STRUCTURAL CONCEPTUALIZATION MOMENT F x d; moment can be about any point called CENTER OF MOMENT

[by alver_remolar]
MOMENT ARM distance from center of moment to force shortest or perpendicular
distance from the center of moment to line of action of force
PROPERTIES OF FORCES [F = ma/ W = mass x gravity acc (9.81m/s2)]
REACTIONS Force required to put in state of equilibrium (Closed Force Polygon)
FORCE action of one body upon another: due to direct contact, due to
magnetic or gravitational attraction, or generated by moving bodies KINDS OF LOADS
(force inertia);
CONCENTRATED LOADS example is a beam supporting a column
Static Resultant force is zero, balanced force system, equal and opposite
Equilibrium Forces; ∑F = 0 ; ∑M = 0 UNIFORM LOADS series of uniform concentrated loads, but for 5 or
more uniformly spaced concentrated loads
Couple forces equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, rotate about a
point OTHER LOADS varying load, moment load
MAGNITUDE amount of force, N *Axial Deformation load acting parallel to member axis where stress is
uniform for homogeneous sections;
DIRECTION refers to the orientation of its path or line of action. It is usually elongates = tension, shortens = compression
described by the angle that the line of action makes with some
reference TYPES OF SUPPORT (RIGID BODIES, 2D Force Systems)
SENSE refers to the manner in which it acts along its line of action
ROLLER: torque
Principle of external effect of a force on a body acted upon is independent of the Roller joints allow free translation (zero force) in one direction (free Fx, M)
Transmissibility point of application but the same for all points along its line of action
HINGED/ PIN: force
FORCE SYSTEM Pin joints allow free rotation at the pin (like a hinge) so that no torque is
transmitted but forces can be transmitted through the joint. Joints that can
resist moment (∑M = 0)
Force System arrangement of any 2 or more forces that act on a body or on a group
of related bodies Allows each object to rotate at a connection
Use with object requiring bending (e.g. Door hinge)
Free Body sketch of a body showing the forces exerted by other bodies on the Pins at bridges are bolted and welded
Diagram (FBD) one being considered
Pin joints in Trusses – all centroids of cross section of all members intersect
COPLANAR all acting in a single plane of a vertical wall at pin so truss members are only subjected to AXIAL FORCES (Tension and
Compression) and no BENDING/ SHEAR
Spatial all on the same space
FIXED/ RESTRAINED: force & torque
PARALLEL all having the same/ opposite direction; e.g. moment/ couple Rigid joints, as the name applies, are inflexible and will transmit forces and
torques
CONCURRENT all having their lines of action intersect at a common point.
TYPES OF BEAMS HOOKE’S LAW F = kx; Force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by
(Law of Elasticity) some distance (x) where k = constant factor characteristic
Simply Supported (stiffness) of a spring
Overhanging (Simply Supported w/ Overhang)
Cantilever 1. PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
Propped Cantilever (intermediate) maximum stress which the material springs back to the original
Continuous length when the load is released

INTERNAL FORCES TYPES Highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain
(described by HOOKE’S LAW). Curve in a stress-strain diagram is a
straight line. Proportional limit is equal to elastic limit for many
TENSION pulls away from joint metals.
COMPRESSION pushes towards joint
SHEAR for connections 2. ELASTIC LIMIT
maximum stress above which the material does not return to its
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials original length but has incurred a permanent deformation we call
ACI American Concrete Institute permanent set
AISC American Institute for Steel Construction
Strain below which the material can regain its original shape if the
According to ACI code, if the strain in concrete reaches forces are released, doesn't matter if the stress-strain relation is
0.003 (Єconc= 0.003), Є=3mm it begins to crack linear or not. (e.g. Rubber‘s strain-strain law is highly non-linear or
1000 not "proportional") but still elastic.

If a grade 60 steel (fy= 60ksi= 414Mpa) reaches a strain 0.0021 it begins to yield of (2.1mm) 3.YIELD POINT/ YIELD STRENGTH
stress wherein the deformation increases without any increase in the
FEATURES OF A STRAIN STRESS DIAGRAM: load

STRESS STRAIN Material at some portion shows a decrease in its cross section
DIAGRAM Amount of stress a material can undergo before moving from
elastic deformation to plastic deformation
graphic
representation of 4. ULTIMATE STRENGTH/ Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
the relationship the maximum stress that can be attained while being stretched or
between unit pulled immediately before actual failure or rupture
stress values &
the corresponding Brittle Failure Breaking sharply without plastic deformation (like concrete)
unit strains for a
specific material Strain Material becomes stronger and reaches the UTS
Hammering

Necking Reduction in cross sectional area after UTS

Fracture Where plastic deformation ends

RUPTURE STRENGTH MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
stress at which material specimen breaks coefficient of elasticity of a material expressing the ratio between a unit stress
and the corresponding unit strain caused by the stress, as derived from
ALLOWABLE STRESS Hooke’s law and represented by the slope of the straight line portion of the
maximum unit stress permitted for a material in the design of a structural stress- strain line diagram.
member, usually a fraction of the material’s elastic limit, yield strength, or
ultimate strength. Also called ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESS, WORKING Also called COEFFICIENT OF ELASTICITY, ELASTIC MODULUS
STRESS
(P x L) / (A x Δ) = E
ELASTIC RANGE
range of unit stresses for which a material exhibits elastic deformation PERMANENT SET
inelastic strain remaining in a material after complete release of the stress
ELASTIC DEFORMATION producing deformation
temporary change in the dimensions or shape of a body produced by a stress
less than the elastic limit of the material YIELD STRENGTH
stress necessary to produce a specific limiting permanent set in a material,
BRITLENESS usually 0.2% of its original length when tested in tension. Yield strength is
property of material that causes it to rupture suddenly under stress with little used to determine the limit of usefulness of a material having a poorly defined
evident deformation. Since brittle materials lack the plastic behavior of yield point. Also called POOR STRESS.
ductile materials, they can give no warning of impending material
STRAIN- RATE EFFECT
DUCTILITY behavior an increased rate of load application can cause in normally ductile
property of a material that enables it to undergo plastic deformation after material rate of change in strain (deformation) of a material with respect to
being stressed beyond the elastic limit and before rupturing. Ductility is a time.
desirable property of a structural material since plastic behavior is an
indicator of reserve strength and can serve as a visual warning of TEMPERATURE EFFECT
impending failure. brittle behavior low temperatures can cause in a normally ductile material
Property of a material to deform under TENSILE stress; stretched into wire
STRESS RELAXATION
ELASTICITY time- dependent decrease in stress in a constrained material under a
property of a material that enables it to deform in response to an applied force constant load
and to recover its original size and shape upon removal of the forceyy
ability of a material to regain and rebound to original shape when the load is CREEP
released gradual permanent deformation of a body produced by a continued
application of stress or prolonged exposure to heat. Creep deflection in a
MALLEABILITY concrete structure continues over time and can be significantly grater than the
deform under COMPRESSIVE stress; thin sheet by hammering/ rolling initial elastic deflection

TOUGHNESS FATIGUE
property of a material that enables it to absorb energy before rupturing, weakening or failure of a material at a stress below the elastic limit when
represented by the area under the stress- strain curve derived from a tensile subjected to a repeated series of stresses
test of the material. Ductile materials are tougher than brittle materials.
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF A36 STEEL: ECCENTRIC FORCE
force applied parallel to the longitudinal axis of a structural member but not
Maximum allowable stress (Fv) in shear is 14.5 ksi to the centroid of the cross section, producing bending and uneven
Maximum allowable stress (Fb) for bending is 24 ksi distribution of stresses in the section.
Modulus of elasticity (E) is 29,000 ksi Also called ECCENTRIC LOAD

WEIGHT: STRESS
internal resistance or reaction of an elastic body to external forces applied to
water= 1000 kg/ m3 it. Equal to the ratio of force to area and expressed in units of force per unit of
steel= 7850 kg/ m3 cross-sectional area. (MPa); σ = P / A
concrete= 2400 kg/ m3 “How hard?”… pulled apart (tensile), compressed (compressive),
bent(bending), twist (torsional), torn (shear), yield (not go back to orig form)
weight= density x volume Also called UNIT STRESS
volume of cylinder= pi (diameter)2 x length
TENSILE STRESS
4
axial stress that develops at the cross section of an elastic body to resist
PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL the collinear tensile forces tending to elongate it

TENSION TENSILE STRAIN

act of stretching or state of being pulled apart, resulting in the elongation of an elongation of a unit length of material produces by a tensile stress
elastic body
ELONGATION
TENSILE FORCE measure of ductility of a material, expressed as the percentage increase in
applied force producing or tending to produce tension in an elastic body length of a test specimen after failure in tensile test

AXIAL FORCE REDUCTION OF AREA

tensile or compressive force acting along the longitudinal axis of a measure of ductility of a material, expressed as the percentage decrease in
structural member and at the centroid of the cross section, producing cross-sectional area of a test specimen after rupturing in a tensile test
uniform axial stress without bending, torsion or shear also called AXIAL
LOAD TENSILE STRENGTH
resistance of a material to longitudinal stress, measured by the minimum
AXIAL STRESS amount of longitudinal stress required to rupture the material
tensile or compressive stress that develops to resist axial force, assumed to
be normal (parallel) to and uniformly distributed over the area of the cross STRAIN
section. Also called DIRECT STRESS, NORMAL STRESS deformation of a body under the action of an applied force. Strain is a
dimensionless quantity, equal to the ratio of the change in size and shape to
COMPRESSION the original size and shape of a stressed element. ε = Δ / L
act of shortening or state of being pushed together, resulting in the reduction
in size or volume of an elastic body STRAIN GAUGE
instrument for measuring minute deformation (strain) in a test specimen
COMPRESSIVE FORCE caused by tension, compression, bending or twisting.
applied force producing or tending to produce compression in an elastic body
Also called EXTENSOMETER
YOUNG’S MODULUS- E SHEARING STRESS
coefficient of elasticity of material expressing the ratio of longitudinal stress force per unit area developed along a section of an elastic body to resist a
to the corresponding longitudinal strain caused by the strain. shear force. Also called SHEAR STRESS, TANGENIAL STRESS

Describes TENSILE elasticity or tendency of object to deform along an axis SHEARING STRAIN
when OPPOSING forces applied along that axis lateral deformation developed in a body in response to shearing stresses,
Ratio of TENSILE STRESS to TENSILE STRAIN defined as the tangent of the skew angle of the deformation.

