THE BOOK OF

KNOWLEDGE
Being a Translation with notes

of

Kitab al-‘Ilm of Al-Ghazzali’s Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din

by

NABIH AMIN FARIS

SH. MUHAMMAD ASHRAF

LAHORE, PAKISTAN
Editor’s Note:

In the Name of Allah…

Praise be to Allah who have allowed us to accomplish this great task
of bringing as much of the Imam Ghazali’s works to the WWW.

The text of this OCR’ed version is from a re-typeset of the original

published by Sh. Muhammad Ashraf. It was only after the book was
scanned that I had the acquired a copy of the original published
version. Therefore the book will be checked against the original
published edition. Also simple mistakes in spelling were corrected
without notice. The translator had used the translation of the Qur’an
by Rodwell. In this version a change was made to A. Yusef Ali.
Additional notes are marked with “ed.” and in square brackets.
Further All instances of “God” is replaced with “Allah” (779
instances). Also the spelling of the Messenger is standardized to
“Muhammad” in lieu of anything else. Further references to the
Qur’an have been modified to remove the roman numerals which are
no longer in vogue. The reference is removed from the footnote and
included the text Surah number: Ayah number. I.e. (2:201): means the
second sura (al-Baqarah, the cow) Ayah (verse) number 201.
Note that square brackets in the translation is by the translator as the
added material make it easier to read but are not actual words in the
Arabic original. Also the numbers throughout the text in the square
brackets indicate the page numbers in manuscript mentioned in the
preface. I had a chance to personally examine the manuscript and it is
of very high quality.
We also ask the kind reader if he finds any mistake to inform us and
inshallah we will correct it at the first opportunity. Also we ask the
reader to let us of any words of advice on improving our web site on
Imam Ghazali.
Important note to would be publishers. If you are interested in
publishing this book please let us know and we will provide you with
the file in word format. We only ask that you do not make changes to
the text for the sake of integrity.

Our intention was solely for Allah swt.

May 6th 2003. New York.
 CONTENTS
Preface vii

Introduction ix

BOOK I: The Book of Knowledge Comprising Seven Sections

1

SECTION I : On the Value of Knowledge, Instruction and

Learning together with its evidence in tradition and
from reason. 3

SECTION II: On praiseworthy and objectionable branches of

knowledge 23

SECTION III: On what is popularly considered to be a part of

the science of religion

SECTION IV: On the reasons which induced men to pursue the

science of polemics

SECTION V: On the Proprieties of the Student and the Teacher.

SECTION VI: On the Evils of Knowledge and on Determining

the Distinguishing Features of the Learned Men

SECTION VII: On the Intellect, its Noble Nature, its Definition,

and its Divisions

Bibliography
 PREFACE

This work would not have been possible without the imaginative
help of three Princeton scholars: the late Edwin E. Conklin, the great
American biologist, the late Harold H. Bender, the great linguistic
scholars and philologist, and my own teacher, mentor, colleague and
friend, the leading Arab historian Philip K. Hitti. When the work was
first started, in 1936, Professor Conklin was a retired scholar actively
directing the affairs of the American Philosophical Society for the
promotion of useful knowledge in Philadelphia. Professor Bender was
then Chairman of the Department of Oriental Languages and
Literatures at Princeton University and the chief etymologist of
Webster’s International Dictionary. Dr. Hitti was Professor of Semitic
Languages at Princeton University and the moving spirit for the
development of Arab studies in the United States of America.
The idea of preparing a translation of the Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din of al-
Ghazzali originated with Professor Hitti. Professor Bender
enthusiastically supported it; and Professor Conklin, in spite of his
primary interest in biology, appreciated the importance of the work
and got the Society to support it, although the Society’s exclusive
domain was hitherto the natural sciences. To all of these gentleman
and to the Society, I am greatly indebted. Without them I could not
have had the intimate company of abu-Hamid for four long years.
In preparing the translation, use was made of four texts; three
printed and one in manuscript form. The printed ones are: the first is
the text printed at Kafr al-Zaghari in A.H. 1352 from the older Cairo
edition of A.H. 1289; it is referred to the notes as `C’. The second is
that contained in the text of the Ithaf al-Sadah al-Muttaqin bi-Sharh
Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din; it is referred to in the notes as SM (text). The third
is the text which is reproduced in the margin of the same Ithaf al-
Sadah; it is referred to in the notes as SM (margin). The fourth and
perhaps the most important is the text contained in a four-volume
manuscript at the Princeton University Library (Philip Hitti, Nabih
Amin Faris, and Butrus Abd-al-Malik, Descriptive Catalog of the
Garrett Collection of Arabic Manuscript in the Princeton University
Library, Princeton 1938, No. 1481). It consists of 525 folios; 34.1 x
27.6 cm.; written surface 27.8 x 21.5 cm.; 31 lines at a page; on
glazed oriental paper; in naskhi; with catchwords; entries in red; with
illumination. It probably dates from the late fifteenth century. This
text, called `B’ in the notes, corresponds to SM (text), while `C’
corresponds to SM (margin). In the translation of Qur’anic verses, I
depended on J.M. Rodwell’s version.
It is my hope that by making this important work available, in
 English, non-Arabic-speaking scholars will draw a benefit even from
my mistakes.
The Second World War forced the work to be placed in an “ice-
box”. It might have stayed there indefinitely were it not for the
interest of Sheikh Muhammad Ashraf, sponsor of the Islamic
Literature and devoted friend of all Islamic studies. To him I am
indeed grateful.
The manuscript was greatly improved by the close and thorough
reading of two of my students: Mr. Robert Hazo and Mr. John Dudley
Woodberry: To both I extend my thanks.

Nabih Amin Faris

American University of Beirut January 11,
1962.

INTRODUCTION
“What the Apostle gives you, take; and
What he forbids, from it desist.” (59:7)

In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate.

First, I praise Allah, continuously, though the praise of the
fervent does not do justice to His glory.
Second, I invoke the blessing of Allah upon His Apostle, the lord
of mankind, as well as upon the other messengers.
Third, I ask His help having resolved to write a book on the
revival1 of the religious sciences.
Fourth, I proceed to enlighten you, who are the most self-
righteous of those who reject belief, and you, who are the most
immoderate of the thoughtless unbelievers.
I am no longer obliged to remain silent, because the
responsibility to speak, as well as warn you, has been imposed upon
me by your persistent straying from the clear truth, and by your
insistence upon fostering evil, flattering ignorance, and stirring up
opposition against him who, in order to conform to the dictates of
1
Arabic ihya has been rendered revivification. I prefer revival.
knowledge, deviates from custom and the established practice of men.
In doing this he fulfils Allah’s prescriptions for purifying the self and
reforming the heart, thus somewhat redeeming a life, which has
already been dissipated in despair of prevention and remedy, and
avoids by it the company of him whom the Law giver (Muhammad
S.A.W.) described when he said, (2) “The most severely punished of all
men on the day of resurrection will be a learned man whom Allah has
not blessed with His knowledge.”2 For, by my life, there is no reason
for your abiding arrogance except the malady which has become an
epidemic among the multitudes. That malady consists in not
discerning this matter’s importance, the gravity of the problem, and
the seriousness of the crisis; in not seeing that life is waning and that
what is to come is close at hand, that death is imminent but that the
journey is still long, that the provisions are scanty, the dangers great,
and the road blocked. The perceptive know that only knowledge and
works devoted to Allah avail.
To tread the crowded and dangerous path of the hereafter with
neither guide nor companion is difficult, tiring, and strenuous. The
guides for the road are the learned men who are the heirs of the
Prophet3, but the times are void of them now and only the superficial
are left, most of whom have been lured by iniquity and overcome by
Satan. Everyone of them was so wrapped up in his immediate fortune
that he came to see good as evil and evil as good, so that the science
of religion disappeared and the torch of the true faith was
extinguished all over the world. They duped the people into believing
that there was no knowledge except such ordinances of government
as the judges use to settle disputes when the mob dots; or the type of
argument which the vainglorious displays in order to confuse and
refute; or the elaborate and flowery language with which the preacher
seeks to lure the common folk. They did this, because apart from
these three, they could find no other ways to snare illegal profit and
gain the riches of the world. On the other hand the science of the path
of the hereafter, which our forefathers trod and which includes what
Allah in His Book called law, wisdom, knowledge, enlightenment,
light, guidance, and righteousness, has vanished from among men and
been completely forgotten. Since this is a calamity afflicting religion
and a grave crisis overshadowing it, I have therefore deemed it
important to engage in the writing of this book; to revive the science
of religion, to bring to light the exemplary lives of the departed

2
Cf. al-Tabarani, al-Mujam al-Saghir (Delhi,1311),p.103; Abu-Nu‘aym al-
Isfahani, Hilayat al-Awliya’ wa-Tabaqat al-Asfiya’ (Cairo, 1351), Vol. I, p. 223.
3
Cf. al-Bukhari, ‘Ilm, 11. [Note that Sheikh Zaid Shaker has translated into
English Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali’s commentary on this important Hadith (The
Heirs of the Prophets, Starlatch Press: 2001, ISBN: 1929694121). We urge
the interested reader to consult it. Ed.]
imams, and to show what branches of knowledge the prophets and the
virtuous fathers regarded as useful.

I have divided the work into four parts or quarters. These are: the
Acts of Worship, the Usages of Life, the Destructive Matters in Life,
and the Saving Matters in Life. I have begun the work with the book
of knowledge because it is of the utmost importance to determine first
of all the knowledge which Allah has., through His Apostle, ordered
the elite to seek. This is shown by the words of the Apostle of Allah
when he said, “Seeking knowledge is an ordinance obligatory upon
every Muslim.”4 Furthermore, I have begun with the book on
knowledge in order to distinguish between useful and harmful
knowledge, as the Prophet said, “We seek refuge in Allah from useless
knowledge;”5 and also to show the deviation of the people of this age
from right conduct, their delusion as by a glistening mirage, and their
satisfaction with the husks of knowledge rather than
the pith.
The quarter on the Acts of Worship comprises ten books:
1. The Book of Knowledge
2. The Articles of Faith
3. The Mysteries of Purity
4. The Mysteries of Prayer
5. The Mysteries of Almsgiving
6. The Mysteries of Fasting
7. The Mysteries of the Pilgrimage
8. The Rules of Reading the Qur’an
9. On Invocations and Supplications
10. On the Office of Portions.
The quarter on Usages of Life comprises ten books:
1. The Ethics of Eating
2. The Ethics of Marriage
3. The Ethics of Earning a Livelihood
4. On the Lawful and the Unlawful
5. The Ethics of Companionship and Fellowship with the
Various Types of Men

4
Ibn-Majah, Sunan al-Mustafa, Intro., 17:5, al-Baghawi, Masabih al-Sunnah,
(Cairo, 1318), Vol. I, p. 15.
5
Ibn-Majah, Intro., 23:1.
 6. On Seclusion
7. The Ethics of Travel
8. On Audition and Grief
9. On Enjoining Good and Forbidding Evil
10. The Ethics of Living as Exemplified in the Virtues of the
Prophet.
The quarter on the Destructive Matters of Life comprises ten
books:
1. On the Wonders of the Heart
2. On the Discipline of the Soul
3. On the Curse of the Two Appetites –The Appetite of the
Stomach and the appetite of Sex
4. The Curse of the Tongue
5. The Curse of Anger, Rancour, and Envy
6. The Evil of the World6
7. The Evil of Wealth and Avarice
8. The Evil of Pomp and Hypocrisy
9. The Evil of Pride and Conceit
10. The Evils of Vanity.
The quarter on the Saving Matters of Life comprises ten books:
1. On Repentance
2. On Patience and Gratitude
3. On Fear and Hope
4. On Poverty and Asceticism
5. On Divine Unity and Dependence
6. On Love, Longing, Intimacy7 and Contentment
7. On Intentions, Truthfulness, and Sincerity
8. On Self-Examination and Self-Accounting
9. On Meditation
10. On Death.

In the. quarter on the Acts of Worship I shall mention some of

6
Nos. 5 and 5 are in reverse order in B.
7
Only in C.
the hidden (elements) of its etiquette, the niceties of its rules, and the
mysteries of its meanings. (These), the active learned man badly
needs; without their knowledge no one will be versed in the science
of the hereafter. Most of this information has been neglected in
theological studies.
In the quarter on the Usage of Life I shall deal with the rules of
practical religion current among men, its deep mysteries, intricate
technique, and the piety concealed in its rules of conduct, which no
religious man can do without.
In the quarter on the Destructive Matters of Life I shall
enumerate every abhorred trait whose exposure the Qur’an has
ordered, as well as dealing with the purifying of the soul and the
cleansing of the heart therefrom. Under every one of these traits I
shall give its definition, the truth about it, its origin, its evil
consequences, its symptoms, and finally its treatment. To all this will
be added illustrations from the Qur’an tradition, and antiquity.
In the quarter on the Saving Matters of Life, I shall enumerate
every praiseworthy trait and every one of the desirable qualities of
Allah’s favorites (al-muqarrabun) and the saints, by means of which
the slave seeks to draw near to the Lord of the Universe. Similarly,
under every-quality I shall give its definition, the truth about it, its
origin, its fruit, the sign by which it is known, its excellence which
renders it desirable, together with examples to illustrate it from [the
fields of]8 law and reason.
It is true that men have written several works on some of these
aspects, but this one differs from them in five ways:
First, by clarifying what they have obscured and elucidating
what they have treated casually.
Second, by arranging what they have disarranged, and
organizing what they have scattered.
Third, by condensing what they have elaborated, and correcting
what they have approved.
Fourth, by deleting what they have repeated (and verifying what
they have set’ down).
Fifth, by determining ambiguous matters which have hitherto
been unintelligible and never dealt with in any work. For although all
have followed one course, there is no reason why one should not
proceed independently and bring to light something unknown, paying
special attention to what his colleagues have forgotten. It is possible
that such obscure things are noticed, but mention of them in writing

8
words between brackets only in C.
is overlooked. Or again it may not be a case of overlooking them, but
rather one of being prevented from exposing them.
These, therefore, are the characteristics of this work which
comprises the aggregate of the (previously enumerated) sciences. Two
things have induced me to divide the work into four quarters. The first
and original motive is that such an arrangement in research and
exposition is imperative because the science by which we approach
the hereafter is divided into the science of revelation I mean
knowledge and only knowledge. By the science of practical religion I
mean knowledge as well as action in accordance with that knowledge.
This work will deal only with the science of practical religion, and not
with revelation, which one is not permitted to record in writing,
although it is the ultimate aim of saints and the desire of the eyes of
the Sincere. The science of practical religion is merely a path which
leads to revelation and only through their path did the prophets of
Allah communicate with the people and lead them to Him. Concerning
revelation itself, the prophets spoke only figuratively and briefly
through signs and symbols, because they realized the inability of
man’s mind to comprehend. Therefore since the learned men are heirs
of the prophets, they cannot but follow in their footsteps and emulate
their way.

Furthermore, the science of practical religion is divided into

outward science, by which is meant that of the functions of the
senses, and inward science, by which is meant that of the functions of
the heart The bodily organs perform either acts of worship or usages
of life, while the heart, because it is removed from the senses and
belongs to the world of dominion,9 is subject to either praiseworthy or
blameworthy [influences]. Inevitably, therefore, this science divides
itself into two parts - outward and inward. The outward, which
pertains to the senses, is subdivided into acts of worship and usages
of life; the inward, which relates to the conditions of the heart and the
qualities of the soul, is subdivided into things which are praiseworthy
and things which are objectionable. Together these constitute the four
parts of the science of practical religion, a classification objected to by
none.
My second motive for adopting this division is that I have noticed
that the interests of students in jurisprudence (which has, for the sake
of boasting and exploiting its influence and prestige in arguments,
become popular among those who do not fear Allah) is genuine. It also
is divided into quarters.10 And since he who dresses as the beloved will
9
Ar. ‘alam-al-malakut, it denotes the Attributes as opposed to ‘alam al--
jabarut (the world of almightiness), which denotes the Essence.
10
I.e. The Qur’an, the sunnah, catholic consent [‘Ijma’ Consensus ed. ], and
analogy.
also be beloved, I am not far wrong in deeming that the modeling of
this book after books of jurisprudence will prove to be a clever move
in creating interest in it. For this [same] reason, one of those who [4]
wanted to attract the attention of the authorities to [the science of]
medicine, modeled it after astronomical lists, arranging it in tables
and numbers, and called [his book] Tables of Health. 11 He did this in
order that their interest in that [latter] type [of study] might help in
drawing them to read it. Ingenuity in drawing hearts to the science
which is good for spiritual life is, however, more important than that
of interesting them in medicine which benefits nothing but physical
health. The fruit of this science is the treatment of the hearts and
souls through which is obtained a life that will persist for ever and
ever. How inferior, then, is the medicine of the body, which is of
necessity destined to decay before long. Therefore we beg Allah for
help to [lead us to] the right path and [the way of] truth, verily He is
the Generous, the all Bounteous.

11
This undoubtedly refers to Taqwim al-Abdan of Ibn-Jazlah (A. H. 493/ A.D.
1100). See ibn-Khallikan Wafayat al -A‘yan wa Anba’ Abna’ al--Zaman (Cairo,
1299) Vol. III, pp. 2556; ibn-abi Usaybi’ah, ‘Uyun al--Anba fi Tabaqat al
Atibba’ (Cairo,1299), Vol. I, p. 255. A similar but earlier work is that of ibn-
Butlan (A.H. 455/A. D 1063) entitled Taqwim al-Sihhah; see ibn-abi-
Usaybi`ah, Vol. I, pp. 241-3. It is more likely that the author had in mind the
former work since ibn-Jazlah was this close contemporary.
 BOOK I

THE BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE

COMPRISING SEVEN SECTIONS
The Book of Knowledge comprises seven sections:

1. On the value of knowledge, instruction, and learning.

2. On the branches of knowledge which are fard’ayn;12 on the
branches of knowledge which are fard kifayah;13 on the definition
of jurisprudence (fiqh) and theology (kalam) [as disciplines] in the
science of religion; and on the science of the hereafter and that of
this would.
3. On what is popularly considered to be part of the science of
religion, but is [really] not, including a discussion on the nature of
blameworthy knowledge.
4. On the defects of debate and the reasons why people have
engaged in dissension and disputation.
5. On the proprieties of the teacher and the student.
6. On the deficiency of knowledge, the [drawbacks] of the learned,
and the characteristics distinguishing the scholars of the science
of the hereafter from those of the science of this world.
7. On reason, its value, categories and what has been said
concerning it [in Tradition].

12
Divinely ordained, and binding for every individual Muslim.
13
Divinely ordained and binding for the Muslim community as a whole.
Therefore this collective obligation can be discharged for the community by
the action of some, and is not necessarily binding for each individual
member.
 SECTION I
On the Value of Knowledge, Instruction, and Learning together
with its evidence in tradition and from reason.
The excellence of knowledge The evidence for the excellence of
knowledge in the Qur’an [is manifest] in the words of Allah: “Allah
bears witness that there is no Allah but He, and the angels, and men
endued with knowledge, established in righteousness.”(3:16) See,
then, how Allah has mentioned Himself first, the angels second, and
men endowed with knowledge third. In this you really have honour,
excellence, distinction and rank. And again Allah said: “Allah will raise
in rank those of you who believe as well as those who are given
knowledge.” (58:12) According to ibn-`Abbas 14 the learned men rank
seven hundred grades above the believers; between each two of which
is a distance five hundred years long. Said Allah. “Say, `shall those
who know be deemed equal with those who do not?” (39:12) Allah also
said, “None fear Allah but the wise among His servants;” (35:25) and
again, “Say, `Allah is witness enough betwixt me and you, and
whoever hath the knowledge of The Book!’ ”(13:43 ) This I mention to
you in order to show that it was possible only through the power of
knowledge. Allah also said, “But they to whom knowledge hath been
given said, `Woe to you! The reward of Allah is better [for him who
believes and does right],” (28:80) showing thereby that the great
importance of the hereafter is appreciated through knowledge. And
again Allah said, “These parables do we set forth for men: and none
understands them save those who know.” (29:42) Allah also said, “But
if they were to refer it to the Apostle and to those in authority
amongst them, those of them who would elicit the information would
know it” (4:85) He thus made the knowledge of His will dependent
upon their efforts to find it out, and placed them next to the prophets
in the [ability] to make it known. It has been said that in the following
words of Allah, “O Sons of Adam! We have sent down to you raiments
wherewith to cover your nakedness, and splendid garments; but the
raiment of piety-this is best,” (7:25) the raiments represent
knowledge, the splendid garments, truth, and the raiment of piety,
modesty. Allah also said, “And We have brought them a book: with
knowledge have We explained it;” (7:50) and again, “But it is clear
sign in the hearts of those whom the knowledge hath reached;”
(29:48) and, “With knowledge will We tell them;” (7:6) and again,
“[He] hath created man, [and] hath taught him articulate speech.”
(55:2-3) This, however, He said reproachfully.

14
`Abdullah, cousin of the Prophet; d. A.H. 68/A.D. 687--88. See al-
Dhahabi, Tadhkirat
al-Huffaz.(Hyderabad, 1333) Vol. I, p. 37.
 As to [the evidence of the value of knowledge in] tradition (al-
akhbar) the Apostle of Allah said, “Whom Allah doth love, He giveth
knowledge of religion and guideth him into the straight path;” 15 and
again, “The learned men are the heirs of the prophets.” 16 It is also
well-known that there is no rank above that of prophethood, no
honour higher than its inheritance. The Prophet also said, “What is in
the heavens and in the earth intercedes for the learned men.”17 And
what rank is higher than that of him for whom the angels of the
heavens and earth labour interceding with Allah on his behalf, while
he is preoccupied with himself. Muhammad also said, “Wisdom adds
honour to the noble and exalts the slave until he attains the level of
kings.” The Prophet pointed this out relating to the benefits of wisdom
in this world, since it is well-known that [5] the hereafter is superior
and more lasting. Muhammad said again, “Two qualities the hypocrite
lacks - good intentions and religious insight.”18 Do not doubt tradition,
then, because of the hypocrisy of some contemporary jurisprudents;
theirs is not the jurisprudence which the Prophet had in mind. (The
definition of jurisprudence will come later). For a jurisprudent to know
that the hereafter is better than this world is, after all, the lowest type
of knowledge he can possess. Should it prove to be true and prevail, it
would clear him of hypocrisy and deceit. The Prophet said, “The best
of men is the learned believer who, if he is needed, he will be useful;
and if dispensed with, he will be self-sufficient. “ And again he said,
“Belief is like unto a nude who should be clothed with piety,
ornamented with modesty and should have knowledge for progeny.”
And again, “The nearest people to prophethood are the people of
knowledge and the warriors of jihad”: the former have led men to
what the prophets have proclaimed, and the latter have wielded their
swords on its behalf. He also said, “The passing away of a whole tribe
is more tolerable than the death of one learned man.” And again,
“Men are like ores of gold and silver, the choicest among them during
the Jahiliyah days are also the best during the days of Islam, provided
they see the light.”19 He also said, “On the day of resurrection the ink
of the learned men will be likened to the blood of the martyrs.” And
again, “Whoever preserves of the law forty Traditions in order to
transmit them unto my people, I shall, on the day of resurrection, be
an intercessor and a witness on his behalf.” Muhammad also said,
“Any one of my people who will preserve forty hadiths will on the day
of resurrection face Allah as a learned jurisprudent.” And again,
“Whoever will become versed in the religion of Allah, Allah will relieve
15
Ibn-Majah, Intro., 17: 1; cf. al-Bukhari, `Ilm, 14.
16
cf. al-Bukhari, `Ilm, 11.
17
Masabih, Vol. I, p. 14; cf. ibn-Majah, Intro., 17:4, 20: I.
18
Masabih, Vol. I, p. 15; al-Tirnnidhi, Sahih, ‘Ilm, 19.
19
Masabih, Vol.I, p. 14; Ahmad ibn-Hanbal, Musnad, ‘Ilm, 1:12 al--Tayalisi,
2476.
him of his worries and will reward him whence he does not reckon”
The Prophet also said, “Allah said unto Abraham, `O Abraham! Verily I
am knowing and I love every knowing person’.” And again, “The
learned man is the trustee of Allah on earth.” The Prophet said,
“There are two groups among my people who when they become
righteous the populace becomes righteous, and when they become
corrupt the populace becomes corrupt: these are the rulers and the
jurisprudents.” Again he said, “Should the day come wherein I
increase not in knowledge wherewith to draw nearer to Allah, let the
dawn of that day be accursed.”
Concerning the superiority of knowledge to worship and
martyrdom, the Prophet said, “The superior rank the learned man
holds in relation to the worshipper is like the superior rank I hold in
relation to the best of men.”20 See how he placed knowledge on an
equal footing with prophethood and belittled the value of practice
without knowledge, despite the fact that the worshipper may not be
ignorant of the worship which he observes. Moreover, without this
knowledge there would have been no worship. The Prophet also said,
“The superior rank the learned man holds over the worshipper is
similar to the superiority of the moon when it is [6] full over the other
stars.”21 And again, “They will, on the day of resurrection, intercede
[before Allah]: the prophets, then the learned, then the martyrs.” 22
Great then is the state of knowledge which ranks next to prophthood
and stands over martyrdom, the merits of the latter notwithstanding.
The Prophet also said, “Allah was not worshipped with anyone better
than the learned in religion. Verily a single jurisprudent is more
formidable to Satan than a thousand worshippers.”23 For everything
has [its] foundation. and the foundations of this religion is
jurisprudence. And again, “The best part of your faith is [also] the
easiest, and the best form of worship is jurisprudence.” The Prophet
also said, “The learned believer holds a rank seventy degrees higher
than that of the ordinary believer.” And again. “Verily you have come
upon a time whose jurisprudents are many and Qur’an readers as well
as preachers are few, whose beggars are rare and givers numerous,
wherein deeds are better than knowledge. But there will come a time
when jurisprudents are few and preachers many, whose givers are few
and beggars numerous, wherein knowledge is better than works.” 24
The Prophet also said, “Between the learned and the worshipper are a
hundred degrees, each two of which are separated by the extent of a

20
Masabih, Vol. I, p. 14.
21
Ibn-Majah, Intro., 17: 4.
22
Ibn-Majah, 37 (22: 7).
23
Cf. ibn-Majah Intro., 17: 3.
24
Cf. ibn-Hanbal, ‘Ilm, 40.
racing horse’s run in seventy years.”25 The Prophet was also asked, “O
Apostle of Allah! What works arc best?” To which he replied. “Your
knowledge of Allah.” He was then asked. “Which knowledge do you
mean?” He answered, “Your Knowledge of Allah.” Again he was asked,
“We enquire about works and you reply concerning knowledge.”
Muhammad then said, “With your knowledge of Allah, a few works
will suffice, but without such knowledge, no works, however
numerous, avail.” The Prophet also said, “On the day of itsurrection
Allah will [first] raise the worshippers and then the learned to whom
He will say, ‘O ye company of the learned, I did not imbue you with My
knowledge but for My knowledge of you. Moreover, I did not imbue
you with My Knowledge in order to torment you. Go ye, therefore, for
verily I have forgiven you’.”26
As to [the evidence of the value of knowledge in] the sayings of
the Companions (al-athar), `Ali ibn-abi-Talib27 said to Kumayl,28 “O thou
perfect of knowledge ! Knowledge is better than riches; for knowledge
guardeth thee whereas thou guardest riches. Knowledge governs
while riches are governed. Riches diminish with spending but
knowledge increases therewith.” And again, “The learned is superior
to the fasting, praying and self-mortifying man. Should the learned
die, a gap would be created in Islam [by his death] and no one would
fill this gap save one of his successors.” `Ali said:

“Learning is the glory of mankind,

The wise are beacons on the road to truth;
Man is worth his knowledge, nothing more –
The fool will be his inveterate foe,
Knowledge is man’s hope of life immortal,
Man may die but wisdom liveth ever.”

Abu-al-Aswad29 said, “Nothing is more precious than knowledge; while

kings rule over men, they are ruled by the learned.” Ibn-`Abbas said,
“Solomon the son of David was asked to choose between knowledge,
wealth or power, but he chose knowledge and was thereby blessed

25
Cf. al -Darimi. Sunan,Intro. 32.
26
Al-Tabarani, al-Saghir, p. 122.
27
The fourth Rashidite Caliph. [A major force in Islam, that both Sunni and
Shia’ Muslims agree on his noble character, intelligence and erudition. Ed.]
28
Ibn-Zyad a-Nakha’i (A.H. 83 A.D. 702) See al-Tabari, Tar‘ikh al-Rusul w-al-
Muluk,ed. M. J. de Goeje(Leyden,1879 ff). Vol.II, pp.1097-98; ibn- Sa’d. Kitab
al-Tabaqat al-Kubra, ed. Eduard Sachuu and others (Leyden, 1905-21), Vol
VI, p. 124.
29
Zalim ibn-’Amr al-Du’ali (A.H. 67/A.D: 686-87). See Yaqut, Irshad al--Arib
ila Ma‘rifat al Adib, ed. D.S. Margoliouth (London, 1907-27), Vol. IV, pp. 280-
82; al-Isbabani, Kitab al Aghani (Bulaq, 1285), Vol. XI, pp 105-24.
with wealth and power as well.” 30 Ibn-al--Mubarak31 was asked, “Who
constitute humanity?” To which he replied, “The learned”. It was then
said, “And who are the kings?” He answered, “The ascetics”. And
who,” he was asked, “constitute the lowest class among men?”
“Those,” said he, “who, in the name of religion, grow fat in the world.”
Thus only the learned did [ibn-al--Mubarak] regard as belonging to
mankind, because it is knowledge which distinguishes man from the
other animals. Furthermore, man is a human being, not because of his
physical prowess for physically the camel is his superior; not because
of his size for the elephant is larger; not because of his courage for
the lion is more courageous; not because of his appetite for the ox has
the greater; not because of coitus for the least of the birds is more
virile than he, but rather by virtue of his noble aims and ideals. [As a
matter of fact] he was only created to know.
[7] One of the wise men said, “Would that I might know what
thing was attained by him whom knowledge has escaped, and what
thing has escaped him who has attained knowledge.” The Prophet
said, “Whoever has been given the Qur’an and thinks that anyone has
been given something better, he has degraded what Allah has
exalted.” Fath al-Mawsili32 said inquiring, “Would not the sick die, if he
is given no food or drink or medicine?” They said, “Yes”. To which he
said, “Similarly the heart will perish if it is cut off from wisdom and
knowledge for three days.” He did indeed speak the truth, for the
nourishment of the heart, on which its life depends, is knowledge and
wisdom, just as the nourishment of the body is food. Whoever lacks
knowledge has an ailing heart and his death is certain; yet he is not
aware of his doom because the love of this world and his concern
therewith have dulled his sense, just as a shock from fright may
momentarily do away with the pain of a wound although the wound be
real. Thus when death frees him from the burdens of this world he will
realize his doom and’ will, though to no avail, greatly regret it. This is
like the feeling of a person who has attained safety after having been
through danger, and like that of a man who has just recovered from
his drunkenness. We seek refuge in Allah from the day when all things
will be brought to light. Men are asleep but at death they Will awake.
Al-Hasan33 said, “The ink of the learned Will be likened to the blood of
the martyrs, and the former will prove superior.” 34 Ibn-Mas`ud35 said,
30
Cf. I Kings, 3:5-15.
31
`Abdudlah(A.H.181/A.D.797); see Tadhkirat al-Huffaz, Vol. t,pp.253-57.
32
Either ibn-Muhammad ibn-Washshah (A.H. 165/A.D. 781-82); see ibn-al-
Athir, al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh ed. C.J. Ternberg (Leyden, 1867-1871), Vol. VI, p.
45; or ibn-Said abu-Muhammad al-Kari (A.H. 220/A.D. 835); see ibid., p. 321.
33
Al-Basri; the famous early Muslim ascetic (A.H. 110/A.D. 728); see ibn-
Sa’d. Vol, VII Pt. I. pp. 114-29; ibn-Khallikan, Vol. I pp. 227.29.
34
Cf. Supra, p. 12, Where the saying is ascribed to Muhammad.
35
‘Abdullah (A.H.32/A.D.652-3). See Tadhkirat al-Huffaz,Vol. I, pp.13-
“Seek ye knowledge while it be found; it will be veiled when its
narrators pass away. Verily, by Him in whose hand is my life, several
men who died martyrs in the cause of Allah would rather that, at
resurrection, Allah would raise them up as learned men for what they
see of the veneration accorded the learned.” No one is born learned,
but knowledge is only the result of learning. Ibn-’Abbas said, “I would
rather spend a part of the night in learned discussion than in
continual prayer.” The same was related of abu-Hurayrah 36 and Ahmad
ibn-Hanbal.37 AI-Hasan said that in the words of Allah, “Give us good in
this world and good in the next,” (2:197) the good in this world meant
knowledge and worship while that of the next signified paradise. A
wise man was once asked, “What things shall we possess?” He
replied, “Those things which you will not lose in the event of
shipwreck,” meaning thereby knowledge, while by shipwreck, it is
said, he meant the decomposition of the body through death. A certain
wise man said, “Whoever takes wisdom for his bridle will be
acclaimed by men as their leader, and whoever is known for his
wisdom will be looked upon with respect.” Al-Shaf’i 38 Said “One of the
noble things about knowledge is that he who is given a portion of it,
no matter how small, rejoices while he who is deprived of it grieves.”‘
Umar39 said, “O men! Seek ye knowledge. For verily Allah has a mantle
of love which He casts upon him who seeks knowledge even of a
single section. Should he then commit an offence, Allah will
remonstrate with him thrice in order not to rob him of his mantle,
even though that offence may persist with him until he dies.” Al-
Ahnaf40 said, “The learned men came very near being Allahs; and all
power which is not supported by knowledge is doomed. Salim ibn-abi-

16.
36
‘Abd-al-Rahman ibn-Sakhu(A.H.581A.D.678). SeeTadhkiratal-Hufaz
I, pp. 31-35.
37
A.H. 241/A.D. 855. See ibn-Khallikan, Vol. I. pp. 28-29.
38
Muhammad ibn-Idris,(A.H.2041A.D.820). See ibn-Khallikan, Vol. II, p. 214.
[A school of law is named after him, one of the four major schools of Sunni
law. Author of al-Risala, translated into English by Majid Khadduri, Islamic
Texts Society: Cambridge, Second edition reprinted from 1961 by Johns
Hopkins University press, on his life see pp 8-19. On his contributions to
legal theory see pp. 40-8 also see A History of Islamic Legal Theories, Wael
B. Hallaq, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp.16-35. See also al-
Ghazali.org Ed.]
39
The second Rashidite Caliph. [He was the first to be titled ‘Amir al-
Mum’ineen (Leader of the faithfull) and generally called al-Farooq
(Criterion) his rule was marked by justice, stability, great prosperity and
remarkable growth, online see
(http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/mih/isl/umar.htm) ed. ]
40
Sakhr ibn-Qays d. between A.H. 67 and 77/A.D. 686 and 699 Cf. ibn-
Qutaybah, Kitab al-Ma’arif, ed. F. Wüstenfeld (Gottingen, 1850), pp. 216-17.
al-Ja’d41 said, “ My master bought me for three hundred dirhams and
later set me free. Thereupon I said, ‘What shall I take up for
livelihood? Finally I took up learning and no sooner had a year passed
than the prince of Ma kkah called upon me but I would not receive
him.” al-Zubayr ibn-abi-Bakr42 said, “My father had written me while in
al-’Iraq saying. ‘Go after knowledge; should you become poor it will be
your wealth, and should you become rich it will be your
embellishment’.” (This has been related among the exhortations of
Luqman43 to his son). He also said, “Sit in the company of the learned
and keep close to them; for verily Allah quickens the hearts with the
light of wisdom as he refreshes the earth with the rain of heaven.” 44 A
certain wise man said, “When the learned dies the fish of the sea as
well as the fowl of the air will mourn him; while his face shall
disappear his memory will not be forgotten.” AI-Zuhri 45 said,
“Knowledge is glorious and is not treasured except by the glorious.”
ON THE EXCELLENCE OF LEARNING
The excellence of learning is attested in the Qur’an by the
following words of Allah: “And if a party of every band of them march
not out. it is that they may instruct themselves in their religion;”
(9:123) and again. “Ask of those who have Books of Monition if ye
know it not.” (16:45)
[As to the evidence of the excellence of learning] in tradition, the
Prophet of Allah said. “Whoever follows a path in search of
knowledge. Allah will guide him into a path leading into Paradise.” 46
And again. “Verily the angels will bow low to the seeker after
knowledge in approval of what he does.” 47 He also said, “To rise up
before daybreak and learn but a section of knowledge is better than
prostrating yourself in prayer a hundred times.” 48 The Apostle again
said. “One section of knowledge which a man learns is better for him
than all the riches of the world.” And again. “Seeking after knowledge
41
A.H. 100/A.D. 719. See al-Ma’arif, p. 230.
42
A.H. 256/A.D. 870. See al Nadim, al-Fihrist, ed. Flugel (Leipzig, 1872), pp.
110-11; ibn-Khalikan, Vol. I, pp. 336-7.
43
Legendary figure to whom the Arabs ascribe much wisdom. [He was
mentioned in the Qur’an by name see Chapter 31: 13 (And (remember) when
Luqman said unto his son, when he was exhorting him: O my dear son!
Ascribe no partners unto Allah. Lo! to ascribe partners (unto Him) is a
tremendous wrong -) Translation by Pickthal. Also note is chapter 31 is titled
by his name. Ed.].
44
Malik, al-Muwatta’, Talab al-Ilm. 1.
45
Probably abu-Salamah ibn-’Abd-al-Rahman (A.H. 94/A.D. 713), See
Tadhkirat al-Huffaz, Vol. I. p. 59.
46
Muslim. al-Dhikr-w-al-Du’a’. 11: Ibn-Majah. Intro., 17: 4.
47
Ibn-Majah, Intro.. 17:4.
48
Cf. Ibn-Majah, Intro., 16:9.
is an ordinance obligatory upon every Muslim.” 49 [8] He also said,
“Seek ye knowledge even [as far as] China.” The Prophet further said.
“Knowledge is like sealed treasure houses, the keys of which arc
inquiry. Inquire. therefore, for therein lies reward for four: the
inquirer, the learned, the auditor, and their admirer.” He also said,
“The ignorant one should not hide his ignorance nor the learned his
knowledge.” And in a tradition on the authority of abu Dharr, 50 “To be
present in the circle of a learned man is better than prostrating
oneself in payer a thousand times. or visiting a thousand sick men. or
joining a thousand funerals.” It was then said.. “O Apostle of Allah, is
it also better than the reading of the Qur’an?” To which he replied,
“What good. though. is the Qur’an except through knowledge?” The
Prophet also said. “Whoever is overtaken by death while seeking
knowledge wherewith to strengthen Islam. between him and the
prophets in Paradise is but one grade.”

