i min ) (2)
vi − vi
i=0

Voltage stability is one of the most significant indices. The third OF (f3) for voltage stability
index (VSI) can be described as follows [16]:

1
f3 (x) = min ( ) (3)
VSI(m2 )

Where
2
𝑉𝑆𝐼(𝑚2 ) = 𝐴𝐵𝑆(|𝑉(𝑚1 )|4 − 4 ∗ [𝑃(𝑚2 ) ∗ 𝑋𝑖𝑗 − 𝑄(𝑚2 ) ∗ 𝑅𝑖𝑗 ] −
4 ∗ [𝑃(𝑚2 ) ∗ 𝑅𝑖𝑗 + 𝑄(𝑚2 ) ∗ 𝑋𝑖𝑗 ] ∗ |𝑉(𝑚1 )|2 ) (4)
2) Economic OF: The economical OF (f4) aims to minimize the power generation costs that
can be calculated from [2] and [17].

NDG

f4 (x) = min ∑(CDGi + Csub + CCB ) (5)

i=1
Where

CDGi =a+b∗PGi (6)

$
capital cost (KW) ∗ capacity(KW) ∗ Gr
a= (7)
life time(year) ∗ 8760 ∗ LF

$ $
b = O&𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ( ) + fuel cost ( ) (8)
KW. h KW. h

Csub = Pg grid ∗ Pr grid (9)

∑Nc
i=1(ei + Cci |Q ci )
CCB = (10)
lifetime ∗ 8760

3) Environmental OF: (Minimization of Generation Units’ Emissions (f5)): CO2, SO2, and
NOx are considered as mosteffective pollutantsin power generation sources.The
mathematical formulation of this OF can be described as follows [9]:

NDG
f5 (x) = ∑i=1 (EDGi + Egrid ) (11)

EDGi = (CODG DG DG
2 + NOx + SO2 ) ∗ PGi (12)

EGrid = (COGrid
2 + NOGrid
x + SOGrid
2 ) ∗ PgGrid (13)
2.2 Constraints

1) Equality Constraints: The constraints for power balance requirements

NG NG

∑ PGi − Pl = PD , ∑ QGi − Ql = QD (14)

i=1 i=1

2) Inequality Constraints: Maximum admissible generated power from DGs/CBs should

not exceed to permissible limitations of the distribution systems.

1) Generation operating limits

PGimin ≤ PGi ≤ PGimax , QGimin ≤ QGi ≤ QGimax (15)

2) Installed capacitors limits

QCB
total < Q d (16)

3) Bus voltage limits

.95 ≤ Vi ≤ 1.05, i = 1,2, … … … . . , nbus (17)

4) DG Power factor limit

.8 ≤ 𝑃𝐹 ≤ 1 (18)
 Chapter 3

Proposed WCA

3.1 WCA Procedure

WCA [18] begins with an initial population similar to other metaheuristic algorithms, this initial
population called the raindrops (RD). The values of the problem controlled variables xi
(PGi,QGi,QCBtotal,andplacementofDGandCB)canbeformed as an array called “RD” for single
solution. This array can be defined as follows:

RD = [x1 , x2 , x3 , … … … . , xN ] (19)
RP matrix contains random solutions in iteration #1 as
j
RP = {xk : j = 1: Npop and k = 1: Nvar } (20)

Then, (ffi) is obtained from

i
ffi = f(x1i , x2i , x3i , … … … , xN var
), i = 1,2,3 … … … … , NPOP (21)
After that, the best RD is selected to be the sea, number of good RD is chosen to be the rivers
and the remainder RD are assumed to be streams that flow to the sea or the rivers. Equation (22)
calculates the streams that flow to a sea or a river depending on the flow intensity as

ffn
NSn = round {| Nsr | ∗ NPOP } , n = 1,2,3, … … … … … . Nsr . (22)
∑i=1 ffi

A stream flows to the river along the path between them using a random distance (x) [18]. The
same concept is applied for flowing rivers to the sea, so the new position for the streams and
rivers can be given as

i+1 i i i
Xstream = Xstream + rand ∗ U ∗ (Xriver − X stream ) (23)

i+1 i i i
Xriver = Xriver + rand ∗ U ∗ (Xsea − X river ) (24)

where U is a constant and it equals to 2.To avoid getting trapped in local optimal it is assumed
that an evaporation process will happen and the clouds will be formed and then it will begin to
rain (new random solutions). The condition in (25) is checked, if it is satisfied then evaporation

6
will be started.
i i
|Xsea − Xriver | < dmax , i = 1,2,3, … … … … , Nsr (25)

After each evaporation process, the value of dmax is as

di+1
max
di+1 i+1
max = dmax − ( ) (26)
max iteration

Fig. 1. Flow chart of the proposed method

7
The raining process starts after evaporation process. The new streams are formed due to newly
RD (random solution).
The streams that directly flow to the sea [see (27)] aim to encourage streams production to
improve the optimal solution for constrained problems.

new
Xstream = Xsea + √μ ∗ rand(1, Nvar ) (27)

where µ is the coefficient that shows the range of searching near the sea and its value is usually
equals to 0.1.