Measure of stiffness; the higher the E, the more rigid the object SHEAR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Most common elastic modulus aside from shear and bulk modulus (MPa) coefficient elasticity of a material, expressing the ratio between shearing
stress and the corresponding shearing strain produced by the strain.
POISSON’S RATIO describes an object's tendency to shear (the deformation of shape at constant
ratio of lateral STRAIN to the corresponding longitudinal STRAIN in an volume) when acted upon by opposing forces
elastic body under longitudinal stress Also called MODULUS OF RIGIDITY, MODULUS OF TORSION

Negative ratio of transverse to axial strain BENDING

bowing of an elastic body as an external force is applied transversely to its
POISSON’S EFFECT - when material is compressed and expands to other 2 length. Bending moment about the perpendicular axis of the member. Bending
directions and poisson’s ratio measures effect is the structural mechanism that enables a load to be channeled in a direction
IF COMPRESSION- fraction/ percent of expansion divided by the perpendicular to its application.
compression
IF TENSION- fraction/ percentage of contraction to the expansion TRANSVERSE FORCE
Mue of concrete is 0.2; range is 0 to 0.5 (incompressible mat’l) force applied perpendicular to the length of a structural member,
producing bending and shear
COMPRESSIVE STRESS
axial stress that develops at the cross section of an elastic body to resist the TORQUE
collinear compressive forces tending to shorten it moment of a force system that causes or tends to cause rotation or torsion
about an axis, fulcrum or pivot; ∑τ = 0 (Rotational Equilibrium)
COMPRESSIVE STRAIN
shortening of a unit length of material produced by a compressive stress TORSION (by torque)
twisting of an elastic body about its longitudinal axis caused by two equal and
SHEAR opposite torques, producing shearing stresses in the body moment about an
lateral deformation produced in a body by an external force that causes one axis due to applied torque
part of the body to slide relative to an adjacent part in a direction parallel to
their plane contact TOUGHNESS
ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
SHEAR FORCE fracturing
applied force producing or tending to produce shear in the body
It is also the resistance to fracture of a material when stressed.
SHEARING FORCE Toughness requires a balance of strength and ductility.
internal force tangential to the surface on which it acts, developed by a body in -ability of material to resist repeated bending or twisting;
response to shear, shearing in a vertical plane necessarily involves -ability to resist shock or impact
shearing in a horizontal plane and vise versa
Strength REINFORCED CONCRETE
resist forces imposed on it, ability to sustain a high stress w/o yielding or
fracturing EFFECTIVE LENGTH
the depth of concrete section measured from the compression face to the centroid of the
Material Strength tension reinforcement
f’c = compressive strength of concrete at strain of 0.003
fy = is the yield strength of steel COVER
the amount of concrete required to protect steel reinforcement from fire and corrosion,
measured from the surface of the reinforcement to outer surface of the concrete section
Hardness
enables to resist deformation by compression, or penetration BOND STRESS
the adhesive for per unit area of contact between reinforcing bar and the surrounding
Brittleness concrete developed at any section of a flexural member
causes material to rapture suddenly under stress without little evident
deformation HOOK
a bend or curve given to develop an equivalent embedment length, used where there
gives no advance warning of failure is insufficient room to develop in adequate embedment length

STANDARD HOOK
Ductility a 90º, 135º, 180º bend made at the end of a reinforcing bar according to standards
undergo plastic deformation after being stressed beyond elastic limit &
before rupturing capable of being stretched or deformed w/o fracturing; ANCHORAGE
any of various means, as embedment length or hooked bars, for developing tension or
ability to be drawn to fine wire (tension) w/o breaking; compression in a reinforcing bar on each side of critical section in order to prevent
shows sign of yielding before actual rapture bond failure or splitting

CRITICAL SECTION
Stiffness
the section of a flexural concrete member at a point of maximum stress, a point of
resistance to deformation when stressed within elastic range inflection, or appoint within the span where tension bars are no longer needed to
*ratio of force applied to a structure to the corresponding displacement* resist stress
(Harris) stress strain Modulus of Elasticity or strain
BALANCED SECTION
Elasticity a concrete in which the tension reinforcement theoretically reaches its specified yield
enables it to deform & to recover its original size & shape upon removal of strength as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain
force or after deformation (as stretching, compression or tension)
OVERREINFORCED SECTION
a concrete section in which the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate
Resilience strain before the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield strength. This is a
capacity to recover its original size & shape after deformation – Elasticity dangerous condition since failure of the section could occur instantaneously without
warning
Malleability
ability of metal that permits mechanical deformation by extrusion, forging, UNDERREINFORCED SECTION
rolling, etc. w/o fracturing; a concrete section in which the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield
strength before the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain.
ability of material to be compressed into thin sheets w/o breaking
This is desirable condition since failure of the section would be preceded by
large deformations giving prior warning of impending collapse. STEEL MUST
FAIL FIRST TO GIVE WARNING!
BEAM DEFLECTION
the perpendicular distance a spanning member deviates from a true course
BEAM under transverse loading, increasing with load and span, and decreasing
a rigid structural member designed to carry and transfer TRANSVERSE loads with an increase in the moment of inertia of the section of the modulus
across spaces supporting elements of elasticity of the material

Beams & Girders Immediate/ Instantaneous Deflection- just after removal of shores
usually a horizontal or nearly horizontal element carrying a stress primarily Long Term Deflection- Due to Creep and steel relaxation
due to shear and flexure. It usually carries a load directly from the floor. After 5 years, concrete will not deflect anymore (equal to 2 times the
immediate deflection) so CAMBER the beam to anticipate this
Determinate Structure
reaction components and internal stresses can be completely Allowable deflections
determined using the equations of static equilibrium  L/240 for members supporting or attached to non-structural elements
Static Equations Fx = 0, Fy = 0, M = 0 not likely to be damaged by large deflection
 L/360 for members not supporting or attached to non-structural
Indeterminate Structure elements likely to be damaged by large deflections (immediate
reaction components & internal stress cannot be solved completely deflection due to live load only)
using the equations of static equilibrium  L/180 for members carrying flat roofs not supporting or attached to
non-structural elements likely to be damaged by large deflections
Degree of Indeterminacy  L/480 for members roof or floor construction supporting or attached
# of unknowns over & above the equations of static equilibrium to non-structural elements likely to be damaged by large deflections
st
4 unknowns, 3 equations of static equilibrium, so 1 degree of indeterminacy NEUTRAL AXIS
Trusses: # of unknowns = # of members + # of reactions = # of equations imaginary line passing through the centroid of the cross section of a beam,
SPAN other member subject to bending, along which no bending stresses occur;
the extent of space between two supports of a structure Less material- Truss; Pipe sleeves for utilities
STRESS AT NEUTRAL AXIS= 0
CLEAR SPAN Most effective cross section of beams- HOLLOW since stress at neutral axis
the distance between inner faces of the support of a span is 0. Bigger column that is hollow is better than small solid columns

EFFECTIVE SPAN BENDING STRESS

a combination of compressive and tensile stresses developed at a cross
the center to center distance between the supports of a span
section of structural member to resist transverse force, having a maximum
BENDING MOMENT value at the surface furthest from the neutral axis bending stresses are
an external moment tending to cause part a structure to rotate or bend, equal tensile or compressive stresses in the beam!
A simply-supported beam always has tensile stresses at the bottom of the
to the algebraic sum of the moments about the neutral axis of the section
beam and compressive stresses at the top of the beam
under consideration

RESISTING MOMENT (INTERNAL MOMENT) CAMBER

an internal moment equal and opposite to a bending moment, generated by a a slight convex curvature intentionally built into beam, girder, or truss to
force couple to maintain equilibrium of the section being considered compensate for an anticipated deflection
External Moment is due to the load itself How is camber treated in a steel truss 25 meters and longer?
Camber shall be approximately equal to the dead load deflection
Trusses 24.4m or greater in span must be cambered for DL deflection
TRANSVERSE SHEAR (external) MOMENT OF INERTIA
an external shear force at a cross section of a beam or other member subject the sum of the products of each element of an area and the square of its
to bending, equal to the algebraic sum of transverse forces on one side of the distance from a coplanar axis of rotation.
section; Load acting perpendicular to member axis
Moment of inertia is a geometric property that indicates how the cross
VERTICAL SHEARING (internal) sectional area of structural member is distributed and does not reflect the
the shearing stress developed along cross section of a beam to resist intrinsic physical properties of a material
transverse shear, having a maximum value at the neutral axis and decreasing
nonlinearly toward the outer faces Mass property of rigid bodies that defines torque needed for a desired angular
acceleration about an axis of rotation. The higher the Moment of Inertia, the
HORIZONTAL SHEARING (internal) higher the torque needed to rotate it
the shearing stress developed to prevent slippage along longitudinal planes
of a beam under transverse loading, equal to any point to the vertical shearing SECTION MODULUS
stress at that point a geometric property of a cross section, defined as the moment of inertia of
the section divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the most remote
Shear parallel to member axis surface.
Also called LONGITUDINAL SHEARING STRESS
S = I / y, where I is the second moment of area (or moment of inertia) and y is
there are horizontal shear stresses acting between horizontal layers of the the distance from the neutral axis to any given fibre
beam as well as vertical shear stresses acting on the cross section. At any
point in the beam, these complementary shear stresses have the same A Geometric property for a given cross-section used in the design of beams or
magnitude. flexural members. Other geometric properties used in design include area for
tension, radius of gyration for compression, and moment of inertia for stiffness.
FLEXURE FORMULA Any relationship between these properties is highly dependent on the shape in
Stresses caused by the bending moment are known as flexural or bending question.
stresses
LATERAL BUCKLING
a formula defining the relationship between bending moment, bending the buckling of a structural member induced by compressive stresses acting
stress, and the cross sectional properties of a beam on slender portion insufficiently rigid in the lateral direction