[As to the evidence of the excellence of learning] in the sayings of

the Companions, ibn-Abbas said, “While I sought knowledge, I was
abased, but when I was sought for it, I was exalted.” Similarly, ibn-abi
-Mulaykah51 said, “Never have I seen the like of ibn 6`Abbas: to behold
him is to behold the most handsome man; when he speaks, he is the
most eloquent, and when he hands down a judicial opinion, he
[reveals himself] as the most learned.” Ibn-al-Mubarak said, I wonder
how one who sought no knowledge could be moved to any noble
deed;” while one of the wise men said, “Verily I pity no one as
I pity the man who seeks knowledge but understands not, and him
who understands and seek it not.” Abu-al-Darda’ 52 said, “I would
rather learn one point than spend my night in continual prayer;” and
again, “The learned and the learner are partners in righteousness
while the rest of men are barbarians in whom there is no good.” He
:also said, “Be learned, or a learner, or an auditor but never anything
else lest thou perish.” ‘Ata’53 said “[Attendance at] an assembly of
learning54 atones [the evil of attending] seventy places of
entertainment.” “Umar55 said, “The death of a thousand worshippers
who spend their days in fasting and their nights in continual prayer is

49
See supra, p. 3. [Ibn-Majah, Sunan al-Mustafa, Intro., 17:5, al-Baghawi,
Masabih al-Sunnah, (Cairo, 1318), Vol. I, p. 15. ed.]
50
Al-Ghifari. Jundub ibn-Junadah. d. A.H. 32/A.D. 652-3 See al-Nawawi.
Tahdhib al-Asma’ ed F. Wüstenfeld (Gottingen. 1842-7). pp. 714-15
51
A.H. 117/A.D. 735; Tadhkirat al-Huffaz, Vol I, pp. 95-6.
52
‘Uwaymir ibn-Zayd (A.H. 32/A.D. 652-3) See ibn-Sa’d, Vol. VII, Pt. 2,
pp. 117-18.
53
Ibn-abi-Rabah (A.H. 115/A.D. 733). See ibn-Qutaybah, p. 227; ibn-
Khallikan, I, Vol. pp. 571-3.
54
“Dhkir” in B.
55
The second Rashidite Caliph.
a lesser calamity than the passing away of one learned man who is
aware of what is lawful before Allah and what is unlawful. “Al-Shafi’i
said, “Seeking knowledge is better than supererogatory works.”
Ibn-‘Abd-al-Hakam56 said, “I was [once] at Malik’s57 place studying at
his feet when the hour of noon arrived. Thereupon I closed my books
and put them away in order to pray; but he said, `What you have risen
to perform is not better than what you were doing provided your
intentions are good.” Abu-al-Darda’ also said, “Whoever should regard
that rising early for study is not jihad [reveals himself] deficient in
reasoning and intellect.”

ON THE EXCELLENCE OF TEACHING

The excellence of teaching is supported in the Qur’an by the
following words of Allah: “.... And may warn their people when they
come back to them, haply they may take heed to themselves”, (9:123)
by which is meant teaching and guidance. Allah also said, “Moreover,
when Allah entered into a covenant with those to whom the scriptures
had been given, and said, `Ye shall surely make it known to mankind
and not hide it’ ...’ (3:184),” meaning thereby that teaching was
incumbent upon them. And again He said, “But truly some of them do
conceal the truth, though acquainted with it.”(2:141) Here Allah has
ruled against concealing the truth as he has with regard to concealing
evidence when He said, “He who refuseth [to give evidence] is surely
wicked at heart.” (2:283) The Prophet said, “Allah does not give the
learned any knowledge unless He enters with them into the same
covenant He has entered into with the prophets - namely, to make it
known and not conceal it.” Allah also said, “And who speaketh fairer
than he who biddeth to Allah and doeth the thing that is right?”
(41:33) and again, “Summon thou to the wav of thy Lord with wisdom
and kindly warning;” (16:126) and also” And teach them `The Book’
and Wisdom.”(2:123)
[As to the evidence of the excellence of teaching] in tradition, the
Apostle of Allah, on sending Mu`adh 58 to al-Yaman, said to him, “That,
through you, Allah may lead one man [unto Himself] is better for you
than the world and all that is in it.” 59 He also said, “Whoever acquires
but one section of knowledge in order to teach men, will be given the
56
Abu Muhammad ‘Abdullah (A.H. 314/A.D. 829), father of the famous
historian of Egypt; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, pp. 444-5.
57
Ibn-Anas (A.H.179/A.D.795). See al-Fihrist, pp.198-9; ibn-Khallikan,
Vol. II, p. 200.
58
Ibn-Jabal (A.H. 18/AD 639). See ibn-Hisham, Sirat Rasul Allah. ed. F.
Wustented (Gottingen. 1858-60). p. 957: ibn-Sad. Vol. m. Pt. 2. pp. 120-26.
Vol. VII Pt. 2. pp. 114-15; Tahdhib a!-Asma’. pp. 559-61.
59
Cf. Matt. 18: 10-14; Luke 15: 3-10. [This must be a mistake, this is a hadith
not Scripture! Ed.]
reward of seventy of the righteous.” Jesus said, “He who has
knowledge and shall do and teach, the same shall be called great [9]
in the Kingdom ofHeaven.”60 The Prophet said, “When on the day of
resurrection Allah says unto the worshippers and the warriors, ‘Enter
ye into Paradise’, the learned would say, ‘By virtue of our learning
have they attained their piety and fought for Thee’. Then Allah would
say unto them, ‘I regard you alike with my angels: intercede and you
will have your intercessions accepted.’ They then would present their
intercessions and enter into Paradise.” This cannot result except from
knowledge which is made active through teaching not from passive
knowledge which is inert. The Prophet said, “Allah does not take away
knowledge from men after He has given it to them, rather it vanishes
with the passing away of the learned. Thus whenever a learned man
passes away. whatever [knowledge] he had perishes with him. When
finally there are none left but ignorant leaders they will give
uninformed opinions whenever consulted, leading men astray and
confusing themselves.”61 The Prophet also said, “Whoever has any
knowledge but conceals it, will, on the day of resurrection, be bridled
with a bit of fire.” 62 He also said, “How excellent’ a gift and how
admirable a present is a word of wisdom which you hear and inwardly
digest and then carry it and teach it to a brother Muslim: verily it is
equivalent to a year of worship.” And again, “Accursed is the world
and all that is in it except the name of the exalted Allah and him who
shall follow in His way, be it a teacher or one taught.” 63 The Prophet
also said, “In truth Allah and His angels as well as the heavens and
the earth, even the ant in its hill and the whale in the sea, will bless
the man who teaches his fellow men.” 64 He also said, “A Muslim gives
his brother Muslim no better benefit than a `fair’ tradition which had
reached him and which he consequently imparts. He also said, “A
good word which the believer hears and follows and also teaches is
better for him than a year’s worship.”
One day the Apostle of Allah passed by two assembled groups:
the members of the first were calling upon Allah and offering their
supplications, while the others were instructing men. Whereupon he
said, “These beseech Allah; if He wills He will grant them their
request and if He wills He will withhold it; whereas those teach men
and verily I was not sent but as a teacher.” 65 Then he turned and sat
among them. He also said, “The knowledge and guidance which Allah
has sent me to declare are like unto heavy rains which fell over a

60
Cf. Matt. 5:19, al-Tirmidhi, ‘Ilm, 19. [this also looks suspect? Ed. ]
61
Cf. Muslim, ‘Ilm, 22; al-Bukhari, ‘Ilm, 35.
62
Cf. Ibn-Majah, Intro., 24: 1.
63
Ibn-Majah, Zuhd, 3.
64
Al-Tirmidhi, ‘Ilrn,10.
65
Cf. Ibn-Majah, Intro., 17: 10.
 certain locality. One spot absorbed the rain and put forth herbs and
much grass; another spot held the waters with which Allah benefited
men who drank therefrom, watered the earth therewith, and then
planted it; and a third spot was flat, it held no water and put forth no
herb.”66 The first part of the parable signifies the one who reaps the
benefits of his own knowledge, the second signifies the one whose
knowledge is of benefit to others, while the third stands for him who
enjoys neither.

Muhammad also said, “When a man dies all except three of his
works perish, namely, a permanent endowment for charity, useful
knowledge, and righteous progeny that bring honour upon his
memory.”67 And again, “He who leads to something good is like him
who does it.”68 He further said, “Envy is unlawful except regarding two
categories of persons: those [10] to whom Allah has given wealth and
power to spend that wealth rightly, and those to whom Allah has given
wisdom with which they regulate [their lives] and which they teach.” 69
The Prophet also said “Allah’s mercy is upon my successors.” On being
asked, “But who are your successors?” he replied, “My successors are
those who keep my laws and teach them to Allah’s people.”70
[As to the evidence of the excellence of teaching] in the sayings
of the Companions, `Umar said, “Whoever shall relate a tradition and
thus induce someone to do according to its precepts, will, with the
[actual] doer be equally rewarded. “Ibn-‘Abbas said, “All things even
the whale in the sea will intercede for him who teaches men good.”
One of the learned men said, “The learned man occupies the position
of an intermediary between Allah and His creatures; let the learned,
therefore, be mindful how he occupies this position.”
It has been related that Sufyan al-Thawri71 arrived in ‘Asqalan
where he tarried but no man questioned him [or sought his
knowledge]. Whereupon he said, “Hire for me a beast of burden in
order to depart from this city, for it is a place where knowledge does

66
Al-Bukhari, ‘Ilm, 21.
67
Cf. Muslim, Wasiyalh, 14; Masabih, Vol. I. p. 14.
68
Al-Tirmidhi, ‘Ilm,14.
69
Cf Al-Bakhari ‘Ilm,16, Zakah, 5.
70
Cf. Matt. 12: 47-9; Mark 3:32-5; Luke 8:19-21. [This is questionable as it is
a hadith and not scripture. ed. ]
71
A.H. 161/A.D. 778; see Tahdhib al-Asma’, pp. 286-8. [He also had a
founded school of law named after him that was popular in Greater Syria
and Iraq, ‘Asqalan is a city on the coast of Palestine it was destroyed by
Salah al-Din due to the danger that it possed at the time of the Crusaders.
Imam Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqlani who hails from there was the foremost Hadith
scholar of his time and wrote a grand commmentary on al-Bukhari including
many works on Hadith sciences and Fiqh. Ed.]
not prosper.” He had not said this except in solicitude over the
excellence of teaching in which lies the preservation of knowledge.
‘Ata’ also said, “I came upon Sa’id ibn-al Musayyab 72 while he was
weeping, at which I said. ‘What causes you to weep?’ He answered,
‘No one seeks from my any information.’ It has also been said that the
learned men are the lights of the ages; each is the torch of his own
age and through him his contemporaries obtain light.” Al-Hasan said,
“Had it not been for the leamet:, men would have become like
animals.” For it is through teaching and instruction that men are
brought out of the category of beasts to that of human beings.
‘Ikrimah73 said. “Verily a price is set upon this knowledge.” When
asked that it was, he replied, “It is to be given to him who can keep it
well and not lose it.” Yahya ibn-Mu’adh 74 said, “The learned have more
compassion for the followers of Muhammad than either their fathers
or mothers.” “How is that?” he was asked; to which he replied, “Their
fathers and mothers shield them from the fires of this world while the
learned protect them against the fires of the next.” It has been said
that in the process of learning the first [step] is silence, followed by
listening, then retention, then doing, and finally imparting. It has also
been said, “Teach what you knows to him who does not know and
learn from him who knows what you do not know. If you would do this
you would learn what you have not known and would retain what you
hive already known.” Mu’adh ibn-Jabal said, (I have also come across
the same saving described as a marfu‘ 75 tradition), “Acquire
knowledge, for its acquisition is [equisition to] the fear of Allah, its
pursuit is [equivalent to] worship, its study is [equivalent to] praise,
searching for it is [equivalent to] jihad, teaching it to him who does
not know is [equivalent to] almsgiving, and imparting it to those who
are worthy is meritorious. Furthermore, it is the bosom friend of the
lonesome, the companion in solitude, the guide [to religion, the
comforter in both]76 happiness and misfortune, the aid to the lonely,
the relative among strangers, and the beacon on the road to Paradise.
Through it Allah exalts a few and makes them leaders in virtues,
chiefs77 and counsellors worthy of emulation, pioneers in
righteousness whose footsteps should be followed and whose deeds
should be observed. The angels seek their friendship and with their
wings they touch them to gain thereby their favour. The .living and the
dead, yea even the whales and the fish of the sea, the lions and beasts
72
A.H. 94/A.D. 713; see ibn-Qutaybah, pp. 123-4.
73
ca. A.H. 105 A.D. 723, See ibn-Qutaybah, pp. 231-2; Tahdhib al-Asma’, pp.
431-2.
74
A.H. 248/A.D. 872; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. III, p.187-8.
75
Marfu’ signifies the record of a word or deed of the Prophet reported by
the Companion who heard or saw it.
76
Words between brackets only in C.
77
Only in C.
of the field, as well as the heaven and its stars intercede for them,
because knowledge is the protection of hearts against blindness, the
light of the eyes in darkness, and the fortification of the body against
decay. Through it man attains the dignity of sainthood and the loftiest
ranks. To reflect upon it is [as meritorious] as fasting and its study, as
continual prayer. Through it Allah is obeyed, worshipped and
glorified;78 through it he admonishes and forewarns;79 through it His
unity is declared, and through it also [man] abstains from sin.
Through knowledge the ties of relationship are made close by kindly
deeds, and the lawful and the unlawful are made known. Knowledge is
like an imam whereas works are his followers. Knowledge is bestowed
upon the fortunate and from the unfortunate withheld”.
EVIDENCE [FOR THE EXCELLENCE OF KNOWLEDGE] FROM
REASON

The purpose of this section is to comprehend the excellence and

value of knowledge. Nevertheless, unless excellence is in itself
understood arad its meaning determined it will not be possible to
acknowledge it as an attribute to knowledge, or to any other trait
besides. Similarly, whoever expects to determine whether or not Zayd
is wise without having understood the meaning and essence of
wisdom, is sure to go astray.
Excellence is derived from the infinitive to excel, which is
excrescence. When, therefore, of two objects which are similar, one
has an extra characteristic, that object is described as excelling the
other, no matter what its excellence may be. Thus saying that the
horse is more excellent than the donkey means that the horse shares
with the donkey the capacity for carrying burdens, but excels it in
charging, wheeling, swiftness, and beauty. However, should a donkey
possess a ganglionary growth it would not be described as more
excellent, because the ganglion, though an excrescence on the body, is
in reality a defect, an imperfection. In addition the animal is sought
for its useful qualities, not for its physical features. If you then
understand this, it will be clear to you that knowledge excels when
compared with the other attributes, just as the horse is distinguished
when compared with the other animals. Furthermore, while swiftness
is an excellent [feature] in the horse, in itself it has no excellence.
Knowledge, however, is in itself an absolute excellence, apart from
any attribution. It is the description of Allah’s perfection, and through
it [11] the angels and prophets were imbued with honour. The fleet
horse is better than the slow. Knowledge is, therefore, an excellence
in the absolute and apart from any attribution.
78
Only in C.
79
Only in C.
 A precious and a desired object may be of any of three
categories: what is sought as a means to an end, what is sought for its
own [intrinsic value], and what is sought for both. What is sought for
its own [intrinsic value] is nobler and more excellent than that which
is sought as a means to an end. The dirham and the dinar are objects
sought as means to an end to. secure other objects. In themselves
they are only two useless metals; and had not Allah made it possible
to transact business through them, they would have been the same as
pebbles. Happiness in the hereafter and the ecstasy’ of viewing the
face of Allah are sought for their own [intrinsic value], whilr physical
health is sought both for its own [intrinsic value] and as a means to an
end. Man’s health, for example, is sought because it is a guarantee
against bodily pain, and also because it helps [man] to reach his ends
and [secure his] needs. Similarly, if you would consider [the case of]
knowledge, you would discover that it is in itself delightful and
therefore sought for its own [intrinsic value], and you would also find
it a way which leads to the hereafter and its happiness, and the only
means whereby we come close to Allah.
The greatest achievement in the opinion of man is eternal
happiness and the most excellent thing is the way which leads to it.
This happiness will never be attained except through knowledge and
works, and works are impossible without the knowledge of how they
are done. The basis for happiness in this world and the ima is
knowledge. Of all works it is, therefore, the most excellent. And why
not, since the excellence of anything is revealed by the quality of its
fruit? You have already learnt that the fruit of. knowledge in the
hereafter is drawing near to the Lord of the Universe, attaining the
rank of the angels, and joining the company of the heavenly hosts. Its
fruits in this world, however, are power, dignity, influence over kings,
and reverence from all to an extent that even the ignorant Turks and
the rude Arabs are found naturally disposed to honour their teachers
because the latter are distinguished by a great deal of knowledge
derived from experience. Even the animal does by nature honour man
because it senses that he is distinguished by a degree of perfection
exceeding its own. These are, then, the excellence of knowledge in the
absolute. As shall be seen later, the different branches of knowledge
vary, and with their variation their excellences vary.
The excellences of teaching and learning, in view of what we have
already said, are therefore manifest. For if knowledge is the most
excellent of things, the process of acquiring it would then be a search
for the most excellent, and imparting it would be promoting the most
excellent. For human interests extend to both the material and the
spiritual worlds, and no order exists in the latter without existing in
the former because this world is a preparation for the next, and is the
instrument which leads to Allah anyone who uses it as such, a home
for him who takes it as a dwelling place. The affairs of this world,
however, do not become orderly except through human activities.
These activities, crafts, and industries are divided into three
categories:
The first involves four fundamental (activities) without which
chaos would rule the world: agriculture for raising food-stuffs,
weaving for manufacturing clothes, architecture for erecting houses,
and politics for establishing human relationship and society and for
promoting co-operation in the control of the means of living.
The second involves such activities as are auxiliary to any of the
above-mentioned fundamental activities. Thus iron craft is auxiliary to
agriculture as well as to several other industries, and supplies them
with their respective tools and instruments such as the implements for
carding and spinning cotton preparatory to its weaving.
The third involves such activities as are supplementary to the
previously mentioned principal industries, e.g., the process of milling
and bread-making in relation to agriculture and the process of
laundering and tailoring to weaving.
The relation of these principal activities to the order of things in
this world is as the relation of the members of the body to the whole,
because the members of the body are also divided into three
categories. These are fundamental like the heart, the liver, and the
brain; auxiliary like the stomach, veins, arteries, and sinews: or
supplementary and ornamental like nails, fingers and eyebrows.
The highest of these activities are the fundamental, and of these
the highest is politics [as employed] in unifying [people] and in
reform. For that reason this discipline demands of those who pursue it
a degree of perfection greater than that required by any of the other
disciplines; and in consequence it is inevitable that the politician
should subordinate to himself, and make use of, the other profession.
Politics, bent on reform and on guiding people to the straight
path which [insures] salvation in this world and the next, is [in turn]
divided into four classes: the first, which is also the highest, is the
[religious] polity of the prophets which involves their jurisdiction over
the thoughts and actions of the privileged few and the common folk
alike. The second is the [civil] polity of the caliphs, the kings, and the
sultans, which involves their jurisdiction over the actions, but not the
thoughts, of the privileged few and the common folk. The third Is the
intellectual polity of the learned man, who know Allah and His will
and who are the heirs of the prophets, which involves jurisdiction only
over the thoughts of the privileged few since the understanding of the
common folk is too low for them to benefit, and their power of
discrimination is too weak to observe and emulate their actions, and
are, therefore, subject to no compulsion or restraint. The fourth is the
[“ecclesiastical’] polity of the preachers which involves jurisdiction
only over the thoughts of the common folk.
Next to the [religious] polity of the prophets, the highest is,
therefore, the intellectual because of its service in disseminating
knowledge, in diverting the souls of men from the destructive and
undesirable traits, and in guiding them to those which lead to
happiness and are praiseworthy, all of which, in the final analysis, fall
within the purpose of teaching. We have only said that the intellectual
activities are more excellent than the other professions and activities
because the superiority ofan activity is known by three things:
1 . By examining the native endowments of man through which
the activity is realized, as in the case of the superiority of the
theoretical sciences over [12] the linguistic. Wisdom is attained
through the intellect while language, through the sense of hearing
(and intellect is superior to the [mere] sense of hearing).
2. By examining the extent of its usefulness, as in the case of
the superiority of agriculture over the goldsmith’s craft.
3. By observing die object. of its operations, as in the case of the
superiority of the goldsmith’s craft over tanning; the object of the one
is gold while that of the other is the hide of a corpse.
It is further apparent that the religious sciences, which are the
knowledge of the path to the hereafter, are comprehended through
the maturity of the intellect: and as we shall see later, clear
understanding and clear intellect are the highest attributes of man,
because through the intellect the responsibility of Allah’s trust is
accepted, and through it man can enjoy the closeness to Allah.
Concerning the extent of its usefulness there is not the slightest
doubt since it contributes to happiness in the hereafter. And finally,
how could the merit of an object of an activity be denied when the
objects with which the teacher deals are the hearts and souls of men.
The noblest being on earth is the homo-sapiens and the noblest in his
essence is his heart with whose perfecting, cleansing, purifying, and
leading to Allah the teacher is occupied. Thus on the one hand the
work of the teacher is a (form of] praise to Allah and on the other
hand a (form of] stewardship. It is in fact the highest form of
stewardship because Allah has bestowed upon the heart of the
learned man knowledge, which is His most intimate attribute. Hence
the learned man is like the keeper of Allah’s most valuable treasures
and has permission to give from them to all who need. What rank is,
therefore, higher than that in which the servant is an intermediary
between his Lord and his fellowmen, to draw them closer unto Allah
and to lead them to Paradise to which the pious repair. May we,
through the Grace of Allah, become one of them, and may He bless
every chosen servant.
 SECTION II
On praiseworthy and objectionable branches of knowledge.
their classifications, and the rules which govern them. including those
branches of knowledge whose acquisition is deemed fard’ayn as well
as those whose acquisition is deemed fard kifayah: on determining the
position of theology and jurisprudence in relation to the science of
religion; and finally. on showing the superiority of the science of the
hereafter.
ON KNOWLEDGE WHOSE ACQUISITION IS
DEEMED FARD`AYN
The Apostle of Allah said, “Seeking knowledge is an ordinance
obligatory on every Muslim,” and again, “Seek ye knowledge even [as
far as] China.’’ People, however, disagreed as to what branch of
knowledge man is obliged to acquire, and aS a result split up into
about twenty groups. We shall not go into details but simply
summarize the matter by saying that each group insisted on the
necessity of acquiring that branch of knowledge which happened to
be its speciality. The scholastic theologians insisted on scholastic
theology because the unity of Allah, as well as His essence and
attributes, is known through it. The jurists held out for jurisprudence
because the acts of worship, the lawful and the unlawful as well as the
forbidden and the permissible in daily conduct, are determined
through it. Or in other words what the ordinary man needs in his
everyday life, rather than under unusual conditions, is determined
through it. Furthermore, the commentators and traditionists, holding
that through it all sciences are attained, stood for the science of the
Qur’an and the tradition. The Sufis pointed to Sufism as the branch of
knowledge which was intended, some saying that it is the science
whereby the creature, realizing his position in relation to the divine,
has a mystical experience [in communion with his Allah]. Other Sufis
said that it comprises knowing what sincerity is and what the
afflictions of the soul are, as well as being able to distinguish between
the followers of Allah and the followers of Satan. Others again said
that it was the esoteric science whose acquisition was required only of
the qualified, select few, and accordingly thee dismissed the accepted
meaning of the word in favour of its esoteric connotation.
According to abu-Talib al-Makki,’ what is meant [by the bove-
mentioned tradition] is knowledge of the contents of tradition which
embodies the foundations of Islam, referred to in the following words
of the Prophet: `Islam is built upon five pillars.” 2 Since these five
pillars are ordinances imposed by Allah, it is necessary to know how
to fulfil them. The student, therefore, should be absolutely certain
that knowledge, as we have already shown in the introduction to this
book, is divided into the science of practical religion and the science
of revelations. The scope of this discussion is confined to the science
of practical religion.
The [tenets of] practical religion which an adult and sane
creature is obliged to observe deal with three things: beliefs, works,
and prohibitions (lark, pl. turuk). For example, when a sane individual
attains puberty and comes of age, his first obligation is learning the
two words of the confession of faith (alshahadah) and understanding
their meaning. These two words are: there is no Allah but Allah;
Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah. He is not required to fully
penetrate their significance through scrutiny, investigation, and .
research, but only to believe and confess them unequivocally without
the least doubt or hesitation. The later is obtained by merely
accepting on authority without any investigation or proof, since the
Prophet required only mere acceptance and confession from the
Author of the famous Out al-Oulub (A.H. 386/A.D. 996). See ibn-
Khallikan,Vol.11. p.297; al-Sam`ani, Kitabal Ansab ed. D.S.
Margoliouth (Le Den, 1912) fol. 54Ia.
2. These are the confessio,.s of faith, prayer, alms giving (zakah), the
pilgrimage, and fasting cf. al-Bukhari, Iman, 1. al-Tinnidhi, 2.
Iman, 3; Ibn-Hanbal, Iman, 4.
ruffians among the Arabs without their learning any evidence.’ Thus
in accepting and confessing the two words, the person fulfils an
obligation which is binding at that time. Accordingly, at that time, the
branch of knowledge, whose acquisition is divinely ordained and
binding for even’ Muslim, would consist in the learning and
understanding of the two words of the confession of faith.
Furthermore, at that stage, it is sufficient for them. This is shown by
considering that if a Muslim dies upon accepting and confessing the
two words of the confession of faith, he would die obedient to Allah
and guilty of no rebellion. With the rise of new developments,
however, there would be other obligations, butthey would not
necessarily be binding on even individual. On the contrary, it would be
quite possible [for some] to be free of them.
The new developments may affect obligations regarding works,
prohibitions, or beliefs.
Regarding works, for example, if a person’s life were to extend
from dawn until noon, he would be required to learn how to perform
his ablutions and pray because of the approaching noon hour. In such
a case it would be wrong to say that it is obvious that he should
persist in his study; [and if he finds that his life will extend beyond
noon] and thinks that he might not be able to finish in time. [he should
still persist] and perform his ablutions and pray before evening,
however long this may be after the appointed hour. In short he should
give study primary consideration regardless of the time required. In
addition it can be said that the obligation to acquire knowledge, which
is the prerequisite for works. is derived ft um the obligation to
perform works, in which case it might not even be obligatory before
sunset. This is also true of the other prayers.
Further, should a person live until [the beginning of] Ramadan,
he would be obliged to learn all about fasting i.e., that it lasts from
morning until sunset, that observing it requires resolve. abstinence
from food, drink, and sexual intercourses as well as seeing
I. Cf. Surah XLIX: 14; al-Tabari, Jami’la-Bavan (Cairo, 1323-30),
Vol. XXVI, pp. 89-91 where these are said to have been the Banu-
Asad.

The Book of Knowledge

the new moon personaily [or accepting the word ottwo , eye-witnesses
instead].’ Similarly, should a person come into some wealth, or on
coming of age, inherit some, h- should learn all about zakah. For
although fulfilling the obligation is not immediately incumbent upon
him, it would become so at the end of the first year after his
acceptance of Islam. Should he possess nothing but camels, he would
not need to learn the zakah of sheep, and the same is true of the other
varieties [of wealth].
When, however, the months of pilgrimage begin, it will not be
necessary for the person to start, at once, to learn how to make the
pilgrimage, and since it is performed at leisure, learning how to do it
is not immediately obligatory. Rather the learned men of Islam should
point out to him that the pilgrimage is a divine ordiance to be
observed, at leisure and convenience by every one who, as a man of
means, has both the provisions and the means oftransportation. This
should be done in the hope of inducing the individual himself to
resolvee upon the pilgrimage. Should he so resolve, it would become
necessary for him to learn how the pilgrimage is performed. He would
not need, however, to learn anything except its essentials and duties
and not the voluntary acts of supererogation connected with it: for it
performing the voluntary acts is supererogatory, so would its
knowledge also be, and learning it, consequently, would not be a
divine ordiance binding on all Muslim. (As to the unlawfulness of
neglecting to point out that the pilgrimage is obligatory whenever the
individual is able to perform it, there has been considerable
speculation worthy of nothing but jurisprudence). The same reasoning
applies to the knowledge of the other works which are divinely
ordained and binding on all Muslims.
As to prohibitions, the acquisition of the knowledge of which is
obligatory, the obligation is conditioned by the rise of new
developments and changed circumstances relevant to it, and varies
with the conditions of the individual. Thus the mute is not obliged to
know what is unlawful in speech nor the blind to know what things

Words between brackets only in C

are unlawful to see. Similarly the bedouin is not obliged to know the
houses in which it is unlawful to sit. All these obligations only apply
within the limits of circumstance, and need not be learnt when it is
certain that the question [of their applicability] will not arise. But
whatever situation resembles these and may, therefore, be confused
with them must be distinguished from them - as, for example, the
case where an individual who, at the time of his embracing Islam.
was in the habit of wearing silk garments, or possessed something
illegally or looked at a woman whom he could not legally marry In
such a case, he should be warned. On the other hand, whatever does
not resemble these things and is, therefore, not confusing but to
which one may be exposed through contact, - such as food and drink -
instruction concerning it is obligatory. Hence if an individual happens
to be in a town where it is customary to drink wine and eat pork, it is
imperative that he be taught concerning their prohibition and warned
against using them. Moreover of all things in which instruction is
obligatory, acquiring a knowledge of them is. also obligatory.
As to beliefs and actions of the heart. knowledge of them is
obligatory according to the state of the mind. Thus if one should feel
any passing thought (khatir)’ of doubt as to what the two words of the
confession of faith mean, it would be obligatory upon him to acquire
the knowledge of whatever would remove that doubt. If, on the other
hand, he felt no such passing thought but died before he believed
that the word of Allah - the Qur’an-is eternal, visible. and not a
substratum for originated properties, as well as other often repeated
articles of faith, he would have died a professing Muslim. These
feelings of doubt which render the knowledge of the articles of faith
obligatory arise in the mind either naturally or as a result of hearing
things in one’s own community. Thus in a town where rumours have
spread and the people talk heresy, the individual should, in the early
years of his maturity, be protected against such influence by being
instructed in the [elements of [ truth. If, on the other
I . PI. Khawatir, signifying the occurrence in the mind of something
which is quickly removed by another thought and which its owner
is able to repel from the mind.
 The Book of Knowledge
hand, he were exposed to falsehood, it would become necessary to
remove it from his heart, a task which might prove difficult. Again if
this particular Muslim were a merchant living in the midst of a town
where the practice of usury was prevalent it would be obligatory to
warn him against usury.
This, then is the truth concerning the knowledge whose
acquisition is deemed an ordinance of Allah binding on everyone and
no less binding on some because of its observance by others The gist
of it all is knowledge of how to perform works whose discharge is
obligatory. Whoever, therefore, knows what works are obligatory
together with the time of their discharge, the same possesses the
knowledge whose acquisition is fard’ayn. Furthermore, what the Sufis
hold relative to the understanding of the thoughts of the enemy and
[those] of the company of heaven (lummat al-mulk) is also true,
though only to those who apply themselves to it. If, however, man does
not for the most part refrain from the impulses of evil, hypocrisy, and
envy, he should seek to acquire whatever knowledge he may feel he
needs from the Quarter on the Destructive Matters of Life. How can
he neglect this obligation when the Apostle of Allah said, “Three
things in life arc destructive; sordid avarice, vehement passion and
self-conceit,” and no man can refrain from these. The rest of what we
shall mention of the reprehensible conditions of the heart such as
pride, conceit, etc., all follow from these three aforementioned
destructive matters of life. Their eradication is a lard ‘ayn. It is,
however, not possible except through a knowledge of the nature of
these destructive matters of life, as well as their causes, symptoms,
and cure; as he who knows not evil falls into it. A cure is, in reality,
confronting a cause with its opposite. How could such a thing be
possible without a knowledge of both cause and effect? Most of the
things we have mentioned in the Quarter on the Destructive Matters
of Life belong to the fard’ayn class which have been totally neglected
by the people in favour of pursuing things which do not matter.
Among the things about which we should proceed to inform the
individual, in case they have not yet been transmitted from one people
to another, are belief in Paradise, hell, the day of resurrection and the
day of judgement in order that he may believe and accept them, as
they are the continuation of the words of the confession of faith. This
is required because after the acceptance of Muhammad’s
prophethood, the message which he conveyed, namely that whoever
should obey Allah and His Apostle would enter Paradise, and whoever
should disobey them would enter hell-fire, should be understood. If.
therefore, you would pay attention to this reasoning you would know
that this is the true way of life. You would also find out that every
servant suffers, in the course of his life, both during the day and the
night from enduring thoughts (waqa’i)1 [of doubt] which befall him in
the performance of his acts of worship and daily transactions. These
thoughts require new obligations and consequently it becomes
necessary for him to inquire concerning every unusual occurrence
which may happen to him as well as to proceed to learn what may be
generally expected to occur in the near future.
Finally, if it should become clear that what the Prophet meant by
his words, ‘*Seeking knowledge is an ordiance obligatory upon every
Muslim,” is knowledge with the definite article, namely the knowledge
ofonly those works which arc well known to be obligatory upon even•
Muslim, the line ofthis reasoning would become apparent as would
alsothe tune in which these obligations should be discharged. Allah,
however, knows best.

ON KNOWLEDGE WHOSE ACQUISITION IS DEEMED

Fard Kifayah
It should be known that a necessary duty is not distinguished from
other duties except when the different sciences are enumerated.
These are divided, in relation to the kind of duties we are now
considering, into sacred (shar’iyah) and profane (ghatrshar’itah)
sciences. By sacred sciences I mean those which have been acquired

Sing, wogi’ah. signifying a thought which appears in the mind

and remains there. and %% hich. unlike Klrajirthe owner has no
means whatever of repelling

The Book of Knowledge

from the prophets and are not arrived at either by reason, like
arithmetic, or by experimentation, like medicine, or by hearing, like
language.
Profane sciences are divided into praiseworthy (mahmud),
blameworthy (madhmum), and permissible (mubah). Praiseworthy
sciences are those on whose knowledge the activities of this life
depend such as medicine and arithmetic. They are divided into
sciences the acquisition of the knowledge of which is fard kifayah and
into sciences the acquisition of the knowledge of which is meritorious
though not obligatory. Sciences whose knowledge is deemed fard
kifayah comprise every sciences which are indispensable for the
welfare of this world such as: medicine which is necessary for the life
of the body, arithmetic for daily transactions and the division of
legacies and inheritances, as well as others besides. These are the
sciences which, because of their absence, a community would be
reduced to narrow straits. But should one who can practise them rise
in that community, it would suffice and the obligation to acquire their
knowledge would cease to be binding upon the rest of the community.
No one should be astonished when we say that medicine as well
as arithmetic are of the sciences which are fard kifayah, because the
fundamental industries are also the same, such as agriculture,
weaving, politics, even cupping and tailoring. For should a town lack
a cupper extinction would overtake its people and they would be
driven to expose themselves to destruction. Has not He who has sent
down the malady also sent down the remedy, given guidance for its
use, and prepared the means for administering it? It is not, therefore,
permissible to expose oneself to destruction by neglecting the
remedy.
To go deep into the details of arithmetic and the nature of
medicine a well as such details which, while not indispensable, are
helpful in reinforcing the efficacy of whatever is necessary, is,
however, considered meritorious, not obligatory.
‘Me blameworthy (Madhmum) sciences are magic, talismanic
science, juggling, trickery and the like.
The sacred sciences which are intended in this study are all
praiseworthy. Sometime, however, they may be confused with what
may be taken for praiseworthy but, in fact, are blameworthy. For this
reason sacred sciences are divided into praiseworthy and
blameworthy sciences:.
The praiseworthy sciences comprise sources (usul), branches
(Furu ), auxiliary (mugaddimat), and supplementary (mutammimat).
There are, therefore, four kinds:
First come the sources (usul) which are four in number: the Book
of Allah (i.e. the Qur’an). The Usage (sunnah) of His Prophet, The
Agreement (ijma’) of all Muslims, and the traditions relating to the
Companions (athar al-sahabah). Agreement, in so far as it evinces
usage, is a source. Like traditions relating to the Companions,
however, which is also evince usage, agreement is a secondary
source. This is because the Companions have-%% ,itnessed the
revelations and have, through their close association with the
Prophet comprehended what others have failed to see. Since,
however, it is possible that words will not fully express what has been
so comprehended, the learned men have deemed it fit to follow the
example of the Companions and hold fast to their tradition though on
a certain condition and in a special manner as the one concerned may
see. It is, however, not appropriate to discuss it in this section.
Second are the branches (furu ). They are what has been drawn
from the sources (usul), not according to the literal meaning but
through meanings which are adduced by the mind thereby widening
the understanding until a meaning differing from the literal is
indicated, as for example, indicated by the words of the Prophet: “The
judge should not sit in judgment while angry.”‘ namely that he should
not sit in judgment while constipated or hungry or suffering from a
painful disease. This last thing may be of two kinds: the first pertains
to the activities of this world and is contained in the books of law and
entrusted to the lawyers, the learned men of this world; the second
pertains to the activities of the hereafter. It is the science of
I. Cf.. al-Bukhari, Ahkam,13; ibn Alajah. Ahkam, 4.

