Work Measurement

Human Factors in Work study

Human Factors has its origins in the Industrial Revolution and emerged as a fully-fledged discipline during World War II.

1.1 Sociotechnical Systems

Organizational issues such as management approaches, job design, participative problem solving, psychological stress, job
satisfaction, performance effectiveness, product/service quality, and quality of work life are addressed by engineers specializing in
sociotechnical methods in system design.

1.2 Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study of the principles of work. Ergonomists are concerned with the complex physical relationships between
people, machines, job demands and work methods. A prime emphasis is on preventing musculoskeletal injuries in the workplace.
These injuries create significant cost to industry in the form of medical bills, worker's compensation, reduced productivity and lost
time. Prevention of injuries is accomplished by understanding biomechanics and the physiology of work, and through the use of
biomechanical models, laboratory simulations, field studies and job analyses.

1.3 Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study of the principles of work. Ergonomists are concerned with the complex physical relationships between
people, machines, job demands and work methods. A prime emphasis is on preventing musculoskeletal injuries in the workplace.
These injuries create significant cost to industry in the form of medical bills, worker's compensation, reduced productivity and lost
time. Prevention of injuries is accomplished by understanding biomechanics and the physiology of work, and through the use of
biomechanical models, laboratory simulations, field studies and job analyses.

2.0 Working Conditions and Environment

 poor lighting, ventilation, excessive heat,
 poor housekeeping, inadequate work space and working tools,
 lack of protective equipment, exposure to hazardous chemicals and dusts and long hours of work.
 The most prevalent health impairments were musculo-skeletal disorders and low back pain;
 allergic reactions and other respiratory disorders; physical strain, fatigue and stress. Injuries with tools were also
frequent.( ILO 2005)

3.0 Work Measurement

 Work measurement is the process of establishing the time that a given task would take when performed by a qualified
worker working at a defined level of performance.
 There are various ways in which work may be measured and a variety of techniques have been established. The basic
procedure, irrespective of the particular measurement technique being used, consists of three stages ;
 an analysis phase in which the job is divided into convenient, discrete components, commonly known as elements;
 a measurement phase in which the specific measurement technique is used to establish the time required (by a qualified
worker working at a defined level of performance) to complete each element of work;
 a synthesis phase in which the various elemental times are added, together with appropriate allowances (see below), to
construct the standard time for the complete job.

3.1 The purpose of Time Study is to

• Establish Standard Times
• Rate Operator performance
• Gain information to calculate overall production capabilities and Data for capacity planning.
• Establish the total Work content of finished goods.

3.2 Applications of Work Measurement

 Worker pay, productivity
 Equipment evaluation
 Evaluation of alternative work methods
 Operations and activity scheduling
 Cost estimation
 Facility planning and layout

3.3 Work measurement procedures


Direct work measurement covering
 time study
 activity sampling
 Indirect work measurement covering
 Synthetic timing
 Predetermined motion time systems
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  Analytical estimating

3.4 Choosing a measurement technique

Depends on a number of factors including:

 the purpose of the measurement;

 the level of detail required;
 the time available for the measurement;
 the existence of available predetermined data;
 and the cost of measurement.

3.5 The Procedure for a Time Study

A job is selected
 Obtain all necessary information about worker, machine,, material, layout, output, method, quality standard etc for use at
a later date
 The method description derived from a method study of this specific job is used to break up the job into units that can
be measured more easily. For the following reasons this is nessary:
i To provide a better understanding of the nature of the job
ii To break a time study exercise up into manageably sized units
iii To permit a more accurate study
iv To distinguish different types of work
v To enable ‘machine’ elements ie machine-paced work to be isolated from ‘worker’ elements
vi To enable detailed job descriptions to be produced
vii To enable time standards to be checked or modified
viii To enable times for certain common or important elements to be extracted and compared.
 Timing elements
 Number of cycles to be timed
 The total job as well as the smaller tasks are rated and measured several times with a stop watch.
 Average (standard times) are established considering allowances

3.6 Identifying Need for Time Study

 Poor safety jobs and machine centres

 Bottleneck processes
 Poor machine and labour utilisation
 Incentives needed
 Complaints about the standard times received from supervisors
 Need job, material and machine

3.7 Approach to the worker

 Work study man must be known to supervisor and worker representative

 Bring them together and explain terms of reference and aims / benefits
 study a competent and steady person first
 Identify representative and qualified workers

3.8 Inputs of Time study

Documented results of a method study operator and conditions for the job to be measured.
• Record a complete description of the method
• Observations of the job to be studied
and effective sample size
• Time readings for the job to be measured from the Stop Watch.
• Recording the observed times