Bending stress is directly proportional to bending moment and inversely STRESS TRAJECTORIES
proportional to the moment of inertia of a beam section. lines depicting the direction but not the magnitude of the principal stresses
in a beam
SHEAR DIAGRAM
graphic representation of the variation in magnitude of the external shears
present in a structure for a given set of transverse loads and support
conditions
Concentrated loads produce external shears which are constant in magnitude
between the loads uniformly distributed loads produce linearly varying shears

MOMENT DIAGRAM
a graphic representation of the variation in magnitude of the bending moment
present in a structure for a given set of transverse load and support
conditions. The overall deflected shape of a structure subject to bending can
often be inferred from the shape of its moment diagram

point of 0 shear is the point of maximum moment

CONCENTRATED LOADS
produce bending moments which vary linearly between loads

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS

produce parabolically varying moments POSITIVE MOMENT
bending moment that produces moment that produces a concave curvature at
POSITIVE SHEAR a section of a structure (Beam bends upwards, “smiling”)
a net resultant of shear forces that acts vertically upward on the left part of
the structure being considered NEGATIVE MOMENT
bending moment that produces a convex curvature at a section of a structure
NEGATIVE SHEAR (Beam bends downwards, “frowning”)
a net resultant of shear forces that act vertically downward on the left part
of the structure being considered INFLECTION POINT (for concrete, Shear = 0)
point at which a structure changes curvature from convex to concave or vise
versa as it deflects under a transverse load: theoretically an internal hinge and
therefore a point of zero moment
Cut pouring of concrete or steel bar at this point (can’t pour monolithically)
SIMPLE BEAM COLUMN
a beam resisting on simple supports at both ends which are free to rotate and
have no moment resistance. As with any statistically determinate structure, the COLUMN
values of all reactions, shears, and moments for a simple beam are a relatively slender structural member designed primarily to support axial,
independent of its cross sectional shape & material compressive loads, applied at the member ends.
Failure by:
CANTILEVER BEAM Overstressing of material/ yielding of material (short/ intern. columns)
projecting beam supported at only one fixed end Buckling about weak axis (long/ slender columns)
CANTILEVER 3 categories of columns:
beam or other rigid structural member extending beyond a fulcrum and 1. Pedestal / Short Compression Blocks
supported by a balancing member or a downward force behind the fulcrum - height is less than three times least dimension
2. Long / Slender Column
OVERHANGING BEAM - strength of the column is significantly reduced due to slenderness
simple beam extending beyond one of its supports. The overhanging reduces 3. Short Column
the positive moment at midspan while developing a negative moment at the - failure is initiated by material failure
base of the cantilever over the support
Types of Columns
FIXED END BEAM- indeterminate 1. Tied- rectangular reinforcement (even if column is round
beam having both ends restrained against translation and rotation. The 2. Spiral- spiral reinforcement (event if column is rectangular)
fixed ends transfer bending stresses, increase the rigidity of the beam and 3. Composite- overkill; Steel member embedded inside column
reduces its maximum deflection
POST
CONTINUOUS BEAM- indeterminate stiff vertical support especially a wooden column in timber framing
beam extending over more than 2 supports in order to develop greater
rigidity and smaller moments than a series of simple beams having similar
spans and loading. Both fixed end & continuous beams are indeterminate BUCKLING
structures for which the values of all reactions, shears and moments are the sudden lateral or torsional instability of a slender structural member
dependent not only on span & loading but also on cross sectional shape & material
induced by the action of a compressive load. Buckling can occur well before
the yield stress of the material is reached
HAUNCH
the part of a beam that is thickened or deepened to develop greater moment
the axial load at which a column begins to deflect laterally and becomes
resistance. The efficiency of a beam can be increased by shaping its length in
unsuitable. Point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stress the
response to the moment and shear values which typically vary along its
material is capable of withstanding
longitudinal axis
CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD
SUSPENDED SPAN
the maximum axial load that can theoretically be applied to a column without
a simple beam supported by the cantilevers of two adjoining spans with
causing it to buckle. The critical buckling load for a column is inversely
pinned construction joints at points of zero moment. Also called hung span
proportional to the square of its effective length and directly proportional to
the modulus of elasticity of the material and to the moment of inertia of the
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
cross section.
the distance between inflection points in the span of a fixed end or continuous
Also called EULER BUCKLING LOAD
beam, equivalent in nature to the actual length of simply supported beam
BIFURCATION INTERMEDIATE COLUMN
the critical point at which a column carrying its critical buckling load, may a column having a mode of failure between that a short column and a long
either buckle or remain undeflected. The column is therefore in a state of column, often party inelastic by crushing and partly elastic by buckling
neutral equilibrium
ECCENTRICITY
CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS The amount by which an axis deviates from another parallel axis
the critical buckling load for a column divided by the area of its cross section
P-DELTA EFFECT
SLENDERNESS RATIO An additional moment developed in a structural member as its longitudinal
the ratio of the effective length of a column to its least ratio of gyration axis deviates from the line of action of a compressive force equal to the
The higher the slenderness ratio, the lower is the critical stress that will cause product of the load and the member deflection at any point.
buckling.
A primary objective in the design of a column is to reduce its slenderness ratio Abrupt changes in ground shear, overturning moment, and/or the
by minimizing its effective length or maximizing its effective length or axial force distribution at the base of a sufficiently tall structure or structural
maximizing the radius of gyration of its cross section. The narrower a column component when it is subject to a critical lateral displacement. The P-Delta
(little Radius of Gyration), the more prone it is to buckling because it is more effect is a destabilizing moment equal to the force of gravity multiplied by the
slender horizontal displacement a structure undergoes as a result of a lateral
displacement.

RADIUS OF GYRATION MIDDLE THIRD RULE

the radial distance from any axis to a point at which the mass of a body could The proposition that a compressive load should be located within the middle
be concentrated without altering the moment of inertia of the body about that third of a horizontal section of a column or wall to prevent tensile stresses from
axis. Describes distribution of cross sectional area around its centroid axis developing in the section.
For a structural section, the radius of gyration is equal to the square root of the
quotient of the moment of inertia and the area No tension is developed in a wall or foundation if the resultant force lies within
the middle third of the structure.
The higher the radius of gyration of a structural section, the more resistant the
section is to buckling. In determining the cross- sectional shape of a column, EFFECTIVE LENGTH
the objective is to provide the necessary radius of gyration about the different The distance between inflection points in a column subject to buckling load.
axes. For an asymmetrical cross section, buckling will tend to occur about the When this portion of a column buckles the entire column falls.
weaker axis or in the direction of the least dimension
COMBINED STRESSES
A set of tensile and compressive stresses resulting from the superposition of
LONG / SLENDER COLUMN axial and bending stresses at a cross section of a structural member, acting in
a slender column subject to failure by buckling rather than by crushing. Even if the same direction and equal at any point to their algebraic sum.
you use stronger material! Fy is not present in the equation
KERN
SHORT COLUMN The central area of any horizontal section of a column or wall within which the
thick column subject to failure by crushing rather than by buckling. Failure resultant of all compressive loads must pass if only compressive stresses are
occurs when the direct stress from an axial load exceeds the compressive to be applied beyond this area will cause tensile stresses to develop in the
strength of the material available in the cross section. An eccentric load, section. Also called kern area.
however, can produce bending and result in uneven stress distribution in the
section
KERN POINT BRACED FRAME
point on either side of the centroidal axis of a horizontal column or wall section A vertical truss for buildings to resist lateral load- members in T or C similar
defining the limits of the kern area. to truss

LATERAL BRACING Use steel not reinforced concrete as shell with pin connections so moment is 0
bracing of a column or other compression member to reduce its effective SHEAR WALL is an alternative to braced frame but of Reinforced Concrete
length. Lateral bracing is most effective when the bracing pattern occurs in
more than one plane. METHOD OF SECTIONS
a method of determining member forces in a truss by considering the
UNBRACED LENGTH equilibrium of any portion of the truss assembly.
distance between the points at which a structural member is braced against
buckling in a direction normal to its length. Cut a section across truss length passing members with UNKNOWN FORCES
NOT MORE THAN 3 to provide non-concurrent force system
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR
coefficient for modifying the actual length of a column according to its end Analyze FBD of the section with less number of forces or the convenient one
conditions in order to determine its effective length. Fixing both ends of a long
column reduces its effective length by half and increases its load-carrying Assume any direction of the member force and choose an arbitrary point to
capacity by a factor of 4. solve for one unknown using equation summation of moment is 0. Positive
value indicated right direction while negative indicates wrong direction but right
TRUSS magnitude.
An articulated structure composed of links or bars assumed to be connected by (TOTAL FORCE = 0, both x and y axes, TOTAL MOMENT = 0)
frictionless pins at the joints and arranged so that an area enclosed within the
boundaries of the structure is subdivided by the bars into geometric figures which are METHOD OF JOINTS
usually triangles. They are purely axially loaded. a method for determining member forces in a truss by considering the
Strongest and most economical but labor-intensive, needs skilled workers. equilibrium of the various joints idealized as points in free body diagrams