The Book of Knowledge

the conditions of the heart, its praiseworthy and blameworthy
characteristics, what is acceptable before Allah and what is
reprehensible to Him. All these are treated in the last part of this
book, i.e., the whole book of The Revival of the Sciences of Religion.
It includes the knowledge of what issues from the heart and affects
the senses in their acts of worship and usage of life, all of which are
treated in the first part of this book.
Third are the auxiliary (muqaddimah). These act as the
instrument for the sacred sciences. Thus linguistic science and syntax
are but instruments for the knowledge of the Book of Allah and the
usage (sunnah) of His Prophet. In themselves linguistic science and
syntax are not of the sacred sciences, but it has become necessary to
engage in their study because of the law since this law has come in
the language of the Arabs. And whereas every law is revealed through
the medium of a particular language, the learning of the language
becomes an instrument wherewith to learn the law. Among these
instruments also is the science of writing. It is, however, not a
necessary instrument because the Apostle of Allah was himself
unlettered (ummi).’ And if it were conceivable that retention of
whatever is heard was at all possible, man might have dispensed with
writing. But, because of the impossibility of such a thing, it has
become, on the whole, necessary.
Fourth are the supplementary (mulammimat) which, in relation
to the science of the Qur’an, are divided into what pertains to
pronunciation such as learning the different readings and the
enunciation of the different letters, and into what pertains to
exposition which also rests on authoritative transmission. This is
because language alone cannot treat exposition or its technicalities
such as the knowledge of the abrogating (nasikh) and the abrogated
(mansukh), the general (‘amm) and the particular (khas), the express
laws of the Qur’an as well as its manifest meaning, and finally the
manner of their application, i.e.. the science which is called the
principles of jurisprudence (usul alfigh), which also includes sunnah.
1. Also illiterate. Cf Surah VD: 156. The word probably means
ignorant of the scriptures. or. more accurately. a layman.
In connection with tradition and history, the supplementary
sciences are biography, dealing mainly with the lives of illustrious men
andoftheCompanions, knowledge ofthetmstworthytransmitters of
traditions and their peculiarities, in order to distinguish between
weak (da’iJ) and strong (qawi) traditions, and of their ages in order to
differentiate between those traditions whose chain of authorities is
incomplete or lacking (mursal) and those whose chain of authorities
goes back to the Prophet (musnad), as well as knowledge of whatever
is connected with it.
These, then, are the sacred sciences. Not only are they all
praiseworthy, but they also belong to the category of the fard kifayah.
But should one inquire saying, “Why have you appended
jurisprudence to secular sciences and grouped jurisprudents among
secular scholars?” Let me tell you that Allah made Adam from earth
and his offspring from clay and running water. He brought them out
front loins to womb, then to life, and finally to the grave; from the
grave He raised them to judgment and from there to Paradise or to
hell-fire. Such was therefore their beginning, such their end, and such
their abodes. Furthermore, Allah has created this world in
preparation for the hereafter in order to gather suitable provisions
therefrom. If these provisions we regathered justly, dissensions would
have ceased and the junsprudents would have become idle. But since
men have with greed gathered their provisions, dissensions ensued
and consequently the need for a magistrate to rule them arose. In turn
the magistrate felt the need for a canon with which to govern the
people. It is the jurisprudent, though, who has the knowledge of the
rules of government and the methods of mediation between the
people whenever, because of their greed, they contend. He thus
becomes the teacher of the magistrates and their guide in government
and control, that through their righteousness the affairs of men in this
world may be set in order.
Upon my life I declare that jurisprudence is also connected with
religion, not directly but indirectly through the affairs of this world,
because this world is the preparation for the hereafter, and there is no
religion without it. Furthermore, the state and religion are twins.
Religion is the foundation whiles the state is the guard. That which
has no foundation will certainly crumble and that which has no guard
is lost. Without the magistrates there is neither government nor
control, and the correct way to settle dissensions is through law. And
as government by magistrates does not belong primarily to the
science of religion but is an adjunct to that without which there is no
religion, so is the knowledge of the manner of government. Thus it is
well known that it is not possible to carry out the pilgrimage without
the protection of an escort of bedouins along the route. But the
pilgrimage itself is one thing, setting out on the road to pilgrimage is
another, policing the route without which it is not possible to perform
the pilgrimage is still another, and the knowledge of the manner of
policing the route with all its rules and regulations is again another.
The result of jurisprudence is knowledge of the methods of
government and control. This is attested by a tradition whose chain of
authorities goes back to the Prophet, namely, “People will not be
judged except by three: a governor, a deputy, and an intruder.”‘ The
governor is the imam [the imams have (always) been the judges]; the
deputy is his lieutenant, while anyone else is an intruder who
undertakes that responsibility without there being any need for him to
do so. As a matter of fact it was the custom of the Companions to
avoid giving legal opinions to the extent that each was in the habit of
referring [the question] to his colleague, although they did not avoid
answering questions relative to the science of the Qur’an and the path
of the hereafter. In some recensions the word hypocrite appears
instead of the word intruder [and rightly so] because anyone who,
without any special need, undertakes the responsibility of giving legal
opinions, does so for the sake of acquiring position and wealth.
If you agree to this, the same will hold true in connection with
the rules of invalidating testimonies, restrictive ordinances
indemnities and settling feuds; but it will not hold true in respect to
what falls under the Quarter on the Acts of Worship such as fasting
and prayer, nor in respect to what the Usages of Life entail -of civil
and legal matters such as determining the lawful and the unlawful.
1. Cf. al-Derimi, Sunan. Raqa’iq, 63.
You should, therefore, know that what the jurisprudent comes
nearest discussing under works which pertain to the hereafter are
four.’ Islam, prayer, almsgiving, doing what is lawful and abstaining
from what is unlawful. But when you example how far the
jurisprudent’s speculation goes into these four you will find that it
does hot go beyond the limits of this world into the next. If then you
realize this limitation in respect to these four it becomes to you more
evident in others besides.
Concerning Islam the jurisprudent discourses on what renders it
sound or unsound as well as on its conditions, but only pays attention
to outward confession. The heart, however, is removed from his
domain because the Apostle set apart from the jurisprudent those
who wield the sword and those in whose hand the reins of temporal
power lie. This the Apostle did when he said to the man who had
killed another because the latter had recited the confession of faith
giving for a reason his fear of the sword, “Have you examined his
heart?”‘ The jurisprudent also determines with the aid of the sword
the soundness of one’s Islam although he knows that the sword can
neither reveal to him the intentions of the individual nor remove from
his heart the veil of ignorance and bewilderment. He is, however,
counsellor to him who wields the sword. Since the sword can reach
the individual’s neck, and the hand his possessions, repeating the
confession of faith with the tongue protects his life and possessions
as long as he has either in this world. For this reason the Prophet
said, ` I was ordered to fight people until they say, `There is no other
Allah but Allah. When they say this they render their lives and
possessions immune against my hand.”‘ He thus confined the
efficacys of verbal confession to life and possessions; but in the
hereafter mere words do not avail - only the illumination of the hearts
by the divine light, their secret thoughts, and their sincerity do avail.
These, however, do not fall within the field of jurisprudence although
the jurisprudent may delve into them as he might also delve into
theology and medicine, both of which are outside his field.
I. Text-three. 2. Muslim, hnan, 39.
1. Cf. Ibn-Majah, Imnan,16; Muslim, Iman, 6; al-Bakhari, In= 16.

The Book of Knowledge

Concerning prayer, the jurisprudent is entitled to give his
opinion as to whether or not it has been correctly performed in
accordance with the prescribed regulations, regardless of the fact
that the worshipper, from the beginning to the end, might not have
paid attention to any part of his prayer except the magnificat
(takbir),’ but has instead busied himself in going over his market
transactions. Such a prayer is of no use for the hereafter justas verbal
confession of Islam is also of no use. Nevertheless, the jurisprudent
does pass judgment regarding its soundness, namely whether or not
the worshipper has, in what he has performed, fulfilled the
``requirements of the law and has thereby rendered himself immune
to execution and punishment. To the subject of submitting and
presenting the heart to Allah, however, both of which are works
pertaining to the hereafter and through which works are rendered
efficacious, the jurisprudent does not address himself; and in case he
does, he oversteps his bounds.
Concerning almsgiving, the jurisprudent examines what satisfies
the demand of the magistrate so that in the event that the payment of
the alms is withheld and, consequently, the magistrate exacts it by
force, the jurisprudent then rules that the responsibility of the
magistrate has been fulfilled. It is related that Abu-Yusu f 2 the judge,
was in the habit of giving away all his income to his wife at the end of
each year and in turn making her give away hers to him in order to
avoid the payment of alms. On being informed of it, abu-Hanifah’
declared that that was the result of abu-Yusufs versatility in
jurisprudence; and abu-Hanifah was right because such a thing is the
result of worldly wisdom. Nevertheless, its harm in the hereafter
outweighs every benefit it may yield in this world. Moreover, such
knowledge is harmful.

1 The takbir consists of the repetition of the words.dllahiu-akbar

meaning “Allah is great.”
Ya’qub ibn-Ibrahim ibn-Habib (A. H. 182/A.D. 798); author of the
Kitab a!-Khamj. See ibn-Khallikan, Vol. III, pp. 334.42.
3. Al-Nu’man ibn-Thabit. (A.H. 150 A.D. 767) founder of the Hanafite
school of law and teacher of abu-Yusu! See ibn-Khallikan, Vol. III,
pp. 74.80.
Concerning the lawful and the unlawful, abstinence from the
latter is apart of religion. Piety, moreover, has four grades. The first is
that piety which is required forJ’ust testimony and the relinquishing of
which disqualifies man to bear witness before a court, or to be a
judge, or to act as a governor. It consists, in other words, in avoiding
all that is clearly unlawful.
The second is the piety of honest men which guards against
dubiosities which engenderambiguous and misleading
interpretations. Thus the Prophet said, “Discard that which is dubious
for that which is indubious.”‘ He also said, “Sin is heart-alluring.”
The third is the piety of the Godly which entails desisting from
perfectly lawful deeds for fear they may lead to deeds which are
unlawful. In this connection the Prophet said, “No man will be
numbered among the Godly unless he is wont to avoid what is
harmless for fear of what is harmful.’n Of Such is the reluctance to
discuss the affairs of people lest one be drawn into backbiting, and
the abstinence from eating or drinking of things which whet the
appetite lest that should stimulate passion and lust which lead man to
commit that which is forbidden.
The fourth is the piety of the saints which shuns all things but
Allah for fear of expending one single hour of life in .things which,
although it is clear and certain that they lead to nothing unlawful, do
not help to bring the individual nearer to Allah.
AlI these grades of piety, except the first, namely the piety of
witnesses and judges as well as what militates against justice, are
outside the domain of the jurisprudent. Furthermore, to comply with
the requirements of this first grade of piety does not preclude sin
being punished in the hereafter. The Prophet said to Wabisah.’
“Consult your own heart although you have been given a dispensation
1. Al-Tayalisi, No. 1178.
2. Ibn-Majah, al-Wara’w-al-Tagwa,1.
3. Abu-Salim Wabisah ibn-Ma’bad al-Asadi, one of the Companions of
the
Prophet; he embracedlslam inA.H. 9/AD. 630. See Vol. VII, Pt. 2,
p. 176;
Taldhib al Asma’, p. 611.

The Book of Knowledge

once, twice to thrice.”‘ The jurisprudent does not, and should not,
express an opinion regarding the things which allure and perplex the
heart, or how to deal with them but confines his opinion to those
things which militate against justice. Hence th P, entire scope of the
jurisprudent’s domain is limited to the affairs of this world which
pave the road to the hereafter. Should he then touch upon the
attributes of the heart and the rules of the hereafter, he does so as an
intruder just as he would be whenever anything relative to medicine,
arithmetic, astronomy and theology confronts him. The same is true
of philosophy in relation to syntax or poetry. Sufyan al-Thawri, an
authority in exoteric know!edge used to say that the study of this
science is not among the provisions for the hereafter. How could it be
when it is agreed that the value of knowledge is acting according to
its precepts? Is is possible, therefore, to hold as provisions for the
hereafter the knowledge of the forms that divorce might take, either
zihar2 or by li’an,3 of contracts involving immediate payment of the
-
price and admitting delay in the delivery of the article purchased
(salam)°, of hire, rental, and lease (ijarah),5 and of money-changing
(sarj)?6 Anyone who acquires the knowledge of these things, hoping
thereby to draw nearer to Allah, would certainly be mad. Indeed,
nothing but engaging body and soul in the service of Allah and His
worship would draw people nearer to Allah; and nobility lies in
knowing how to accomplish these deeds.
I. Al-Darimi, Btyu’,2.
2. A form of divorce by the formula: anti ‘alawa kazahr ummi (thou art
to me as my mother’s back). This is reminiscent of pre-Islamic
practice. Cf. Surah LVf: 2; al-Bukhari, Talaq, 23, ibn-Alajah, Talaq,
25.
3. A form of divorce which takes place under the following
 circumstances: if a man accuses his wife of adultery and does not
prove it by four witnesses,,he must swear before Allah that he is
telling the truth and then add. “Ifl am a-liirmay Allah curse me”.
The wife then says, `’I swear before Allah that my husband lies;”
and then adds, “May Allah’s %%Tath be upon me if this man be
telling the truth.” After this the divorce takes place ipso facto. Cf
Surah XXIV: 6; o!-Buklwri, Talaq, 4, 25, 27-36: ibn-.1 lajah, Talaq,
27.
4. See al-Bukhari, Salary; al-Sayyid al-Sharif al-Jurjani, al-Ta)rifar,
ed. G. Flugel (Leipzig, 1, 945)p. 126.
5. See al-Bukhari, Ijarah. 6. See al-Bukhari, Shirkah, 10.
If you should say, “Why have you regarded medicine and
jurisprudence in the same way when medicine pertains to the affairs
ofthisworld, namelythewelfare ofthebody,while uponjurisprudence
depends the-welfare of religion; and furthermore does not this equal
regard of the two violate the public consensus of opinion among all
Muslims?” Then know that such a treatment is not necessary and in
fact the two sciences differ. Jurisprudence is superior to medicine on
three counts; first because it is sacred knowledge and unlike
medicine, which is not sacred knowledge, jurisprudence is derived
from prophecy; second, it is superior to medicine because no one of
those who are treading the road to the hereafter can do without it,
neither the healthy nor the ailing; while on the other hand only the
sick, who area minority, need medicine; thirdly, because jurisprudence
is akin to the science of the road of the hereafter, being a study of the
works or the senses. The origin of these works as well as their source
lies in the attributes of the heart. Thus praiseworthy works are the
result of praiseworthy characters endowed with saving grace in
hereafter; similarly the blameworthy works are the result of
blameworthy characters. The connection between the senses and the
heart is thus clear.
Health and disease, however, result from certain qualities in the
numours characteristics of the body, not of the heart No matter how
often jurisprudence is compared with medicine, the superiority of the
former is evident. Similarly, whenever the science of the road of the
hereafter is compared with jurisprudence the superiority of the
former is evident.
If you should say, “Explain to me the science of the road of the
hereafter in such a manner as will bring out its outline if the inquiry
into its details is not possible,” know, then, that it is divided into two
parts: the science of revelation and the science of practical religion.
The science of revelation is the science of esoterics which is the
goal of all sciences. One of the Gnostics said, “I fear that whoever
should lack a portion of that science would come upon evil end.” The
least portion of the science of revelation is believing in it and placing
it in the hands of those worthy of it. Another said, “Whoever has these
two characteristics, heresy and pride, will never be blessed with arty
of this science”. It was also said, “Whoever loves Allah succeeds, but
whoever loves this world and persists in his desires will not attain the
science of revelation, though he might attain the other sciences.” The
least punishment which the person who denies revlation will suffer is
that he will not be blessed with any of its gifts. Thus a poet said:
“In his absence from the side, Let his
penalty abide.”
Furthermore, the science of revelation is the science concerned
with the saints and the favourites of Allah. It stands for a light which
shines in the heart when it is cleansed and purified of its blameworthy
qualities. Through this light is revealed the truth of several things,
whose names have hitherto often been heard, and to which ambiguous
and obscure meanings have been attached. Through it, these truths
are clarified until the true knowledge of the essence of Allah is
attained together with that of His eternal and perfect attributes, His
works and wisdom in the creation of this world and the hereafter as
well as the reason for His exalting the latter over the former. Through
it also is attained the knowledge of the meaning of prophecy and
prophet and the import of revelation. Through it is obtained the truth
about Satan, the meaning of the words angels and devils, and the
cause of the enmity between Satan and man. Through it is known how
the Angel appeared to the prophets and how they received the divine
revelation. Through it is achieved the knowledge of the kingdom of
heaven and earth, as well as the knowledge of the heart and how the
angelic hosts have confronted the devils. Through it is gained the
knowledge of how to distinguish between the company of heaven and
the company of the Devil, a knowledge of the hereafter, Paradise, and
hell fire, the punishment of the grave, the bridge (al-sirat)’ across the
infernal fire, the balance’ of the judgment-day, and knowledge of the
day of reckoning.’ Through it also is comprehended the meaning of
the following words of Allah: “Read thy Book; there needeth none but
thyself to make out an account against thee this day w-113 and, “Truly
the hereafter is life indeed!”‘ Through this same light is revealed the
meaning of meeting Allah and seeing His gracious face: the meaning
of being close to Him and of occupying a place in His proximity: the
meaning of attaining happiness through communion with the heavenly
hosts and association with the angels and the prophets. Through it
also the distinction between the ranks of the people in the different
heavens is determined until they see one another in the same way as
Venus is seen in the heart of heaven. Many other things which would
require a great deal of time to explain because people, once they
accept them in principle. take different stands with regard to their
significations, are also determined through this light. Thus, some
would regard all these as mere examples holding that the eve has not
seen, nor the ear heard, neither has it entered into the heart of marp
that which Allah has prepared for His righteous servants,’ and that
man knows nothing of Paradise except its attributes and names:
others hold that some are mere patterns and some are identical with
the realities which their names signify. Likewise others hold that the
limit to which our knowledge of Allah can reach is to admit the
inability to know Him. There are some also who claim great things on
the subject of knowing Allah while others say that we cannot go
beyond what all the common people have reached, namely that Allah
is omniscient and omnipotent, that He hears and sees, and that He
speaks. We, therefore, mean by the science of revelation that science
whereby the cover is removed so that the truth regarding these things
becomes as clear as if it were seen by the eve, leaving thereby no
room for any doubt. Man would, by himself, be capable of such a thing
had not rust resulting from the filth of this world accumulated over
the surface of the mirror of his heart. By the science of the road of the
hereafter we mean the knowledge of how to remove from the surface
1. See ibn-Alajah, bath, 8.

1. Cf Surah XXI: 47; XLII;16. 2. Cf.’ Surah XL: 28.

3. Surah XVII: 15. 4. Surah XXIX: 64.
5. Cf. Is 64:4; I Cor. 2: 9; also al-Darimi, Raga’iq,105.
40

41

The Book of Knowledge

The Book of Knowledge
of this mirror that filth which bars the knowing of Allah, His
attributes, and His works. The mirror is cleansed and purified by
desisting from lust and emulating the prophets in all their states. Thus
to whatever extent the heart is cleansed and made to face the truth,
to that same extent will it reflect His reality. But there is no way to
this except through discipline [which will be discussed in its proper
place], learning, and instruction.
These sciences are not recorded in books and are not discussed
by him whom Allah has blessed with any of them except among his
own circle of intimates who partake with him of them through
discourses and secret communication. This last method is nothing but
the occult science which the Prophet had in mind when he said,
“Verily of knowledge is a branch that resembles a hidden thing; no
one grasps it except those who know Allah; whenever they declare it
no one fails to recognize it except those who know not Allah. Despise
not, therefore, a learned man whom Allah has blessed with this
knowledge because Allah Himself does not despise that man once He
has imparted to him that knowledge.”
The second part, namely the science of practical religion, is the
science of the states of the heart, of which the praiseworthy are
fortitude, gratitude, fear, hope, resignation, devotion, piety,
contentment, generosity, recognition of one’s obligation to Allah under
all circumstances, charity, good faith, morality, fellowship,
truthfulness, and sincerity. To know the truth concerning these states
as well as their definitions and the means whereby they are attained,
together with their fruits and signs, and tending whatever states has
been weakened until it becomes strong again and whatever has
disappeared until it reappears, belongs to the science of the hereafter.
On the other hand, the blameworthy, such as the fear of poverty,
discontent with one’s lot, bitterness, rancour, envy, deceit, ambition,
the desire to be praised, the passion to live long in this life for the
sake of indulgence, pride, hypocrisy, anger, scorn, enmity, hatred,
greed niggardliness, lust, extravagance, frivolity, insolence, exalting
the rich and despising the poor, haughtiness, vanity, vaunting,
boasting holding oneself above turn, medling in things not of one’s
concern, loquacity, obstinacy, currying favour, adulation, conceit,
being diverted from attending to one’s own faults by being occupied
with other people’s shortcomings, the vanishing of grief from the
heart and the departure of fear of Allah from it, extreme self-pity
whenever in affliction, lukewarm support for truth, outwardly
professing friendship and secretly fostering enmity, taking advantage
of Allah’s patience and long suffering and persisting in taking away
from men what Allah has given them trusting only in trickery,
dishonesty and fraud, vain optimism, cruelty, rudeness, satisfaction in
worldly pleasures and dejection at their loss, delight in the company
of people and loneliness when they depart, harshness, levity, haste,
lack of shame and lack of mercy - these and many similar qualities of
the heart are the seed-beds of immoralities and the nursery-gardens
of turpitudes. The opposite of these, namely the praiseworthy traits,
and the fountain-head of all good works. To know the definitions of
these traits the truth concerning each, the means whereby they are
attained as well as their fruits and cures comprise the science of the
hereafter whose acquisition, according to the legal opinion of the
learned men of that science, is fard’ayn. Whoever should turn away
from this knowledge, would, in the hereafter be destroyed by the
wrath of the King of Kings, just as he who would fail to perform the
civil duties would, according to the legal opinion of the jurisprudents
of the world, be cut down by the sword of the temporal rulers of this
world. The judgement of the jurisprudents concerning obligatory
ordinances (fard’ayn) relates to the welfare of life in this world, while
the judgment of the learned men of the science of the hereafter
relates to the welfare of life in the hereafter. Thus if a jurisprudent
were asked concerning the meaning of any of these terms, as for
example: sincerity, or dependence, or precaution against hypocrisy, he
would hesitate to express an opinion although every one of these is an
obligatory ordiance in whose neglect lies his own destruction in the
hereafter. But should you inquire from him concerning the li ‘an form
of divorce or the zihar form, or concerning wager (sabaa)’ and target
shooting he would recite to you volumes of minute details which
would never be used or needed; and in the event a need might arise
I. See ibn-Alajah, Jihad: 44.
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43

The Book of Knowledge

The Book of Knowledge
for some of them the community would not lack someone who could
render this service and spare the jurisprudent the trouble and labour
of his studies. He thus persists labouring day and night on these
details trying to memorize and learn them, but the things which are of
real importance in religion, he overlooks. Should he, then, be
questioned about it, he would say that he had pursued it because it
was the science of religion and also a fard kifayah, confusing thereby
himself and others by these excuses. The intelligent person knows
that if, in performing the fard kifayah, the aim of the thejurisprudent
been to do the right things, he should have given precedence to the
fard’ayn and to several others of the fard kifayah. How many a town
has no physician except from among the followers of protected
religions (dhimmah) whose testimony, according to the laws of
jurisprudence, should not be accepted. However, we see no Muslim
practising medicine, but on the contrary all rave in jurisprudence,
especially in controversy and polemics. Furthermore, the town is
crowded with jurisprudent employed in giving legal opinions and
defending cases. Would that I knew why the learned men of religion
permit work in activities which are fard kifayah and which have been
performed by quite a number of people to the neglect of other fard
kifayah activities which have not yet been performed. Could there be
any other reason for this except that medicine does not lead to
management of religious endowments (awqaf), execution of wills,
possession of the money of orphans, and appointment to judicial and
government positions through which one exalts himself above his
fellowmen and fastens his yoke upon his enemies? Indeed the science
of religion has been destroyed because the learned men have
espoused evil. Allah is, therefore, our help and refuge. May Allah
protect us from this delusion, displeasing to Him and pleasing to the
Devil. The pious among the learned men in exoteric knowledge used
to acknowledge the excellence of the learned men in esoteric
knowledge (‘ilm a!-batin) and the advocates of the inward knowledge
of the heart.
Imam al-Shafi’i was in the habit of sitting before Shayban al-
Ra`i,’ just as a boy would sit in the school, and would ask concerning
one thing or another, to which Shayban would reply, “Would one like
you ask the advice of this bedouin?” Al-shafi’i would say, “This agrees
with what we already know.” Ahmad ibn-Hanbal and Yahva ibn-’Ma’in
2 used to call upon Ma’ruf al-Karkhi’ who, in exoteric knowledge (‘ilm
al-zahar) was not their equal; nevertheless they used to seek his
advice. And why should they not have done so? Had not the Prophet,
when he was asked, “What shall we do when we are confronted by
something which we cannot find in either the Qur’an or the tradition?”
said, “Ask the honest men among you and guide your affairs by
consultation?”4 For that reason it has been said that the learned men
of exoteric knowledge are the ornament of the earth and the state,
while the learned men of esoteric knowledge are the ornaments of
heaven and its kingdom. Al-Junayd’ said, “Once upon a time my
teacher al-Sari’ asked me saving. `When you leave my place whose
company do you keep?’ I said, ‘Al-Muhasibi’s.” To which he replied,
`Well have you chosen! Follow his learning and culture, but avoid his
affectation in speech and his refutation of the theologians.’ Upon
leaving I overheard him say, `May Allah make thee first a traditionist
and then a Sufi rather than a Sufi first and then a traditionist’.” This is
a reference to the fact that he who first acquires versatility in
tradition and learning and then turns to Sufism comes off well, he who
takes to Sufism before learning exposes himself to danger.

Should you say, “Why did you, in your classification of the

sciences, make no mention of theology and philosophy and not show

I_ A.H. 158/A.D. 744; see Fihrist p.184,1-2.

2. A.H. 233/A.D. 847-8; see Fihrist, p.231; Tadhkirat al-Huffaz Vol. II,
pp. 16-17.
3. A.H. 200/A:D. 815-16; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. II, pp. 551-3.
4. Cf Surah XLI): 36.
5. Abu-al-Qasimal-Junayd ibn-Muhammad ibn-al-Junayd al-
Klrazzaz(A.H. 297/A.D. 909-10; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. pp. 208-9.
6. Abu-al-Hasan ibn-al-Mughallis, al-Saqati (A.H. 256/A.D. 870); see
ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, pp. 356-8.
7. Al-Harith ibn-Asad (A.H.243/A.D.857.8), see Fihrist, p.184. For his
life and teaching, see Margaret Smith, An EarIy Mystic of Baghdad
(London: 1935).
 44
45
The Book of Knowledge
The Book of Knowledge
whether they are blameworthy or praiseworthy?” then know that all
that theology offers in the way of useful evidence is contained in the
Qur’an and tradition. Whatever evidence is not contained therein is
either reprehensible argumentation [which, as will be seen, is an
innovation] or mere wrangling by dwelling on distinctions or
amplification through the array of different opinions, most of which
are derived and nonsence, despised by the mind and rejected by the
ears, while others are ramblings into things unrelated to religion and
not customary during the first period of Islam. To enter, into such
discussions at all was then regarded heresy, but things have now
changed. Innovations which turn people from the dictates of the
Qur’an and the tradition have arisen and a group has emerged who
made imitations of the Book and the hadith and based upon it false
speculation, so that certain dangerous things have necessarily become
permissible; they have become as binding as the fard kifayah. To such
an extent would an innovator go whenever he purposes to preach a
heresay. We shall discuss this briefly in the following chapter.
As to philosophy, it is not itself a single branch of science but
comprises four; the first includes geometry and arithmetic, both of
which are, as has already been said, permissible and no one is barred
from them except the person who might be led by their study to
blameworthy sciences, for most of those who practise them have
stepped over to innovations. Thus the weakling is barred from the
study of geometry and arithmetic just as the boy is barred from the
bank of the aver lest he should fall into the water, and as the newly
converted Muslim is kept away from the company of unbelievers for
fear he might be influenced by them. In this last case not even the
strong is called upon to mix with the unbelievers.
The second is logic which is a study of the nature of evidence and
its conditions as well as the nature of a definition and its conditions.
Both of these are included under theology.
The third is divinity which is the science of the being and
attributes of Allah. This also is included under theology.
Furthermore the philosophers have not, in their philosophy,
developed another type of sciences, but have branched out into
several schools, of which some are systems of unbelief and others of
innovation. Thus just as the Mu’tazlite system does not in itself
represent a branch of science, but its protagonists, as a group of
theologians and specialists in the art of philosophical disputation,
have been distinguished by their erroneous views, so are the
philosophers.
The fourth is physics of which some parts contradict the law and
the true religion, and are, therefore, folly. These are not science that
they may be classified under sciences. Others are a study of the
qualities of the different substance, their properties, transmutation,
and change. This part resembles the researches of physicians, except
that the physician studies the human body, particularly the cause of
its diseases and cures, while the physicists study all substance from
the standpoint of change and motion.
Medicine, however, is superior to physics because the former is
needed while for the latter there is no need.
Therefore theology has become one of the disciplines which is
deemed a ford lafayah, in order to safeguard and protect the hearts
of the common folk against the snares of the innovators. This has
come to pass only because of the rise of innovations, just as it became
necessary to hire an escort along the pilgrimage route when bedouin
excesses and brigandage raised their heads. Had bedouin aggression
ceased, the hiring of guards would not have been necessary for the
pilgrimage route. Similarly, had the innovator stopped his nonsense,
the need for anything besides the familiar practice of the age of the
Companions would not have been felt. Let, therefore, the theologian
know the limits to the position in the realm of religion and let him
know where he stands in relation to it, as does the guard in relation
to the pilgrimage route. If the guard would apply himself exclusively
to his watch, he would in no way be considered a pilgrim. Similarly, if
he theologian would address himself exclusively to debate and
1. See supra, pp. 44.40.
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contention and would not walk in the wav of the hereafter nor would
occupy himself in watching over and reforming the heart, he would
not be numbered among the learned men of religion. The theologian,
furthermore, has nothing of religion except the creed, which the
common folk share with him and which is among the outward
practices of the heart and tongue. The theologian is not distinguished
from the common folk except through the art of argumentations and
safeguarding the law. However, to know Allah, His attributes, and His
works as well as well what we referred to under the science of
revelation’ does not result from theology - in fact, theology is almost a
veil and a barrier against it. Those are not attained except through
self-mortification which Allah has made pre-requisite for guidance
when He said. “And those who strive hard for Us, in Our way will We
guide them: for Allah is assuredly with those who do righteous
deeds.”2
You may say. “You have restricted the boundaries of the
theologian’s domain to the, safeguarding of the creed of the common
folk against the corruption of innovators just as the activities of the
escort are confined to the protection of pilgrims” goods against
bedouin loot, and those of the jurisprudent to the maintenance of law
wherewith the magistrate restrains the evil-doers. But the protection
of the pilgrims’ goods and the maintenance of law, in comparison to
the science of religion, hold inferior ranks, while the learned men of
Islam who are celebrated for their virtue and, in Allah’s sight, are the
most excellent, are the jurisprudents and the theologians. How then
do you hold them in such low rank in comparison to the science of
religion?” To this I would reply. “Whoever would recognize the truth
through men would be lost in the wilderness of confusion. Therefore
know the truth and you would know its devotees, especially if you
yourself have been following in its path. If, however, you are satisfied
with imitating and revering the accepted degrees of excellence among
men, do not ignore the Companions or their high station. because
those to whom I have alluded have agreed upon their superiority and
that in the field of religion they are neither equalled