3.9 Outputs of a Time Study

• Standard times for the Job that has been measured
• Completed Time Study Sheet with ratings and times
• knowledge about the work content for specific Products and processes

4.0 Time Study Tools and Techniques

 Stopwatches
In use cumulative timing more accurate or fly back can be used
 Time study boards with inbuilt clocks
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  Time Study charts

4.1 Choosing work elements

 Define the element with a clear beginning and end and of measurable duration.
 Elements should be in a logical sequence
 Separate worker and machine elements
 Elements with fatiguing work should be separated
 Constant and variable elements should be separated

4.2 Number of cycles to be timed

 Time study is sampling process and observations taken depend on variation in element times, accuracy required and
confidence level required.
N1=required number of observations for given confidence and accuracy
N = actual number of observations taken in pilot study
X = each observed element time from the pilot study

 95% confidence and ± 5% accuracy:

2
 40 N  X 2  ( X ) 2 
N  
1 


 X 

 95% confidence and ±10% accuracy:

2
 20 N  X 2  ( X ) 2 
N  
1 


 X 

Example
Suppose 5 values are collected

Xi= 7, 6, 7, 7, 6
Xi 2= 49, 36,49, 49, 36

2
 40 5 219  ( 33) 2 
N  
1   10.3or11

 33
 
 The sample for 95% confidence and ± 5% accuracy the observations should be increased from 5 to 11

5.0 Rate of working

 Quality and characteristics of materials used
 Changes in tool efficiency
 Avoidable changes in operating conditions
 Variation in mental attention

5.1 Rating the worker

 Perfomance rating is comparison between actual and standard rate.

 Standard rate is the average at which qualified workers will naturally work at a job using a known and specified method.
 British rate assign the standard rate to a 1
 Real life it depends on conditions
labour, policy

 Effort rating looks at work speed of movement and difficulty

 Objective rating depend on speed and difficulty.
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  Other factors are weight and handling requirements, eye hand coordination, % of body used
 Standard performance= 100%

5.2 Using rating factor

Basic Time = Observed Time x Rating factor

Westinghouse system

Observed time = say 0.45 mins

Element rating; Skill = 0.06
Effort = 0.12
Conditions = 0.00
Consistency = 0.01
= 0.19

Basic time for elements = 0.45 x (1.00 + 0.19)

= 0.54

Skill Effort Conditions Consistency

+0.13 +0.13 +0.06 +0.04
superskill Excessive ideal Perfect
0.08 +0.08 +0.04 +0.03
Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
-0.16 -0.12 -0.07 -0.04
Poor Poor Poor Poor

6.0 Allowances

 Allowances compensate for fatigue, personal needs and contingencies

 Relaxation allowances for fatigue and time to recover from effort
 Contingency allowances time needed to perform additional tasks not included in basic time
 Tool and machinery allowance for adjusting and set up
 Reject allowance for rejects
 Interference allowance unavoidable time lost by worker attending to 2 machines
 Extra work allowance to compensate for extra work because of unforeseen or changes in standard conditions
Rest Allowances
Constant Allowances Percentage
Personal allowance 5
Basic fatigue allowance 4
Variable Allowances: Standing Allowance 2
Abnormal position allowance Slightly awkward 0
Wkward (bending)

Standard time = Observed time x Rating factor x Percent total allowance

7.0 No of observations required with 95% confidence

 4 p 100  p   N is observations needed
N1   
 l2  P is percentage of total time occupied by the activity being studied
L is required limits of accuracy as a %
where
N1

8.0 Rating

 Rating is assessment of workers rate of working relative to observers concept of rate corresponding to standard rate
Affected by incentives
 Experience worker is consistent, smooth, responsive, anticipates difficulty and knows how to overcome them.
 Qualified worker has training, education and knowledge
 Average worker represents the group

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8.1 Observed versus standard rate

 Comparison is based on judgement

 Standard time is time taken by the average qualified worker
 Rate the effort in terms of speed used.
 Mental activities are difficult to assess
 Observed Time x Rating= basic time

If the worker is slow multiply by more than 100% to standard time

Cycle Observed Time Rating Constant

1 0.2 100 0.20
2 0.16 125 0.20
3 0.25 80 0.20

8.2 Principal Rating scales

Scale % Description
0 No activity
40 Very slow, clumsy
60 Steady deliberate unhurried
80 Brisk business like perfomance
120 Very fast, too much effort and concerntration

 Contingency takes care of legitimate delays <5%

 Policy level allowed for satisfactory earnings from a process up to 33% of basic in UK
 Start up and shut down allowance given as special allowances
 Reject and learning allowance can also be given