Assumptions made in analysis of truss (False in actual): Joints are in equilibrium. Analysis must start at a joint with known external
Members joined by frictionless or smooth pins at their ends forces and must have two members connecting that joint
Loads/ Reactions act only at joints NO MORE THAN 2 UNKNOWN FORCES INVOLVED
Weight of the members are negligible (TOTAL FORCE = 0, both x and y axes)

DEFINITION OF TERMS

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

a soil pressure acting on any structure that will tend to push the structure
wherein the structure or a wall tends to move away from the soil

ACCELEROGRAPH
instrument which measures the velocity and acceleration of an earthquake in
the ground as a strong motion seismograph (instruments that measure
Other Types of Trusses: Crescent; Tetrahedron (3D space truss); for bridges: motions of the ground) or simply an earthquake accelerometer
Through Pratt, Through Howe, Deck Warren, Through Warren Useful for when the earthquake ground motion is so strong that it causes the
Subdivided, K-Truss, Lattice, Parker, Baltimore more sensitive seismometers to go off-scale.
ANCHOR BOLTS DRIVEN PILE
round, steel bolt embedded in concrete or masonry used to hold down Prefabricated piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver. Driven piles
machinery, steel columns or beam casting, shock beam plates and engine are either wood, reinforced concrete, or steel. Wooden piles are made from
heads attached structures/ objects to concrete the trunks of tall trees.
All consist of a threaded end, to which a nut and washer can be attached for
the external load Concrete piles are available in square, octagonal, and round cross-sections.
They are reinforced with rebar and are often prestressed. Steel piles are either
BALANCED DESIGN pipe piles or some sort of beam section (like an H-pile).
one which both the concrete and the steel are so proportioned as to work to
their full working stresses when the member carries its full allowable load Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by
a pile cap (a large concrete block into which the heads of the piles are
BENDING MOMENT embedded) to distribute loads which are larger than one pile can bear.
algebraic sum of the moments of the forces acting on either side of the section
of a beam about an axis through the center of the gravity of the section Pile caps and isolated piles are typically connected with grade beams to tie
the foundation elements together
BATTER PILES
piles at an inclination to resist forces that are not critical. CAISSON
This is also known as brace pile or spur pile watertight, cylindrical or rectangular chamber used to in under water
Batter piles were used to resist lateral forces in marine structures construction to protect workers from water pressure and soil collapse

BORED PILE (Bearing Pile) CEMENT GUN

Supports high building producing heavy vertical loads ejector operated by compressed air to force gunite into cavities or cracks in
Concrete pile which concreted either with a casing or without a steel casing rocks or cement works (Used in Shotcrete)
(provide if cohesion less soil like sand or gravel) at permanent location
This is a cast in place pile/ Other concrete piles like Spun Pile (hole inside) CHUTE
and Reinforced Concrete Square Pile are precast concrete piles. open-top through which bulk materials are conveyed and by gravity
The advantage of bored piling is because the drilling method produces little
vibration and lower noise level. COFFER DAM/ COFFER
temporary dam- like structure constructed which excludes water from the site
of the foundation during its excavation and construction

temporary enclosure built within, or in pairs across, a body of water and

constructed to allow the enclosed area to be pumped out, creating a dry work
environment for the major work to proceed.

Enclosed coffers are commonly used for construction and repair of oil
platforms, bridge piers and other support structures built within or over water.

These cofferdams are usually welded steel structures, with components

consisting of sheet piles, wales, and cross braces. Such structures are
typically dismantled after the ultimate work is completed.
CONSTRUCTION JOINT DIAPHRAGM
When laying cement or concrete, a builder sometimes cannot lay the entire horizontal or nearly horizontal system including horizontal bracing system, that
slab all at once. Builder needs to leave an even stopping place, called a act to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements
construction joint. Structural system used to transfer lateral loads (wind/ earthquake) to shear
walls or frames primarily through in-plane shear stress.
The vertical or horizontal face in a concrete structure where concreting has
been stopped & continued later. If done correctly, a construction joint can Does double duty as the floor system or roof system in a building, or
double as a contraction joint, a joint placed in the concrete to prevent cracking the deck of a bridge, which simultaneously supports gravity loads.
of the slab and control random cracking.
Diaphragms are usually constructed of plywood or oriented strand
The construction joint is usually joined together by a non-metallic strap to hold board in timber construction; metal deck or composite metal deck
the two slabs in place. For foot traffic or small vehicle traffic, a simple butt joint in steel construction; or a concrete slab in concrete construction;
is easiest. A butt joint consists of two slabs of concrete laid a few millimeters (e.g. stiff plate/partition like bulkhead)
apart and delineated by bulkheads.
DIAPHRAGM STRUT
If heavy vehicle traffic is expected, the construction joint should be reinforced structural member of a horizontal bracing system that takes axial tension or
with a load transfer device. LOCATED WITHIN THE MIDDLE THIRD SPAN compression. It is parallel to the applied load that collects and transfers shear
OF SLABS/ BEAMS/ GIRDERS to the vertical resisting elements or distributive loads within the horizontal
bracing system
COLD JOINT
Formed when a concrete surface hardens before the next batch of concrete is DIVING BELL
placed watertight bell- shaped steel chamber which can be lowered to or raised from
a fresh or seawater bed crane. It is opened at the bottom and filled with
Plane of weakness and undesirable discontinuity in concrete caused by an compressed air so that men can prepare foundations and undertake similar
interruption or delay in the concreting operations. It occurs when the first batch construction work under water
of concrete has begun to set before the next batch is added, so that the two
batches do not intermix. Sometimes cold joints occur because of emergency DOWEL
interruptions and delays and sometimes because of the work stoppage at the short steel bar extending from one concrete element to another as for instance
end of the day, but they can 'also occur from poor consolidation. a concrete foundation to a concrete column. It may or may not transfer direct
stress
CREEP
the tendency of most material to move or deform over time under a constant DRIFT BOLT
load and thermal changes . The amount of movement varies enormously long pin of steel or wood, made with or without the head, driven through the
depending upon the material. The area that is highly stressed will move the timber & into an adjacent timber to hold/ fasten them together and to transmit
most. The movement causes stresses to be redistributed. Increases with high stresses
heat! (Creep Test)
EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION JOINTS
COUNTER (inner in retaining wall) joint designed to take expansion and contraction
a cantilever wall that is reinforced with a masonry structure extending upward
from the foundation or from the inner face of the retaining wall to provide the designed break in a structure to allow for the drying and temperature
additional resistance to thrust and are placed at regular intervals. shrinkage of concrete, brickwork of similar material, thereby preventing the
(Buttress if outer) formation of harmful cracks
FATIGUE INFLECTION POINT
phenomenon of failure under repeated stresses. A fact, based experience point in the moment diagram where it changes from positive to negative
and experiments, is well known that stresses which are applied to a body a moment or vise versa and the value of the moment at this point is zero
few times without causing apparent structure injury may, if applied repeatedly
or causing a great number of times, causes failure JETTING (PILES)
method of driving piles or well points into the sand in the situations where a
GUNITE pile hammer might not be suitable owing to the risk of damage by vibration to
rich cement mortar which is applied by spraying under high air pressure the piles of adjacent buildings.

GRADE BEAM Utilizes a carefully directed and pressurized flow of water to assist in pile
concrete beam placed directly on the ground to provide foundation for the placement. This disturbs a ring of sub-grade soils directly beneath it to liquefy
superstructure the soils, reducing the friction and interlocking between adjacent sub-grade
soil particles.

GRANOLITHIC FINISH This greatly decreases the bearing capacity of the soils, causing the pile to
surface layer or granolithic concrete which maybe laid on a base of either descend toward its final tip elevation with much less soil resistance, largely
fresh or hardened concrete under its own weight.

composed of cement and fine aggregate such as granite or other hard- Offers significant time and cost savings over traditional pile driving, and where
wearing rock. It is generally used as flooring, or as paving (such as for appropriate, jetting techniques could eliminate the need for a driving rig
sidewalks). altogether
It has a similar appearance to concrete, and is used to provide a durable
surface where texture and appearance are usually not important (such as LINTEL BEAM
outdoor pathways or factory floors) beam especially provided over an opening for a door, window, to carry the wall
over the opening
GRILLAGE (FOOTING)
footing which consist of steel beams arranged to distribute a concentrated MAGNITUDE
load to the supporting masonry or soil measure of the energy released by an earthquake (measured by instrument)

A framework of beams arranged longitudinally and across each other to INTENSITY

spread a heavy load over a large area especially where ground is not firm measure of the damage level of an earthquake (subjective to visual assessment)
The grillage beams are unpainted and are encased in concrete with minimum
cover of 100 mm beyond the edges of steel sections. Magnitude scales, like the Richter magnitude and moment magnitude,
measure the size (QUANTITATIVE MEASURE) of the earthquake at its
DISTRIBUTION OF HORIZONTAL SHEAR source. Thus, they do not depend on where the measurement of the
design analysis requirement, considered as the basis for the structural design earthquake is made. On the Richter scale, an increase of one unit of
of structures where the total lateral forces are distributed to the various vertical magnitude (for example, from 4.6 to 5.6) represents a 10-fold increase in wave
elements of the lateral force resisting system in proportion to their rigidities amplitude on a seismogram or approximately a 30-fold increase in the energy
considering the rigidity of the horizontal bracing system or diaphragm released.