See supra, pp. 4449. 2. Surah, XXIX: 69. 48

nor excelled. Their superiority, however, was achieved not through

theology or jurisprudence, but through knowledge of the hereafter
and following in its path. Thus Abu-Bakr’ excelled men not by much
fasting or prayer, not by prolific recitation of traditions or the stating
of legal opinions, and certainly not by theology, but as the Prophet
testified, by something which rested in his bosom. Let your desire lie
in seeking that secret for it is the precious jewel and the hidden
pearl. Avoid also what most people have approved, praised, and
exalted for reasons the explanation of which is beyond our present
scope.” The Prophet of Allah died leaving behind him thousands of
Companions, all of whom knew Allah and were commended by the
Prophet himself; none excepting some ten of them were versed in the
science of theology or ever appointed themselves dispensers of legal
opinions. One of these was ibn `Umar who, whenever he was asked to
give a legal opinion, used to reply, “Go to such and such a governor
who has taken the affairs of the people upon himself and lay this
responsibility upon his shoulders”; indicating thereby that the right
to give an opinion on legal decisions and cases is an adjunct of
government and authority.
 When `Umar3 died, ibn-Masud exclaimed, “Nine-tenths of all
knowledge have vanished.” He was then told, “How do you say such a
thing when we still have among us most of the Companions?” To
which he replied, “I did not mean the science of legal opinions and
decisions; rather I mean the science of knowing Allah.” Would you
then think that he meant the science of then’ :)gy and polemics? And
why do you not strive to obtain that knowledge of which nine-tenths
have vanishedwiththe death of ‘Umar? Itwas also ‘Umarwho closed
the door of theological and polemic speculation and lashed Sabigh
with a whip when the latter confronted `Umar with a question
concerning two contradictory verses in the Book of Allah, banished
him therefore from his company, and ordered the people to do the
same.
I, The first caliph.
2. `Abdullah, son of the second caliph (A.H. 73/A.D. 692-3); see ibn-
Sa`d,
Vol. IV Pt. 1, pp. 105-39. 3. The
second caliph.
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As to your saying that among the learned men, those who are well
known are the jurisprudents and theologians, you should know that
what secures excellence before Allah is something and what achieves
fame among men is another. Thus Abu-Bakr’s fame was because of the
caliphate while his excellence was because of the secret which rested
in his bosom. Similarly, ‘Umar’s fame rested on his political acumen
while his excellence was the result of the science of knowing Allah,
nine-tenths of which science vanished with his death, as well as the
result of his efforts to come closer to Allah in the transaction of the
affairs of his government and in his justice and mercy in dealing with
his subjects. This is a thing hidden in his heart; nevertheless it is not
impossible to imagine that the rest of his outward deeds could have
been motivated by his desire for power, prestige, and reputation, as
well as his ambition for fame. Fame, therefore, is the result of things
destructive and excellence the result of things secret, known to no
one else.
Consequently, the jurisprudents and the theologians, like the
caliphs, the judges, and the learned men, differ. Some of them (for
example) have sought Allah through their knowledge, legal opinions,
and through their protection of the usage of the Prophet of Allah, and
courted thereby neither false appearance nor public attention. Those
are they who merit the approval of Allah and who obtain excellence in
His sight’ because they act according to their knowledge and because
they seek His face through their legal opinions and speculations; for
every knowledge is work, an acquired activity, but
not every work is knowledge.’
The physician can come closer to Allah through his knowledge
and would be rewarded for it because he labours for Allah. The
l. B-Dubay’; ibn-lsl ; see Yaqut, Mu dam al Buldan, ed. F. Wustenfeld
(Leipnng,1866-70), Vol. M, p. 677.
2. Al-Ghazzali seems to mean by this passage that every act of
learning is work, i.e. an action whereby something not inherent is
acquired, the contrary of which is that by every work that one
does, one does not necessarily acquire knowledge. The two
phrases however allow for a multitude of interpretations of which
this is only one strong possibility.
magistrate, too, mediates between his subjects for the sake of Allah
and would therefore meet His approval and be rewarded, not because
he holds people answerable according to the science of religion, but
because he is entrusted with a work intended to draw men closer to
Allah.
That with which men draw closer to Allah is divided into three
parts; pure knowledge which is the science of revelation; pure works
such as, for example, the justice of the magistrate and his rule among
men; and a mixture of works and knowledge which is the science of
the path of the hereafter whose possessor belongs to both the men of
knowledge and the men of works. Examine yourself, therefore, and
see, whether you will on the day of resurrection be in the company of
the learned men of Allah, or in that of the labourers of Allah, or in
both investing with each of the two. This is more important to you
than imitation for the sole purpose of being popular. Thus it was said:
“‘Take thou the cash and let the credit go,’
Thou hast no need of Saturn when the sun doth rise.”
We shall, however, relate to you from the lives of the early
jurisprudents things which will show you that those who have
professed to be their followers have in reality done them injustice and
are their most virulent enemies on the day of judgment. Those (early
jurisprudents) sought nothing with their knowledge except the face of
Allah. Several things in their lives were seen as belonging to the signs
of the learned men of the hereafter-this we shall clarify under the
section which deals with those signs. These men did not devote
themselves exclusively to the science of jurisprudence but were
employed in the science of the hearts and the observation thereof.
They were kept form teaching and composing by the thing which
had kept the Companions from the same persuits in the field of
jurisprudence, despite the fact that the latter were jurisprudents
devoted to the giving of legal opinions. The reasons which kept them
from teaching and composing and the causes which barred them from
these pursuits are evident and require no mention. Nevertheless, we
shall, in this connection, recount a few things from their lives to show
that what we have already related is in no way disparaging to them
but to those who have feigned to be following their example and their
school of thought while, in fact, they were opposed to them in their
works and lives.
The jurisprudents who are the spokesmen of the science of
jurisprudence and the leaders of men, namely those whose school
claims the greatest following, are five: al-Shafi’i. Malik, abu-Hanifah,
Ahmad ibn-Hanbal, and Sufyan al-Thawri, each of whom has been a
worshipper of Allah, an ascetic, a learned man versed in the science of
the hereafter, ajurisprudent well-informed in the affairs of men in this
world, and a devotee to the knowledge of Allah’s face. All of these five
characteristics, with the exception of the fourth, the pursuit and
thorough research into the details of jurisprudence, have been
cultivated by the jurisprudents of the different schools, because the
other four characteristics are of no use except for the hereafter, while
this particular one is useful for the affairs of this world and the next.
Its value for this world, however, diminishes when the hereafter
becomes its avowed end. The modem jurisprudents have taken it up
and consequently have claimed to be like the early imams. But how
far from the truth this is, since angels are not usually compared with
blacksmiths.
Since the early imams’ knowledge of jurisprudence is evident, let
us relate some aspects of their lives which will reflect the other four
characteristics. That al-Shafi’i was a devout worshipper of Allah is
shown by what has been related concerning him, namely that he used
to divide his night into three parts: one-third for study, one-third for
prayer, and one-third for sleep. Al-Rabi`i’ said that it was the custom
of al-Shafi’i during prayer time in the month of Ramadan to read the
Qur’an from cover to cover sixty times. Al-Buwavti, 2 another friend of
al-Shafi’i, reported that al-Shafi’i used to go
I. Abu-Muhammad (al-Rabi’i ibn-Sula)man al-Muradi, A.H. 270/A.D.
834), the companions of al-Shafi’i. See ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, pp.
326-7.
2. Abu-Ya’qub, Yusufibn-Yahyaa(A.H.2311A.D.846); see ibn-
Khallikan, Vol. III, pp. 415-17.

through the Qur’an once a day throughout Ramadan. Al-Husayanal-

Karabisi 1 related saying, “I spend the night with al-Shafi’i a number
of times. Invariably he used to spend about a third of the night in
prayer, yet I have not seen him go beyond the recitation of fifty verses
and at most, a hundred. At the end of each verse he would beseech
Allah’s mercy upon himself and upon all the Muslims and the
believers, and at each verse describing or predicting torture he would
call upon Allah for refuge, begging salvation for himself and for the
believers.” This indicates that in his heart were combined both hope
and fear, and limiting himself to the recitation of fifty verses reveals
his profound knowledge and insight into the secrets of the Qur’an.
Furthermore, al-Shafi’i himself said, “Never have I been satisfied
in sixteen years, because a full stomach fattens the body, hardens the
heart, dulls the intellect, fosters sleep, and renders man lazy in
worship.” See, then, his wisdom in enumerating the evil of a full
stomach and how he had deprived himself of its luxury in favour of
diligence in worship; truly to cut down on food is the beginning of
religion. Al-Shafi’i also said, “Never have I sworn by Allah, either
truthfully or falsely.” Consider, therefore, his reverence and
veneration of Allah and how they indicate that he is aware of the
majesty of Allah. He was once asked a question but would not reply.
On being then asked, “Why dost thou not answer?” he said, “not until
I determine which is better, my silence or my reply.” Notice how he
watches his tongue, since it is the most unruly bodily member of
jurisprudents and the most difficult to control and subdue. Through
this incident is also revealed that al-Shafi’i would neither speak nor
remain silent unless his speech or silence promoted virtue and
merited heavenly reward.
Ahmad ibn-Yahya ibn-al-Wazir’ related that, one day, he
1. Al-Husayn ibn-Ali ibn-Yazid abu-’Alal-Karabisi(A.H.248/A.D.862),a
disciple of al-Shafi’i; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, p. 258; a1-Subki, Vol. I,
pp. 251-6.
2. Ibn-Sulayman ibn-Muhajiral-Tujibi (A.H. 251/A.D. 865); see
alSubki, Vol. I, p. 223.

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followed al-Shafi’i, as the latter emerged from Suq al-Qanadil (the
market place of the chandeliers) when they met a person swearing at
a certain learned man. Whereupon al-Shafi’i turned to the group of
men following him and said, “Shield your ears against hearing
obscene speech as your shield your tongues against speaking it;
verily the hearer is the accomplice of the speaker. The obscene man
would select the filthiest thing in his vessel and would do his best to
empty it into yours. But if his words were ignored, he who would
ignore them would triumph Just as the obscene man himself would be
made miserable.”
Al-Shafi’i related that a certain wise man wrote to another saying
“Thou hast been given knowledge; defile not, therefore, thy
knowledge with the darkness of sin, lest thou be caught in the
darkness when the people of learning march forward by the light of
their knowledge.”
With regard to his asceticism; al-Shafi’i said: “Whoever should
claim that he has in his heart the love of this world as well as the love
of its Creator, the same has lied.”
Al-Humaydi’ related that one day al-Shafi’i set out for al-Yaman
in the company of some of the governors. With ten thousand dinars
he made his way to Makkah where a tent was pitched for him just
outside the city and the people came out to see him. He did not leave
his tent until he had distributed all among his visitors. Once on
leaving the public bath he gave the bath-keeper a great sum of
money. On another occasion his whip dropped from his hand and a
certain man picked it up and gave it back to him; whereupon he
rewarded the man with fifty dinars. The generosity of al-Shafi’i,
however, is too well known tc be described, and the beginning of
asceticism is generosity because whatever a person loves, he keeps
and does not part with it. Thus no one would part with his wealth
except him who has no regard for this world as this is what
asceticism really means.

1. Abu-Bakr ‘Abdullah ibn-al-ZubavT &I-Qurashi al-Asadi (A.H.

219/A.D. 834); see Tadhkinat al-Huffaz. Vol. II, pp. 2.3; al-Subki,
Vol. 1, pp. 263-4.
Furthermore, thestrength ofal-Shafi`iasceticism, theintensityofhis fear
of Allah, and the concentration of his efforts on the hereafter are
manifest from a report that Sufyan ibn-Uya’nah’ once related a
tradition on mystical sciences (a1-raga’iq)2 in the presence of al-
Shafi’i, whereupon the imam fainted and those present thought that
he had died. Sufyan thereupon said, “If he should die, the, most
excellent man of the age would have passed away.”
The same thing is also manifest in another report from the lips of
`Abdullah ibn-Muhammad al-Balawi’ who said, “Umar ibn-Nubatah 4
and I were once sitting discussing the pious men and ascetics when
`Umar said, `Never have I seen a more Allahly or a more eloquent
person than Muhammad ibn-Idris al-Shafi’i. Once upon a time he and I
went out with al-Harith Ibn-Labid’ to al S#a, 6 (al-Harith was a disciple
of al-Salih al-Murri’ and had a beautiful voice), where al-Harith began
to recite from the Qur’an. As he was repeating the verse, ‘On that day
they shall not speak, nor shall it be permitted them to allege,
excuses,” I saw al-Shafi’i’s colour change and his whole body tremble;
in fact, he was so intensely agitated that he fell into a swoon. On
coming to consciousness, he started to repeat, ‘I seek refuge in Allah
against the den of liars and the scoffing of the thoughtless! O Lord, to
Thee the hearts of the gnostics (‘arifin) have submitted themselves
and before Thy throne the heads of those who yearn for Thee are
bowed low! O Lord, bestow Thy bounty upon me and crown me with
Thy intelligence. Through the grace of Thy countenance, forgive my
shortcomings, “Thereupon he walked away and we departed.” On
entering Baghdad (he was then in al-‘Iraq), as I stopped on the river
bank to perform my ablutions
1. A.H. 198/A.D. 814; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, pp. 375-6.
2. See Ta’nfat, p. 117. Cf. al-Bukhari, al-Riqaq; al-Daritni, al-
Raga’iq. 3. Cf. al-Fihrisi, p. 193.
4. Unidentified.
5. Perhaps al-Nafri; see ibn-’Asakir,al-Ta’rikhal-Kabir,Vol.
m(Datnascus,
1331), p. 456.
6. Unidentified but evidently a place outside Baghdad.
7 AR 172/A.D. 788-9; see al-Fihrist, p. 183; ibn-Sand, Vol. VII, Pt. 2,
p.
39.
8. Surah LXXVII; 3~-o.
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preparatory to prayer, a man passed by and turning to me said,
“Young man, perform your ablutions well and Allah will treat you well
in both this world and the next.” Looking up I saw the man go by
while a crowd followed him. Thereupon I hurried through my
ablutions and ran after them. He then turned around to me and asked
“What seekest thou?” to which I replied, “Yes (my wish is) that thou
shouldst teach me of what Allah hath taught thee.” He answered and
said, “Know thou that whoever should believe in Allah would be
saved, whoever should be faithful to His religion would be delivered
from destruction and whoever should forsake the world would be
compensated by Allah in the hereafter. Wouldst thou that I impart
more unto thee?” On being answered in the affirmative, he added,
“He who doeth three things, namely, to enjoin doing good and himself
doeth accordingly, to forbid doing evil and himself doth abstain
therefrom and to observe the restrictive ordinances of Cod, the same
shall fulfil the faith. Wouldst thou that I should impart more unto
thee?” “Yes” was my reply, and he said, “Forsake this world and seek
the next and be truthful unto Allah in all thy affairs and thou shall be
surely saved.” As he departed I asked who he was and those present
replied, “al-Shafi’i.”
See, therefore, how he had fainted and how he had preached,
and see how his asceticism and extreme fear of Allah are thereby
revealed. Such fear and asceticism, however, are the result of nothing
but knowing Allah, and no one of His servants fear Him except the
learned. Nevertheless, al-Shafi’i acquired this fear and asceticism not
through the mastery of the books on the Salam’ and the ijarah2 in the
hadith or through grasping the other books of jurisprudence, but
through the sciences of the hereafter which are derived from the
Qur’an and the tradition wherein ancient and modem wisdom lie.
That al-Shafi’i was familiar with the secrets of the hearts and
learned in the sciences of the hereafter would be made known to you
through the wise sayings ascribed to him. It has been reported that
once he was asked about hypocrisy, whereupon he answered
offhand. “Hypocrisy is a golden apple which passion has placed
before the eyes of the learned who, through the poor judgment of
their impulsive hearts, cast covetous eyes upon it, and thereby their
works were frustrated.” He also said, “Shouldst thou fear for thy
work from vanity then stop and find out whose favour thou dost seek
and whose reward thou dost desire, what punishment thou dost fear,
for what good fortune thou art grateful and what misfortune thou
dost recall! If thou shouldst think on each of these, thy work would
cease to seem great in thine eyes.” See, then, how al-Shafi’i had
determined the nature of hypocrisy and set forth a cure for vanity.
Both these things, hypocrisy and vanity, are among the great
maladies which afflict the heart.
Al-Shafi’i also said, “Whoever doth not keep himself unspotted
from the world, his knowledge availeth him nothing.” And again,
“Whoever doth, through his knowledge, obey Allah, his heart
becometh illumined.” He also said, “Every one hath some who love
him and some who hate him. If it be so, be among those who obey
Allah.”
It has been reported that ‘Abd-al-Qahir ibn-’Abd-al-’Aziz’ was a
righteous and pious man and that he used to query al-Shafi’i about
points of piety, and because of the man’s own piety, al-Shafi’i used to
receive him kindly. One day he asked the imam saying, “Of these
three, patience, trial (mihnah), and steadfastness (tamkin), which is
the most excellent?” Al-Shafi’i replied, “Steadfastness is the grade
attained by the prophets and there is no steadfastness except after
trial. When a prophet is tried and endures, he manifests the quality of
patience; and when he manifests the quality of patience he proves his
steadfastness. Hast thou not seen how Allah hath tried Abraham and
 then established him in steadfastness, and hath done the same with
Moses, Job, and Solomon to whom He also hath given a position of
dominion and power. Steadfastness is the most excellent grade. Thus
Allah hath said, “Thus did We establish Jospeh in the land.” Similarly,
Job, after his great trial, hath been made steadfast, in which
connection Allah hath said, `And We gave him back his
l. See supra, p. 45. 2. See supra, p. 45.
l. Unidentified.
2. Surah XII: 21 (in part); cf. Gen, XLC 39.
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family”.’ These words of al-Shafi’i reveal his profound knowledge of
the secrets of the Qur’an and familiarity with the stations of the
prophets and saints who are on their way to Allah, all of which
belongs to the sciences of the hereafter.
Al-Shafi’i was once asked, “When will the man become learned?”
He replied,-”When he concentrates on one science until he masters it
and at the same time addresses himself to the other sciences and
surveys what he does not know; then he would become learned.”
Galen was cnce reminded that it was his custom to prescribe several
compounds for a single disease, to which he replied that the desired
result of all is one and that he had mixed the simples to dilute their
strength because when administered unmixed they are fatal. These
and innumerable like instances indicate the high position which al-
Shafi’i had attained in knowing Allah and in the sciences of the
hereafter.
That through jurisprudence in particular, and debates centring
around the same subject in general, al-Shafi’i had sought nothing but
the face of Allah is revealed by the following, which it has been
reported that he said: “I had hoped that men would benefit by this
science and that none of the benefits would be attributed to me.” See,
therefore, how he had realized what a curse it ryas to seek knowledge
in order to obtain prestige and how he had been completely above
such considerations, having had no other motive than the face of
Allah. Said he again, “Never have I debated with anyone and wished
that he would fall into error, nor ever talked to any person and did not
desire that he would be divinely favoured, guided and helped, and
that he would enjoy the care and keeping of Allah. Never have I
spoken to anybody and paid the slightest attention to whether Allah
would reveal the. truth through my words or through his, nor ever
met any person to whom I had related the truth and the proof thereof
and he had accepted it, without respecting him and believing in his
sincerity: on the other hand, no one has ever disputed the truth before
me and accepted not its proof, without falling from the place which
I. Surah XXI; 84 (in part).
he had held in my regard and without my rejecting him.” These signs
indicate what the will of Allah is regarding jurisprudence and debate.
See, however, how people have emulated al-Shafi’i in only one of those
five characteristics and how even in this particular one, they have not
followed his example fully. For the reason abu-Thawr’ declared,
“Neither I nor anyone else have ever seen the like of al-Shafi’i.”
Ahmad ibn-Hanbal said, “I have not offered a single prayer in forty
years without mentioning al-Shafi’i therein.” See therefore the
fairness and justice of the suppliant and the high standing of him for
whom the prayer is offered. Contrast also with this the rival learned
men at the present time and what exists among them of hostility and
hatred, and you would know the extent of the failure that results in
following the example of those men. It is also reported that because of
the repeated prayers of Ahmad ibn-Hanbal for al-Shafi’i, the former’s
song asked his father saving. “What sort of a man was al-Shafi’i that
you should pray for him so often?” Thereupon Ahmad replied, “O my
son, al-Shafi’i was like the sun to the world and like health to men;
think, then is there anything that could replace either of these two
things?” He also used to say, “There is not a single man who has
touched a pen with his hand that has not been indebted to al-Shafi’i.”
Yahva ibn-Sa’id al-Qattan’said, “I have not offered a single prayer
in forty’ years without mentioning al-Shafi’i therein because of what
Allah has given him of knowledge and the right way into which the
Almighty has directed him.”
We shall, however, be satisfied with this portion of al-Shafi’i life
because it is really beyond description. We have copied most of

I. Ibrahim ibn-Khalid ibn-abi-al-Yaman al-Kalbi al-Baghdadi (A.H.

246/ A.D. 860); see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, p. 5.
2. Either Salih(A.H.2261A.D.880),or’Abdullah(A.H.290/A.D.903);see
ibn-Khallikan, Vol 1. p. 20.
3. A.H. 198/A.D. 813. See ibn-Sa’d, Vol. VII Pt. 2, p. 47. 4.
Four in B margin; ef. Tahdhib-.asma’, p. 75,1. 19.
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these virtues from the book’ on the virtues of al-Shafi’i, which al-
Shaykh Nasr ibn-Ibrahim al-Maqdisi2 composed.
As to Imam Malik, he, too, was adorned with those five
characteristics. It is reported that he was once asked, “O Malik, what
sayest thou of seeking knowledge?” He replied, “It is fair and
beautiful, but find what thou needest from the time thou openest thine
eyes in the morning to the time thou closet them in the evening and
confine thou thyself toit.” He was so emphatic in exalting the science
of religion that whenever he sat down to discourse on tradition, he
would first perform his ablutions, sit on his bed, comb his beard,
perfume himself, settle down with stateliness and dignity, and then
proceed with his discourse. When asked about it, he answered, “I like
to exalt the traditions of the Apostle of Allah.” He also said,
“Knowledge is alight which Allah places where He wishes; it does not
depend opp prolific relation of hadith.” This reverence and veneration
of the science of religion reveals his firm and profound knowledge of
the majesty of Allah.
That through knowledge Malik sought only the face of Allah is
evidenced by his words, “Arguing about religion is worth nothing,” as
well as by the words of al-Shafi’i who said, “I have seen Malik being
queried about forty-eight problems, to thirty-two of which he replied,
`I do not know.” On the other hand, he who seeks through his
knowledge anything other than the face of Allah would not, because of
his pride, admit that he does not know. For this reason al-Shafi’i said
that when the learned men are enumerated Malik would be the most
outstanding, and that he was indebted to no one more than he was to
Malik..
It has been reported that abu-Jafar al-Mansur3 enjoined

l. The title of the work is Manaqib al-Imam al-Shafi’i; see Haji Khalfah,
Kashfal-Zunun’anAsami al-Kutubw-al-Fnun,ed. G. Flugel (Leipzig
and
London, 1835-58), Vol. VI, pp. 150-51.
2. A.H. 490/A.D. 1096. When al-Ghazzali went to Damascus, he
attached
himself to al-Maqdisi; see Tal dhib al-Asma’, pp. 591-3; al-Subki,
Vol.
IV, pp. 27-9.
3. The second ‘Abbasid caliph.

60
Malik not to relate any tradition on the subject of divorce pronounced
under compulsion (talaq al-nukrah)’ and then secretly instigated
someone to question him on the same subject. In the hearing of a
crowd of people Malik declared, “Divorce pronounced under
compulsion is not binding.”‘ Thereupon al-Mansur had him beaten
and flogged, but Malik would not desist from relating the hadith.
Malik also said, “No man who was truthful in relating the hadith and
told no lie did not lose his mental faculty or suffered because of old
age any infirmity or dotage.”
With regard to his asceticism, it is attested by the report that al-
Mahdi,3 the prince of the believers, had once asked Malik saving,
“Hast thou any home of thine own?” Malik replied, “No! But listen and
I shall relate to thee. I heard Rabi’ah ibn-abi-`Abd-al-Rahman^ say,
`Man’s home is his ancestry’.” At another time al-Rashid asked him
the same question, and on his answering, “No”, the caliph gave him
three thousand dinars and said, “Go, buy with these a home.” Malik
took the money but did not spend it. When later al-Rashid was
preparing to return (to Baghdad) he said to Malik “You should come
along with us because we have decided to make the people follow the
Muwalta’s as `Uthman6 made them follow them Qur’an.’“ Malik
replied, “There is no way to make the people follow the Muwatta’
because after the death of the Apostle of Allah, his Companions were
dispersed around different countries and in each place they related
the traditions (which they knew), and consequently among the people
of each individual country different hadiths prevailed. Furthermore,
the Prophet said, ‘Non-conformity among my people is a gift of
l. Cf. al-Bukhari, Talaq, I I-12; ibn AMajah, Talaq, 15.
2. Divorce pronounced under compulsion is held valid only by tile
Hanaflite,
while the Shafi`ite, Malikite and Hanbalites do not regard it
binding. 3. The third `Abbasid caliph.
4. The teacher of Malik (A.H. 136/A.D. 753A); see ibn-Khallikan, Vol,
1,
pp. 325-6.
5. Malik’s corpus of tradition which has become as estemmed as
any of ‘the ‘
six canonical books of traditions’. Printed several times but not
critically. 6. The third Orthodox caliph.
7. It was Caliph ‘Uthman who gave the Muslim community an
authorised
text of the Qur’an and ordered all unauthorised copies to be
destroyed.
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mercy. his also not possible to go along with you because the Apostle
of Allah said, ‘If they would only understand they would know that al-
Madinah is best for them.” And again, ‘AI-Madinah does away with its
corruption just as the furnace does away with the dross of the iron.’ 2
Therefore, here are your dinars just as you have given them to me;
you may take them and if you wish you may leave them. Does this
mean that you require me to leave al-Madinah in return for what you
have given me? Know that I prefer nothing to the City of the Apostle
of Allah - not even the whole world.”
Of such, then, was the asceticism of Malik, and when, as a result
of the dissemination of his knowledge and the dispersion of his
friends, great riches were sent to him from the four comers of the
earth, he distributed all in charity; Malik’s generosity reveals his
asceticism and his meagre love for the world. Asceticism, however, is
not the lack of wealth but rather the lack of any desire for wealth in
the human heart. Such an ascetic was Solomon, despite his royal
glory.
Malik’s asceticism is further attested by a report ascribed to al-
Shafi’i to the effect that he once said, “I have noticed a number of
Khurasanian (it is also said Egyptian) mules on Malik’s door, better
than which I have not seen. I therefore told Malik how good they were
and he replied, “They are a persent from me to thee, O abu-‘Abdullah.’
On telling him that he should keep one of them as amount for himself,
he said, ‘I’ll be ashamed before Allah to tread with the hoof of any
beast of burden the soil wherein lies His Prophet’.” Behold therefore
his generosity, how he gave away all at one time, and his veneration of
the soil of al-Madinah. That through his knowledge he sought the face
of Allah and that he despised this world is attested by the following
report. He said, “Once upon a time as I entered upon Harun al-Rashid,
the Caliph told me, ‘O abu-’Abdullah! You should frequent our place so
that our sons may learn from you the Muwatta.’ To which I replied,
‘May Allah exalt my Lord, the prince! You, my Lord, are he source of
this knowledge. If you honour
l. Al-Bukhari, al-Hajj, 219; al-Muwatta’, al-Jami’, 2.
2. Al-Bukhari, al-Hajj, 224; al-Muwatta’, al-Jami’, 2.

62
it, it will be exalted, and if you dishonour it, it will be despised.
Furthermore, knowledge is something you achieve, not something you
receive.’ Thereupon Harun al-Rashid said, `You are right’, (and
turning to his son added), ‘Go out to the mosque and join the audience
with the people’.”
As to abu-Hanifah, he too was a worshipper of Allah and an
ascetic who knew Allah, had His fear in his heart, and sought through
his knowledge Allah’s face. That he was a worshipper to Allah is
evidenced by a report transmitted on the authority of ibn-Mubarak
who said that two things were characteristic ofabu-Hanifah, manliness
and much prayer. Hammad-bin-abi-Sulayman’ reported that he was in
the habit of spending the whole night in prayer. According to another
report it was his custom to spend half the night in prayer until one
day, as he was walking through a street, a certain person pointed to
him and said to a companion, “This is he who spends the whole night
in prayer.” From that day on, he spent the whole of the night in prayer
and said, “I’ll be ashamed before my Allah to be described with
something I do not possess in connection with my worship of Him.”
As to his asceticism, it hass been reported that al-Rabi` ibn-‘Asim 2
once said, “I was sent by Yazid ibn ‘ Umar ibn-Hubayrah’to summon
abu-Hanifah before him.” On his appearing, Yazid offered him the
position of governor of the treasury, but abu-Hanifah declined the
offer and consequently, Yazid had him scourged with twenty’ lashes.
See then how he had run away from the office of governor of the
treasury and bore the torture instead.
Al-Hakam ibn-Hisham al-Thagafis said that he had once, while in
Damascus, related a tradition to the effect that abu-Hanifak was one
of the most honest men and that the governor had wanted him to
take-charge of the keys of the treasury or be scourged if he refused,
1. A.H. 120/A.D. 738; see ibn-Qutaybah, p. 240.
2. Unidentified.
3. Governor of al-’Iraq under the last Umayyad caliph. Killed at the
order of
al-Mansur in A.H. 132/A.D. 750. See ibn-Khallikan. Vol. M pp.
287-93. 4. Cf. ibn-Khallikan, Vol. M, p. 75, I, 24.
5. Was a close friend of abu-Hanifah. See ibn-’Asakir, Vol. IV,
(Damascus,
1332), pp. 412-13.
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but abu Hanifah would have nothing of that, preferring torture at the
hands of the governor, to torture at the hands of Allah.
It was also reported on the authority of Muhammad ibn-Shuja’.’
on the authority of one of his companions, that abu-Hanifah was once
told, “The prince of believers, abu-Ja’far al-Mansur, has ordered that
the sum of ten thousand dirhams be paid to you.” Abu-Hanifah,
however, would not consent to it and, on the day on which the sum
was expected to be delivered, he performed the morning prayer,
wrapped himself with his cloak and sat in silence. Presently the
messenger of al-Hasan ibn-Qahtabahz arrived with the money and
appeared before abu-Hanifah, but the latter would not speak to him.
Then some of those present explained to al-Hasan that it was abu-
Hanifah’s custom to act like that. Thereupon al-Hasan ordered that
the bag containing the money be placed in one of the corners of the
house, and left. Abu Hanifah then willed the contents of his house and
told his son that, upon his death, his son should take the bag which
contained the money to al-Hasan ibn-Qahtabah and tell him to take
back his money which he had deposited with abu-Hanifah. When his
son delivered the money to al-Hasan, the latter exclaimed, “May the
mercy of Allah be upon thy father. Verily he hath been zealous over his
religion.”
It. was also related that abu-Hanifah had also been invited to fill
the position of chief judge but he declined saying, “I am not qualified
for this post.” Asked why he thought so, he replied, “If I were to be
honest about it I would know and say that I am not qualified for the
job; if on the other hand I were to lie, I might say that I was qualified;
but a liar is not fit for the judgeship.”
Abu-Hanifah’s knowledge of the things of the hereafter and his
concern with the weighty matters of religion as well as knowing Allah
are attested to by his deep fear of Allah and by his asceticism. In
I Al-Thalji (A.H. 226/A.D. 879.80). See ibn-abi-al-Wafa’al-Qurashi, al-
Jawahiral-Mudiyah fi Tabagaral-Hanafiyah (Hyderabad, 1332),
Vol.11, pp. 60-61.
An ‘Abbasid general (A.H. 18 1 /A.D. 797). See Tabari, Vol. M, p.
646; ibn-Khallikan, Vol. III, p. 293.
this connection ibn-Jurayj’ had said, “it was reported to me that this
Kufian fiend of yours, al-Nu’man ibn-Thabit, fears Allah very much.”
Shank al-Nakha’iz had said that abu-Hanifah spent long spells in
silence and contemplation and conversed little with men. These are
among the clearest signs of inward knowledge and the concern with
the weighty matters of religion, because whoever has been blessed
with silence and asceticism would receive all knowledge as well.
The virtues of abu-Hanifah are, however, too many to be
numbered. Had he not been characterised bv perseverance in self-
mortification, and had he not dipped into the sea of contemplation?
Had he not throughout a period of forty’ years performed his morning
prayer (hatiing spent all the night in continual prayer) on the basis of
the evening ablutions? Had he not, also, performed the pilgrimage
fifty-five times and seen Allah in his sleep a hundred times?
This is but a small part of the lives of these of three imams. As to
Ahmad ibn-Hanbal and Sufvan al-Thawri, their followers are not as
many as those of the other imams, and of the two, the followers of
Sufvan are the less numerous. Nevertheless, of the five, Ahmad and
Suf vanwerethebestknownforpietyandasceticism. Since this book,
however, is full of the account of their works and words, there is no
need to take up their lives in detail at this moment. For the present,
examine the lives of these three imams and ask yourself whether
these states, words, and works, through which they forsook the world
and devoted themselves to Allah, were merely the result of the
knowledge of the several branches ofjurisprudence, such as contracts
of the type of salam, hire rental, and lease; and the different forms of
divorce, namely, zihar, i1a,4 and li’an; or the result of a higher and
nobler knowledge. Scrutinize, too, those who claim to be following the
example of these imams and find out for yourself whether their claim
is true or false.
I. ‘Abd-al-Malik ibn-’Abd-al-’Atiz(A.H.I50/A.D.767); see ibn-Khallikan,
Vol.1, pp. 512-13; Tahdhib al-Asma’, p. 787.
Abu-’Abdullah (A.H. 177/A.D. 794); see ibn-Khallika, Vol. 1, pp.
402-3.
See Tahdib al-Asma’, p. 704, 103.
A form of divorce in which a man vows not to have uny
intercourse with his wife for a pericd not less than four months.
See Ta’rifal, . p. 42; Surah d, 226; al-Bukhari, Talaq, 21;
ibn-.1lajah, Talaq, 24.
65

6
 SECTION III
On what is popularly considered to be a part of the science of
religion, but is (really) not, including a discussion of the
circumstances under which some of the sciences would be
blameworthy, and on the exposition of how the names of certain
sciences, jurisprudence, the science of religion, theology, admonition,
and philosophy, have been changed, as well as on showing how much
of sacred knowledge is praiseworthy and how much is blameworthy.
Why blameworthy knowledge is so regarded. You may say that
knowledge is seeing things as they really are, which is one of the
attributes of Allah. Now, then, could a thing be knowledge and at the
sometime be blame worthy? Be advised then that knowledge is not
held to be blameworthy in itself. It is only regarded as such in the
eyes of men for ate of three reasons.
First when it leads to any harm, whether the harm should befall
its practiser or someone else besides, for which reason the science of
magic and talismans is held blameworthy. This is right and in
accordance with the Qur’an which so attests. It is also a means for
separating husband and wife. The Apostle of Allah himself was the
victim of magic which caused him to become sick until Gabriel made
it known to him and exorcized the evil spirit from underneath a stone
in the bottom of a well.’ Magic is something obtained through the
knowledge of the properties of the precious stones and mathematical
calculations relative to the places and times of the rising of the stars.
A skeleton resembling the person to be charmed is made out of these
l. For this incident see ibn-Sa’d, Vol. II, Pt. 2, pp. 4-6; al-Bukhari;
Tibb,
47, 49, 50; ibn-Majah, Tibb, 45.
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precious stones, which is gazed into, to the accompaniment of
constant repetition of words of unbelief and obscenity which are
contrary to law, until a special time in the rising of the stars arrives.
Through it the aid of the devils is secured with the result that, in
accordance with the established order Allah has ordained, strange
states befall the charmed person. In so far as knowing these things
constitutes knowledge, it is not blameworthy. Nevertheless, it is of no
use except for harming people. The instrument of evil is in itself evil,
and it is for this reason that magic is regarded blameworthy. If a
person should pursue one of the saints of Allah in order to kill him,
but the saint should hide in a safe place and, then, the oppressor
inquires about the saint’s whereabouts, it would not be permissible to
point out his hiding place, but rather, under the circumstances, lying
would be incumbent. For while pointing out the whereabouts of the
saint is, in itself, a true statement of the fact, nevertheless it is
blameworthy because it breeds injury..
Second, a knowledge is blameworthy when it is mostly (fi ghalib
al-amr)’ harmful as, for example, astronomy which is not, in itself,
blameworthy, because d is oftwo parts: The first is mathematical in
reference to which the Qur’an has pronounced that by it the courses
of the sun and the moon are reckoned. Thus Allah said, “And the sun
andthe moon (run their courses) according to a (certain) reckoning.”
And again, “And as for the moon we decreed stations for it, till it
changes like an. old and crooked palm branch.”‘ The second is
astrology (ahkam) the gist of which is that future events are indicated
by present causes. This is similar to how a physician is guided by the
patient’s pulse to predict the future development of a disease.
Astrology is therefore an attempt to know the course of the laws and
ordinances of Allah relative to His creatures. But the law has declared
it blameworthy. Thus the Prophet said, “Whenever the decrees of
Allah are mentioned, withhold (from discussing them); whenever the
stars are mentioned, desist (from any talk); and when my Companions
are mentioned, refrain (from any gossip).” And again, “After my

Sarah LV: 4. 2. Surah XXXV: 39.