8.3 Standard time is time that a job should take under standard performance

Observed Time + Rating factor = Basic

Basic Time + Allowances = Work Content

Work Content + Unavoidable = Standard

Delays Time

8.4 Standards for machines

 Plant and machine control is name for procedure by which efficiency and capacity are planned and checked
 Machine available time 24 hours per day
 Machine available time –working day + overtime
 Idle time- Time machine not used due to shortage of work, material,
 Machine ancilliary time change over cleaning
 Down time breakdowns
 Running time –actual operating time

8.5 Results

 Utilisation Index =Running time /available

 Efficiency Index= Running/standard /time
 Effective utilisation index = Running/standard running

 Inside work is work performed by worker in process

 Outside time Work performed by operator outside machine controlled time
 Unoccupied time is when the worker is not working or taking authorised rest

9.0 Activity sampling

Direct time study covers short cycle repetitive work

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  Long irregular cycles
 Many workers on many machines
 To establish % of time spend on a machine for space utilisation, resouces etc
 Sampling is required
 Accuracy depends on number of observations

9.1 Basic Minute /element

 Basic Minute = Sum of ratings/100 X observed interval/output

Through put of a process is 5 units is 2 min interval. Observations made at every 0.1 min and the process has 3 elements

Ob NO E1 Ratings E1 rating E1 rating idle

1 100
2 100
3 95
4 110
5 95
6 100
7 100
Total
 BM/ element 1= 2.9/100 x 0.1/5 = 0.058

10.0 Indirect work Measurement- Synthetic Timing

 As studies are complete data is stored in database for future use

 Periodic review and useful where there is no information available
 Variations over time can be observed

Technique Definition (BS 3138) Steps Involved Accuracy detail Applications

Direct Work 1. Time A technique for 1 Get all information Amount of detail is Widely used
Measurement Study recording the times and concerning job to be determined by step 2 particularly for direct
rates of working for the measured and accuracy is work. May be used
elements of a specified 2 Divide job into elements determined largely by as a preliminary to
job carried out under 3 Time and rate the elements the process of rating generating synthetic
specified conditions and 4 Determine number of (step 3), which is data
for analyzing the data so cycles to time largest subjective area
as to obtain the time 5 Determine allowances of time study
necessary for carry out 6 Calculate standard time for
the job at a defined level job
of performance
2. Activity A technique in which a 1 Get all details of jobs to be Gives information Intermittent work.
sampling large number of measured about proportion of Long cycle times. As
instantaneous 2 Divide job into activities time spent on each preliminary
observations are made 3 Conduct pilot study to: activity only investigation
over a period of time of a a) Determine number of
group of machines, observations
processes or workers. b) check method
Each observation records 4 Conduct study; make
what is happening at that readings
instant and the 5 Calculate proportion of
percentage of time for each activity
observations recorded for
a particular activity or
delay is measure of the
percentage of time during
which that activity or
delay occurs
Indirect work 1 Synthetic A technique for building 1. Get all details of job to Usually as much Where adequate data
measurement timing up the time for job at be measured detail as time study have been gathered
defined level of 2. Divide job into since data have been usually provides a
performance by totaling elements obtained from prior sufficient accurate
element times obtained 3. Select time from time studies. and rapid method of
previously from time synthetic data Accuracy depends on determining times
studies on other jobs 4. Determine allowances the amount of data often without
containing the elements 5. Calculate standard available and care in recourse to
concerned or from time for job application stopwatch and prior
synthetic data to starting job

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 2 Pre- A technique whereby 1. Get all detail of the job Systems are avalaible Where consistency
determined times established for to be measured to provide various and accuracy are
motion time basic human motion 2. Determine amount of levels of detail. important. Detailed
systems (classified according to detail required Consistency is systems are time
the nature of the motion 3. Construct time for job ensured and accuracy comsuming to apply.
and the conditions under 4. Determine allowances with many systems is Later systems forfeit
which it is made) are used 5. Calculate standard time greater than that of detail for speed of
to build up the time for a for job time study application. Suitable
job at a defined level of for use on indirect
performance workers and for
intermittent work
3 Analytical A techniques being a Get all information Uses synthetic data Where insufficient
estimating development of concerning job to be supplemented by synthetic
estimating, whereby the measured either time studies or
time required to carry out Divide job into elements estimates slightly less
elements of a job at a 3 a) Apply synthetic data accurate and
defined level of where available consistent than
performance is estimated b) Estrimate or time synthetic
from knowledge and elements durations
practical experience of 4 determine allowances
the elements concerned. 5 Calculate standard time for
job

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