HYBRID STEEL GIRDER Intensity scales measure the amount of shaking at a particular location.
fabricated metal beam composed of flanges with a material of a specified Therefore, the intensity of an earthquake will vary depending on where you
minimum yield strength different from that of the web plate are.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY MORTAR
constant which, within the proportional limit, express ratio between the unit mixture, composed of one part of Portland cement and one part of clean sand,
stress to the unit strain. It is the measure of the relative abilities of the different used as a filter
materials of construction to resist deformation under stress within
proportional limit MULLION
vertical member between two portions of window sash usually designed to
MODULUS OF RESILIENCE resist wind load and not vertical load. It is different from muntin, a smaller
measure of the capacity of the material to absorb energy without danger of member which separates the panels of glass within the whole sash.
being permanently deformed
NON- BEARING WALL
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it wall that carries no load other than its own weight
is deformed elastically, and release that energy upon unloading.
ORTHOGONAL EFFECT
Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed effect on the structure due to extreme lateral (earthquake) motions acting in
within the elastic limit, without creating a permanent distortion. directions other than parallel to the direction of resistance under consideration

Modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be PARTY WALL
absorbed per unit volume without creating a permanent distortion. wall used or adopted for joint service between two buildings in a property

On the graph below: PLASTER CEMENT FINISH

RED- concrete- brittle! (less strain experienced then cracked!) mixture of Portland cement, with water and sand applied to surfaces such as
BLUE- Steel- Elastic! (longer strain- more deflection) walls ceilings in a plastic state, later it sets to form a hard surface

SO, Steel must fail first and not concrete to give warning to occupants. Steel will fail POINTING
and elongate as beam sags and eventually collapse. CAPACITY OF THE CONCRETE masonry, the final treatment of joints by the troweling of mortar or putty like
MUST BE MORE THAN THE CAPACITY OF STEEL! filler into joints between masonry units

PORTAL METHOD
method of analyzing indeterminate modular building frames by assuming
hinges at the center of beam spans and column heights; the interior
column carries twice as much shear as the exterior column
Assumptions:
 Inflection points are at midspan of all members
 Shear of interior columns is twice the shear of exterior columns
 Summation of horizontal shear on columns at certain level is equal to the
sum of all horizontal forces above that level
Lateral forces on top is higher because more wind and seismic force

PORTLAND CEMENT
MOMENT OF RESITANCE product obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining to incipient
internal resisting moment of a beam. It is opposite in sense to the bending fusion an intimate and properly proportioned mixture of argillaceous &
moment but of the same magnitude calcareous materials with no additions subsequent to calcinations except
water and calcined or uncalcined gypsum
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT STRESS
the highest unit stress for which the deformation of a body is proportional to cohesive force in a body, which resists the tendency of an external force to
the stress. Beyond this point, permanent deformation occurs change the shape of the body

REDUNDANT MEMBER STRAIN OR DEFORMATION

any framed structure or truss, is one which maybe omitted in the structure change in the shape of any material when subjected to the action force
without affect in the possibility of analyzing the frame or truss by ordinary
static method of computations such as the counter diagonal truss TIE BAR
deformed bar, embedded in a concrete construction at a joint and designed to
RIP-RAP hold a butting edges together, not designed for direct load transfer
consist of rough stones of various placed compactly or irregularly to prevent carry tensile load only
scour by water and protect material which maybe washed out by the water
TORSION OR MOMENT OF INERTIA
SAG ROD quality w/c measures the resistance of the mass to being revolved about a line
structural member in the steel truss framing that counteracts forces in
compression because of high probability of the purlins to deflect and bend TREMIE (TREMIE CONCRETE PLACEMENT METHOD)
down during purlin installation. watertight pipe 300 mm to 600 mm in diameter with a flared top used in
A tension member used to limit the deflection of a girt or purlin in the direction depositing concrete under water
of its weak axis or to limit the sad in angle bracing Pipe kept immersed underwater so that rising concrete from the bottom
displaces the water without washing out cement content
SAND DRAIN Used in building caissons
provided to help in the compaction of natural soil which provide channels
through which water can escape much more rapidly then through the clay UNDERPINNING
itself. The weight of the drain itself helps in the compaction solid foundation laid below ground level to support or strengthen a building or
substitute stronger for weaker materials in placing new foundation under old
SHEAR WALL foundation
wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane of a wall
Accomplished by extending the foundation IN DEPTH (more supportive
SOFFIT stratum) or IN BREADTH (distribute across greater area)
concave surface of an arch Used if:
change in use of building
SPANDREL BEAM
beam from column to column, carrying an exterior wall in a skeleton building change in soil properties/ mischaracterized in initial construction
additional storey
STIFFNESS
Rigidity of an object- the extent to which it resists deformation P- Class soils (poor soil loose and soft and high moisture)
Opposite: FLEXIBILITY earthquake, flood, drought or other natural causes

STIFFNESS RATIO (K) Alternative- strengthen the soil using grout

moment distribution method- (as used in analysis of indeterminate structures)
is the ratio of moment of inertia of the cross section of its length
measure of resistance offered by elastic body to deformation
TRANSFORMED SECTION SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISION
one in which the flexural steel is conceived to be replaced by large area of
imaginary concrete which can take tension. ARTIFICIAL RIGIDITY
will cause torsion (twisting)
This gives a homogeneous section of concrete to which ordinary beam
analysis may be applied BASE
level at w/c the earthquake motions are considered to be imparted to the
VIBRATOR structure
oscillating power operated machine used to agitate fresh concrete so as to
eliminate gross voids including entrapped air and to produce intimate contact BASE SHEAR
with form surfaces and embedded materials total designed lateral force or shear at the base of the structure
VOID- CEMENT RATIO BOUNDARY ELEMENT
ratio of volume of air plus water to the volume cement element at edges of opening or at the perimeters of shear walls or diaphragm
WALL FOOTING BRACED FRAME
continuous type of spread footing that supports vertical load, the weight of the essentially vertical truss system of the concentric or eccentric type which is
wall itself & the weight of the footing provided to resist lateral forces
WATER CEMENT RATIO
DESIGN OF STEEL MEMBERS
ration of the amount of water, to the amount of cement in a concrete or mortar
mixture
BEAMS : Types of Beams According to Function
WEB CRIPPLING
local failure of a thin web plate of a steel beam or girder in the immediate PURLIN carries the roof load between trusses or rafters
vicinity of a concentrated load RAFTER usually a sloping beam carrying the reaction of purlins
LINTEL carries the masonry across the opening made by a door or window
local buckling if the web is slender

This limit state must be checked at locations where a concentrated force is JOIST a closely spaced beam supporting the floor of a building
applied transverse the axis of the member STRINGER similar to a joist, it carries the flooring of a bridge

ASD GIRDER large-sized beams usually carrying the floor beams

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN or Permissible Stress Design
Design philosophy in which designers ensure that stresses developed in a
SPANDREL spans between columns and support the floors and curtain walls
structure due to SERVICE LOADS do not exceed the elastic limit.

This is determined by ensuring that stresses remain within the limits through GRADE BEAM lowermost spandrel of a building that has no basement
the use of FACTOR OF SAFETY
SHAFT circular beam that transmits power to the machinery. Also carries
LRFD torsion in addition to shear and flexure
LOAD RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN
Steel sections are classified as compact, non-compact, and slender element
COLUMNS CONNECTIONS
Prevailing design load is axial and failure may be initiated by:  Riveted and Bolted joints
 Overstressing of the material  Welded Connections
 Buckling about the weak axis  Classifications: vertical, horizontal, flat and overhead
For this reason, the equation that determines the allowable stress of the columns is
expressed in terms of the length and radius of gyration. Types: bead, groove, fillet, plug and slot

Intermediate Column Long Column BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM

essentially complete space frame which provides supports for gravity loads

 Procedure and Limitations for the Design of Structures

 Zoning - Indicate the effective peak ground acceleration

0.40g for Zone 4 (High Seismic)- Batanes to Mindanao
0.20g for Zone 2- Palawan (Smaller columns)

 Site Characteristic
A factor greater than or equal to 1.0 introduce to the base shear
formula (force acting on the base) to account for the variability of
soil conditions. (Proximity to fault line, type of soil)
Values of K
 One end fixed, one end free; K=2.0
 Both ends hinged; K=1.0  Occupancy
 One end fixed, other end pinned; K=0.7 A factor greater than or equal to 1.0 introduce to the base shear
 Both ends fixed; K=0.5 formula to account for the importance of the structure
Hospitals- 1.5
Residential- 1
 Bigger radius of gyration, more resistant to buckling or bending
 Bigger moment of inertia, bigger radius of gyration; but bigger area , smaller  Configuration
radius of gyration Implies the type of plan and vertical irregularity
 ;  Structural System and Height
 Hoops – confines concrete core; resist shear; prevents buckling Implies the response of the building under lateral load
 Stirrups – resist shear; prevents buckling (more dense @supports for SSBeams)
 Two Major Parameters in the Selection of Design Criteria
 Confinement bars are for girders
 Occupancy
 Slenderness ratio – ratio of effective length of a column to its least radius of  Structural Configuration
gyration
  Four Categories of Occupancy VERTICAL STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES
 Essential Facilities 1. Stiffness Irregularity / Soft Story
 Fire & police stations, Hospitals, Shelters in emergency, one in which the lateral stiffness of a storey is less than 70 percent of that in the story
Generator equipments, emergency vehicles, aviation control towers above or less than 80 percent of the average stiffness of the three stories above.
 are those structures which are necessary for emergency
post- earthquake operations 2. Weight (mass) Irregularity
 Hazardous Facilities Exists where the effective mass of any story is more than 150 percent of the effective mass
 toxic or explosive chemicals or substances of an adjacent story. A roof that is lighter than the floor below need not be considered.
 Special Facilities
 High occupancy structures 3. Vertical Geometric Irregularity
 Standard Facilities horizontal dimension of the lateral-force-resisting system in any story is more than 130
 Residential structures percent of that in an adjacent story. One-story penthouses need not be considered.
 Miscellaneous Facilities
 garages, carports, sheds, agricultural buildings, & fences 4. In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical Lateral-Force-Resisting Element
over 1.8 meters high. in-plane offset of the lateral-load-resisting elements greater than the length of those
elements.
BASIC STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
5. Discontinuity in Capacity / Weak Story
1. Bearing Wall System weak story is one in which the story strength is less than 80 percent of that in the story
structural system without a complete vertical load-carrying space frame. Bearing walls above. The story strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting elements sharing the
or bracing systems provide support for all or most gravity loads. Resistance to lateral load is story for the direction under consideration.
provided by shear walls or brace frame. It has no beam and no column. Use 200mm flat
slab PLAN STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES
1. Torsional Irregularity (to be considered if diaphragm is not flexible)
2. Building Frame System Maximum story drift, computed including accidental torsion, at one end of the structure
structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for gravity transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the average of the story drifts of the two ends of
loads. Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls or brace frames. the structure.