death three things I fear for my people, the injustice of Imams, the
belief in the star (astrology), and disbelief in the decrees of Allah.”
Umar ibn-al-Khattab said, “Acquire of the science of the stars enough
to lead you on land and on sea but, no more.” He warned against it
for three reasons: First, because it is harmful to most people, since if
they were told that these results would ensue consequent upon the
course of that stars, they might think that it is the stars which
influence the course of events and are also the Allahs who direct the
world. Furthermore, in view of the fact that the stars are glorious
celestial bodies and awe-inspiring to the hearts, man’s heart would
naturally become focussed upon them and would see both good and
evil required or forbidden by the stars with the result that the name
of Allah would be erased from the heart. The feeble-minded one does
not look beyond the means, and only the learned man who is well-
grounded in knowledge would understand that the sun, moon, and
stars are subject to the will of Allah. Thus the parable of the feeble-
minded person who thinks that the light of the sun is the result of its
rising, is like the parable of an ant which as it happened upon the
surface of a sheet of paper, was endowed with reason and thereupon
watched the movement in the process of writing, only to think that it
was the work of the pen, but would not go beyond that to see the
fingers, and behind the fingers the hand, and behind the hand the will
which moves it, and behind the will a deliberate and an able scribe,
and behind all, the Creator of the hand,, and the ability, and the will.
Most people do not look beyond the nearby and earthly causes and
never arrive at the Cause of all causes. This, therefore, is one of the
reasons why the science of the stars has been forbidden.
A second reason is that astrology is purely guess work and in the
opinion of the average man, the influence of the stars is not
determined either with certainty or even with probability.
Pronouncements in connection with it are the result of ignorance.
Consequently, astrology has been pronounced blameworthy because
of this ignorance, not because it is knowledge. Furthermore, this
knowledge, it is said, was of a miraculous nature possessed by
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Prophet ldris,’ but has now vanished and is no more. The rare cases
in which the astrologer happens to be correct are coincidences. He
may happen upon some of the causes, but the effect will not result
therefrom unless several other conditions, the comprehension of
whose realities are beyond the reach of human beings, should prevail.
If, however, Allah should grant to him the knowledge of the remaining
causes, the astrologer’s prediction would come true; but if that is not
granted to him, he would err and his prediction would be not unlike
time guess of a man who is moved to say whenever he sees the clouds
gathering and rising from the mountain tops, that there will be rain
this day. Rain may actually fall though it is also possible that a hot sun
should rise and disperse the clouds. The mere presence of clouds in
the skies is not sufficient for bringing down rain; there are other
conditions which cannot be determined. Similarly, the sailor’s guess
that the ship will have a safe sailing is based upon the usual behaviour
of the winds with which he is familiar. But there are unknown factors
which control the movements of the winds and which the sailor would
never know. Consequently, he would sometimes guess correctly and
sometimes he would err. For this reason, even the strong minded
person has been forbidden to practise astrology.
A third reason why man has been warned against the science of
the stars is because it is of no use at all. The most which could be said
on its behalf is that it is, at its best, an intrusion into useless things
and a waste of time and life which is man’s most precious belonging.
Such a thing is the most serious loss.
 Once upon a time, the Apostle of Allah passed by a man
surrounded by a crowd. On asking what the matter was, he was told
that the man was learned authority “On what?” the Prophet said, and
was told, “On poetry and Arab genealogy.” Thereupon the Prophet
said, “This is a science whose knowledge availeth not and the
ignorance of which harmeth not.” And again, “Verily knowledge is an
attested wonder, or an observed law, or a just ordinance.”2
The Muslim equivalent to Enoch See Sumhs XIX: 57, XXI: 58; cf
Gen. 4:17; 5:18-24; Heb 11:5.
2. Cf ibn-Majah, Intro., 8: 3; abu-Dawud, al-Fara’id, l.
Therefore meddling into astrology and the like is a hazardous
undertaking, both foolish and useless, because what has been
ordained shall be, while the attempt to avoid it is impossible. On the
contrary, in medicine, for which the need is great , most of the
principles, unlike those of the interpretation (of dreams), can be
determined and known; unlike interpretation, too, in spite of the fact
that it may sometimes be guess work, there is no danger inherent in
medicine.
The third reason (for which a kind of knowledge may be
pronounced blameworthy) is when the pursuit of that kind of
knowledge does not give the practiser any real scientific advantage.
Consequently, such knowledge is intrinsically blameworthy, as, for
example, the study of the trivial sciences before the important ones,
and the obscure before the significant, like delving into the divine
mysteries which have been pursued by both the philosophers and the
theologians; but neither they nor anyone else could grasp it in whole
or in part except the prophets and the saints. For this reason people
should be deterred from delving into these mysteries, and instead, be
diverted to pursue those subjects which the law allows, wherein lies
sufficiency for the guided. How many a person has delved into the
sciences and reaped injury therefrom? Had he not meddled in them,
his religious standing would have been far better that its resultant
condition. It is, thus, undeniable that knowledge is harmful to certain
people just as bird meat. and several kinds of excellent pastry are
injurious to the suckling infant. Still more there are persons for whom
ignorance is, in some cases, beneficial. It is thus related that a certain
person had once complained to a physician about the sterility of his
wife - that she bore him no children. The physician, thereupon,
examined the wife’s pulse and told her that she needed no medicine
for bearing children because her pulse indicated that she was
destined to die within forty days. On hearing that, the woman became
gravely frightened and perturbed and gave away all her possessions,
having also written her will. Furthermore, because of worry she
remained for those forty days without either food of drink.
Nevertheless, she did not die, to which the physician replied, “I knew
that all along! Go
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to her now and she will bear you children.” The husband said, “But
how could that be?” The physician answered and said, “Seeing that
your wife was fleshy and the fat gathered around the mouth of her
womb, and knowing that she would not reduce except from fear of
death, I frightened her until she became. thin and the obstruction to
bearing children has now gone.” This, therefore, would show you the
dangers of some of the branches of knowledge and would make clear
to you the significance oIthe words of the Prophet when he said, “We
seek refuge in Allah from useless knowledge.”‘ Do not, then, be a
seeker after sciences which the law has pronounced blameworthy and
against which it has warned. Rather be steadfast in emulating the
example of the Companions and follow nothing but the usage of the
prophet; for safety lies in obedience whereas in adventure and
aberration lies danger. Do not also boast much of your so-called
opinion, reasonable judgement, proof and evidence, as well as the
claim that you investigate into things in order to find out and
determine their true nature and that there is no harm in the pursuit of
knowledge. Truly the harm that might befall you therefrom would be
greater (than the benefits). Many are the things whose knowledge is
harmful to you to the extent that it might ruin you in the hereafter
unless Allah should intervene with His mercy. You should also know
that just as the keen and skilful physician masters secret therapies
which, to the lay mind, seen strange and improbable, so also do the
Prophets who are the physians of the hearts and the experts on the
principles which underlie life in the herafter - (in their field of religion
they achieve a knowledge which no lay mind can grasp).
Consequently, do not pass judgement on their ways according to what
you deem reasonable or you would perish. Not infrequently a person
may injure one of his fingers and following his own mind would
proceed to apply ointment to it until the skilful physician points out to
him that he should treat it by applying the ointment to the opposite
shoulder.’ But the patient, not knowing how the sinews branch out
into the body or where they spring from or how they go around the
body, would deem it very unusual and improbable. The same is true of
the hereafter and of the particulars of the statutes of
the law, its rules and articles of faith which have been ordained for
man to follow; all are imbued with mysteries and symbols which are
beyond the capacity and the ability of the mind to perceive,just as the
properties of the precious stones possess wonderful qualities which
experts have failed to understand, so much so that no one has been
able to determine the reason why the magnet attracts iron. Yet the
wonderful and strange things in faith and works and their usefulness
for the purity of the heart as well as its cleanliness, integrity, and
rectitude in order to be lifted up to the neighbourhood of Allah, so
that it might be exposed to the breeze of His bounty, are far more
numerous and greater than anything in medicines and drugs. And as
the mind fails to discern the things which are useful for life in the
hereafter, especially since it is not possible to determine them through
experimentation. These things would be subject to experimentation
only ifsome of the dead would return and enlighten us as to what faith
and works are acceptable and useful in the sight of Allah, and would
bring man nearer to Him, and what faith and works would estrange
the creature from his Maker. But alas, this is not possible and is not to
be expected. You should be satisfied if your mind would guide you to
the truth of the words of the Prophet and make plain to you the
significance of his counsel. Put aside, therefore, the promoting of your
mind from your conduct and persist in comformity, for nothing else
would save you. For this reason the Prophet said, “Verily some forms
of knowledge are ignorance and (eloquent) speech, incoherence.” Of
course knowledge is never ignorance but may have the same harmful
influence as ignorance. The Prophet also said, “A little bit of divine
guidance is better than a great deal of knowledge” Jesus also said,
“Many are the trees, but not all are fruitful; plentiful are the fruit, but
not all are edible; (likewise) many are the branches of knowledge, but
not all are useful.”‘
DETERMINING WHAT NAME OF SCIENCES
HAVE BEEN CHANGED
You should also know that the source of confusion of the
blameworthy sciences with the sacred is the tampering with, and the
I. Ibn-Majah, Intro., 23: I. 2. Breads: palm.

72

I Not in the canonical gospels.

73
Tire Book of Knowledge
The Book of Knowledge
changes in, the names of thepraisewort praiseworthy sciences and
the introduced therein, in bad faith, so as to connote other than
those
which the righteous fathers and the first-century Muslims intended.
Consequently, five terms, namely, jurisprudence (f qh), the science of
 relig:.)n (al-’Um), theology (tawhid), admonition (tadhkir), and
philosophy (hikmah), all names of praiseworthy sciences, whose
possessors have held the chief positions in the religious organisation,
but which now have been altered so that they connote something
blameworthy ; yet people have become reluctant to condemn those
who possess them because of the widespread practice of applying
these names to all of them alike.
The first term to be affected wasjurisprudence whose meaning
has been tampered with not so much by alteration and change but by
limitation. It has thus been limited to the knowledge of unusual legal
cases, the mastery of the minute details of their origins, excessive
disputation on them, and the retention of the different opinions which
relate to them. The person who goes more deeply into these things
than his colleagues and devotes more time to them than the rest is
considered the most versatile in jurisprudence. But in the early
period of Islam the term jurisprudence (fiqh) was applied to the
science of the path of the hereafter and the knowledge of the subtle
defects of the soul, the influences of which render works corrupt, the
thorough realization of the inferiority of this life, the urgent
expectation of bliss in the hereafter, and the domination of fear over
the heart. This is, indicated by the words of Allah when He said. “....
that they may instruct themselves in their religion, and may warn
their people when they come back to them.”‘ Jurisprudence is
therefore, that which brings about such a warning and such a fear
rather than details of ordinary divorce or divorce through Wan, or
manumission (‘ataq),2 salam contracts, and hire, rental, and lease
(ijarah), which produce neither warning nor fear. On the contrary, to
devote oneselfexclusively to these things hardens the heart and
removes from it all fear which is exactly what we now see in those
who have so devoted themselves. Allah thus said, “Hearts have they
with which they understand not,” 3
I . Surah DC: 123. Al-Ghazzali took this verse out of its
context. 2. Also ‘itq.
3 Surah VII: 178; cf. 115: 4-8, 135: 15-18.
having had in mind the meaning of belief, not of legal opinions. Upon
my life, the word fiqh (discernment), now used for jurispnidence, and
the word fahm (understanding) are nothing but two names for the
same thing. At the present time, however, they are used both in their
earlier and also their modem significations. Allah said, “Indeed ye are
a greater source of fear in their hearts than Allah! This is because
they are a people void of an’.’ discernment.”‘ He thus attributed their
little fear of Allah and their great terror of the power of man to their
meagre discernment. Judge, then, for yourself whether this was the
result of not learning the details of legal opinions or the outcome of
the disappearance of those sciences we have already mentioned.
Speaking to the envoys who called on him, the Prophet addressed
them saving, “Learned, wise and discerning.”
Sa’id ibn-Ibrahim al-Zuhri2 was once asked which of the people of
al-Madinah he thought was the most discerning, and he replied, “He
who fears Allah the most,” thus pointing out that the fruit of religious
insight (fiqh) and piety is in fact the fruit of esoteric knowledge rather
than that of legal opinions and decisions.
The Prophet said, “Shall I tell you who is the profoundly
discerning man?” They answered, “Yes.” Thereupon he said, “The
profoundly discerning man is he who has not induced people to
despair of the mercy of Allah; nor made them feel safe (rather than
urge them to repent) during the period of respite which Allah, out of
patience, gives unto man; nor made them lose hope in the spirit of
Allah; nor discarded the Qur’an in favour of something else.” When
Anas ibn-Malik’ related the following words of the Prophet. “I prefer
sitting in the company of men who praise Allah from sunset until
sunrise to the setting free of four slaves,” he turned to Yazid al-
Ragahi° andZiyad al-Numayris and said, “Our meetings of invocation
(dhikr) were different from your present gatherings in which one of

1. Surah LIV: 13.

2. A.H. 201/A.D. 816-17; see ibn-Sa’d, Vol. VU,, pp. 2, 83; al-Khatib
al-
Baghdadi, Ta’rikh Baghdad, Vol. IX (Cairo, 1349), pp. 1234.
3. A.H. 93/A.D. 711-12; see ibn Qutaybah, P.157.
4. Zayd in “C”; cf. ibn-Sa’d, Vol. VII, Pt. 2, p. 13; al-Sam’ani, f. 256
b. 5.A1Sam`ani, f. 569 b.
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you delivers his sermons before his friends and recites traditions. We
used to sit and ponder over the articles of faith, study the meaning of
the Qur’an, enlighten ourselves in matters of religion and enumerate
the blessings of Allah upon us.” Hence the process of studying the
meaning of the Qur’an and of enumerating the blessings of Allah was
called enlightenment. Said the Prophet, “The servant will not attain
perfect religious insight until he should hate men in the essence of
Allah and see in the Qur’an several meanings.”‘ This same tradition
has been related as a mawquf tradition (tradition whose ‘sanad goes
back to the Companions, but stops short of the Prophet) going back
to abu-al-Darda’ who is supposed to have added, “(the servant) would
then turn to himself and would hate himself more.” Asked once by
Farqad al-Sabakhiz about something, al-Hasan expounded his view
but the former retorted. “The jurisprudence disagree with you.”
Thereupon al-Hasan exclaimed, “May thy mother be bereft of thee!
Hast thou ever seen with thine own eyes a (real) jurisprudent? Verily
the (real) jurisprudent is he who forsaketh the world and seeketh the
hereafter, who understandeth the import of his religion, persisteth in
the worship of his Lord, is pious, restraineth himself from attacks on
the reputation of his fellow Muslims, abstaineth from (reaching his
hand to) their riches, and giveth them advice.” In all of this, he did
not say, “who knoweth all legal opinions”. Nevertheless, I do not say
that the term jurisprudence (fiqh) did not include legal opinion in civil
cases as well. This, however, was either in a general and broad
manner or by way of regarding the one a subdivision of the other. But
its application to the science of the hereafter was more common.
Consequently, this restriction brought forth some ambiguity which
caused men to devote themselves solely to it to the neglect of the
science of the hereafter and the nature of the heart. Furthermore, in
their own human nature, men found encouragement, since esoteric
knowledge is abstruse, to live by it is difficult, and to attain through it
candidacy for office, whether executive or judiciary, or a position of
prestige and wealth, is not possible. For this reason, by means of
1. This is a literal translation, the meaning of which may be: “he
should hate men (because of his absorption) in the essence of
Allah.”
2. A.H. 131/A.D. 748-9; see ibn-Sad, Vol. VU Pt. 2, p. 11.
restricting the signification of the term jurisprudence, which
according to the law is a praiseworthy term, Satan found the
opportunity to make the neglect of the science of the hereafter and
the alteration in the connotation of its name attractive to the human
heart.
The second term to have been altered is the science of religion
(al-’ilm) which used to be applied to the knowledge of Allah, His
miracles, and His works among His servants and creatures. When,
therefore, (the Caliph) `Umar died, ibn-Masud exclaimed, “Verily
nine-tenths of the science of religion (al-’ilm) has passed away.” He
thus designated this knowledge as the science, using the definite
article, and then explained it as the knowledge of Allah. Yet people
used the term freely and altered its meaning by restriction until it
became more commonly applied to those who debate cases of
jurisprudence and the like with adversaries and are dubbed learned
in the truth, versatile in knowledge, while those who do not practice
that nor take it up are numbered among the weak, and are not
considered to belong to the company of the learned. This also is
alteration by restriction. But most of what has been said regarding
the excellence of learning and the learned relates to the learned in
Allah, His ordinances, His works, and His attributes. Nevertheless, it
has now become customary to apply the word learned to those who
do not comprehend of the science of the law except controversial
syllogisms on disputed cases. Those versed in such gymnastics, in
spite of their ignorance of the sciences of interpretation, tradition
and religion, are now numbered among the versatile learned men.
This, as a result, has proved detrimental to a great number of those
who seek knowledge.
The third term (to suffer alteration) was theology (tawhid) which
has now become equivalent to scholastic theology (sina ‘at al-kalam),
the knowledge of the methods of argumentation, the manner of
confounding adversaries, and the ability to be diffuse in speech by
means of asking too many questions, raising doubts, and formulating
requisites, to an extent that some of those groups have gone so far as
to call themselves ‘The People of Equity and Unity’ (ahl al-adl w-al-
tawhid)’ while the scholastic theologians were calledt a learned men
of religion although nothing of he tenets of their profession was
known during the early period of Islam. On the contrary the learned
men at that time condemned very strongly anyone who would take to
disputation and contention.

As to the evident proofs which the mind accepts immediately on

hearing and which are contained in the Qur’an, they have been
known to all. Knowledge of the Qur’an was all knowledge while
theology (tawhid) signified something else which was beyond the
comprehension of most scholastic theologians, and which, when they
comprehended it, they were not called after its name. Theology was
then the belief that all things come from Allah, a belief which ruled
out all intermediary causes (al-asbab w-al-wasa’il). Both good and evil
would then be seen as coming completely from Allah. Such a thing is
a noble station one of whose fruits is dependence, which will be
described in the Book on Dependence. Of its fruits, too, are to
discontinue blaming people and being angry with them, contentment,
and resignation to the will of Allah. One of its fruits, also, has been
illustrated by the words of abu-Bakr who when asked during his
sickness, “Shall we call you a physician?” said, “(It was) the physician
(who) made me sick.” According to another report when he fell sick
he was asked, “What has the physician told you about your sickness?”
To which he replied. “He hath told me, `Verily I doeth what I
chooseth. “n Examples of this will also appear in the book on
Dependence and the book on the Unity of Allah.
Theology (tawhid) is, therefore, like a precious fruit which is
encased in two successive husks. Obviously the outer husk is farther
from the pith than the inner husk. People have thus applied the term
[theology] exclusively to the husk which encases the pith, as well as
to their protection, and have entirely ignored the pith itself. The outer
husk represents the verbal profession that there is no Allah but Allah,
which profession is called monotheism in contra-distinction to the
I. These were the Mu’tazilites.Seeal-Shaharastani,alMilalw-al-
Nihal, ed., william Cureton (London, 1946), pp. 29-31. Cf Sumhs XI:
109; LXXXV:16; Hikyat al Awhya’, Vol. 1, p. 34.
trinitarianism the Christians profess. Such a profession, however,
may come from the lips of hypocrite whose secret thoughts contradict
his open declaration. The inner husk represents the state wherein the
heart neither opposes nor denies to express meaning of this
statement, but rather the outward expression of the heart represents
its belief and the acceptance of that belief. This is the monotheism
which the common folk profess. As already mentioned, the
theologians are the guardians of these husks against the corruption
of innovators.
The third part is the pith itself. It represents the belief that all
things come from Allah, a belief which rules out any consideration of
instrumentalities and implies worshipping Him and no other thing
besides Him. Those who follow their own passions do not conform to
this monotheism, because anyone who follows his own passions makes
them the object of his worship. Thus Allah said, “Hast thou seen him
who hath made a Allah of his passions.”‘ The Prophet also said, “Of all
the gods who have been worshipped on earth Allah hateth the
passions most.” Actually, anyone who would think, would find out that
the idol worshipper worships not the idol but his own passions
because his soul is inclined after the religion of his fathers and he
follows that inclination. The inclination of the soul towards the things
familiar to it is one of the meanings expressed by the word passions.
Outside the pale of this monotheism are also dislike for people and not
paying attention to them, because how is it possible for the person
who believes that all things come from Allah to dislike his fellowmen?
Theology stood for this station, the station of the saints. But see to
what it has been altered and with what of its husks people have been
content? See how they have sought refuge in mutual praise and
boasting of those things whose names have a praiseworthy reputation
while in the meaning and signification for which these names stand,
and for which the real praise is due, they have been utterly bankrupt.
Their bankruptcy is like that of the man who, rising up in the morning,
turns his face towards the Qiblah and says, “I have turned my face
like a hanif, unto the Creator of the heavens and
Surahs XXV: 45; XLV: 22.
2.

the earth.” Yet unless his heart in particular has been duly turned
unto Allah, his assertation would be the first daily lie which he
commits against Allah. If he means by the word face its obvious
meaning, the fact still remains that he has not turned it except
towards the K’abah and away from the other directions. But the
K’abah does not point towards the Creator of the heavens and the
earth so that he who turns his face towards it turns it to Allah who is
limited by neither directions nor climes. If, on the other hand, he
means by it his heart, which is what it should be and which is the
instrument of worship, how could his words be true when his heart is
bent upon his worldly desires and needs, and absorbed in devising
tricks wherewith to amass wealth and prestige and to secure an
abundance of worldh means towards which he is directing the
attention of all his being? When, then, did he turn his face to the
Creator of the heavens and the earth? The following sums up all the
truth of monotheism: the monotheist is he who sees nothing but the
One Allah and only turns his face to Him. This is in conformity with
the words of Allah when He said, “Say: It is ‘Allah’; then leave them in
their pastime of cavillings.”‘ What is intended here is not verbal
profession, as the tongue is like an interpreter who tells the truth at
one time and lies at another. Allah, however, regards not the
interpreter [the tongue], but that for which the tongue is the
interpreter, namely, the heart which is the source of religion and the
place wherefrom it springs.
The fourth term to be altered was the science of invocation
(dhikr) and admonition (tadhkir). Allah said, “Yet warn them for, in
truth warning will profit the believers. ”2 Several traditions
commending the assemblies of invocation (dhikr) have been passed
down to us, as for instance, by the words of the Prophet when he said,
“When you pass by the gardens of Paradise, stop and enjoy
yourselves.” On being asked what the gardens of Paradise were, he
replied. “The assemblies of invocation.” And again in the following
tradition, “Verily, other than guardian angels.’ Allah hath rover
1. Surah VI: 91. 2. Surah Ll: 55.
3. The Muslims believe that two angels, who are changed even day,
attend
every person to observe and write down his action Cf Surahs L:
16:
LXXXR: 10-I1: al-Qazwini, Ajaibn a1-;l-takhlugat wa-Ghara’ib al-
.I laujudat, ed. F. Wustenfeld (Gottingen, 1940), p. 60.
(sayyahun) angels’ who roam the earth looking for assemblies of
invocation (dhikr). On locating an assembly they beckon one another
saying, ‘Come unto your goals.’ Then the rover angels gather around
these assemblies and hear the words, ‘O remember ye Allah and give
warning to one another.” The [practice] has been altered in favour of
story telling, the recital of poems, ecstatic utterances (shath) and
heresies (tammat),2 the things which contemporary preachers persist
in doing.
As to storytelling, it is an innovation; in fact, our Fathers have
warned against attending the circles of story-tellers saying that it was
not the custom either at the time of the Apostle of Allah or the time of
abu-Bakr and ‘Umar.’ It was not until the appearance of heresy that
they made theirs. It has been related that one day ibn-’Umar emerged
from the mosque exclaiming, “No one had sent me out but the story-
teller; but for him I would not have left.” Damrah’ said, “One day I
asked Sufyan al-Thawri, “Shall we listen to story-tellers?” But he
answered, “Turn ye your backs on innovations.”
Ibn ‘Awn5 said, “Once upon a time I called on ibn-Sirin . 6 As I
entered upon him he asked me, “What is new today?” When I
informed him that the governor had prohibited the story-tellers from
telling their stories, he said, “He had done correctly.” It is also related
that, once upon a time, as al-A’mash’ entered the Basrah mosque, he
heard a story-teller say in his sermon, “We were told by al-A’mash...”.
Whereupon al-A’mash took himself to the centre of the mosque and
began to remove the hair from his armpit, at which the speaker
indignantly shouted, “Old man, are you not ashamed to do that in the
mosque?” To which al-A’mash replied, “Why should
1. AI-Qazw’ni, ‘Ajatib al-Makhlugat, p. 61. Cf al-Tirrridhi, Da’awat,
129. 2. Literally signifies calamities.
3. Cf. ibn-Majah, Adaab, 40.
4. Ibn-Rabi’ah (A.H. 202/A.D. 817.8): see ibn-Sa’d, Vol, VII, Pt. 2, p.
173;
Tadhkirut al-Hujfaz, Vol. 1, p. 322.
5. ‘Abdullah ibn-’Awn ibn-Artaban (A.H. 15 1 /A.D. 769): see ibn-Sad,
Vol 7,
Pt. 2, pp. 24-30.
6. Muhammad (A.H. 110/A.D. 729): see ibn-Sad, Vol. VII, Pt. I, pp.
140-50. 7. Abu-Muhammad Sulayman ibn-Mihran (A.H. 148/A.D. 765);
see ibn-Sa’d,
Vol, VI, pp. 238-40.
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I be ashamed? What I am doing is according to the law’ while what
you have been saying are down right lies. I am al-A’mash.”

Ahmad [ibn-Hanbal] proclaimed that the most persistent liars

among men are the story-tellers and the beggars.
 `Ali ibn-abi-Talib once drove the story-tellers out of the Basrah
mosque, but when he heard the words of al-Hasan al-Basri he allowed
him to carry on and did not drive him out because al-Hasan al-Basri
used to discourse on the science of the hereafter and the
contemplation of death, and to point out the defects of the soul, the
shortcoming of works, the passing thoughts with which Satan tempts
men and the way to resist them, and to remind his audience of the
favours and blessings of Allah and of the failure of man in his
gratitude. He also would expose the inferiority of this world, its
defects, its impending end, and its deceitfulness, as well as the
dangers and the terrors of the hereafter. This is the warning which,
according to the law, is praiseworthy and which has been encouraged
in the tradition related by abu-Dharr when he said, “To be present in
an assembly of invocation (dhikr) is better than prostrating oneself in
prayer a thousand times, or visiting a thousand sick men, or attending
a thousand funerals.” Abu-Dharr further related that the Prophet was
then asked; “Is it also better than the reading of the Qur’an?” To
which the Prophet replied, “What good, though, is the reading of the
Qur’an except through knowledge?” ‘Ata’ also said, “Attendance at an
assembly of invocation atones the evils of attending seventy places of
entertainment.”

Unfortunately, however, those who are in the habit of

embellishing their speech with lies have taken these traditions as
means of justification for themselves and have appropriated the name
warning (tadhkir) for their fables thus forgetting the right path of
praiseworthy invociation (dhikr) and spending their time in
[recounting] tales which are subject to variations, accretions, and
deletions, and which deviate from the stories which accrue in the
Cf. al-Bukhari, Libas, 64. lsti’dhan, 51.
Qur’an and go beyond them. Some of the tales are good to hear while
others are harmful in spite of the fact that they may be true. Whoever
would go after this practice would no longer be able to distinguish
truth from lies and what is good from that which is harmful. For this
reason Ahmad ibn-Hanbal said, “Oh how much do people need a
truthful story-teller?” If his story be one of the tales of the prophets,
pertaining to the affairs of their religion, and the story-teller be
truthful and trustworthy, I see no harm in it. But people should guard
against lies and against such stories which point to trivial faults and
compromises which the common folks fail to understand, or to realize
that they are nothing but trivial and unusual faults although they have
been followed by atoning deeds and rectified by good works which are
supposed to make up for them. In order to justify his compromises
and find fdr himself an excuse, the layman is apt to resort to such
reasoning, protesting that such and such has been related on the
authority of one of the masters (masha)ikh) or one of the prominent
men, and adding that whereas all of us were subject to sin, it is no
wonder ifhe would disobey Allah especially since a greater person
than himself has done the same. This also develops in him unwillingly
the daring to disobey Allah. But if one should guard against these two
dangers (which are inherent in story-telling) it would cease to be
harmful for it will mark a return to the praiseworthy stories contained
in the Qur’an and to the authentic stories of tradition. There are some,
however, who take the liberty of making up stories which inspire in
men the desire to worship and serve Allah, and claim that they seek
thereby nothing but to call men to the truth. Nevertheless this is one
of the baits of Satan, and there is no way to avoid lying but in
truthfulness. Besides there is in what Allah and His Apostle said
enough to render fabrication in preaching needless. Did not the
Prophet abhor the affectation or rhymed prose regarding it pedantic?

On hearing his son `Umar’ indulge is rhymed prose, S`ad ibn-

A.H. 66 A.D. 685-6; See ibn ad, Vol. V, p. 125; abul-Fida’,

Mukhtawr Ta’rikh al-Bashar(Constatinople,1286), Vol. I, p. 205.
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abi-Waqqas’ said to him as the former sought something from his
father, ‘Ibis, my son, would make me hate thee; I shall not grant thee
thy request until thou should cease to compose rhymed prose.” The
Prophet also said to ‘Abdullah ibn-Rawahah2 when the latter composed
three rhymed sentences, “Beware of rhymed prose, O thou ibn-
Rawahah.” Consequently any rhymed prose which exceeds two
sentences has been deemed affected and hence forbidden. For the
same reason when (in connection with the bloodwit which should be
paid for smiting a woman so that the child in her womb dies) a certain
man asked, “How shall we pay a bloodwit for the death of someone
who has had no drink nor food, neither has he cried nor shed any
tears since such a person is not avenged?” the Prophet reproached
him saying, “Art thou, like Bedouins, indulging in rhymed prose?”‘

As to poetry, its generous use in sermons is blameworthy. Allah

said, “It is poets whom the erring follow: Seest thou not how they rove
distraught in every valley?” And again, “We have not taught him (i.e.
Muhammad) poetry, nor would it beseem him.” S Furthermore, most
of the poetry with which the preachers are familiar and which they
are accustomed to repeat in their sermons pertains to claims of being
in love, the beauty of the beloved, the joys of union with him, and the
pains of separation; while the assembly comprises none but the crude
among the common folk whose minds are saturated with lust and their
eyes never cease from staring at fair faces. Their poetry inspires
nothing in their hearts except that which their hearts already conceal,
and enkindles therein the flames of lust Consequently they begin to
shriek and make a show of their love. Most of this, if not all, is the
result of a certain kind of corruption
1. One of the ten promised Paradise by Muhammad, one of the council
of six in whose hands ‘Umar left the future of the. caliphate, and
one of the greatest ofMuslim generals during the early period of
the conquests It was S’ad who conquered Persia. Died between
A.H. 55 and 58/A.D. 675 ado 678. See ibn-Sa’d, Vol. lll, Pt. 1, pp.
275.8.
2. A.H. 8/A.D. 629-30: ibn-Sa’d, Vol, Ill, Ot. 2, pp. 79-82; Tahdhib-al-
Asma’, pp. 340-41.
3. Muslim, al-Qasamah, 11:5.
4. Surah XXVI: 22-45.
5. Surah XXXVI: 69.

Therefore no poetry should be used unless it contains a moral or a

wise saying and should only be used either as evidence or for
example.

The Prophet of Allah said, “Verily some poetry is wisdom.”‘ If only

the elite whose hearts are known to be absorbed in the love of Allah
should frequent these assemblies alone, on poetry whose outward
meaning dealt with people would be of any harm because, as it will be
seen in the Book on Audition and Music, a person would always
interpret all that he would hear according to the light which
dominates his heart. Al-Junayd used to discourse before some ten
people or there about and whenever the number went beyond that he
would stop. Thus his circle never reached twenty in number. Once
upon a time when a crowd gathered before the door of ibn-Salim’s 2
house, someone requested him to address them saying, “Four
followers have come.” To which ibn-Salim replied. “No! these are not
my followers; they are the followers of the assembly. As to my
followers, they are elite.”

By ecstatic utterances we mean two types of speech evolved by

some of the Sufis. The first comprises long pretentious claims of
excessive love (‘ishq) of Allah and of union (wisa!) which renders
outward deeds superfluous until some have asserted oneness (itfihad)
with Allah, the removal of the veil (hijab), seeing (mushahadah) Him
with the eye (ru yah), and mouth to mouth conversation. They thus say
that they were told such and such and that they have said such and
such and imitate thereby al-Husayn ibn-Mansur al-Hallaj’ who was
gibbeted for letting slip from his lips certain words of this type, and
cite as an example his saying, “I AM THE TRUTH” (Ana’l Haqq).

1. Ibn-Majah, Adab, 41; al-Darimi, Isti’dhan, 68.

2. Abu-al-Hasan ibn-Saalim, mentioned by ibn-Khellikan, Vol. 11, p.
297, in the narrative on the life of abu-Talib al:Makki.
3. The great mystic theologian: he was gibbeted on Dhu-al-Qa’dah
24,3091 March 26, 922, and finally was decapitated and burnt.
See ibn-Khalikan, Vol. l, pp. 261-3.
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Similarly, it has been related that abu-Yazid al-Bastami’ once said,
“Praise be to me! Praise be to me!” This is, in truth, a type of speech
which, to the common folk, is of great harm, so much so that several
farmers have relinquished their farms and proclaimed similar claims.
Such speech, moreover, is attractive to human nature for it offers
relief from work as well as self justification through the attainment of
certain stations (maqamat) and the experience of certain states
(ahwa). Consequently, the ignorant do not fail to claim these things
for themselves’ nor to swallow up such confused and embellished
words. And no matter how much their claims are disapproved they do
not hesitate to say that such disapproval has been the outcome of
knowledge and disputation, the one is a veil and the other is the work
of the self, while their words are not understood except from within
through revelation by the light of the Truth. These and similar other
words have spread like fire in the land and their harm to the common
folk has become great. To destroy the person who comes out with
such words is, according to the religion of Allah, better than sparing
ten lives.

As to abu-Yazid al-Bistami what has been ascribed to him of such

words cannot be true. Even if he were heard saying them, most
probably he must have been repeating to himself words about Allah;
for example he might have been heard quoting the words of Allah,
“Verily, I am Allah: there is no Allah but Me: therefore worship Me.
These words should not have been taken in any other way besides that
of a quotation.
The second type of ecstatic utterance comprises unintelligible
words with pleasing externals of which some, through awesome, are
useless. They may be of two kinds: The first and the more common
comprises words unintelligible to the author who utters them because
of the perplexity in his own mind and the confusion in his imagination
I. Also al-Bistami; (A. H. 261 or 264/A.D. 875 or 878). See ibn-
Khallikan, Vol. 1, p. 429: &I-Hujw-ri, Kashfal-Mahjub, tr. R.A.
Nicholson (Leyden, 1911), pp. 106-8: al-Sha’rani al-Taabaqat al-
Kubra (Cairo, 1343), Vol. 1, pp. 61,2.
2. Surah XX 14.
resulting from his ignorance of the exact meaning of words which he
hears; while the second represents words which may be intelligible to
their author who, however, because of his insufficient practice in
science and his lack of instruction in rhetoric, is unable to convey
them to others through language which can express his thoughts.
Such words are of no use except to confuse the heart, amaze the
mind, and perplex the understanding. They are also apt to convey a
meaning other than that for which they are intended so that anyone
may find in them the meaning which his own nature may desire.
The Prophet said, “Never does any one of you relate a tradition
which is beyond the ability of the audience to understood without
becoming a cause of corruption among them.” And again,
“Communicate with people in terms known to them and discard those
which are unknown. Do you desire to see Allah and His Apostle
disbelieved?” This has been said of words which the author
understands but fails to convey their meaning to the mind of his
audience. How then would it be with words whose meaning neither
the author nor the audience understand when those which the former
understands while his audience do not are forbidden to relate?
Jesus said, “Entrust not wisdom to those unworthy of it lest ye do
it injustice; nor withhold it from those who are worthy of it lest ye do
them injustice. Be ye therefore like the skilful physician who applies
the medicine to the sore spot.”‘ And according to another version,
“Whoever should entrust wisdom to those unworthy of it would reveal
his ignorance, and whosoever should withhold it from those who are
worthy of it would perpetrate an injustice. Verily wisdom hath a right
as well as a people worthy of it. Give, therefore, each his right.”2
As to heresies (tammat), they comprise, besides what we have
already mentioned under the ecstatic utterances (shath) another
thing characteristic of them, namely, the dismissal of the obvious and
literal meaning of words in favour of an esoteric interpretation of
l. Cf Matt. 7:6,9:16-17.
2. Cf. Matt. 11:19: Luke 7:35.
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 The Book of Knowledge
worthless value such as the Batinite’ method of interpretation which
is unlawful and of great harm; because when words are given other
than their literal meanings, without either the authority of the
traditions of the Prophet or the dictates of reason, the loss of faith in
words becomes inevitable and the benefits of the words of Allah and
His Apostle are in consequence nullified. L’ttle trust can be placed in
whatever is understood therefrom while its esoteric meaning cannot
be determined; rather opinions differ therein and it is open tc many
interpretations. This too belongs to those widespread and very
harmful innovations. The authors of those innovations have sought
nothing but the unusual because human nature is fond of the strange
and the unusual and delights in anything uncommon.
Through this very thing were the Batinites successful in
destroying all the law, by interpreting its letter to conform to their
way of thinking as we have shown in the Mustazhiri Book 80 which was
composed for the purpose of refuting their views.
An example of the interpretations put forth by these heretics
may be seen in the assertion of one of them that in the verse where
Allah addresses Moses saying, “Go unto Pharaoh, for he hath
trespassed,”3 the word Pharaoh stands for the heart of Moses, the
heart being the trespasser against every man. Again when Allah said
to Moses, “Go, cast down thine staff” () the word staff is said to
represent anything besides Allah on which man may depend [and in
which he may place his trust], and should therefore be cast away. The
same kind of interpretation is applied to the words of the Prophet
when he said, “Go, eat the daybreak meal (sahr), for therein lies
blessing.”‘ These words are interpreted to mean the asking of Allah’s
forgiveness at day-break. They set forth similar interpretations
thereby tampering with
1. On the Batinite. see al-Shahrastani, pp. 147-52: al-Baghdadi,
Mukhtasar
Kitab al-Farq bayn al-Firaq. ed. P.K. Hitti (Cairo, 1924), pp. 170-
6.
2. So named after the Caliph al-Mustazhir (A.D. 1094-1118) on
whose
request it was composed. It is also known as, Fud’ih al-Batin yah.
It was
edited together with a German translation by 1. Glodziher
(Leyden, 1916). 3. Surah LXXIX:17.
4. Cf Surahs VII: 114: XXVII:10: XXVm: 31.
5. Al-Tirmidhi Sawm, 17. al Darimi. Siyam. 9.
the literal meaning of the whole Quran and altering its interpretation