3.2 Investigation WCA for Placement and Sizing Problem

Fig. 1 shows the proposed steps of solving placement and sizing problem using WCA as follows.
Step 1: Loading distribution system data and defining the power limits of DGs and CBs in the
system.
Step 2: Identifying the WCA parameters.
Step 3: Randomly initialize the set of RD (solution).
Step 4: Checking the system constrains for each solution.
Step 5: Determining the fitness function of each RD.
Step 6: Determining the best solution in the rain drops.
Step 7: Generating the new set of solutions.
Step 8: Repeating steps from 4–7 until stopping criteria or maximum iteration is satisfied.

8
 Chapter 4

Applications

4.1 Test Distribution Systems

The proposed WCA is applied to three distribution systems. These systems are IEEE 33-bus
distribution system [17], IEEE 69-bus distribution system [18], and the East Delta network
(EDN) as a real part of the Egyptian distribution network [20]. The total real and reactive loads
of the three systems are 3.715 + j2.3MVA,3.802 + j2.694MVA, and 22.441 + j14.162MVA,
respectively.

The power flow calculations are carried out using backward forward sweeping [20], [21]. The
total real power losses for the three distributions systems in the initial case are 202.67, 225, and
805.73 kW, respectively.

4.2 Cases Studied

Five operational cases are introduced to show the effectiveness of the proposed WCA and to
study the impact of DGs and CBs installation on the system performance.

Case 1: Single OF, power loss minimization, is considered for placement and sizing of CBs
alone.

Case 2: Single OF, power loss minimization, is considered for placement and sizing of DGs that
operate at unity PF.

Case 3: Single OF power loss minimization is considered for optimal placement and sizing
combination of CBs/DGs.

Case 4: Multiobjective optimal placement and sizing of CBs/DGs. The DGs are operated with
controllable PF. Three technical objectives (f1, f2, f3) are considered. The multiOF is
implemented by using weighting factors approach. The OF can be expressed as follows:

OF = min(k1 f1 + k 2 f2 + k 3 f3 ) (28)

Case 5: Multiobjective optimal placement and sizing of multi CBs/DGs. DGs are controllable
units to supply active and reactive power. Technical, economic, and environmental objectives (f1,
f4, and f5) are optimized. Therefore, the OF can be formulated as follow:

OF = min(k1 f1 + k 2 f4 + k 3 f5 ) (29)

9
The economic and environmental properties of DGs are dependent on their type. Table I shows
the characteristics of the considered DGs which are customized from [9] and [17].

In order to increase the DGs penetration level, three types of DGs are considered (PV, WT, and
GT). Generated power costs at substations are considered to be 0.044 $/kW·h [17]. ei and Cci are
taken equal to 1000 and 30 000 $/Mvar, respectively [2]. The generated power cost in EDN grid
is (0.0625 + 0.72Prsub) $/h according to [22].

10
4.3 Results and Comments

1) Results of 33-Bus Network: Results of case 1 are shown in Table II where the optimal
placement and sizing of CBs is determined using the proposed WCA. The results of this case are
compared with other algorithms [bacterial foraging optimization algorithm (BFOA) [23], crow
search algorithm (CSA) [24], and PSO [31]]. Three capacitors are installed at buses 14, 24, and
30. The results show that the proposed algorithm is efficient to find the optimal solution with
lowest real power losses of 130.91 kW and the total installed CBs capacity
equals1.8484MVAR.Thelowestvoltage(0.951p.u.)isfoundat bus 18.

Table III presents the optimal solution of Case 2. It shows the effectiveness of the proposed
WCA for finding the optimal placement and sizing of DGs only. The obtained results are
assessed comparing with that of BFOA in [23] and [25]–[27].

11
The proposed WCA gives a significant reduction in total active power loss to be 71.052 kW with
reduction of 64.9% referred to initial case. Three DGs are installed at buses 14, 24, and 29 with
penetration 0.8546, 1.017, and 1.181 MW, respectively. The minimum voltage level (0.973) is
obtained at bus 33.

Table IV represents the results of Case 3 that shows that the WCA gives superior power loss
reduction compared with Cases 1 and 2. Case 3 suggests installing three DGs at buses 11, 25,
and 29 and three CBs at buses 14, 23, and 30. A significant power loss reduction (24.688 kW) is
achieved compared to GA (71.25 kW) and BFOA (41.41 kW). The minimum voltage level of
0.98 p.u. is obtained at bus 33.

From the results of Case 4 that is shown in Table V, it is clear that the optimal placement and
sizing of DGs (with controllable PF (and CBs will be very effective to minimize system power
loss, improve VSI and voltage deviation. A comparison between bus voltage profiles of different
cases can be seen in Fig. 2. Sample of convergence curves for IEEE 33-bus distribution
systemispresentedinFig.3.TheevaporationprocessinWCAleads to optimal solutions with little
number of iterations.