3. Moment-Resisting Frame System 2. Re-Entrant Corners

structural system with essentially complete space frame providing support for gravity loads. plan configurations of a structure and its lateral-force-resisting system contain re-entrant
Resistance to lateral load is provided primarily by flexural action of members. corners, where both projections of the structure beyond a re-entrant corner are greater than
Beams & Columns 15 percent of the plan dimension of the structure in the given direction.

4. Dual System 3. Diaphragm Discontinuity

combination of moment-resisting frames & shear walls or braced frames. Moment- diaphragm with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including those having cutout
resisting frame shall be designed to resist 25 % of the base shear & 75 % for the shear or open areas greater than 50 percent of the gross enclosed area of the diaphragm, or
walls/braced frame. changes in effective diaphragm stiffness or more than 50 percent from one story to the next.

5. Cantilevered Column Building System 4. Out-of-Plane Offsets

structural system relying on cantilevered column elements for lateral resistance. discontinuities in a lateral force path, such as out-of-plane offsets of the vertical elements.

6. Shear Wall-Frame Interactive System 5. Nonparallel System

combination of shear walls and frames designed to resist lateral forces in proportion to the vertical lateral-load-resisting elements are not parallel to or symmetric about the major
their relative rigidities, considering interaction between shear walls and frames on all levels. orthogonal axes of the lateral-force systems.
Variation in perimeter strength resistance: DIAPHRAGM STRUT
 To solve, balance the resistance around the perimeter also known as tie or collector, is the element of a diaphragm parallel to the
 Water tanks cause mass irregularity in condominiums applied load which collects and transfer diaphragm shear to the vertical
resisting elements or distribute loads within the diaphragm. Such members
 Reinforced concrete structures in high seismic risk must have: may also take axial tension or compression.
 Strength, Ductility, Toughness
DIAPHRAGM CHORD
 The performance criteria of RC members resisting earthquake: boundary element of a diaphragm or a shear wall which is assumed to take
 Serviceability Limit State axial stresses (resist tension and compression) analogous to the flanges of the
- material remains in the elastic range and no damage is expected. beam
Condition under which building is still considered useful. Above this,
building may still be structurally sound but unfit for use FLEXIBLE ELEMENT
(durability, cracking, deflectionm fire resistance) element or system is one whose deformation under lateral load significantly
larger than adjoining parts of the system
 Minor - Magnitude 1 - 4 < 10 yrs
HARMONIC MOTION
 Control Limit the coincidence of the natural period of structural with the dominant frequency
- some yielding may occur and may have minor structural damage. in the ground
 Moderate - Mag. 4 - 6 -10-20 years
MOMENT RESISTING FRAME
 Survival Limit State space frame in which the members and joints are capable of resisting forces
- inelastic behavior and may have major structural damage. primarily by flexure
 Major - Magnitude 7 and up - 100-500 years
ORTHOGONAL EFFECT
LIMIT STATE DESIGN effect of the structure due to earthquake motions acting in directions other
Limit state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the than parallel to the direction of resistance under consideration
relevant design criteria
P- DELTA EFFECT
CONCENTRIC BRACED FRAME secondary effect on shears and moments of frame members induced by the
braced frame in which the members are subjected primarily to axial forces vertical loads acting on the laterally displaced building frame.
Abrupt changes in ground shear, overturning moment and/ or axial force
Most braced frames are concentric (SHARE SAME CENTER) meaning distribution at the base of tall structure when subject to critical lateral
members intersect at a node and centroid of each member passes through the displacement (buckle at own weight)
same point
PERT-CPM
COLLECTOR PROGRAM EVALUATION REVIEW TECHNIQUE- CRITICAL PATH METHOD
member or an element provided to transfer lateral forces from a large portion presentation of project plan by a schematic diagram or network that depicts the
sequence and interrelation of all the component parts of the project, and the logically
of a structure to the structural vertical elements of the lateral force resisting analysis and manipulation of this network in determining the best overall program of
system operation.
Statistical tool in project management and designed to analyze and represent
DIAPHRAGM tasks involved in completing a given project
horizontal or nearly horizontal system (including horizontal bracing system)
acting to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements
PLATFORM RAINWATER LEADER
lower rigid portion of a structure having vertical combination of structural another term of a downspout. It is a vertical pipe, often of sheet metal, used to
system conduct water from a roof drain or gutter to the ground.

PNEUMATIC MORTAR TORSION RIGIDITY (is used in seismic design)

mortar applied to a sursface with a cement gun in the same manner as gunite, refers to the relative stiffness of the structure to resist torsional stress
with such mortar has a cube crushing strength of 20.68 Mpa at 28 days with
water/ cement ratio of 0.45 TOWER
upper flexible portion of a structure having a vertical combination of structural system
SHEAR WALL
wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane of the wall VERTICAL LOAD CARRYING SPACE FRAME
(sometimes referred to or a structural wall) is a space frame designed to carry all vertical (gravity) loads

SOIL- STRUCTURE RESONANCE NSCP PROVISION ON LAP SPLICES REQUIREMENT

coincidence of the natural period of structure which dominant frequency in the 1. No splices are allowed within joints.
ground motion 2. No splices are allowed within 2h from face of joint.
3. No splices are allowed within 2h from points of flexural yielding
SOIL STABILIZATION 4. Lap length must be provided with a hoops/spiral with S min= d/4 or 100 mm.
process of improving the properties of a soil to make it more suitable for a
particular purpose NSCP PROVISION ON TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
SPACE FRAME Hoops shall be provided within:
3D structural system without bearing walls composed of members i. 2h from face of the support
interconnected so as to function as a complete self contained unit with or ii. 2h from both sides of sections where flexure yielding are likely to occur.
without the aid of horizontal diaphragms or bracing systems iii. First hoop shall be located not more than 50 mm from face of the supporting
Truss-like lightweight and rigid structure of interlocking struts in a geometric element
pattern; Span large areas with few interior supports (Triangle is rigid!) iv.Maximum hoop spacing should be the lesser of;
Flexing/ Bending load transmitted as tension and compression along lengths of strut 1. d/4
STOREY 2. 8db (longitudinal bars)
space between levels. Storey x is the storey below level x 3. 24db (hoops)
4. 300 mm
STOREY SHEAR  Corner & alternate longitudinal bars shall be provided with lateral support
summation of design lateral forces above the storey under consideration by a tie with included angle not more than 135deg. Longitudinal bars shall
be no farther than 150 mm from such laterally supported bars
STOREY DRIFT
displacement of one level relative to the level above or below  Where hoops are not required (beyond 2H), stirrups with seismic hook at
both ends shall be spaced at a distance not more than d/2 throughout the
STOREY DRIFT RATIO length of the member.
storey drift divided by the storey height
Hoop VS Stirrup VS Ties
STRUCTURE Hoops resist shear & torsion and prevent buckling of main bar (closed tie)
assemblage of framing members designed to support gravity loads and resist Stirrups can be open and u-shaped but can also have same tie as hoop
lateral forces. They maybe categorized as building or non- building. Ties used for columns (also closed)
GRADING AND EARTHWORK REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

AS GRADED extent of surface conditions on completion of grading ADMIXTURE

material used as ingredient of concrete and added to concrete before or
BEDROCK in-place solid rock during its mixing to modify its properties

BENCH relatively level step excavated into earth material AGGREGATE

on which fill is to be placed granular material such as sand gravel stone and iron blast furnace slag used
with a cementing medium to form a hydraulic cement concrete or mortar
BURROW earth material acquired from an off site location
for use in grading on a site AGGREGATE LIGHTWEIGHT
aggregate with a dry, loose weight of 100 kg/m or less
COMPACTION densification of a fill by mechanical means
ANCHORAGE
EARTH MATERIAL any rock, natural soil or fill or any combination in post tensioning, a device used to anchor tendon to concrete member, in
pre-tensioning, a device used to anchor a tendon during hardening of concrete
EROSION wearing away of the ground surface as a result of the
movement of the wind, water or ice BONDED TENDON
pre-stressing tendon that is bonded to concrete either directly or through
EXCAVATION mechanical removal of the earth material grouting

FILL deposit of earth material placed by artificial means COLUMN

member with a ratio to least lateral dimension of 3 or greater used primarily to
GRADE vertical location of the ground surface support axial compressive load

EXISTING GRADE grade prior to the grading COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS
concrete flexural members of pre-cast and/or cast in place concrete elements
FINISH GRADE final grade of the site that conforms to the approved plan but so interconnected that all elements respond to loads as a unit

GRADING any excavating or filling or combination thereof CONCRETE

mixture of Portland cement or any other hydraulic cement, fine aggregate,
KEY designed compacted fill placed in a trench excavated coarse aggregate, and water, with or without admixtures
material beneath the toe of a proposed fill slope
REINFORCED CONCRETE
combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides
the tensile strength lacking in the concrete

SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE (f’)

compressive strength of concrete used in design expressed in MPa.
Whenever the quantity F”c is under a radical sign, square root of numerical
value only is intended, & result has units of MPa.
CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL LIGHT WEIGHT MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
concrete containing lightweight aggregate and has an air-dry unit weight ratio of normal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive
not exceeding 1900 kg/m3. lightweight concrete without natural sand is stresses below proportional limit of material
termed all- light weight concrete and lightweight concrete in which of the fine
aggregate consists of normal weight sand is termed sand- lightweight concrete MODULUS, APARENT (concrete)
also known as long term modulus, is determined by using the stress and
CURVATURE FRICTION strain obtained after the load has been applied for a certain length of time
friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified pre-stressing tendon
profile MODULUS, INITIAL (concrete)
slope of the stress strain diagram at the origin of the curve