80
avialble in English translation on al-Ghazzali website, ghazzali.org
which has come down to us on the authority of ibn-’Abbas and other
learned men.
Some of these interpretations are obviously and completely
corrupt, as is, for example, the interpretation of the word Pharaoh to
mean heart. Pharaoh was real and historical and so was Moses’
summons to him. He was like abu-Jahl,’ abu-Lahab, 2 and other ofthe
unbelievers, and in no way like either the demons or the angels who
are not perceived by the senses, and whose names are, therefore,
open to interpretation. Similarly to interpret the occasion of the
eating of the daybreak meal as the time for asking Allah’s forgiveness
is equally corrupt. The Prophet used to eat the daybreak meal and say,
“Come, eat the daybreak meal: Gather for the blessed dinner.” The
corrupt nature of such interpretation is determined both by the
testimony of tradition and by that of the senses, while others which
pertain to objects beyond the realm of the senses are probably the
same. All, besides being unlawful, are also the cause of confusion and
corruption to people in their religion. Nothing of these
interpretations, has come down to us on the authority of either the
Companions, or their followers [al-tabiun], or even al-Hasn al-Basri, in
spite of his continual teaching and preaching among men.
There appears, therefore, no other meaning for the words of the
Prophet when he said, “Whoever should explain the Qur’an in
accordance with his own opinion will occupy his place in Hell,”‘ than
the following: when a person is intent upon establishing and proving
something he will drag in proofs from the Qur’an and will apply them
to his point without the existence of any linguistic or historical
evidence which justifies his contention. This, however, does not mean
that the Qur’an should not be explained through intelligence
One of Muhammad’s most bitter opponents. He once threatened
to set his foot on the Prophet’s neck when prostrate in prayer. See
Surah XCVI: 9-19: bn-Hisham, pp. 190-91.
2. An uncle of the Prophet and one of his most violent enemies. See
Surah CXI: ibn-Hisham, pp. 231 see: 244, 430, 461.
3. AI-Tirmidhi,Tafsiral-Our’an, I.
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and thinking, since some verses have been given by the Companions
and the commentators five, six and even seven interpretations, all of
which, it is well known, were not heard from the Prophet. Some of
these interpretation may be contradictory, incapable of reconciliation,
and are therefore ascertained only through keen understanding and
profound thinking. For this reason the Prophet prayed for ibn-`Abbas
saying, “O Allah! Enlighten him in religion and teach him
interpretation”‘ Therefore whoever allows the perpetrators of heresies
such interpretations in spite of his knowledge that the words do not
possess any such meaning claiming that he only intends thereby the
exhortation of men to follow Allah, would be like the person who
allows attributing false and fabricated savings to the prophets relative
to things which, in themselves, are true but concerning which the law
handed down no legislation, or like him who coins a hadith to cover
anything which he deems right. Such a thing is decidedly a
transgression and a cause of confusion as well as a sin which merits
and incurs the threat implied in the words of the Prophet when he
said, “Whoever should deliberately lie to me, would occupy his place
in Hell. Indeed, the interpretation of these words in such a manner is
greater transgression because it undermines the faith in the meaning
of words and destroys altogether the only way by which they could be
understood and be useful.
You have thus learned how Satan has diverted men from seeking
the praiseworthy science to the study of the blameworthy. This is all
the result of the ambiguity caused by the changes in the names of the
sciences which the teachers of falsehood have effected. If you would
follow them depending on the prevalent significations of these terms
at the present time regardless of what they signified during the first
century, you would be like him who sought the honour which is the
reward of wisdom by attaching himself to anyone who is called wise
(haklm), a term which, because of the change in the meaning of
words, is at the present time applied equally to the physician, the
poet, and the astrologer.
I. Ibn-Sad, Vol II, pt. 2, p. 120, 11, 3-4: Cf. ibn-alajah. Intro., 11: al-
Tirrnidhi, Manaqb, 42,
2. . ll-Darimi, Intro., 25: ibn-alajah, Intro., 16.
The fifth term to have been altered is wisdom (hikmah), since we
see that it has now become customary to apply the word wise (hakim)
equally to the physician, the poet, the astrologer, and even to him who
reads fortunes for the peasants who squat on street corners. Wisdom,
however, is that which Allah commended when He said, “He giveth
wisdom to whom He will: and he to whom wisdom is given, hath had
much good given him”‘ The Prophet also said, “A word of wisdom
which man learns is better to him than the world and all that is in it.”
See, therefore, what wisdom stood for and to what it has been altered,
and examine, in the same way, the other terms. Beware, then, of being
deceived by the ambiguities of the teachers of falsehood: their evil
influence upon religion is greater than that of Satan, because through
their aid does he arrive at removing religion from the hearts of men.
For this reason when the Prophet was ‘sked who were the most
wicked among men he would not at first answer but said, “Forgive, O
Allah.” When his inquirers persisted in their query he replied, “The
most wicked among men are the teachers of falsehood.”
You have now been shown both the praiseworthy and the
blameworthy sciences as well as the causes of ambiguity. Yours is the
choice either to follow the example of the Fathers, or to succumb to
deception and emulate those who came after.
All knowledge which the Fathers approved has vanished, while
most of what people now pursue falls under the category of
innovations and made-up novelties. The Prophet was right when he
said, “Islam began as a strange element and will become thus again
as it was at the beginning. Blessed, therefore, are the strangers.” He
was then asked who where the strangers to which he replied, “The
strangers are those who rectify what people have corrupted of my law
as well as those who revive what they have destroyed of it.” 2
According to another report, “The strangers are those who hold fast
to the belief which you now possess”‘ while according to another, “The
strangers are a few righteous people in the midst of many
l. Surah II: 272.
2. Cf. al-Darmri, Rigaq, 42: al-Tirmidhi Iman, 13: ibn-,4lajalr, Fitan,
13.
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unrighteous, whose haters outnumber those who love them.” The
praiseworthy sciences have also grown unfamiliar and unpopular
among men to the extent that those who dare mention them are
despised. For this reason al-Thawri had said, “If you see a learned
man who has many friends, you may be sure he is a charlatan and a
faker, because if he would speak the truth, those friends would hate
him„

DETERMINING HOW MUCH IS PRAISEWORTHY [TO

ACQUIRE ] OF THE PRAISEWORTHY SCIENCES
You should know that, in this respect, science is divided into
three parts. One part is that whose knowledge is blameworthy
whether it be in part or in toto. Another is that whose partial as well
as total knowledge is praiseworthy; in fact the more one acquires of it
the better. The third is that whose knowledge is praiseworthy within a
certain limit, that of sufficiency, but beyond that it ceases to be
praiseworthy: to go into it deeply is not desirable. This is best
illustrated by the human body: that which is praiseworthy, whether
little of it or much, is like health and beauty while that which is
blameworthy, whether little of it or much, is like ugliness and bad
temper. On the other hand there are things which are praiseworthy
when they are found in moderation like the spending of money where
extravagance is not praiseworthy although it is spending; and like
courage where recklessness is undesirable although it is a type of
courage. The same thing is true of knowledge.
The part whose partial and total knowledge is blameworthy is
that which has no use either in the realm of religion or in the domain
of life because its harmfulness exceeds its utility, such as the science
of magic talismans, and astrology, parts of which are of no use
whatever and to spend one’s life, the most precious thing a man
possesses, in them is sheer waste; and to waste anything precious is
blameworthy. Other parts of these sciences are of greater harm than
the good they are deemed to perform in life, which good, when
compared to the harm resulting therefrom, becomes of no
consequence.
The part whose knowledge, even to the limit of thoroughness, is
praiseworthy is the science of knowing Allah, His attributes and
works as well as His law which governs His creatures and His
wisdom in ordaining the superiority of the hereafter to this life. The
knowledge of this is incumbent upon man both for itself and also for
attaining thereby the bliss of the hereafter. To exert oneself even to
the utmost capacity of one’s effort, falls short of what is required
because it is like the sea. Its depth cannot be sounded and men can
approach its shores and edges only to the extent to which it has been
made possible for them, while no one has navigated its ends except
the prophets, the saints, and those who are grounded in the science
of Allah - each according to his rank and ability and according to
what Allah has preordained for them therein. This is the hidden
science which is never recorded in books but whose knowledge may
be at first promoted by learning and by contemplating the states of
the learned man in the science of the hereafter whose characteristics
we shall discuss later. Its knowledge may be furthered’ through self-
mortification, discipline, and through purifying the heart and freeing
it from the affairs of this world as well as through emulating the
prophets and the saints so that it may be revealed to every seeker in
proportion to Allah’s mercy (riaq) on him rather than in proportion to
his efforts and labours (jahd). Yet diligence in it is indispensable for
self-mortification which is the sole key to guidance.
The sciences whose knowledge is praiseworthy up to a certain
limit are those which we have already mentioned under the sciences
the acquisition of whose knowledge is a ford krfayah2. Every one of
these sciences has three stages: first limitation (iglisid) which is the
intermediary, and third thoroughness (istiqsi) which is a sequel to
moderation and which goes on and on during the entire life of the
seeker. Be, therefore, one of two: either one who educates himself, or
one who concerns himself with the education of others after he had
educated himself. Never, however, concern yourself with reforming
others before you have first reformed yourself. If you are educating
l. In text “furthered in the hereafter”.
2. See Supra, p. 36.
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yourself take up only those branches of knowledge which have been
required of you according to your needs, as ‘well as those which
pertain to the outward deeds such as learning the elements of prayer,
purification, and fasting. More important, however, is the science
which all have neglected, namely, the science of the attributes of the
heart, those which are praiseworthy and those which are
blameworthy, because people persist in the latter such as miserliness,
hypocrisy, pride, and conceit and the like, all of which are destructive
and desisting therefrom is obligatory. Performing those outward deeds
is like the external application of ointment to the body when it is
stricken with scabies and boils while neglecting to remove the pus by
means of surgery’ or purge. False scholars recommend outward deeds
just as fake physicians prescribe external ointments for virulent
internal diseases. The learned men of the hereafter recommend
nothing but the purification of the inner-self and the removal of the
elements of evil by destroying their nursery-beds and uprooting them
from the heart. It is only because of the ease which characterizes the
works of the senses and the difficult nature of the works of the heart
that most people have neglected the purification of their hearts and
devoted themselves to the outward deeds, just as he who finds it
disagreeable to drink a bitter medicine resorts to the external
application of ointments and persists in his labours, continually
increasing the ingredients, while his ailments multiply. If, therefore,
you are desirous of the hereafter, seeking salvation and running away
from eternal damnation, pursue the science of spiritual (batinah)
diseases and their remedies, as we have described it in the Quarter on
the Destructive Matters in Life, which will lead you to the
praiseworthy stations mentioned in the Quarter on the Saving Matters
in Life; because no sooner is the heart purged from what is
blameworthy than it is filled with that which is praiseworthy just as
the soil where all kinds of plants and flowers would grow as soon as
the grass is weeded out - unless the weeds are removed neither plants
nor flowers would grow. Therefore do not pursue those branches of
knowledge whose acquisition is a fard kifayah especially
1. Lit. bleeding.
when they have already been taken up by some. He who would
spend himself in pursuing what would reform others [while he himself
remains unredeemed] is insolent and how utterly foolish is the mar.
who, when snakes and scorpions have crept beneath his clothes, is
busy looking for a whisk wherewith to drive flies off other people, a
task which will neither spare nor save him from the attacks of the
snakes and scorpions lurking beneath his clothes. If on the other hand
you have completed the task of purifying yourself and have been
successful in abstaining from outward and inward sin so that purity of
the heart and abstinence from sin have become to you a religion and a
second nature, which thing is very unlikely, then you may pursue
those branches of knowledge whose acquisition is ford kifayah. You
should, however, observe gradual progress therein beginning with the
Book of Allah, then the Usage of His Apostle, then the science of
interpretation and the other sciences of the Qur’an such as that of the
abrogating and the abrogated (al-nasikh w-al-mansukh),’ the related
and the unrelated (al-mawsul w-al-mafsal)2 and the clear and the
ambiguous (al-muhkam w-mutashabih)3. The same gradual procedure
should be observed in the study of the Usage of the Prophet after
which you may proceed to the study of applied jurisprudence (furu )
which is the elaboration of positive law under the wider science of
jurisprudence. You then may proceed to the sources of jurisprudence
(usul al-fiqh) and to the other sciences as far as the span of life
permits and time allows. Do not spend, however, all your life in one of
these sciences seeking to exhaust the subject thoroughly, because
knowledge is of varied and numerous branches and life is short.
Furthermore these sciences are only introductory means sought not
for themselves but for the sake of something else and in everything
which is sought as a means for the attainment of another thing, one’
should not loose sight of the end. Limit yourself, then, in the study of
vernacular speech, to that which would enable you to understand and
speak the Arab tongue and in the study of the strange words confine
1. See al-Suyuti, al-Itoan fi-Ulum al-Qur’an (Cairo, 1343). Vol. 11,
pp. 20-
27.
2. Ibid Vol. !, pp. 90-91.
3. Cf. Surah f; 5; Al-Suvuti, Itgan, Vol. 11, PP. 2-13.
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 The Book of Knowledge
your efforts to those occurring in the Qur’an and the tradition; even
then avoid going into them profoundly. As to syntax, limit yourself
also to what pertains to the Qur’an and the tradition. since in every
branch of knowledge there are three degrees of acquisition, namely
limitation, moderation, and thoroughness. We- shall here describe
each of these three as they relate to the science of tradition,
interpretation jurisprudence, and theology in order to offer a
standard with which other subjects may be measured.
The limited degree of acquisition in interpretation covers about
twice the size of the Qur’an, i.e., similar to al- Wajiz’ which `Ali al-
Wahidi al-Naysabari2 composed; the moderate degree is equivalent to
three times the size of the Qur’an, i.e., similar to al-Wasil3 by the same
author. Beyond these two degrees of acquisition is that of thorough
exhaustion which can be dispensed with; the entire lifetime may
expire in its pursuit.
In tradition the limited degree is represented by the mastery of
the two Sahihs’ as corrected by one well-informed in the science of
the texts of tradition. As to the authorities of the two Sahihs, those
who preceded you have spared you the trouble and you may depend
on their books for that information. Nor need you memorize the texts
of the two Sahihs but familiarize yourself with them so that you may
be able, when the need arises, to lay your hand on whatever you may
want. The moderate degree of acquisition in the field of the hadith
includes, besides, the two Sahihs, the other authoritative corpuses.s
I. Al- Wajtz fi Tafsir al-Quran al-Aziz printed in Cairo, A.H. 1305.
2. A.H. 468/A.D. 1076: see ibn-Khallikan. Vol. D. pp. 8-9.
3. Al-IYasit bayn al-,4agbud wal-Basic unpublished: see Hajj Khalifah
Vol. VI, oo. 436-7; W. Ahlwardt, Verzichniiss derArabischen
Handschrften der Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin (Berlin. 1887-
99), Nos. 750-2.
4. That of al-Bukhari and that of Muslim; Printed several times.
5. These are the six authoritative corpuses which comprise, besides
the two Sah ihs, the following: The Sunan of abu-Da,.wd al-
Sijstani (A.H. 275 A.D. 888), printed in Cairo. A.H. 1280; the
Sunan of ibn-Majah (A.H. 2731A.D.887), printed in Cairo, A.H.
1340; the Sahih of al-Tirmidhi (A.H. 279 A.D. 892), printed in
Cairo, A.H. 1290; and theAujtaba of al-Nastt`i, (A.H. 303 A.D.
915), lithographed in Delhi, A.H. 1315
Contd.. next page
Beyond this is thorough exhaustion of the subject which requires the
detailed mastery of all traditions including weak (duai,/) traditions,
[about whose authenticity serious doubts can be raised], the strong
(qawi), [those utterly faultless traditions in whose isnad there is no
weakness and whose tendency does not contradict any generally
prevalent belief], the genuine (sahih) [fulfilling all conditions], and
the corrupt (saqim), as well as knowing the several ways of hadith
transmission with knowledge of the qualification of each authority, his
names and characteristics.
As to jurisprudence, the limited degree of acquisition is
equivalent to the contents of the Mukhtasar’ of al-Muzafii2 which
work we rearranged in our Khulasat al Mukhtasar;;3 the moderate
degree is three times as long and is equivalent to the material we
have included in our al-Wasit min al-Madhhab:’ while the degree of
thoroughness is represented by our al-Basics and by other
comprehensive works.
As to theology (al-Kalam), it is solely designed to safeguard the
articles of faith which the followers of the Usage of the Prophet and
righteous Fathers transmitted down to us, and nothing else. Anything
beyond this would bean attempt to reveal the truth of things in other
than its proper way. The purpose of learning the Usage of the
Prophet is to attain, through a concise creed, the limited degree of
its knowledge. This is equivalent to the contents of the Book on the

Contd. To these six may be added the Muwotta’ of Malik ibn-Anas

(A.H. 179, A.D. 795), printed several times -, the Musand of al-
Darinii (A.H. 225 A.D. 869) printed in Damascus, A.H. 1349; and
the Musnad of Ahmad ibn-Hanbal (A.H. 241. A.D.855), (first
three volumes printed in Cairo d.).
I. Al-Mukhtasar al Saghir; printed in Bulaq, A.H. 1321-6.
2. Abu-Ibrahim Ismail ibn-Yahya (A.H. 264, A.D. 878); see al Fihrist
p. 212; ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, pp. 124-5.
3. Unpublished; see al-Subki, Vol. IV, p.116, I.S.
4. Unpublished; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. p. 246; Fihrist al-Kutub al
Arab yah al-Mahfuzah bi-al-Kutubhanah al-Hhidaywiyah, Vol. M
Carro,
1306), pp. 289-90. (Henceforth will be referred to as Cairo
Catalogue. Unpublished; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. U, p. 246; Cairo
Catalogue, Vol. IIL, pp.1978.

Articles of Faith which is a part of this work.’ The moderate degree

would equal about a hundred leaves representing the contents of our
work, al-lqtisad fi al-l’tiqad,2 and is indispensable in debating
innovators and answering their heresies with what will remove and
destroy their influence over the heart of the common man. This is of
use among the common people only before their fanaticism becomes
far gone, because no mere words would convince the innovator once
he had acquired a smattering of the science of argumentation. Even
if you silence him in arguments, he would not relinquish his ideas
 but would protest his inability in debates asserting that your
argument can be met although he himself is incapable of it and he
only was confused by your debating acumen.
Furthermore when the common men, through some kind of an
argument, have been diverted from the truth, it is quite possible,
while their fanaticism in these errors is still not far gone, to bring
them back to it through similar arguments. But if fanaticism becomes
rooted in their hearts their redemption becomes hopeless because
fanaticism fastens beliefs deeply to the minds of men. It is one of the
evils of the teachers of falsehood who go to excess in their fanaticism
for the truth and regard with contempt and scorn all non-conformists.
This drives then on confoinusts to further spite and encourages them
to seek the support of falsehood. Interest in holding fast to their
position is thereby strengthened. If, instead, these fanatics would
approach their opponents privately in a spirit of kindness, sympathy,
and advice rather than attack them publicly in the spirit of bigotry
and acrimony, they might succeed in their effort. But whereas
prestige requires a following and nothing attracts a following better
than bigotry, cursing and vilifying of opponents, they have adopted
fanaticism as their rule of conduct and their method of approach.
Finally they call this a defence of religion and a protection for the
Muslims, while in fact it results in nothing but the destruction of all
people and in the firm establishment of innovation in their minds.
It comprises Bk. II of the Quarter on the Acts of Worship; see in
rot; cf. Hajji Khalifah, VOL IV, p. 575.
2. Muted in Cairo, 2nd ed., A.H. 1327.
Beware, therefore, of coming near these controversies that have
sprung up in these recent times and on which have been written
masterpieces of publications, compositions and argumentations the
like of which have neither been seen nor heard by the Fathers. Avoid
them as you avoid deadly poison for they are like a virulent disease.
It was these controversies which have driven all jurisprudents after
rivalry and boasting which will be discussed later together with
their hazards and evils.
You may hear it said: “Men are the enemies of things they do not
know.” Do not, however, accept this as law. You have stumbled upon
one who knows; accept, therefore, this advice from one who has
wasted his life in [controversies] and surpassed the ancients in
composition, research, argumentation, and exposition until Allah
inspired him with His righteousness and made known to him the
flaws therein. Consequently he abjured controversies and turned his
attention to himself. Do not be deceived by the words of those who
say that the giving off legal opinions is the pillar of the law, but know
not its principles except through the science of argumentation, while
the principles of religion are contained in the books of religion and
whatever accretions are added thereto are nothing but wranglings
which neither the ancients nor the Companions, who were better
versed in the principles of legal opinions than any other group, had
known. These wranglings are not only useless for the science of
religion, but are also harmful and corrupting to one’s taste and
judgement in jurisprudence. Thus in most cases it is usually not
possible to have a decision, backed by the opinion of a judge whose
good taste in legal matters is established, conform to the rulers of
debate. Whoever is familiar with the syllogisms of controversy will
submit to the rules of debater rather than follow legal taste. Only
those who seek repute and prestige and feign that they are striving
after the principles of religion pursue controversy in which they
spend their lifetime without making the slightest effort towards the
science of religion. You need not fear the Devil but beware of men
who have relieved the Devil of the task of tempting and misleading
people.
In sum, what is acceptable among the wise is to assume that you
are alone with Allah in this universe while before you lie death,
resurrection, judgement, Paradise and hell. Consider then what
concerns you of all these and ignore the rest.
A certain Sheikh saw in a dream one of the learned men and
said to him, “What has happened to those sciences in which you used
to argue and debate?” The learned man, stretched the palm of his
hand open and, blowing over it, said: “It has all vanished like
scattered dust I have not benefited except from two prostrations
which I have performed in the middle of the night.” According to one
tradition the Prophet said, “People who have once been guided go not
astray except they become afflicted with disputation.”‘ He then read
from the Qur’an the following verse: “They put this forth to thee only
in the spirit of dispute. Yea, they are a contentious people”.=
According to a tradition the Quranic verse which begins with the
words, “But they whose hearts are given to perversity,” signifies the
people of disputation of whom Allah warned saying, “Beware of
them!” One of the forbears declared that at the end of time there will
be a people who will be denied the opportunit-Y to work but will be
free to dispute. Another tradition says, “Ye are in the midst of a time
wherein ye are blessed with work but a people will appear who will
be given to disputation, “I while in the well-known tradition we read
that “Allah abhors most those who are given to bitter enmity.” 6
Another tradition declares that “no people are ever given to logic and
debate without being lost to useful work.”
1. Ibn-Mejph, Intro., 7:4.
2. Surah XLm, 58.
3. ‘Surah m:5.
4. A1-Jayahsi, No. 1432,1433; al-Bukhari, Tafsiral-Qur-an, AI-’Imran,
2:
al-Tirmidhi, Tafiral-Quran, AI-’Imran,1. 5.
Unidentified.
6. Cf, al-Darimi, Intro., 23, 29, 35.
7. Unidentified.
 SECTION IV
On the reasons which induced men to persue the science of
polemics, and on revealing the evils of debate and disputation as well
as stating the conditions which render them premissible.
You should !mow that after the death of the Apostle of Allah, the
caliphate was occupied by the orthodox and guided caliphs who were
imams of righteousness, learned in the science of Allah, His essence
and His attributes, versed in His statutes, and independent in handing
down their legal opinions and decisions. In this they did not seek the
aid of jurisprudents except in very rare cases in which consultation
was indispensable. They devoted themselves to the science of the
hereafter and used to refer legal questions and all that .ertains to
human affairs in this world to one another and with their keenest
effort, as the accounts of their lives reveal, they followed after Allah.
When at their death, the caliphate passed on those who occupied
it without either merit or independence in legal opinion and decisions,
the caliphs were compelled to seek the aid of jurisprudents and to
attach them to themselves on all occasions in order to consult with
them on the manner of their judicial decisions. A few learned
followers (tabiun), however, who continued to emulate the orthodox
caliphs and persisted in conforming to the dictates of religion, and in
following the way of rig” s Fathers, were still living. Whenever they
were sought for appointment as judges, they would flee, disdaining
altogether such honour. Consequently the caliphs were compelled to e
insistent in their desire to appoint them as judges and to delegate to
them the power of government. Contemporaries were thus awakened
to the glory of the learned men who, while they paid no attention to
the caliphs and governors, were persistently sought by them. As a
result these contemporaries turned with their efforts towards
knowledge which they hoped to acquire in order to attain power and
glory through the solicitation of governors. They bent themselves to
the study of the science of legal opinions and offered their services to
governors from whom they sought office and rewards. In this some
failed while others met success, but those who were successful were
not free from the obsequiousness of begging and the servility of
indebtedness. Consequently the learned men, after having once been
sought, have now become job seekers, and after having once been
proud of their indifference to the sultans, having now become
obsequious by waiting upon them. This is true of all except the few
learned men of religion whom Allah has blessed in every
All that time people addressed themselves the most to the
science of legal opinions and decisions because of the pressing need
for it in governmental affairs, Later on, however, there emerged some
celebrities and princes who had heard the pronouncements of people
on the elements of faith and enjoyed listening to their arguments, and
consequently found themselves well disposed to debate and
disputation in theology. Thus people pursued-wholeheartedly the
science of theology, composed many books on the subject in which
they set forth the methods of argumentation and developed the
principles of contradiction, claiming all the time that their sole
purpose was to defend the religion of Allah, safeguard the Usage of
His Prophet, and to uproot all innovators, just as the jurisprudents
who preceded them claimed that they devoted themselves to the legal
profession and took upon themselves the affairs of the Muslims
simply out of pity for Allah’s creatures and for the sake of giving them
counsel and advice.
Subsequently, however, there appeared some distinguished men
who deemed it improper to discourse on theology and start a series of
debates therein because such a thing would lead to bloodshed and
destruction. Instead they preferred to debate in jurisprudence and to
point out the more important juridical points in the systems of al-
Shafii’t and abu-Hanifah in particular.
Consequently men discarded theology and the other disciplines
of knowledge and pursued especially problems of disagreement
between al-Shan’t and abu-Nonfat, while to those between Malik,
Sufyan al-Thawri, Ahmad ibn-Hanbal, and others, they paid little
attention. Their purpose, they claimed, was to elicit the abstruse
points of the law, determine the principles of the system, and
prepare the bases of legal opinions and decisions. They composed
many works on the subject and elicited many points, setting forth
therein the different kinds of syllogisms of controversy and
enumerating the various works that pertain thereto. Furthermore
they still continue to compose at this present time; as to the future,
however, we do not know what Allah has ordained.
This, then, is what induced men to take up nothing but
controversies and debate. If, however, the rulers of this world had
favoured another imam or another science, men would have done the
same and would have persisted in saying that they were employed in
the science of religion and that they had no other aim than that of
drawing near to Allah, the Lord of the Universe.

DETERMINING THE AMBIGUITY WHICH EXISTS IN LMNING

THESE DEBATES TO THE CONSULTATIONS OF THE
 COMPANIONS AND THE COUNCHS OF THE FATHERS.
You should know that those who liken their debates to the
consultations of the Companions cajole men by saying that their aim
in those debates is to search after the truth in order that it may
become apparent, especially because the truth is much desired and
any co-operation in examining truth and the exchange of views
therein is both helpful and telling. Furthermore, such was the custom
of the Companions in their consultations, as for example, the time
when then held a consultation on the case of the grandfather and the
brothers,’ the penality for drinking wine,2 the obligation on the imam
age.

al-Bukhari, Fara’id, 9: al-Darimi, Fara`id,11.

Cf. al-Bukhari, Hudud,1.4; al-Darimi, Hudud, 9.
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to pay an indemnity when he commits a mistake in his
interpretation as has-been reported concerning the woman who had
an abortion because of the fear of ‘Umar,’ and several cases of
inheritance, as well as what has been reported on the authority of al-
Shafi-i, Ahmad ibn-Hanbal. Muhammad ibn-al-Hasan al-Shaybani 2
Malik, abU_ Yusuf,.and other learned men besides. You will
understand this ambiguity between debate and consultation when I
relate to you the following, namely, that co-operation in the search
after truth is a part of religion but has eight distinguishing features
and conditions.
These are:
I. Whereas debate as a means of searching after the truth is one
of the fard kifayah duties, no one who has not yet fulfilled his fard
‘ayn duties should take it up. Thus whoever has a fard ‘ayn duty to
fulfil, but addresses himself to the fulfilment of a fard kifayah instead,
claiming that he seeks thereby the truth, is a liar; he is like the
person who neglects prayer and traffics in weaving and tailoring
saying that his purpose is to cover the nakedness of him who prays
naked because he finds no clothes. Such a thing may occur and is
quite possible just as the occurrence of the rare cases which are the
subject of research in those debates is possible. Those who spend
their time in debate neglect several duties which are, by general
agreement, fard’ayn duties. Similarly, anyone who has been expected
to return a deposit to its owner at once, but, instead of so doing,
seeks refuge in prayer which is the worthiest of all obligations before
Allah, transgresses because it is not enougfr that a person be
obedient and his works constitute acts of service unless he observes
therein the rules of time, condition and sequence.
2. Debate as a means of searching after the truth is justified
provided the doer is not confronted with a more important fard
kifayah duty.
Thus whoever finds, an important obligation waiting for him and
turns to perform something else, transgresses. In fact he is like a
person who comes upon a group of people and finds them, having
been neglected, about to die of thirst, but instead of saving them by
giving them water to drink, buckles down to study the art of bleeding,
claiming that it is a fard kifayah and that unless the town had a
bleeder the people will perish. On being told that a number of
bleeders already exist within his region and, therefore, there is no
need for his services he insists that notwithstanding all this, bleeding
remains a fard kifayah. Likewise, he who does this and neglects to
give his attention to the calamity which has befallen a group of
thirsty Muslims is like the person who devotes his time to debate
while several fard kifayah duties remain neglected in the town. Thus
several have taken up the profession of law (fatwa) while a number of
obligatory duties remain neglected in every town and no junsprudent
ever pays any attention to them. More specifically let me single out
medicine in which there is not, in almost all the land, a Muslim
physician whose word could be legally accepted in important matters.
Nevertheless not one of the jurisprudents has taken up medicine. The
same is true of the Muslim obligation to enjoin what is just and to
forbid what is evil’ which is a fard kifayah duty.
A debater might perhaps be arguing in the midst of a hall
draped with silk and among men apparelled with it, but would say
nothing about it and instead would debate concerning a hypothetical
case which might never come to pass, even if it should occur there
would be several jurisprudents ready to attend to it. All this time he
claims that he desires to come nearer to Allah through performing the
fard kifayah duties. It was related by Anas that the Apostle of Allah
was once asked, “When will the Muslim obligation of enjoining what is
just and forbidding what is evil be neglected?” To which he replied, .
“When the best among you take to hypocrisy and the wicked, to
adultery; when government shall pass to the hands of the least
deserving among you and knowledge to those whe are corrupt.”
3. The third condition which justifies debate is that the debater
should have the ability and right to form an opinion of his own
(mujlahid), and should be one who can give decisions on his own
I. Cf Surah IX: 72.
I. Cf. al-Bukhari, Diyat. 24-25. 2.
 A.H. I89/A.D. 804-5; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. II, pp. 2278.

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responsibility without being bound be the opinions of either al-Shafi’i
or abu-Hanifah or any other imam, so that whenever he would find
that the school of abu-Hanifah is right on a particular point he would
hand down his opinion accordingly, just as the Companions and the
imams used to do, and would ignore what the Shafi’ite school holds on
the subject. On the other hand, he who lacks the right and the ability
of independent interpretation (ijtihad), as is the case with all
contemporaries, but would hand down his opinions on the authority of
his imam, would not be able to reject the stand ofanother even though
he should discover its weakness. Of what use to him there is debate
when his system is well-known and his opinions are bound to conform
to it? And whenever a doubtful point confronts him he would be
compelled to say that the founder of his school might have an answer
as he himself was not independent in interpreting the sources of the
law. It would have been more fitting for him if his discussions were on
points which tend themselves to two opinions, for then he might hand
down his opinion in favour of the one and against the other and
become thereby more and more disposed to one view and opposed to
the other. Yet debates are not confined to this type of two-sided
questions; often these are ignored in favour of cases in which the
points of controversy have been fully discussed and decided.
4. The fourth condit’on which justifies debate is that there should
be none except on ac I cases or cases likely to be so. Thus the
Companions held consultations only as questions arose or were likely
to arise, as for example questions of inheritance. We do not, however,
see debaters concerning themselves with the criticism of cases in
which the handing of opinions has caused widespread tribulations.
Rather they seek the spectacular cases which attract attention and
consequently, no matter what the nature of the case may be,
discussion of the issue becomes widespread. They may even ignore
cases of frequent occurrence saving that they are reported cases or
rare events which are not spectacular. That the aim of a debate should
be the truth is nothing short of a miracle. They would also drop a case
because it has been reported although the way to truth is through
such reports; or they might drop it because it was not spectacular and
would lend itselfto little discussion. Truth, however, aims at reducing
debate and arriving at conclusions concisely and not flatulently.
 5. The fifth condition which justifies debate is that it should be
held in private in preference to public meeting in the presence of
celebrities and sultans, because privacy is more conducive to
understanding and its atmosphere more suitable to clear thinking.
Public meetings encourage hypocrisy and make it imperative for the
individual to defend himself whether he is right or wrong. It is very
well-known that these public meetings and assemblies are not
promoted by their devotees for the sake of Allah. One of them may be
alone with his companion for a long period of time but will not even
talk to him because, there is no audience to applaud his rhetoric. He
may at times try to start a discussion but for the same reason gets no
response. But no sooner someone makes his appearance or a group
assembles, than he will try his utmost to provoke a controversy and
then monopolize the discussion.
6. The sixth condition which justifies debate is that the debater
should seek thereby the truth in the same spirit as that of the person
who is searching for a lost object: he does not mind whether the
object is found by himself or by his aides, regards his companion a
friend not an adversary, and thanks him whenever he points out a
mistake to him and reveals to him the truth. Thus if he pursues one
way in his search for his lost object and his companion shows him
another and better way he will not criticise him but rather will thank
and honour him and rejoice with him. Such were the consultations of
the Companions that once upon a time, when `Umar was addressing
an assembly, a certain woman interrupted him and pointed out to him
his mistake. Thereupon he said, “A woman hath hit the mark while a
man hath missed.” At another time a certain man asked ‘Ali a question
and, on receiving an answer, disagreed with him saying that it was
different; to which ‘Ali replied: “Thou art right while I am wrong.
Exalted overall is the Omniscient Allah. “On another occasion, abu-
Musa, al-Ash’ari. then the governor of al-Kufah, was asked concerning
the fate of a man who had died fighting for Allah and replied that he
was in Paradise. Thereupon ibn-Masud contradicted abu-Musa and
said that, in his opinion, the man would be in Paradise if, at his death,
he has been truly sincere. Abu-Musa, concurring with the opinion of
ibn-Masud said, “What he hath said is the truth. Ask not my opinion
when in your midst you have such an authority.” Such should be the
fairness and justice of a seeker after truth. Should such a thing be
mentioned nowadays to the most insignificant jurisprudent, he would
deny it and declare it to be improbable. He would also say that there
was no need at all for the explicit mention of sincerity since everyone
knows that it was a necessary requirement.
Compare, therefore, the Companions with contemporary
debaters, how the latter become embarrassed and ashamed whenever
the truth is determined by an adversary, and how they exert their
utmost efforts trying to deny the adversary his credit, malign those
who refute their opinions, and finally liken themselves to the
Companions in respect of co-operation in determining the truth.
7. The seventh condition which justifies debate is that the
debater should not prevent his adversary from relinquishing one
argument in favour of another and one illustration in favour of a
second, as the debates of the Fathers were thus carried. The debater,
also, should remove from his argument all the unorthodox subtitles of
dialectics whether they are relevant or irrelevant. Thus ha should not,
for example, say that he was under no obligation to bring this up or
that such and such a statement was contradictory to your first
assertion and, therefore, unacceptable because going back to truth is
in itself a refutation of error and should be accepted as an argument.
You also notice how all assemblies are spent in defences and debates,
so much so that a debater would deduce a principle from all alleged
causes, and when asked what proof he had that his conclusion was
explained by that cause, he would say that that was what he had
found and would tell his critic, “If you should find anything clearer
and better, produce it so that I might examine it.” The objecting critic
would then insist that such a thing has several meanings which he
himself has always known but need not go through them while the
debater would demand that they be discussed; but the critic would
persist in his refusal. The debating assemblies are taken up by such
questions while the poor debater does not realize that his saying that
he neither knows nor remembers, and that he has no need for this or
for that, is a lie against the law, because if he asserts that which he
does not know simply to incapacitate his adversary he would be a
wicked liar disobedient to Allah, any by his claim to knowledge he
does. not possess he would expose himself to the wrath of Allah. He
would also have sinned even if his claims were true because he had
concealed what he had known of the law. His brother Muslim had
asked him in order to have things explained and examined, so that if
he were right he would abide there by but if he were wrong he would
have his friend point out his mistake for him and lead hm from the
darkness of ignorance to the bright light of knowledge. No one will
disagree that it is obligatory on the person to reveal whatever
knowledge he may possess of the sciences of religion whenever he is
asked about it. The meaning of his words, “I am under no obligation
to bring this up,” is that in the rules of dialectics, which have been
developed according to the principles of human curiosity and interest
in the methods of deception and battling with words, he was under no
obligation to admit anything unless it was obligatory by law. By his
refusal to admit in the course of his argument a point which has been
brought up and which he knows is true he becomes a liar and a
villain.
 Examine the consultations of the Companions and the
negotiations of the Fathers. Have you ever heard of anything like this
in them, or have you ever seen anybody who had been prevented from
relinquishing one argument in favour of another and one illustration
in favour of a second, and from citing as proof an event in the life of
one of the Companions after having drawn an analogy, or quoting a
Quranic verse having related a tradition? On the contrary all their
debates were carried on in this manner: they used to set forth and
examine everything that occurred to them just as it occurred.
8. The eighth condition which justifies debate is that one should
only debate with those from whom he expects to learn something,
people who arrive at their knowledge independently. Usually, however,
men nowadays avoid entering into a debate with intellectual giants
and celebrities for fear that their adversaries should determine the
truth. They would rather debate with their inferiors in the hope of
confounding them with falsehood.
Many other minute conditions, which make debate justifiable,
exist besides those already mentioned; but i n those eight conditions
you will find how to distinguish between those who debate for the
cause of Allah and those who debate for some other purpose. But in
general you should know that he who does not struggle against and
debate Satan while his heart is subject to his most virulent enemy, the
Devil, by whom he is being continually dragged to his doom, but does
instead debate with men in cases wherein the mujtahid is right, or
shares with him who is right his reward, the same is a laughing stock
of Satan and an example for the sincere. Thus Satan rejoices when he
throws him ihto the darknesses of evil which we shall now enumerate
and discuss.