Table VI presents the technical, economic, and environmental benefits of simultaneous

placement of DGs and CBs in 33bus distribution system. Results show that the total emission is
reduced by 58% due to the penetration of Renewable DGs (PV with 0.7149 and 0.6397; WT with
0.6476; and GT with 0.2008 MW). Also generated power cost is reduced by 18%, and
distribution power loss is reduced to 28.962 kW.

2) Results of 69-Bus System: Tables VII and VIII present the results of Cases 1 and 2,
respectively. It can be observed

12
 Fig. 2. Voltage profiles of different cases for 33-bus system

Fig. 3. Convergence curves of Case 2 for the first 5 runs 33-bus distribution system

13
14
that the power loss obtained by the proposed algorithm is better than those obtained by other
methods, where the power loss obtained by WCA is decreased to 144.53 and 71.5 kW for Cases

15
1 and 2, respectively. Add to that, the voltage profiles have the lowest voltage levels at node 65
for Cases 1 and 2 (0.95 and 0.979 p.u.), respectively. Table IX shows the placement of DGs and
CBs for Cases 3 and 4. In Case 3, the power loss is 33.339 kW that is the smallest value
compared with Cases 1 and 2, with DGs at nodes 69, 61, and 17 using active power penetration
levels of 1.159, 2, and 0.541 MW, respectively. Also, three CBs at nodes 2, 62, and 69 are used
with reactive power penetrationlevelsof1.188, 1.237 and0.27MVAR respectively. Therefore, the
DGs/CBs placement enhances the power loss reduction and maximizes the energy utilization of
the distribution system.MultiobjectiveoptimalplacementandsizingofCBsand
DGswithcontrollablePF(Case4)gives betterresultsthanusing DG with unity PF as shown in Table
IX. Also the voltage profile of the system in Case 4 is better than that of the other cases as shown
in Fig. 4. Table X shows the application of Case 5 for 69-bus distribution system. A high
reduction in power loss (22.36 kW) is obtained. Added to that, significant economic and
environmental benefits are satisfied for Case 5. However, the economic benefits is achieved by
reducing production costs from 309.7134 to 297.47 $/h, while the emissions pollution is reduced
from 82.508e5 to 4.247e5 lb/h.

Fig. 4.Voltage profiles of different cases for 69-bus distribution system

16
17
 Fig. 5.Voltage profiles of different cases for EDN system.

3) Results of EDN: The results of WCA Cases 1–4 applied to EDN are shown in Table XI.
Results show a significant improvement in system performance (VSI and VD). A comparison
between bus voltage profiles of each case is shown in Fig. 5 for EDN. The highest reduction in
power losses (47.1369 kW) is obtained with placement of DGs and CBs in Case 4.

Fig. 6.Power losses for different cases of the test systems

18
Also, Case 4 has the best voltage profile with the lowest VD of 0.0029 p.u. compared with Cases
1–3. Cases 3 and 4 present acceptable levels of VSI compared with Cases 1 and 2.

Simulation results obtained by multiobjective optimization of the technical, economic, and

environmental objectives are shown in Table XII. The PV and WT have active roles in
emissionreduction,andbothDGsandCBshaveactiverolesinpower loss and generation cost
reduction. For Case 5, a large reduction in power loss (257.49 MW) is obtained. Significant
economic and environmental benefits are satisfied in Case 5. The economic benefits are achieved
by reducing production cost from 16870 to 9717.4 $/h while the emissions pollution is reduced
from 47.602 to 32.146 Mlb/h.

The above results for different test systems assure the WCA capability to achieve significant
technical, economic, and environmental benefits. The power losses of the different cases for the
test systems are shown in Fig. 6

19
 Chapter 5

Conclusions
Water cycle optimization algorithm has been proposed as single and multiobjective frameworks
for optimal placement and sizing of combined DGs/CBs in distribution networks. It aims at
maximizing technical, economic, and environmental benefits. Five operational cases of DGs and
CBs have been applied to three different distribution systems and compared with other
optimization algorithms. The salient findings of the simulation results are summarized as follow.

1) More effectiveness of the proposed WCA have been obtained, for solving the optimal
placement and sizing problem, compared with other optimization algorithms.

2) The system power losses have been minimized using the

placementofCBsaloneorDGsalone,butmajorreduction in power losses have been obtained
using the optimal placement and sizing of combined DGs and CBs.

3)More improvement in distribution system performance has been achieved using DGs
with controllable power factor.

4)SimultaneousDGsandCBsplacementachievesubstantial technical, economic, and

environmental benefits.

5)More emission reduction up to 58%, more power loss reduction up to 86%, more energy
cost reduction up to 18%, as in Case 5 for 33-bus system, have been achieved using the
proposed method.

6) Good convergence characteristics of the proposed WCA have been noticed.

20
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23