DEFORMED REINFORCEMENT MODULUS, SECANT (concrete)

deformed reinforcing bars, bar mats, deformed wire fabric and welded slope of the line drawn from the origin to appoint on the curve somewhere
deformed fabric. between 25% and 50% of its ultimate compressive strength

DEVELOPMENT LENGTH MODULUS, TENGENT (concrete)

length of embedded reinforcement required to develop the design strength of slope of tangent to the curve to some point along the curve
reinforcement at a critical section
PEDESTAL
EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION (d) upright compression member with a ratio of unsupported height to average
distance measure from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension least lateral dimensions of less than 3
reinforcement
PLAIN CONCRETE
EFFECTIVE PRESTRESS concrete that does not conform to the definition of reinforced concrete
stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses has occurred,
excluding effects of dead load and super imposed load PLAIN REINFORCEMENT
reinforcement that does not conform to the definition of deformed
EMBEDMENT LENGTH reinforcement
length of embedded reinforcement provided beyond a critical section
POST TENSIONING
JACKING FORCE method of prestressing in which the tendons are tensioned after concrete has
in pre-stressed concrete, temporary force exerted into prestressing tendons hardened

DEAD LOAD (DL) PRECAST CONCRETE

dead weight supported by a member. plain or reinforced concrete element cast elsewhere than its final position in
Loads of constant magnitude that remains in one position. the structure

LIVE LOAD (LL) PRETENSIONING

loads that may change in magnitude and position (removed/replaced) method of prestressing concrete which the tendons are tensioned before
concrete is placed
FACTORED LOAD
load multiplied by appropriate load factors, used to proportion a members by
the strength design method.
REINFORCED CONCRETE YIELD STRENGTH
designed on the assumption that two materials act together in resisting forces specified minimum yield strength or yield point or reinforcing in Mpa
To compensate for Plain Concrete (strong in compression, weak in tension)
BALANCED DESIGN
SPIRAL REINFORCEMNT design so proportioned that the maximum stress in concrete
continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix (with strain of 0.003) & steel (with strain of Fy/Es) are
reached simultaneously once the ultimate load is reached, causing
STIRRUP them to fall simultaneously
reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion stresses in a structural
member: typically bars, wires or welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed) UNDERREINFORCED DESIGN
either single leg or bent into L, U or rectangular shapes and located design in which the steel reinforcement is lesser than what is required for
perpendicularly to or at angle to longitudinal reinforcement balanced conditioned. Failure under this condition is ductile and will give
(The term stirrups is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in flexural warning to the user of thee structure to decrease the load
members and the term ties to those in compression members.)
OVERREINFORCED DESIGN
DESIGN STRENGTH design in which the steel reinforcement is more than what is required for
nominal strength reduction factor, Ø balanced condition

NOMINAL STRENGTH SPLICING

strength of a member or cross- section before application of any strength 3m / 6m commercially available rebar length; Concentration of Rebars:
reduction factors Splice where Shear = 0 (inflection point of concrete) ; M = 0
Zero Shear = Max Moment always! But reverse is not true
REQUIRED STRENGTH
strength of a member or cross section required to resist factored loads or Working Stress Design not used anymore
related internal moments and forces in such combinations Ultimate Strength Design x Applied Load Section Capacity; is greater than 1
Applied to beams and columns
TENDON
steel element such as wire, cable, bar, rods or strand, or a bundle of such Grade 60 High Grade (Fy=414 MPa)
elements used to impart prestress to concrete Grade 40 Intermediate (Fy=276 Mpa)
Grade 33 Structural (Fy=228 Mpa)
TIE
loop or reinforcing bar or wire enclosing longitudinal reinforcement CONCRETE FAILURE Crushing of concrete
Yielding or failure of rebar, due to bending or shear stresses
TRANSFER Bond failure between concrete and rebar
act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks Shortage in shear resistance (most serious)
or pretensioning bed to concrete member @RC Beams: Bending/Flexural cracks = Vertical;
Shear cracks= 45deg (solve by rear stirrups/shoring/fill)
WALL
member, usually vertical, used to enclose or separate spaces Anilyo Stirrups
Kabilya Rebar
WOBBLE FRICTION Lastilyas Gravel & Sand
in pre-stressed concrete, friction caused by unintended deviation of
prstressing sheath or duct from its specified profile CLASS A Cement 1:2:4 (cement:sand:gravel)
AGGREGATES STANDARD HOOKS FOR PRIMARY REINFORCEMENTS

Fine aggregates- sand are those that passes through a No.4 sieve (about 6mm in size) A. 180º bend plus 4db extension but not less than 60 mm at free end
B. 90º bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar
Coarse aggregate - gravel or crushed stone
Coarse aggregate shall not be less than:
Minimum Finished Bend Diameter are as follows:
 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms
 6bd for bar 10mm - 25mm
 1/3 the depth of slabs
 8bd for bar 28mm, 32mm, 36mm
 ¾ minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars or
wires, bundle of bars or prestressing tendons or ducts
STANDARD HOOKS FOR STIRRUP AND TIES
CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT
 16 mm bar and smaller, 90º bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar or
75 mm for concrete cast and permanently exposed to earth such as footings  20 mm and 25 mm bar, 90º bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar or
 25 mm bar and smaller, 135º bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar
40-50 mm for concrete members exposed to weather

40 mm concrete cover of pipes, conduits or fittings and exposed to weather Minimum Finished Bend Diameter are as follows:
(cast-in-place)  4bd for bar 16mm and smaller
 6bd for bar 20mm and 25mm
40 mm for beams and columns not exposed to weather
Seismic hook, 135-degree bend plus 6bd / 75 mm extension at free end of the bar
20- 40 mm slabs, walls and joists not exposed to weather
ONE- WAY SLAB
FOR BUNDLED BARS
A one-way slab is considered as wide shallow rectangular beam. The reinforcing steel
a. groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact as a unit shall be limited to is usually spaced uniformly over its width. The flexural reinforcement of a one-way slab
4in any one bundled; 16mm max rebar diameter that can be bundled extends in one direction only.

b. bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties Maximum flexural reinforcement spacing: 3 times the slab thickness or 450 mm
Minimum thickness of one-way slab:
c. bars larger than 36mm shall not be bundled in beams (NSCP) Solid one-way slab
L/20 - simply supported
d. individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members L/24 - one end continuous
should terminate at a different points at least 40db stagger L/28 - both end continuous
L/10 - cantilever
The minimum concrete cover for bundled bars shall be: * Span length L is in millimeters
Ribbed one-way slab
 Equal to the equivalent diameter of the bundle but not exceeding 50 mm L/16 - simply supported
L/18.5 - one end continuous
 75 mm- for concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth L/21 - both end continuous
L/8 - cantilever
LOAD FACTORS (OLD!) COLUMNS- SIZE AND SPACING OF MAIN BARS AND TIES
Dead load, DL……………………………………………….. 1.40
Live load, LL…………………………….…………………… 1.70 Code Requirements
Wind load, WL………...…………………………………….. 1.70 1. Steel ratio  = As/Ag (area of steel to gross area of column) must be equal or
Earthquake, E……………………………………….………. 1.87 between 1% (under reinforced) to 8% (too tight!)
Earth or water pressure, H……………………...……….… 1.70
2. Minimum number of bar is 4 for rectangular, 6 for circular, 3 for
NEW triangular.
U= 1.2 (DL) + 1.6 (LL)
3. Clear distance of longitudinal bar not be less than 1.5bd or 40 mm.

STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR Ø 4. Vertical spacing of ties shall be the smallest of the following (not more than):
a. 16 x db (db = longitudinal bar diameter)
b. 48 x tie diameter
Flexure w/o axial load……………………………………………….. 0.90 c. Least lateral dimension of column
Axial tension & axial tension w/ flexure……………………………. 0.90
Shear and torsion ……………………………………………………. 0.85 5. Minimum dimension of column may be at least 200 mm to provide enough
concrete cover of bars
Axial compression & axial compression w/ flexure
a. spiral reinforcement ……………………………………… 0.75 6. Use 10 mm diameter ties for 32 mm longitudinal bars or smaller and at least
b. tie reinforcement …………………………………………. 0.70 12 mm in size for 36 mm and bundled longitudinal bars
Bearing on concrete ………………………………………………….. 0.70 7. Ties shall be arrange such that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar
shall have lateral support provided by the corner of the tie with an included
angle of not more than 135º and no longitudinal bar shall be farther than 150
REQUIRED STRENGTH, U or Pu mm clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally supported bar.
Where longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter of a circle tie is
Required strength U to resist dead load DL and live load LL is allowed.
U= 1.4DL + 1.7LL
8. Clear spacing of spirals must be equal or between 25mm to 75 mm; size of
Wind load W are included in design spiral at least 10mm bar diameter
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7W)

Earthquake loads or forces are included in design

U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.87E) MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
Where structural effect T of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage or temperature 1. not less than 12 db
change are significant in design 2. not less than 1/16 clear span
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.4T + 1.7LL) 3. not less than d, whichever is greater
but required strength U shall not be less than
U= 1.4 (DL + T)
CRITERION FOR CONDUITS AND PIPES EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE SOIL BEARING PRESSURE (q)
upward contact pressure that is being exerted by the soil to the footing of a
a. Conduits and pipes embedded in slab, the wall or beam shall not be larger in structure. It is caused, and dependent on the cohesion of soil particles or the
outside dimension than 1/3 the overall thickness of slab, wall or beam friction in between soil particles.