ON THE EVILS OF DEBATE AND THE CHARACTER

DESTROYING INFLUENCES RESULTING THEREFROM

You should know and be sure that debates which are designed for
the purpose of ovcrcoming and silencing an opponent as well as for
displaying one’s excellence and honour, bragging before men,
boasting, and being contradictory, or for the sake of winning popular
favour, are the source of all traits which are blameworthy before
Allah and praiseworthy before His enemy, the Devil. Its relation to the
secret sins of pride, conceit, jealousy, envy, self-justification, love of
power, and others is like the relation of drinking to the sins of the
flesh such as fornication, foul play, and murder. Just as the person
who has been given the opportunity to choose between drinking and
the other sins, deemed the former harmless and took to it only to be
led by his drunkenness into committing all the other sins, so is he
who succumbs to the lures of overcoming and silencing opponents in
debate, and falls victim to the urge for power and boasting; these
things have led him to conceal all wickedness in his bosom and
stirred in him all blameworthy traits. Proofs of the blameworthiness
of all these will be discussed in the Quarter on the Destructive
Matters in Life although we shall now allude to the major evils which
are enkindled by debate. Of these we may enumerate the following.”
One is envy: The Prophet said, “As fire consumes wood so does
envy consume good deeds.”‘ The debater persists in envy because at
times he overcomes his adversary and other times he himself is
overcome; at times his words are praised and at other times those of
his opponent are applauded; and as long as there remains in all the
world one known among men for his versatile knowledge and
regarded by them more learned than the debater and endowed with
keener insight, the debater will inevitably envy him and wish that the
favours and admiration which that man enjoys might accrue to him
instead.
Envy is a consuming fire; its victim is subject to torment in this
world while in the world to come his torture will be more intense and
painful. For this reason ibn-’Abbas said, “Take knowledge wherever
ye may find it, but accept not the opinion of one jurisprudent
concerning another because they are as jealous of one another as the
bulls in the cattle-yard.”
Another is pride and haughtiness: The Prophet said, “He who
exalteth himself is humbled by Allah, and he who hunibleth himself is
exalted by Allah. “2 Said he again quoting Allah, “Pride is my mantle
and grandeur, yea it is my cloak. I shall smite anyone who would
contest my sole right to diem.”‘
The debater persists in exalting himself above his equals and
peers and in claiming for himself a station higher than his worth to’
the extent that he and his colleagues fight over their seats in
assembly halls and boast about the degree of their elevation or
lowliness as well as their proximity to, or remoteness from the central
seat. They would fight as to who should lead the way in narrow
streets. Often the
1. .4bu-Dawud, Adab, 44; ibn Majah, Zuhd, 22:3.
2. Cf. ibn Afajah, Zuhd, 163; Matt, 22:12; Luke 14:11,18:14.
3. See ibn-Majah, Zuhd, 16:2.
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foolish, deceitful, and insolent among them justify. themselves on the
ground that they are thereby maintaining the dignity of knowledge
because the believers has been charged not to object himself. They
thus consider humility, which Allah and his prophets commended,
abasement, and regard pride, which is reprehensible to Allah, the
dignity of religion. In other words they have altered the signification
of these terms for the confusion of people as they have altered the
signification of other terms such as wisdom, knowledge and the like.
Another is rancour from which a debater is hardly ever free. The
Prophet said, “The believer is free from rancour.” Several more
traditions have been related in condemnation of rancour and they are
well-known. Yet we do not know of a debater who, is capable of
entertaining no rancour against anyone who would nod his head in
approval of the words of his adversary, or who when the latter pauses
in the midst of a sentence, would politely wait for him. On the
contrary he would, whenever he is confronted with such a situation,
entertain and foster rancour in his heart. He may attempt to restrain
himself hoping thereby to disguise his feelings; but, in most cases, he
fails as his feelings invariably reveal themselves. How can he refrain
from rancour when it is inconceivable that all the audience should
unite in favouring his argument and approve all his conclusions and
deductions? Furthermore should his opponent show the least sign of
inconsideration about what he was saying, he would entertain for him
in his heart a hatred that would last throughout his life.
Another is backbiting which was likened by Allah to the eating of
carrion.’
The debater persists in “eating carrion” and is continually
referring to the words of his opponent and traducing him. Because he
endeavours to be right in what he says about his opponent, he
inevitably cites only what shows the weaknesses of his opponent’s
argument and the flaws in his excellences. Of such is traducing and
backbiting, while lying is sheer calumny.
The debater, moreover, cannot keep his tongue from attacking
the honour of anyone who turns away from him and listens to his
opponent. He would even ascribe to him ignorance, foolishness, lack
of understanding, and stupidity.
Another is self-justification; Allah said, “Assert not then your own
purity. He best knoweth who feareth Him.”‘ A certain wise man was
once asked, “What truth is reprehensible?” He replied, “A man’s
praising himself [even though it be justified].” A debater is never free
from praising himself and boasting of his power, triumph, and
excellence over his peers. In the course of a debate he would
repeatedly say, “I am fully aware of all such things,” and “I am
versatile in science, of independent judgment on question of law, and
well-versed in the knowledge oftradition,”and many other assertions
besides with which he would sing his own praise, sometimes out of
sheer arrogance and at other times out of the need to render his
words convincing. It is also well-known that arrogance and self-praise
are by law and reason condemned.
Another is spying and prying into the private affairs of men. Allah
said, “Pry not.”2 The debater always seeks to uncover the errors of his
peers and continually pries into the private affairs of his opponents.
He would, when informed of the arrival in town of another debater,
seek someone who could reveal the inside story of the man and would
by means of a questionnaire attempt to bare his vices in order to
expose and disgrace him whenever the need should arise. He even
would inquire about the affairs of his early life and blemishes of his
body in the hope of discovering some defect or disfigurement such as
scalp pustule and the like. Should he feardefeat at the hands of his
opponent, he would, in the course of the debate, allude to these
blemishes, especially if his opponent should remain firm and stand his
ground, and would not refrain from being outspoken if he were given
to insolence and scorn. Both of these practices are regarded as clever
ways of repelling the attacks of an opponent, as should be seen by the
accounts of the debates of some of the illustrious and celebrated
debaters.
Surah Lm: 33 . Surah XLIX:12.
(Y. Surah XLIX: 12.
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Another is to rejoice at the injury of others and feel depressed
when they are glad. Anyone who does not desire for his brother
Muslim what he desires for himself is far removed from the way of
believers.’ Thus he who prides himself by parading his excellence is
inevitably pleased at the injury of his peers and equals who vie with
him for glory. The hatred which exists between them is. like that
which exists between fellow-wives. Just as the one wife would
tremble and turn pale at the sight of her fellow-wife so would a
debater at the sight of another: his colour would change and his mind
become perplexed as though he had seen a mighty devil or a hungry
lion. How unlike the companionship and friendliness which used to
exist between the learned men of religion whenever they met is this,
and how unlike the brotherhood, the co-operation, and the mutual
sharing which were characteristic of them under fair and adverse
conditions alike! Thus al-Shafi’i said, “Among the virtuous and wise,
knowledge is like a bond of blood relationship.” I cannot, trierefore,
understand how some men, among whom knowledge has engendered
a deep-rooted enmity, have followed his rite. Or can you ever imagine
any spirit of friendliness prevailing among them when they are
concerned with achieving triumph and boasting of it? How unlikely! It
is bad enough that such an evil fastens on you the traits of the
deceitful and robs you of those of the believers and devout.
Another is deception, the evidence of whose blameworthiness is
well known and need not be enumerated. Debaters are compelled to
deception because when they meet their opponents, friends, or
followers, they find it necessary to endear themselves to them by
saying nice things which they do not mean, by feigning to have been
anxious to meet them, and by pretending to be impressed by their
station and position, while everyone present as well as the speakers
and those to whom they have spoken to, know that the whole thing is
untrue, false, fraudulent, and wicked. They profess their love with
their tongues while their hearts seethe with hate. From it all we seek
refuge in Allah.
The Prophet also said, “When people take to knowledge and
ignore works, when they profess love to one another with their tongue
and nurse hatred in their hearts, and when they sever the ties of
relationship which bind theni, Allah will visit His wrath upon them and
curse them, He will render their tongues mute and their eyes blind.”
The truth of this tradition, which was related by al-Hasan, has been
verified as these conditions which it predicts have been witnessed and
seen.
Another is to resist truth and detest it and to persist in disputing
it so much so that the most hateful thing to a debater is to see the
truth revealed by his opponent; no matter what it may be, he would do
his best to refute and deny it and would exert his utmost in deception,
trickery and fraud in order to disprove his adversary until contention
becomes in him a second nature. He is thus unable to hear anything
without immediately expressing his objection to it. This habit of his
would even drive him to dispute the truths of the Qur’an and the
words of tradition and would cause hm to cite the one in contradiction
of the other. Furthermore wrangling even in opposing wrong is
prohibited since the Prophet called men to abjure it although they are
right in their contention. He thus said, “Whoever was in error and
should abjure wrangling, to him Allah would build a dwelling in the
confines of Paradise; while whoever was in the right and should
abjure wrangling, to him Allah would prepare a habitation in the heart
of Paradise.”‘ Allah has al a regarded as equal those who devise lies
against Allah and those who call the truth a lie. He said, `But who
acteth more wrongfully than he who deviseth a lie against Allah, or
calls the truth when it hath cc..ae to him, a lie?” and and again,
“Andwho acteth more wrongfully than he who lieth against Allah and
treateththe truth when it comes to him as a lie.’“
 Another is hypocrisy and flattering people in an effort to win their
favour and mislead them. Hypocrisy is that virulent disease which, as
will be discussed in the Book on Hypocrisy,° leads to the
I Cf. al-Bukhari, Lean, 6
1. Cf. ibn-Majah Intro., 7: 7.2. Surah XXIX: 68.
3. Surah XXXX 33.
4. See the Quarter on the Destructive Matters of Life, Bk. VM.
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gravest of the major sins. The debater wants nothing but to put
himself forward before people, and to gan their approval and praise.
These ten traits are among the greatest secret sins. Others, who
lack restraint may engage in controversies leading to the exchange of
blows, kicking, boxing, tearing garments, plucking beards, cursing
parents, denouncing teachers, and outright slander. Such people,
however, are not considered respectable human beings. The
prominent and sober among them do not go beyond the preceding ten
traits. One may be free of this or that trait with regard to his inferiors
or superiors, whatever the case may be, or with regards to people
outside his community or his sphere of work. Yet in his attitude
towards his peers, who are equal to him in position, the debater is
guilty of all these traits. Each of these ten traits may give rise to ten
other vices which we shall neither discuss nor explain at the present
time. They include snobbishness, anger, hatred, greed, the desire to
seek money and power in order to attain triumph, boasting, gaiety,
arrogance, exalting the wealthy and those in authority as well as
frequenting their places and partaking of their unlawful riches,
paradingwith horses, state-coaches, and outlawed garments, shoeing
contempt to people by being vain and ostentatious, meddling in the
affairs of others, talkativeness, the disappearance of awe, fear, and
mercy from the heart, absent-mindedness to an extent that the
worshipper would no longer be aware of what he had prayed, or read,
or who had communed with him during his prayer, nor, despite the
fact that he had spent his life in the study of those sciences which aid
in debate but are useless in the hereafter, such as the embellishment
of diction and the knowledge of singular anecdotes, would he be able
to experience any feeling of humility in his heart.
These traits are common to all debaters although they have them
in varying degrees each according to his own station. But everyone,
even the most religious and the wisest among them, is subject to
several of then. Everyone, too, hopes to conceal them and by self-
mortification, to free himself therefrom.
You should, moreover, know that these vices characterize those
employed in admonition and warning if their purpose is to be
recognized and establish for themselves prestige, or to obtain wealth
and position. They also characterize those who are working in the
science of religion and legal opinions if they ever hope to secure a
position in the department of justice or become trustees of mortmain
properties (awgaf j or to excel their peers. In general, these vices
characterize everyone who, through knowledge, seeks other than the
reward of Allah in the hereafter.
Knowledge, therefore, would either doom its possessor to eternal
destruction or lead him to life everlasting. For that reason the Prophet
said, “The most severely punished of all men on the day of
resurrection will be the learned man whom Allah has not blessed with
His knowledge.” On the contrary how much better it would have been
if he had come out at least even. This, however, is very unlikely
because the dangers of knowledge are great, for he who seeks it seeks
the everlasting kingdom and the eternal bliss which he will either
attain or else be doomed to perdition. The seeker after knowledge is
like him who seeks power in this world: if he does not succeed in
amassing a fortune he cannot hope to be spared the humiliation of
poverty. On the contrary, he will continue to live in the midst of the
worst conditions. To saythat in encouraging debate lies an advantage,
namely, that of inducing people to seek knowledge since without
ambition for power and the rivalry which it provokes all branches of
knowledge would have vanished, is true in one respect but otherwise
useless. Thus had it been for their expectation of playing at the ball
and mallet’ and with birds,’ the school would not have been attractive
to the boys. But this does not mean that the reasons for the school’s
popularity are praiseworthy. Similarly in the case of ambition for
power as the reason for the preservation of knowledge: it does not
mean that the ambitious one is saved. On the contrary he is one of
those whom the Prophet described when he said, “Verily Allah will
establish this faith through men who have no faith.”‘ And again,
l. Al-Kurah w-a!-Sawlajan.
2. Unidentified game.
3. Hikyat al-Awhya, Vol. Q, p. 358.
4. Cf al-Bukhari, Maghazi, 40:7; Qadar,5.

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“Verily Allah will establish this faith through wicked men.”‘ The
ambitious is personally doomed to destruction although, through him,
others may be saved, especially if he should urge people to forsake
the world and in so doing outwardly resemble the learned Fathers
while inwardly he conceals his, ambitions. He is, in this respect, like
the candle which burns itself out in order that others may see: the
good of others lies in his own destruction. On the other hand if he
should urge people to cherish this world he would be like the fire
which, besides consuming even-thing, burns itself out as well.
The learned men are of three kind: First those who are
outspoken in seeking this world and in their devotion to it they
destroy both themselves and others. Second, those who call people to
Allah in public and in private; they bring joy and gladness both to
themselves and to those whom they call. Third, those who preach the
hereafter, outwardly forsaking the world while inwardly seeking the
approval of men and wordly prestige; they save others but destroy
themselves.
Examine therefore to which of these three categories you belong
and to what end have you been preparing yourself, and do not think
that Allah would accept anything of knowledge and work which has
not been consecrated to Him. Any doubts which you may have in this
regard will be dispelled by the contents of the Book on Hypocrisy, in
fact by all the contents of the Quarter on the Destructive Matters in
Life.’
 SECTION V
On the Proprieties of the Student and the Teacher.
The formal proprieties and duties of the student are many but
may be classified under ten headings:
The first duty of the student is to purify his soul from impure
traits and blameworthy characteristics because’ knowledge is the
worship of man’s heart as well as the prayer of his inmost self (sirr)
and the oblation of his inward being before Allah. Just as prayer,
which is the duty of the physical senses, is not fulfilled unless the
physical body has been purified from excrements and impurities, so is
the worship of the inward being as well as the reformation of the
heart: they, are not fulfilled through knowledge unless they first be
cleansed from impurities and uncleanliness. Thus the Prophet said,
“Religion has been built on cleanliness.” This is true physically and
spiritually. Allah said, “Verily the polytheists are unclean...”‘ as a
reminder to the mind that purity and uncleanliness are not confined to
the externals which are perceived by the senses. Thus the polytheist
may be physically clean and immaculately dressed yet he is inwardly
unclean, i.e., his inward being reeks with impurities. Uncleanliness is
a word which represents that which is avoided and from which people
desire to stay away. It is more important to avoid the impurities of the
heart than to avoid physical impurities because, besides their
abomination in this world, the impurities of the heart are fatal in the
world to come. For this reason the Prophet said, “The angels do not
enter into a house where there are dogs or images!” The heart is the
house of the angels, the place on which they descend and
I. Cf. al-Bukhari, Maghazi, 40: 7, Qadar, 5.
2. See Vol. III, Bk. III.
I. Surah X28.
2. .41-Tirmidhi, Adab, 44: al-Darimi, lsti,dhan, 34.
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in which they abide, while bad traits like anger, lust, rancour, envy,
pride, conceit and the like are barking dogs. How then could the
angels enter the heart when it i.-, crowded with dogs? Besides, the
light of knowledge is not made to shine upon the heart of man except
through the instrumentality of the angels, and it is not possible for
any man to have any communication with Allah except through
revelation or through a veil or through a messenger whom Allah sends
and instructs to declare His will. Similarly whatever knowledge is sent
by the grace of Allah to the human heart is transmitted by the angels
who have been entrusted (muwaooolun)’ with this responsibility. They
are the angels who have been made holy, pure, and free from all
blameworthy traits. They attend to no one but the good, and with
what they possess of the mercy of Allah they reform no one but the
pure.
I do not say that, in the above quoted tradition, the word house
itself means heart and the word dog, anger as well as other
blameworthy traits; but I do say that it is a suggestion. Thus there is a
difference between ignoring the literal meaning of words in favour of
an esoteric interpretation on the one hand and incidentally pointing
out an esoteric significance while affirming the literal meaning on the
other hand. This subtle point is exactly what distinguishes the
Batinites from the true believers. This is the method of suggestion,
which is the way of the learned and the righteous. For suggestion
means that what has already been mentioned should also represent
something else and consequently attention should be paid to both.
Thus the wise man may witness a calamity befall someone besides
himself and the calamity would serve as a warning to him, in that it
would wake him up to the fact that he too is subject to calamities and
that time is full of vicissitudes. Thus to turn one’s attention from the
examination of the affairs of others t3 those of his own and from those
of his own to the examination of the nature of the things for the sake
of learning is a praiseworthy practice. Proceed, therefore, from the
consideration of the house built by Allah and from the consideration of
the dog which has been pronounced blameworthy, not for its physical
appearance
1. See Al-Qazwini ‘Aja-ib, pp. 62-3.
but for its inherent beastly characteristics and uncieanliness, to that
of the animal spirit which is bestiality.
You should know, too, that he whose heart is saturated with anger,
greed, indulgence, and readiness to slander people is actually a beast
although he appears in the form of a human being. He who has keen
insight regards the real meaning of things and not their form. In this
world forms obscure the realities which lie within them, but in the
hereafter forms will conform to realities axed the latter will prevail.
For this reason every individual will be resurrected according to his
own spiritual reality; the slanderer will be resurrected in the form of a
vicious dog; the greedy, a wild wolf, the haughty, a tiger, and the
ambitious, a lion. Traditions have attested to this and the men of
insight and discerning have testified to it.
 You migh, say that many students of bad character have sought
and acquired the knowledge of the sciences. That may be so, but how
far they are from real knowledge which is useful in the hereafter and
which insures happiness! Characteristic of that true knowledge is that
even a rudimentary grasp of it would show that sin is a fatal and
destructive poison. And have you ever seen anyone take anything
which lie knew to be fatally poisonous? As to what you hear from the
sophists it is nothing but [spurious) traditions which they fabricate
and repeat - it is no science at all. Ibn-Masud said, “Knowledge is not
the prolific retention of traditions but a light which floods the heart.”‘
Others, having in mind the words of Allah, “Such only of His servants
as are possessed of knowledge fear Allah. “I hold that knowledge is
the fear of Allah. This verse evidently alludes to the choicest fruit of
knowledge; and for that reason one of the scholars said that the
meaning of the words, “We sought knowledge for other purposes than
the glory of Allah but failed to grasp it and it remained the attribute of
Allah alone,” is that knowledge has resisted our efforts to grasp it and
consequently its truth was not revealed to us; all we acquired was its
words and terms.

I. Cf. Hayat a! Awliya’, Vol. 1, p 131

2. Surah XXXV: 25.
120

Should you say thatseveral well-learned men andjurisprudents,

while characterised by blameworthy traits from which they never
purified themselves, have excelled in the principles of law and applied
jurisprudence and have been considered authorities thereon, my
answer would be that if you had known the.relative ranks of the
sciences as well as the value of the science of the hereafter, you would
have realized that the sciences to which they have
addressedthemselves are of little avail as knowledge but are of use
merely as works provided they are sought as means with which to
draw near to Allah. This last point has already been mentioned and
will again be discussed.
The second duty of the student is to reduce to a minimum his ties
with the affairs of the world and leave his kin and country because
such ties occupy one’s time and divert one’s attention. Furthermore
Allah has not given man two hearts and the more the mind divides its
attention among several things the less able it is to comprehend the
truth. For this reason it has been said, “Knowledge will surrender
nothing to man unless man surrenders his all to it.” Even when you
devote yourself completely to it, you cannot be sure that you will
attain any of it. This mind which divides its attention among different
things is like a stream the water of which flows in several directions
only to be absorbed in part by the earth and in part by the air with the
result that nothing is left for irrigation of planted lands.
The third duty of the student is that he should neither scorn
knowledge nor exalt himself over the teacher, but rather entrust to
him the conduct of his affairs and submit to his advice just as the
simple patient would submit to a sympathetic and clever physician.
He should humble himself before his teacher and through his service
seek reward and honour. It was related by al-Sha`bi’ that once upon a
time as Zayd ibn-Thabit2 was leaving a funeral service at which he
had just officiated, his mule was brought to him and as he was about
l. Abu-’Amr’Amir ibn-Sharahil (between AR 103 and 105 A.D. 721
and
724). See ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, pp. 436-8.
2. The scribe of the Prophet (ca. A.H. 54/A.D. 674). See Tahdhib al-
Asma’,
pp. 259-60.
to mount it ibn-’Abbas rushed and held the stirrup for him. Thereupon
Zayd said, “Oh! No! Bother not thyself O cousin of the Apostle of
Allah.” lbn-’Abbas replied, “Thus have we been charged to treat the
learned and the illustrious.” To which Zayd, bending over and kissing
ibn-’Abbas’ hand, replied, “Thus have we been charged to venerate
the household of our Prophet.” The Prophet also said, “It is not the
habit of the believer to flatter anyone except when he is seeking
knowledge.” Therefore the seeker after knowledge should not lord it
over his teacher. One manifestation of such a pride is the pupil’s
reluctance to heed the advice of anyone except the popular and well-
known teachers. This is foolishness itself because knowledge is the
way to salvation and happiness. Besides anyone who is seeking an
escape from the claws of a threatening wild lion does not mind, as
long as he is saved, whether he is led to safety by a well-known
celebrity or by an obscure person. The tortures which the flames of
hell fire inflict upon those who are ignorant of Allah are greater than
any which the lions of the jungle are capable of inflicting. Wisdom,
therefore, is the aim of every believer; he siezes it wherever he finds
it, and is under obligation to anyone who imparts it to him, no matter
who the person may be. For this reason it has been said:
“Knowledge humbleth the haughty youth,
As the flood washeth away the hill.”
Thus knowledge is not attained except through humility and
harkening. Allah said, “Lo! Herein is warning for him who hath a
heart or harkeneth with his ear while he himself is an eye-witness.”
By “him who hath a heart” is meant the person who is prepared and
capable of understanding knowledge but would fail to do so unless he
would open his ears and heart and would attentively, humbly,
thankfully, gladly, and gratefully receive whatever he is told. Let,
therefore, the pupil be to his teacher like the soft soil which has
received heavy rains and completely absorbed them. Whatever the
teacher should recommend to the pupil the latter should follow,
putting aside his own opinion since his teacher’s faults are more

l. Surah L: 36.
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useful to him than his own right judgment because experience would
reveal details which might be strange but are nevertheless very
useful. Often a physician may treat a patient suffering from fever with
warm applications and drinks in order to increase his resistance to
withstand the shock which results from the administration of the
medicine. Because of his ignorance’ the uninformed would be amazed
by this treatment. Allah pointed out the possibility of such a thing
through the story of al-Khidr2 and Moses where al-Khidr, addressing
Moses, said, “Verily thou canst not have patience with me, how cant
thou be patient in matters the meaning of which thou comprehendest
not?” He then allowed Moses to follow him on condition that the latter
would maintain silence and ask no questions, and said, “If you follow
me, ask me not of aught until I have given thee an account thereof’.
Nevertheless Moses did not wait and persisted to query al-Khidr with
the result that they had to part company. In short, be sure that every
pupil, who would hold fast to his own opinion and choice in defiance
to those of his teacher, is doomed to disappointment and failure.
Should you also come forth with the assertion that, whereas Allah
said, “Ask ye the people who are warned by Scriptures if ye know
not,” asking questions was ordained by Allah, you should remember
that this is only so in whatever the teacher allows. On the other hand
to ask about things which you are not yet competent to understand is
blameworthy, and it was for this reason that al-Khidr had forbidden
Moses to ask any questions. In other words do not ask questions out
of the proper time and season; the teacher is better informed than you
are as to things you are capable of understanding and as to the
appropriate time for making them known. Similarly

1. Also al-Khidr, see Surah XVIII:-59-81; al-Tha alibi, Qisas al-Anbiya’

(Cairo, 1297), pp. 207-220; al-Zamakhshari, al-Kashshaf,- al-
Tabari, Jami’ al-Bayan ft Tafsiaral-Qur an. See also A.J. Wensnick,
art. “Al-Khidr” in Encyclopaedia of Islam.
2. Surah XVIII: 67-7.
3. Ibid., 69.
4. Surah XVI: 45; XXI. 7.

124
unless, in anyone of the successive planes, the appropriate time of
revelation is come, the time for its expectation does not arrive.’
`Ali said, “Among the obligations which you owe the learned man
are: not to pester him with too many questions nor expect him to reply
to all your inquiries; not to be importunate when he seems lazy nor
attempt to detain him when he starts to go away; and finally not to
divulge his secrets nor to tell tales about other people in his presence.
Furthermore do not seek to trap him; whenever he commits a mistake
be ready to excuse him. In obedience to Allah it is your duty to respect
and honour him as long as he himself continues to obey Allah. Remain
standing in his presence and whenever he needs something be the
first to wait on him.”
The fourth duty is that the student should at first pay no attention
to the numerous differences of opinion which exist among people,
whether in the secular sciences or in the sciences of the hereafter,
because they would confuse and perplex his mind, cool his enthusiasm
and cause him to despair of ever comprehending or learning anything.
Rather he should first master the one and only praiseworthy way
which is satisfactory to his teacher and then attend to the other
schools of thought and questionable ideas. He should be on the look
out to see if his teacher is not capable of reaching independent
opinions but is in the habit of repeating the opinions of the different
schools and the comments which have been made concerning them,
because the influence of such a teacher is more misleading than it is
helpful. One blind is not fit to lead the blind and guide them.’ Anyone
of his description is still in the darkness of perplexity and the
wilderness of ignorance. Furthermore isolating the novice against
questionable ideas is like segregating the newly converted Muslim
from the unbelievers; while selecting the
I . Mystics hold Allah reveals Himself in five planes: (1) the plane of
the Essence, (2) the plane of the Attributes, (3) the plane of the
Actions, (4) the plane of Similitudes and Phantasy, and (5) the
plane of sense and ocular vision. Each of these is a copy of the
one above it, so that whatever appears in the sensible world is the
symbol of an unseen reality.
2. Cf. Luke VI: 39; Melt. XV: 1,4.
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experienced to dabble with and examine the different conflicting
opinions is like urging the man whose faith is firmly established to
mix with the unbelievers. For the same reason the faint-hearted are
not allowed to attack the lines of the unbelievers but the task is
delegated to the brave. Forgetting this subtle difference, some of the
feeble-minded have thought that it was permissible to emulate the
strong-minded in some of the lenient attitudes which they have taken
towards certain questions, failing thereby to realize that the
responsibilities of the strong differ from those of the weak. In this
connexion someone said, “Whoever should see me at the beginning of
my journey would become righteous (siddiq), but whoever should see
me at the end would become unrighteous (zindiq), because at the end
the acts of worship would be performed inwardly, and the senses
would be rendered passive except in the fulfilment of the ordained
duties. Then it would seem to the observers that the travellers were
indolent, lazy, and negligent.” But how far from the truth this is
because the end is the state wherein the heart basks in the light of
Presence, seeing Him face to face, and invoking His name constanally
which is forever the best form of worship. For the feeble-minded to
imitate the strong-minded in things which are clearly wrong is like
his throwing a little refuse into a pitcher of water and justifying
himself by pointing out several times more dirt is being continually
dumped into the sea which is greater than the pitcher.’ He then says
that what is permissible in the case of the sea is still the more
permissible in that of the pitcher .2 But the poor fellow does not
realize that, because of its enormity, these adecomposes all refuse
into water and consequently every uncleanliness, through the
prevalence of the waters, is made, like the sea, clean. But a little
refuse in the pitcher prevails over its contents of water and makes it,
like itself, unclean. For a similar reason the Prophet was allowed
what was forbidden to others. He was thus permitted to have nine
wives, because he had enough vitality to enable him to deal justly
with them despite their number. Others besides him would not be
able to be even partially just with their wives, with the result that
jealousy would develop among them and finally would drive the men,
in their efforts to please, to trespass against Allah. He who would
compare angels with blacksmiths would not succeed.

The fifth duty is that the seeker after knowledge should not allow
any branch or kind of praiseworthy knowledge to escape him without
carefully examining it in order to become familiar with its aims and
purposes, and should time permit, he should take it up in detail;
otherwise he should address himself to and master the most
important, while acquainting himself with the rest, because the
different branches of knowledge are both supplementary to one
another and closely inter-related. Besides one of the immediate
benefits of such acquaintance is that the student will no longer
persist in his hostility to branches of knowledge other than his own -
a hostility born of ignorance because, ordinarily, men are the enemies
of the thing they do not know. Said Allah, “And not having submitted
to guidance, they proceed to say, `It is an age-long lie’.”‘ The poet
said:
“Fresh water in the mouth of the sick seems bitter.”2
Knowledge, whether lower or higher, either leads men to Allah
or helps them a little on their way. In this respect it is classified in
relation to its ability to draw them nearer to their goal, [namely
Allah], or how far it can send them away from that goal. Those who
take up these branches of knowledge are like the guards who patrol
the frontiers and outposts - each has his own rank, and according to
that rank he has a reward in the hereafter, provided he had thereby
sought the face of Allah.
The sixth duty is that the student should not address himself at
the same time to every branch of knowledge, but should rather
observe some kind of order and begin with the most important,
especially since life is ordinarily too short to enable a person to
pursue all the branches of knowledge. It is therefore wise to acquire

I. surah xwI:10.
2. This verse is by al-Mutanabbi; see his Diwan, ed, S. 1. Sadir
(Beirut, 1900), p.116,1, 11.
l. John IV: 23-3.
2. Cf al Bukhari, Nikah, 4.
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the best of everything, satisfying oneself, so to speak, with the mere
tasting of it while directing whatever power one has left, after having
obtained all available knowledge, towards mastering that noblest of
all sciences, the science of the hereafter including the science of
practical religion, as well as the science of revelation. The goal of the
science of practical religion is revelation and the goal of revelation is
to know Allah. By this I do not mean the creed which the common folk
receive from their parents or accept on the authority of others, nor
the rules of dialectics and argumentation in defence of one’s position
against the devious attacks of adversaries which is the aim of the
theologians. What I mean is a form of conviction, which is the result of
a light with which Allah floods the heart of a servant who, through
self-mortification, has purified his soul from all impurities until he has
attained to the measures ofabu-Bakr’s faith which, as the Lord of
creation testified, would outweigh the faith of all the world if it were
ever compared with it.
I do not believe that the layman’s belief, systematized by the
theologian whose profession - because he excelled the layman in the
art of stringing words together - was called the science of words
(kalam), was beyond the ability of `Umar, `Uthman, `Ali, and the rest
of Companions. But abu-Bakr excelled them all by virtue of the secret
which rested in his bosom. It is, moreover, strange that a person, who
had heard such sayings from the Prophet, should despise and dismiss
similar sayings claiming that they were Sufi drivel and consequently
unreasonable. You should, therefore, be careful, otherwise you would
lose your capital. Work hard to possess that secret which is not found
in the paraphernalia ofthe jurisprudentsand theologians, and which
you cannot attain except through your diligent search.
In short the noblest and the highest of all sciences is to know
Allah. This science is like a sea the depth of which cannot be
determined. In this science the highest rank is that of the prophets,
then that of the saints and finally those that follow. It has been related
that the portraits of two of the ancient wise men were seen on the
wall of a certain mosque. In the one portrait one of the two wise men
holds in the hand a scroll on which is written, “When you have done
everything well, think not that you have fulfilled all until you have
come to know Allah and to know that He is the Cause of all causes and
the Creator of all things.” In the other portrait the second wise man
also holds a scroll on which is written, “Before I had known Allah I
was wont to drink and thirst again; but when I have known Him my
thirst was quenched without any drinking.”‘
The seventh2 duty is that no one should address himself to one
branch of knowledge before he has already mastered the branch
which precedes it because science is of necessity so arranged that one
branch prepares for another and one branch leads to another. Only
the person who would observe this order would succeed. Allah said,
“Those to whom We have given the Book, they read it as it ought to be
read.”3 In other words they do not leave a single branch of knowledge
until they have mastered it in theory and in practice. Furthermore, in
every branch of knowledge which the student may pursue,, his aim
should be the one above. Nor should he ever declare a certain science
useless because its protagonists disagree among themselves, or
because of the error of one or more among them, or because with
their actions they violate the ordinances of their own science. Thus
you find some who have relinquished the philosophical and theological
sciences excusing themselves on the grounds that if these sciences
had any truth in them they would have been comprehended by their
protagonists. (These fallacies have been exposed in the Mi yar al-
Jim).” Others believe that the medical science is false because of an
error they have seen committed by a physician. Another group
believes in the authenticity of astrology because a single prediction
involving a certain person turned out right while others disbelieve it
because in another case the prediction was faulty. All are wrong,
however. Each case should be determined separately, as not every
branch of knowledge can be independently mastered by every person.
For this reason `Ali said, “Accept no truth
I. Cf. John IV: 7-14.
2. The seventh duty is found only inC and the margin of SM while
lacking
in B and the text of SM.
3. Surah }I:115.
4. By the author, printed in Cairo, A.H.. 1329.
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because of the men who hold it but first find the truth and thou shalt
know who are its real protagonists.”
The eighth duty is to know how to ascertain the noble nature of
this or the other science. By this is meant two things; the nobility of
its fruit and the authenticity of its principles. Take for example the
science of religion and medicine. The fruit of the one is eternal life
and the fruit of the other is the physical life; consequently the science
of religion is the nobler; or again the science of arithmetic and
astrology: the former is the nobler because of the firmer and more
authentic foundations of its principles. If on the other hand arithmetic
should be compared with medicine the latter would be the nobler with
respect to its fruit while with respect to its principles arithmetic
would be the nobler. The fruit, however, has the priority. For this
reason medicine, although mostly guess work, is nobler. Similarly it
becomes evident that the noblest of all sciences is the science of
knowing Allah, His angels, Books and apostles as well as that of
knowing the path which leads to these sciences. Seek, therefore,
nothing else and treasure nothing besides.
The ninth duty is that the student’s purpose should, at the time,
be the adornment and beautification of his inner self with virtue, and
at the end, nearness of Allah and ascent to the neighbourhood of the
heavenly hosts, the angels and the cherubim. His aim should not be
the attainment of authority or influence nor contention with foolish
men and boasting before his peers. But if his aim was to draw near to
Allah he would inevitably seek that which was closest to it, namely the
science of the hereafter. Nevertheless he should not look with
contempt upon the other sciences such as the sciences of
jurisprudence, the sciences of syntax and grammar which are
connected with the Qur’an and the sunnah, and other sciences like
those already mentioned in connexion with the auxiliary and
supplementary sciences’ discussed under those sciences the
acquisition of which is fard kifayah.
You should not, however gather from our enthusiastic praise