b. Reinforcement with an area not less than 0.002 times the area of cross-
section shall be provided normal to piping
UNIFORM SETTLEMENT
c. Conduits and pipes with their fittings, embedded within a column shall not
gradual reduction in the volume of soil mass
displace more than 4% of the area of the cross section on which strength is
calculated
SETTLEMENT
d. Concrete cover for pipes, conduits and fittings shall not be less than 40 mm the gradual subsidence of a structure as the soil beneath consolidates under
for concrete exposed to earth or weather or less than 20mm for concrete not the loading from a building
exposed  Uniform Settlement: Palace of Fine Arts, Mexico (settled by 12ft)
 Tipping Settlement: Tower of Pisa
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH BOLTED CONNECTION
 Differential Settlement – happens when parts of a building settle
unevenly
1. High-strength bolted parts shall fit solidly together when assembled and shall
not be separated by gaskets or any other interposed compressive material.
CONSOLIDATION
2. Bolts tightened by means of a calibrated wrench shall be installed with a gradual reduction in the volume of soil mass, caused by application of
hardened washer under the nut or bolt head whichever is the element turned sustained load and an increase in compressive stress
in tightening.
 Primary Consolidation – due to squeezing out of water within the
3. When assembled, all joint surfaces, including those adjacent to the washer,
shall be free of scale, except tight mill scales, dirts and burns. soil mass

4. Surface in contact with the bolt head and nut head shall have slope of not  Secondary Consolidation – due to adjustment of the internal
more than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis. structure of the soil mass after water has been squeezed out from it

FOUNDATION SYSTEMS EXPANSIVE SOIL

contains minerals that absorb water
FOOTING
structural member that transfer building loads safely to the ground COMPRESSIBLE SOIL
 fine, grained and very soft materials
Upward forces acting on a footing: foundation bearing pressure/  Peat, sand, silt, Alluvium and laminated clays
soil bearing pressure/soil pressure
ALLUVIUM
Increasing the area of a footing will decrease the soil bearing pressure particles that can easily be washed away by water
ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITY / PRESSURE VALLEYS
capacity/strength of the soil to support the loads applied to the ground funnel winds and can create higher wind speeds
maximum average (incorporates a factor of safety) contact pressure between
the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure SWALES
catches water and directs it to another location
Soils from (1) Lowest to (7) Highest Bearing Capacity SLOPE RATIO
Bearing capacity of these soils can be extremely variable depending on
the water content Most Rock ¼:1 to ½:1
1) Organic Materials Very well cemented soils ¼:1 to ½:1
2) Silt Most in place soils ¼:1 to 1:1
3) Clay Very fractured rock 1:1 to 1 ½ :1
4) Fine Sand Loose course granular soils 1 ½:1
5) Course Sand Heavy clay soils 2:1 to 3:1
6) Gravel
ADDITIONAL NOTES
7) Bedrock
NGL
Toughest concrete in Philippines- 12,000 PSI
reference of excavation. If there are no columns in the foundation design, then
Cement is the most important component and not water!
there must be load bearing walls as vertical supports.
Larger buildings will most likely generate more violations in desirable building
TYPES OF FOOTING proportions
1. Spread Footing – not efficient with lateral loads
2. Combined Footing Throat of Weld line of failure of welding since it has the smallest distance
3. Frame Footing – has additional centering (cos45 x weld size)
4. Strip Footing
 Behaves like a spread footing and beam at the same time BRIDGE CAP highest part of bridge pier, on which bridge bearings or rollers are
 Used in small scale projects seated; may be of stone, brick, or plain/RC for heavy loads
 Used near earthquake prone areas JOIST wood, steel, or pre-cast concrete beam directly supporting a floor
 Used for soils with low soil bearing capacity
5. Raft/Mat/Unified Solid Foundation GIRDER large beam, originally of wood or iron, now usually of steel or
 Used for soils with low soil bearing capacity concrete, through light alloys have occasionally been used. Apart
 Used near earthquake prone areas from the Bowstring Girder, its chords are parallel
 Hidden Beam Raft Foundation –used for medium scale projects BENDING total bending effect at any section of a beam. Equal to the sum of all
MOMENT moments to the right of the section (M).
STRAP BEAM F x D = Arm (lbs-in, ton-in, kg-m, N-m, ton-m)
needs a continuous top bar; deals with eccentricity in footings
ACCELERATOR admixture which hastens hardening rate & initial setting time of
FOOTING TIE-BEAM concrete. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) used before but banned due to
used to prevent differential settlement; can have no reinforcements at midspan corrosion.
RETARDER admixture which slows up setting rate of concrete, sometimes applied CAPTIVE cannot sway; restriction to the lateral displacement of a column
to formwork so that when it is stripped, the cement paste which has COLUMN Short columns fail because of shear
been in contact with can be removed by light brushing.
BORING making a hole in rock blasting, using a rotative or percussive drill RACKING restraining and distortion of a structural frame by lateral forces

GUSSET PLATE steel plate usually rectangular/triangular, which connects members of WHIP tip end hits the most intense
truss PRINCIPLE

SEISMOGRAPH instrument at ground surface which records electrical effects SECTION direct measure of the strength of a beam
transmitted to it by a seismometer & thus shows the times & MODULUS
amplitudes of earth shocks
CENTROID center of an area, Bigger section modulus and moment of inertia
SLUMP TEST test for stiffness of wet concrete, conical mold is filled with concrete. means greater resistance to bending
The amount by which the concrete cone drops below the top of the
mold is measured and is called the slump. ELASTICITY ability to bend

FIXED-END bending moment at the support of a beam required to fix it in such a PLASTICITY ability to deform but not go back
MOMENT way that it cannot rotate, so that it has a fixed end
INVERTED used when there’s height restriction
PRE-TENSION pre-cast concrete members with embedded tension wires anchored BEAM
against the molds or permanent abutments in the ground. After
hardening, concrete is released from the mold and wires are cut at Z-TYPE used when there’s a change in elevation
the anchorage, which gives a larger loss of pre-stress that with post- BEAM
tensioning and economical for small members/produce better
concrete since it’s factory controlled. SLENDER BUILDING greater risk for overturning; greater risk for vibration

PRE-CAST concrete beams, columns, lintels, piles, & parts of walls and floors AMPLIFICATION wave of buildings
cast & partly matured on site or in factory before being lifted into their
position in a structure. May be more economical than casting in
place, may give better surface finish, reduce shrinkage, and make DIAPHRAGM (usually floor slab) resist twisting or torsion
stronger concrete
BUNDLED TUBE e.g. Burj Khalifa, Willis Tower
SLAG waste glass-like product from a metallurgical furnace, which flows off
above the metal VECTOR Magnitude + Direction
LINE OF ACTION line through w/c force, F is applied acting on object
MODULUS OF breaking stress of cast-iron, wooden or mass concrete rectangular
RUPTURE beam calculated on the assumption that tensile strains in the beam
FRAMES horizontal & vertical load bearing elements & foundation elements
are equal distances from the neutral axis
Rigid / Semi-Rigid Frame
Frame with Shear Truss
NEWTON’S 1) object remain at rest/uniform motion in a straight line unless acted
Frame with Shear Wall
LAWS OF upon by an external force (inertia)
Frame with Shear Truss / Outrigger
MOTION 2) F = ma
Frame with Shear Wall / Outrigger
3) For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Exterior Diagonalized Tube
Santiago Calatrava Architect – Engineer; TGV Station, bridgess Stepped rings of counters the outward thrust
Pantheon
Pierre Luigi Nervi thin shell construction; Sculptor of Athena Statue
Santa Maria del Fiore world’s largest masonry dome by Filippo Brunelleshi
Eladio Dieste Gaussian vault, brick; Church of St. Peter
(a.k.a. a dome within a dome)
Fazlur Rahman Khan building height, CAD pioneer, father of tubular design for the
th Tou-kung/ literally cap and block
high rises of 20 century; Sears Tower
Dougong Corbelling unique structural element of interlocking wooden brackets,
Abraham Darby designed “The Iron Bridge” one of the most important elements in traditional Chinese
Architecture
Joseph Louis Lambot reinforced concrete in the construction of floating barges
Sakyamuni Pagoda world’s tallest and oldest wooden structure
Augustin Cauchy Paper most important in elasticity since Hooke
Ifugao Bale the world’s first pre-fabricated house (Otley Beyer)
Claude – Louis Navier presented ;
the modern definition of Young’s Modulus (1826) Ingalls Bldg, Cincinnati
st
1 concrete high rise structure
A typical modern steel high rise construction has only 0.2%
st
Elisha Otis invented the 1 safety elevator in 1853 structural density
1857 – mass production of steel
1867 – Joseph Monier introduced a reinforced concrete Home insurance Bldg 1
st
to use steel in 1884; William Jenney
bridge (Monier System)
th
John Hancock Center 4 tallest in Chicago
Etruscans true arch, vaults and domes
Sydney Harbour Bridge Arch / “Coat Hanger”,( Kintai, Rialto, Golden Gate, Brooklyn)
International Style conceptually least earthquake resilient style
6
Eiffel Tower Wrought iron, 28x10 psi or 190 GPa
Trilithic Style column, beam and entablature
Bank of China’s plan based on poison arrows (Sha Qi)
Gobekli Tepe, Turkey oldest known stone sanctuary (temple) carved from hilltop
HSBC Headquarters “conceptual cannon”
Great Pyramid of Giza example of a true octagon-based plan structure
Vitra Design Museum Frank Gehry
Cloaca Maxima Great Sewer in Rome
Imperial Hotel, Japan survived an 8.3 magnitude earthquake mainly due to a lot of
Parthenon Doric order partitions it contains; Prairie Style, Frank Lloyd Wright

Aqua Appia
st
1 Roman Aqueduct TESDA inverted pyramid
DIAGRAMS