1. See supra, p. 39.

of the science of the hereafter that we seek to disparage the her
sciences. On the contrary those who have undertaken to study them
are like those who have undertaken to guard the outpost of Islam
where they are encamped, or like the conquerors who are warring on
behalf of Allah. Of them some are active fighters, others are on the
reserve, others are in charge of the water supply, while others look
after the mounts; but all will receive their reward if their aim is the
glory of the word of Allah rather than the possession of spoils. Allah
said, “Allah will raise those of you who believe, and those to whom
knowledge has been given, to loftier ranks.”‘ And again referring to
those who have followed His good pleasure, “there are (varying)
grades with Allah.”‘ Virtue is relative and our scorn for the money
changers when we compare them with royalty does not mean that
they are contemptible when compared with the street cleaners. Do
not think, therefore, that whatever falls short of the highest rank is
worthless. For the highest rank belongs to the prophets, followed by
that of the saints, then that of the learned men who ar well versed in
knowledge, and finally the righteous according to their ranks. In short
“whosoever shall have wrought an atom’s weight of good shall behold
it; and whosoever shall have wrought an atom’s weight of evil shall
behold it.”‘ Whosoever will seek Allah through knowledge, no matter
what kind, he is sure to profit and advance.
The tenth duty of the student is that he should know the relation
of the different sciences to the goal so that he might not attach more
importance to closeby, inconsequential matters than to remote but
important things. The word important signifies anything which is of
import to you; and nothing is of any import save your fate in this
world and the next. But since, as said in the Qur’an and attested by
insight and experience, it is not possible to enjoy both the pleasures of
this world and the bliss of the next, it is more important to concern
oneself with those things which will endure forever. Then will this
world become a temporary abode, the body a vehicle, and works the
power which will `propel’ it to the goal. Furthermore, there is no goal
1. Surah LVI:12. 2. Surah f:157. 3. Surah XCIX: 7-8.
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except meeting Allah; and, despite the fact that very few in this
world do realize its significance, in its achievement lies -all bliss.
As related to the happiness attending meeting Allah seeing His
glorious face, which the prophets understood and sought but both
laymen and theologians have failed to grasp, the sciences are of three
grades. These grades can be understood by comparison with the
following illustration. The slave whose freedom as well as the right to
hold property are dependent upon performing the pilgrimage has
been told that if he would perform the pilgrimage he would receive
both his freedom and the right to hold property; but if he had made
his preparations and actually set out, then for some unavoidable
reason was detained on the way, he would receive his freedom only,
thereby escaping the wretchedness of slavery, but would fail to enjoy
the right to hold property. To accomplish all that he has to do three
things: First, the preparation of the means of travel of buying a she-
camel and a water-skin, and by packing the provisions and fitting out
the mount. Second, setting out on the journey to the K’abah and
leaving behind home and kin. Third the fulfilment of the ceremonials
of the pilgrimage one, after the other. Then after he had fulfilled all
obligations and discarded the habit of pilgrimage (hay al al-ihram),
having already performed the farewell circumambulation (lawafal-
wida) of the K’abah, he would qualify for freedom and the right to
hold property. To every stage ii the journey there is a corresponding
rank: one for the preparation for the journey, another for setting out
on the journey and crossing deserts, and third for performing the
duties of the pilgrimage. Thus he who has already begun to carry out
the duties of the pilgrimage is closer to happiness than either he who
is still occupied in packing the provisions and fitting out the mount or
he who has jut embarked on the journey.
Similarly the science are of three kinds: One corresponds to the
picking of the provisions, the fitting out of the mount, and the
purchase the she-camel; it is science of medicine and jurisprudence
and whatever pertains to the physical welfare of the body. Another
corresponds to travelling in the desert and surmounting obstacles; it
is the purification of the inner being from impure qualities as well as
surmounting those enormous obstacles against which both the
ancients and the moderns have failed, and over which only those
favoured by Allah have prevailed. This is following the way the
acquisition of the knowledge of which is like the acquisition of die
knowledge of the directions of the different desert routes and die
encampments along the way. And just as the knowledge of the location
of these encampments and acquaintance with the desert routes is
useless without actually crossing them, so is the science of ethics
useless without practice. Yet practice without knowledge is not
possible. A third corresponds to the pilgrimage and its duties; it is the
science of knowing Allah, His attributes, angels, and works as well as
that we have mentioned in the survey of the science of revelation. In it
is salvation and attainment of happiness. Salvation will be the lot of
any follower of the path provided his aim be the true goal which is
safety. The attainment of happiness, however, is not achieved except
by the gnostics who know Allah and are close to Him, who are given
to enjoy in His neighbourhood happiness, bounty and a garden of
bliss. But to those who fall short of the full measure of perfection, only
salvation and peace are given. This is in accordance to the words of
Allah when He said, “But as to him who shall enjoy near access to
Allah, his shall be happiness, bounty and a garden of bliss. But as to
him who shall be of those of the right hand, his shall be (the greeting)
-’Peace to thee’ - from those of the right hand.”‘
Anyone who does not proceed on the path which leads to Allah
nor set out on (the journey), or anyone who does set out, not because
of obedience or devotion, but for expedience, belongs to those of the
left who have gone astray, and his shall be, “an abode of scalding
water and broiling of hell-fire.”
You should know, therefore, that this according to the learned,
men who were well-versed in the science of religion, is the “certain
truth” 3 a truth which they have perceived inwardly through
contemplation (mushahadah). This contemplation is more real and
clearer than seeing with the eye. In it they rose above the stage of
I. Surah LVI; 87.90. 2. Ibid: 93-94. 3. Ibid: 95.
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accepting truth on authority. They are like those who having
heard, believed, then having seen for themselves were confirmed in
their belief. The others are like those who accept truth and belief
without enjoying either contemplation or the opportunity of seeing
with their own eyes. Happiness lies beyond the science of revelation
which in turn comes after the science of practical religion, the last
being the following of the path of the hereafter. Overcoming the
frailties of human nature as well as doing away with its blameworthy
elements is possible only after mastering the science of human nature.
The science of therapeutics and its administration depend upon the
science of hygiene. The promotion of the conditions of health and
‘hygiene by united action, mutual help and co-operation through
which clothing, as well as the means of livelihood and lodging are
secured, is entrusted to the magistrates, while the principles in
accordance with which it is carried out for conducting human affairs
in the spirit of justice and good government are in the domain of the
jurisprudent. On the other hand the condition of health pertains to the
physician. Thus ar;’one who says that science is divided into two parts
- the science of the bodies (i.e. medicine) and the science of religion
and means by the latter jurisprudence, has in mind the common
exoteric sciences rather thin the specialized esoteric studies.
Should you ask why have I likened medicine andjurisprudence
to the packing of the provisions and the fitting out of the mount, then
know that that which seeks to press towards Allah in order to attain a
place in His neighbourhood is the heart and not the body. And by the
heart I do not mean the palpable matter of flesh but one of the
mysteries (sing. sirr) ofAllah which the bodily senses fail to perceive: a
spiritual substance (latifah) from Allah, sometimes indicated by the
word spirit (ruh) and at times by the calm soul (al-nafs al-mutma
tnnah).In law it is referred to as the heart (al-qalb) because it is the
primary vehicle for that mystery (sirr), and through it the whole bode
becomes a vehicle and an instrument for that spiritual substance
(latifah). To remove the veil from that belongs to the .science of
revelation, a science withheld from men, and its discussion is
proscribed. The limit to which it is permissible to go in its discussion
is to say that it is a precious jewel and a pearl of
inestimable worth, more excellent than all material objects. It is a
divine commandment as Allah Himself explained when He said, “And
they will ask thee of the Spirit. Say: The Spirit (proceedeth) from the
command of my Lord.”‘ All created things stand in relation to Allah
but the relation (of the heart) is of nobler character than that of any of
the other organs. To Allah belong both “the creation and the
command,”2 but the latter is the greater. This is the precious jewel
which contains the trust of Allah and which antedates the Heavens
and the Earth and the mountains, since when it was offered to them
they refused its burden and feared to receive it’ because of the world
of dominion (‘alam al-amr) i.e., the attributes of Allah. This should not
be taken to mean that the (spirits) are eternal, as he who holds that
the spirits are eternal is a blind fool who does not know what he says.
Because this is beyond the scope of our subject let us desist from its
discussion. What is intended here is to show that this spiritual
substance (latifah) is the driving force which presses toward Allah,
because it has proceeded from the command of the Lord. It came from
Allah and to Allah it returns.
As to the body it is only the vehicle which that spiritual substance
occupied and through which it accomplishes its work. The body serves
the same purpose for it on the path of Allah as the she-camel does for
a man on the pilgrim route; or like the water-skin in which is stored
the water which the body needs. Thus every science the aim of which
is the welfare of the body is a contributor to the welfare of the vehicle
of the spiritual substance. It is evident that medicine is one of these
sciences because it is necessary for the preservation of health, Even if
the individual were living by himself he would be in need of the
science of medicine. Jurisprudence, however, differs from medicine in
that it may be dispensed with by the individual if he were living by
himself. But man has been created in a way which makes it impossible
for him to live all alone since he is unable to secure his food and
livelihood through tilling, farming, bred-mating, and cooking as well
as manufacturing clothes, building
1. Surah XVII: 87.
3. Cf. Surah: XXXIII: 72.
2. Surah VII: 52.

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houses or constructing tools for all these activities. Man was,
therefore, compelled to lead an agrarian life of co-operation. But no
matter how much people mix with one another their ambitions are
aroused and consequently they compete for the satisfaction of their
desires, and contend and struggle for their fulfilment. From their
struggle would result their destruction because of the external
disharmony in the body politic just as it vould result from internal
disturbances in their physical bodies whenever the harmony between
he humours is lacking. Through medicine the harmony between the
opposing humours within the body is maintained and through politics
and justice the harmony between the contending elements in the body
politic is preserved. The science of how to maintain harmony between
the humours is medicine, and the science of how to preserve harmony
among men in their affairs and transactions isjurisprudence. Both of
these, whether medicine or jurisprudence, are for the preservation of
the body which is the vehicle of the spirit. The person who devotes
himself to the study of either medicine orjurisprudence, unless he
mortifies his body and reforms his heart, is like the person who
purchases the she-camel and its feed as well as the water-skin (in
preparation for the pilgrimage) but never does set out. And he who
spends his life over the niceties of words which occur in the course of
the debates ofjurisprudence is like him who spends his life tracing the
minute fibres of the strings with which the water-skin that the pilgrim
carries is sewn together. The relation of the former, of the followers of
the path of reforming the heart which leads to the science of
revelation is like the relation of the latter to those who go forward
along the pilgrimage route or those who perform its duties.
Think therefore of these things and then accept this free advice
from one who has accomplished these things but only achieved them
after a great struggle and a brave effort to break away from the
established tradition of men, the common folk and the elite, which
tradition is based on ambition and lust.

THE DUTIES OF THE TEACHER

Man occupies four states in relation to knowledge similar to the
four states he occupies in relation to money. One state is that of the
acquisitiveness of the financial lord, in which case he would be
seeking; another is that of possession which would eliminate the
necessity of asking for help; another is that of spending his money on
himself, in which case he would be indulging in the luxuries it affords;
and finally there is the state of spending his money on others, in
which case he would be a generous philanthropist. This last state is
the noblest.
So also is it with regard to knowledge. First, there is the state of
seeking knowledge’ n which man is acquisitive: another is that of
having knowledge in which state he would not need to inquire of
others; a third state is that of reflection wherein he would
contemplate and enjoy his achievement; and last, there is the state of
teaching wherein he imparts his knowledge to others. This last state
is the noblest.
“Thus he who has knowledge and shall do and teach the same
shall be called great in.the kingdom of heaven.”‘ - In this state the
teacher is likethe sun, which being itself luminous, sheds light; or
like the musk which being itself fragrant, makes other objects
fragrant. On the other hand he who possesses knowledge but does
not practise it is like a notebook, which itself being unintelligent,
nevertheless serves as a medium of transmission of the knowledge
that its pages contain: or like the whetstone, which, itself being
blunt, sharpens the razor; or like the needle, which while it remains
naked, serves in making clothing for others; or like the wick of a
lamp which bums itself out in giving light for others. A poet said:
“A glowing wick is he
Who gives his light and dies.”
Whoever takes up teaching for a profession takes upon himself a
great mission and a grave responsibility. He should, therefore,
observe its proprieties and fulfil its duties. The following are these
 duties.
I. See supra, p. 2!

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The first duty of the teacher is to be sympathetic to students and
treat them as his own children. The Prophet said, “I am to you like a
father who desires to save his child from the fires of hell, which is
more important than any of the efforts of parents to save their
children from the fires of the earth.”‘ For this reason the rights of the
teacher have become greater than the rights of the parents. The
parents are the cause of the children’s present existence in this
mortal life, while the teacher is the cause of their immortal life.
Without him that which has been brought into existence through the
parents would be doomed to eternal destruction. Only the teacher is
of service for the eternal life in the next world. By teacher I mean the
teacher of the sciences of the hereafter or the science of this world,
whose goal, in all his work, is bliss in the hereafter and not success in
this world. Teaching with a view to achieving success in this world is
destruction for both the teacher and the student. From such
destruction we seek refuge with Allah.
Just as it is the duty of the children of one father to love one
another and co-operate in achieving all their common goals so it is
also the duty of the students of one teacher to love and cherish one
another. This is not possible unless the hereafter is their goal; but if
this world is their aim, jealousy and hatred will plague them.
The learned men and the children of the hereafter are travellers
journeying to Allah, and starting from this world they follow the path
to Him. The years and the months are only stations on the path. If
friendship and love are fostered by companionship along the road
among travellers journeying to different countries, how much more
should they be fostered by companionship along the path to Paradise!
Since there will be no scarcity of happiness in the hereafter,
there will be no struggle among its children; but whereas there is no
abundance of pleasures in this world, men persist in struggle and
competition. Those who seek to attain position of authority through
knowledge exclude themselves from the company of those whom
Allah meant when He said, “Verily the believers are brethren,”` and
I . Cf. ibn-Hanbal, Taharah,121; abu-Dawud, Taharah, 4.
2. Surah XLIX:10.
include themselves among those of whom Allah said, “Friends on
that day shall become foes to one another, except the Allah-fearing”‘
 The second duty of the teacher is to follow the example of the
Law-giver: he should seek no remuneration for his services on behalf
of knowledge and accept neither reward nor thanks. Rather he
should impart his knowledge free for the glory of Allah and for the
sake of drawing near to Him. He should not feel that his students are
under any obligation to Him although the feeling of obligation is
incumbent upon them. He should give them credit for disciplining
their hearts with knowledge in order to draw near to Allah. Thus,
when someone lends you a lot of land so that you can exploit it for
yourself by planting it. The benefits you reap are greater than those
of the owner of the land. Would you then feel that he was under any
obligation to you? Similarly, in teaching, your compensation is
greater than that of the student, and without him you would not have
attained it. Therefore, look for no reward except from Allah Who said
in His Book, “Oh my people, I ask you not for riches: my reward is of
Allah alone.” Riches as well as everything in the world are servants
of the body while the body is the vehicle of the soul which, in turn, is
in the service of knowledge with which it is honoured. Therefore
anyone who would seek riches through knowledge is like the person
who, in order to clean the soles of his shoes, would wipe them
against his face, reducing thereby the master into a servant, and
making of the slave, a lord. This is what is meant by falling headlong
and is exactly like the fate of the criminals on the day of judgment
when they “shall droop their heads before their Lord.” 3 In short, to
the teacher belong the honour and the credit. Nevertheless see how
the affairs of religion have fallen into the hands of men who claim
that their sole aim, in pursuing the sciences of jurisprudence and
theology and in teaching these two and other sciences besides, is to
draw near unto Allah, yet they sacrifice their riches and rank, and
suffer great humiliations in the service of rulers in order to gain their
favours. Were these men
L SuraH XLm: 67
2. SuraH XI: 31; B and text of SM have SuraH XLII: 22
instead. 3. Cf Surah XXXII:12.
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to turn away from such practices they would be ignored and no one
would turn to them for advice.

Furthermore the teacher often expects the student to follow him

in everything, and to back his supporters, fight his adversaries, rise
publicly to perform his demands, and to wait upon him in all his
needs. If the student fails to fulfil all these expectations the teacher
will turn against him and become one of his most virulent enemies.
How despicable is the learned man who is not only content with such
a position but is also proud of it, and is not ashamed to say that his
aim in taking up teaching is to spread knowledge for the sake of
drawing near unto Allah and for defending His religion! But you have
only to look at the record in order to see the hypocrisy and the
deception of it all.

The third duty of the teacher is that he should not withhold from
the student any advice, or allow him to attempt the work of any grade
unless he is qualified for it, or permit him to address himself to
abstruse sciences before he has mastered those which are clear. He
should also point out to him that the purpose of acquiring knowledge
is to draw near unto Allah rather than power, boasting, and
competition, and should, in the strongest possible way, condemn any
such things in his students.

The harm which the unrighteous learned man does is greater

than the good. If the teacher notices that the student is seeking
knowledge only for the sake of worldly advantages, he should
examine what sciences the student is pursuing. If he finds that these
sciences are those of disputation in jurisprudence, argument in
theology, and handing down opinions in controversies and legal
disputes, then he should dissuade him from them because they do not
belong either to the sciences of the hereafter or to those which have
already been described as sciences which we learn for a purpose
other than the service of Allah but turn out to be for that same
purpose, the most useful. These include the sciences of interpretation
and tradition as well as those branches of knowledge to which the
ancients
addressed themselves in connexion with the science of the hereafter
and the science of the characteristics of the soul together with the
manner of their reform. If the student had learnt these things with the
intention of seeking the world with his learning he had better be let
alone because, although he had addressed himself to them in the hope
of becoming a preacher and gaining a following, he would, in the
course of his work, wake up to the fact that in them lie those sciences
which are conducive to the fear of Allah and which belittle the world
and glorify the hereafter. This may finally lead the student to the right
path and he would then observe what he preaches to others. The
desire to be popular and influential are to man like the grains which
are scattered around the trap in order to snare catch the birds. The
same thing has been done by Allah in connexion with man: He created
sexual desire in order to ensure procreation and the survival of the
race. He also created ambition as a means for perpetuating
knowledge, a thing highly desirable in these sciences. But to devote
one’s life to sheer controversies, theological argumentations, and
unusual details while ignoring other studies promotes, in all except
those to whom Allah has shown mercy or those who have taken up
other religious sciences as well, nothing but hardening in the heart,
negligence toward Allah, excess’in iniquity, and inordinance in
striving for power. There is no better proof for this than personal
experience and observation. Therefore look, learn, and think so that
you might witness the realization of this fact by men all over the
world. Truly Allah is the source of our help.

It has been related that Sufvan al-Thawri was once seen in a sad
mood and was, therefore, asked. ‘Why are you sad? To which he
replied.” We have become a traffic for the children of this world. One
after another would attach himself to us until he had acquired a
measure of learning; whereupon he would be appointed a judge, or a
governor, or a mayor of the place (qahraman).”

The fourth duty which is one of the finer points of the profession
of teaching is that the teacher, in dissuading the student from his evil
ways, should do so by suggestion rather than openly, and with
sympathy rather than with odious upbraiding. Open dissuasion
destroys the veil of awe, invites defiance, and encourages
stubbornness. The Prophet, who is the guide of every teacher, said in
this connexion, “If men had been forbidden to make porridge of
camels’ dung, they would have done it, saying that they would not
have been forbidden to do it unless there had been some good in it.”
The same principle is brought out in the story of Adam and Eve and
the prohibition imposed upon them.’ This stony has not been related
as a night entertainment but as an example and a reminder. Such
allusions and suggestions invite men of noble souls and discerning
minds to attempt to elicit their import, and the pleasure of grasping
their meaning results in a greater desire on the part of man for
learning in order to show that such things are not beyond the capacity
of his intellect.
The fifth duty is that the person who is teaching a certain science
should not belittle or disparage the value of other sciences before his
students. Thus it is customary for the teacher of language to
disparage jurisprudence and the teacher of jurisprudence to slight the
sciences of tradition and interpretation saying that they are nothing
but stories and narratives similar to those of old women and that
there is no room in them for intellect or reason. The teacher of
theology is in the habit of avoiding jurisprudence and saving that it is
nothing but hair-splitting and disputations and menstruation and,
therefore, should not be compared with theology - the study of the
attributes of Allah.
Such traits are blameworthy and reprehensible in teachers, and
should be avoided. In fact the teacher of one science should prepare
the student for the study of other subjects, and whenever he is
responsible for the teaching of more than one subject, he should
observe the rules of gradual progress in promoting his students from
one grade to another.
The sixty duty, of the teacher is that he should limit the student to
what 1he latter is able to understand and should not require of him
l. Cf. Surah, 11: 33; VU: 19-9-, Gen. 2:16-7.
anything which his mind cannot grasp for fear that he would develop
a feeling of dislike for the subject, and his mind would become
confused. In this the teacher should follow the example of the lord of
men who said, “We prophets have been commanded to give every man
his rightful place and to communicate with everyone according to his
own ability to understand.”‘ Therefore let the teacher impart the truth
to his student if he is sure that the latter is able to understand it. The
Prophet said, “No one ever relates a tradition to a people which is
beyond their minds to understand without being the cause of
perplexity to some of them.”‘ `Ali, pointing to his breast, said, “Herein
lies much knowledge. Would that there were some to comprehend and
transmit it?” He was right in his assertion because the hearts of the
righteous are the vaults of divine mysteries. Therefore the learned
man should not divulge all his knowledge to any one indiscriminately,
especially when the student, who may be able to understand that
knowledge, is not capable of making use of it, and still less when the
student does not understand it.
Jesus said, `Do not hang pearls around the neck of a swine.” But
wisdom is better than pearls and he who abhors it is worse than a
swine. For this reason it has been said, “In order to be safe from his
hand and useful to him deal with even person with the measure of his
own intellect and mete out into him with the scale of his own mind.
Otherwise, because of the disparity between the measure and the
mind, your efforts will result in failure.”
A certain learned man was once asked about something but he
gave no answer. Then his questioner said to him, “Have you not heard
that the Apostle of Allah said, `Whoever will conceal any useful
knowledge will, on the day of resurrection, be bridled with a bit of
fire’.” The learned man replied, “You may leave the bit here and go.
Then if anyone who understands comes and I still conceal that useful
knowledge from him, let Allah bridle me with that bit of fire.” Did not
Allah say, “Do not give to the fools your substance,” 4 as a warning
I. For first part of tradition cf. Muslin:, Intro.; second part
unidentified.
2. Cf. Muslin,, Intro. 3. Cf. Matt. 7:6. 4. Surah, IV:
4.
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that the safeguarding of knowledge from those who might corrupt it
is more important than imparting it. Similarly to give to those who
are not in need is not a lesser offence than withholding help from
those who are in need.
Shall pearls be giv’n to herders of the sheep,
Shall wealth be trusted to their rustic keep? They
would not comprehend nor know its worth,
To give them would be adorning beasts. But Allah
is kind if by His grace He sends
One worthy of my knowledge, of my wit, To him my
goods I’ll give and gain his love;
Until such time I will withhold my gifts - One’s
learning would be wasted upon fools;
And he doth sin who from the worthy keeps.
The seventh duty is that the teacher should give his backward
students only such things as are clear and suitable to their limited
understanding and should not mention to them anything about the
details that are apt to followbut which he deems fitting forthe present
to withhold. Such a course would discourage the students and make
their interest even in easy subjects, lukewarm, perplex them in their
minds and make them think that the real reason for the teacher’s
reluctance to impart to them those details is his illiberality, especially
because everyone usually, believes himself capable of mastering every
science no matter how complex. Thus there is no one who is not
satisfied with Allah for the perfect mind He gave him. Even the most
foolish and most feeble minded among men is usually the most
pleased with the perfection of his mind. For this reason any one of the
common folk who is law-abiding and in whose heart the articles of
faith, which have come down to him from his forbears, and
unequivocally and unqualifiedly established, and his conduct is good
but his mind is not capable of anything beyond that, such a person
should not be confused in his belief. On the contrary he should be let
alone because if he were confronted with the esoteric interpretations
of externals he would relinquish his standing as a layman without
attaining the status ofaneducated man. Then will the obstacles which
have hitherto deterred him from evil crumble and he
willbetransformed into a rebellious devil who will destroy both himself
and others. In fact laymen should not be bothered with discussion on
the realities which underlie complex sciences but rather should be
confined to instruction in the acts of worship (‘ibadat) and honesty in
carrying out their respective professions. Their hearts should be filled
with yearning for Paradise and fear of Hell-fire as the Qur’an has
ordained. They should not be confused with questionable ideas for
fear that such ideas strike root in their hearts with the result that it
becomes difficult for them to free themselves from such errors and
consequently fall victims to misery and destruction. In short the door
of controversy and discussion should not be opened to the laymen
because it will interfere with their professions on which the welfare of
the world as well as the continued happiness of the elite depends.
The eighth duty is that the teacher do what he teaches and not
allow his works to give the lie to his words, because knowledge is
comprehended through the mind while works through the eyes. But
those who see with their eyes are more than those who perceive with
their minds and therefore when practice contradicts theory
righteousness is frustrated. And again whenever a person partakes of
something and warns others not to touch it because it is a deadly
poison, he makes himself a laughing stock to men and lays himself
open to their accusations and, what is still worse, he makes them
more anxious to try what they have been forbidden to do, saying that
had it not been the sweetest and the most delicious of all things, he
would not have kept it exclusively for himself. The relation of the
guide to those who seek his guidance is like the relation of the stamp
to the clay and like that of the shadow of the cane to the cane itself.
How then could the clay be stamped with a stamp that bears no
character and how could the shadow of the cane be straight if the
cane itself were crooked? The following verse conveys the same
meaning:
If thou condemn a sin and then commit
The same transgression, shame upon thy head.
Allah also said, “Will ye enjoin what is right upon others, and
forget yourselves?”‘
For this reason the learned man’s responsibility for his sins is greater
than that of the ignorant especially because many will follow the
learned man’s example and will be misled through his faults. And
whoever establishes an evil precedent shoulders responsibility for
that precedent and for the sins of those who might follow its example.
`Ali said, “Two men have broken my back [with the weight of their
sins]: a debauched learned man and an ascetical ignorant one. The
former misleads men through his debauchery and the latter through
his asceticism.”
 SECTION VI
On the Evils of Knowledge and on Determining the
Distinguishing Features of the Learned Men of the Hereafter and
those of the Teachers of Falsehood.
We have already enumerated the excellence of knowledge and of
the learned man, while concerning the teachers of falsehood several
important strictures have been mentioned. These strictures have
shown that the teachers of falsehood are the most severely punished
of all men on the day of resurrection. It is therefore very important to
ascertain what distinguishes the learned mer.:if this world from the
learned men of the hereafter. By the learned :..en of this world we
mean the teachers of falsehood whose sole purpose in pursuing
knowledge is to enjoy the luxuries of this life and to achieve power
and position among its people. The Prophet said, “The most severely
punished of all men on the day of resurrection will be the learned man
whom Allah has not blessed with His knowledge;”‘ and again, “No
man will be learned unless he puts knowledge into practice.”‘ The
Prophet also said, “Knowledge is of two kinds: formal knowledge
which does not go beyond verbal profession - it is the evidence of
Allah against His people and according to it He would judge them,
and genuine knowledge deep-rooted in the heart - this is the
knowledge which is useful.” 3 Muhammad also declared, “At the end of
time there will be ignorant worshippers and corrupt learned men.” 4
He also said, “Acquire not knowledge in order to vie with the learned,
dispute with and silence the insolent, and win favour and popularity
among men, for whosoever would do this would be doomed to Hell-
fire,”‘ and again “Whoever would conceal his
t See supra; p. 1. 2. Cf. al-Darirni, Intro., 29: 6.
3. Ibid, 34:4. 4. Cf. Hikyat al Awhjo’, Vol. II,pp.
5. Cf. ibn-Majah, Intro., 23:4-5 331-2.
1. Swab, II: 41.

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knowledge, would be bridled by Allah with a bit of fire.”‘ The Prophet
also said, “Others make me more afraid for your safety than the anti-
Christ (a!-dajjal).”On being asked whom he meant, he replied, “The
Falseteachers.”2 He also said, “Whoeverwould increase in knowledge
but would not increase in righteousness would increase Allah’s wrath
upon him.”3 Jesus said, “How can you lead the night-travellers along
the way when yourselves are perplexed.” These and other traditions
show the gravity of the danger inherent in knowledge and reveal the
fact that a learned man is faced with either eternal destruction or
eternal happiness. They also show that man, by pursuing knowledge,
is denied safety unless he attains happiness as well.
We find in history the same evidence. `Umar said, “The thing I
fear most for the safety of this nation is the learned hypocrite.’“
`Umar was then asked how one could be both learned and
hypocritical, to which he replied, “While his learning does not go
beyond verbal knowledge, his heart remains untouched and his works
betray no wisdom.” Al-Hasan al-Basri said, “Be not one of those who
combine the knowledge of learned men and the briliant ideas of the
wise but conduct themselves the way of fools.”
A certain man addressed abu-Hurayrah saying, “I want to acquire
knowledge but I fear I shall lose it.” Abu-Hurayrah replied, `’To
discard knowledge is just the same as losing it.” Ibraham ibn-
`Uyaynahb was once asked, “Who is the man whose remorse will be
the greatest?” Ibn= Uyaynah replied, `While life lasts it is the
philanthropist who has extended his kindness to the ungrateful: but at
death ‘it will be the learned man who neglected to put his knowledge
into practice” Al-Khalil ibn-Ahmad said “There are four kinds of men:
One is the man who knows, and knows that he knows --heir a learned
man. and therefore follow him. Another is the man who knows, but
does not know that he knows - he is asleep. wake
I. Cf. ibn Alajah, Intro.. 24: I: abu-Dawud, Tin, 9.
2. Cf. al-Taynlisi, No. 975.
3. Cf. al-Darimi, Intro., 34: 25.
4. 4I-Ghanali might have combined Luke vi: 39 and VII: 32 into one
saving. 5. Cf. Taalisi,, No. 975.
6. C wtd B, ‘Uva~uah: SM. ‘llthah. Unidentified.
him up. A third is the man who does not know, and knows that he does
not know - he desires to learn, teach him. A fourth is the man who
does not know, and does not know that he does not know - he is
ignorant, reject him.”Sufyanal-Thawri said, “Knowledge summons
works and, unless they respond, it departs.” Ibn-al-Mubarak said, “As
long as a man continues to seek knowledge he remains learned; but
the moment he thinks he has mastered all knowledge, he recedes into
ignorance.” Al-Fudayl ibn-`Iyad’ said, Three men do I pity: a mighty
man who has fallen, a rich man who has become poor and a learned
man who has become lahghing stock for the world.” AI-Hasan al-Basri
said, “The penalty which the learned men receive for seeking the
world through works which belong to the hereafter is the death of
their hearts.” In this connexion a certain poet has said:
Strange to me is he who barters good for evil; Stranger still
the one who trades his soul for pleasure; But he who pays so
dear a price as this, to rob The earthly joys of others, he is
strangest yet.
The Prophet, referring to the wicked learned man, said, `The
learned man will suffer intense agonies of torture and, in order to
increase his pain, will be made to go all around Hell, displaying
himself to the people therein.’’ Usamah ibn-Zayd’ related that he
heard the Apostle of Allah say, “On the day of resurrection the learned
man will be brought forward and thrown into the fires of Hell where,
as a result, his bowels will gush out and he will be made to carry them
round and round all over Hell in a manner similar to that of a donkey
when it turns a mill-stone round and round. Then the people of Hell
will ask him about the reasons of his torture and he will say, “I was
wont to enjoin what is right upon others but failed to do it myself, and
to forbid what is wrong and committed it myself.” The learned man
will receive a twofold penalty for his sin because he trespassed
I . A.H. 187/ A.D. 802; see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 11, pp. 157-9.
2. Unidentified. Cf. next tradition.
3. Ibn-Harithah (A.H. 54/A.D. 674); see ibn-Sa’d, Vol. IV, pt. 1, pp.
43-51;
Tadhib al-Asma ‘,pp. 147-50. 4. AI-Bukhari,
Bad’ al-Khalq,10.
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wilfully. For this reason Allah said, “Verily the hypocrites shall be in
the lowest abyess of Fire.’,”I This, He said, because they have denied
Him after they have known Him. Allah also deems the Jews more
wicked than the Christians although the former, unlike the latter, have
not given Allah a son nor said that He was one of three Allahs. The
Jews, however, have denied Allah despite their knowledge of Him.
Allah said, “They know him even as they know their own children.”‘
And again, “Yet when that of which they had knowledge came to them
they believed not in it. The execration of Allah be on the unbelievers.”
3
In the course of the story of Bal’am ibn-Ba`ura,a Allah said, “Recite
to them the story of him to whom We vouchsafed Our signs and
followed them not, and Satan pursued him and he became one of the
beguiled;.... he is, therefore, like unto the dog who lolls out his
tongue, whether thou chase him away, or leave him alone.”‘ Thus
Bal’am was given the Book of Allah but gave himself instead to lust
and was, therefore, likened to a dog. In other words whether or not he
was given wisdom, he would go after lust.
Jesus said, “The teachers of falsehood are like unto a rock which
has fallen into the source of the stream; it neither absorbs any water
itself nor permits it to flow out and reach the plants; or like unto the
pipes which lead into the cesspool: gypsum white on the outside
while their interiur is full of refuse and filth: or like unto sepulchres
the exteriors of which are polished and clean but are within full of
dead men’s bones.”6 These traditions and historical narratives show
that the learned man of this world will occupy a more inferior
position and will receive a more severe punishment than the ignorant
man, while those who will succeed in attaining a seat in the
neighbourhood of Allah are the learned men of the hereafter.
Characteristic of the learned men of the hereafter are the
I. Sarah, IV: 144.
2. SeeSurahs, II;141; VI: 20.
3. Sruad, II: 53.
4. Bal4am the son of Beor: Cf Num, 22, 23, 24. 5.
Sumh, VII: 174-5.
6. Cf. Matt. 23:4,27.
following. They should not seek this world through their knowledge
because the least of the teamed men should know the insignificance of
this life as well as its sordidness, foulness, and abrupt end in contrast
to the greatness of the hereafter, its permanence, the purity of its
happiness, and the majesty of its dominion. They should know that
this world and the hereafter are diametrically opposed to each other,
as hostile as fellow-wives - the more you please the one the more you
displease the other; or as the two scales of a balance-the lower the
one falls the higher the other rises; or asthe east and the west - the
more you advance towards the one the lather away you go from the
other; or as two glasses of water, the one is full while the other is
empty - the more you pour out of the one into the other the less water
is left in the first. Thus he who does not realize how insignificant and
sordid is this world, how closely intermixed are its pains and
pleasures, and how transient it is, is insane. Whether it be observation
or experience, both testify to the same conclusion. How then could the
person who has no brains be numbered among the learned men?
Again, he who does not realize the greatness and the permanence of
the hereafter, is an unbeliever lacking all faith. And how could the
person who has no faith be learned? Anyone who does not realize that
this world is diametrically opposed to the hereafter and that any
attempt to reconcile the one with the other Is an impossible
undertaking, is a man ignorant of the laws of the prophets, and still
worse he disbelieves the whole Qur’an. How then could he be
numbered among the company of the learned? Furthermore anyone
who knows all this, yet does not give the hereafter priority over this
world must be a prisoner of Satan. His lust has vanquished him and
his wickedness has triumphed over him. How then could such a
person be considered learned?
Among the traditions of David is the following which he related
having received it from Allah. Said Allah, “The least thing I would do
with the learned man who would neglect My love in favour of his lust
is to deny him the pleasure of communion (munajah) with Me.”
Addressing David again Allah said, “Ask nota learned man who hath
been drunk with the love of this world, about Me lest he blocketh
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the road of My love in thy face - such men are highway brigands who
rob My people. O David! If thou findest one who seekest after Me, be
thou unto him a servant. O David! Whoever leadeth a fleeing man
back unto Me, the same I shall write down as a man of sound
judgment; and whomsoever I write down as a man of sound judgment,
him I shall never torment.” For this reason al-Hasan al-Basri said,
“The penalty which the learned men receive for seeking the world
through works which belong to the hereafter is the death of their
hearts.” For the same reason Yahya ibn-Mu’adh said, “Knowledge and
wisdom will lose their gloryifthroughthemtheworldissought.” Sa’id
ibn-al-Musavvab said, “If you see a learned man frequenting the
houses of rulers you may conclude that he is a thief” Umar said, “If
you see the learned cherishing this world, then entrust not your
religion into his hands because everyone is captivated by what he
loves.”
Malik ibn Dinar’ said, “I have read in one of the books of the
ancients that Allah said, `The least thing ‘I would do with the learned
man who has given himself to the love of this world is to remove from
his heart the pleasure of communion with Me’.”2
A certain man wrote to a brother of his staying, “You have been
given knowledge; envelop not, therefore, the light of your knowledge
with the darkness of sin lest you be left behind in darkness when the
learned go forward with the light of their knowledge. Yahva bn-
Mu’adh al-Razi used to say to the learned men of this world, “Ye
people of knowledge! Your palaces are Caesarian,’ your homes are
like those ofChosroes,’ your doors are Tahirid,’ your footwear is like
1. A.H. 1311A.D. 748-9; see Hikyat al-Awliya’, Vol. II. pp. 357-89;
ibn-Khallikan. Vol. II, nn. 202-3.
2. See supra.
3. After Caesar (Ar. Qaysar), the generic name which the Arabs
apply to the Byzantine emperors.
4. Ar. Kisra, the generic name which the Arabs apply to Persian
monarchs.
5. Probably after Tahir ibn-al-Husayn dhu-al-Yaminayn (A.H. 207/A.D.
822) As vizir to al-Ma’mun and as founder of the Tahirid dynasty
in Khurasan, hisdoorswere inaccessible. Cf. al-Baghdadi,
Ta’rikhBaghdad,
Vol. IX, p. 345. For his life see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, pp. 420-24;
Ta’rikh Baghdad, Vol. IX, pp. 353-55.
that of Goliath,’ your coaches are like those of Qarun,z your home
utensils are Pharaonic, your sins are the same as those of the
Jahiliyah days, and your beliefs are satanic; where then id the
Muhammadan law?”
A poet said:
The shepherd keeps the sheep from harm and hurt; Who
then would keep them safe by day and night If they who
watch were wolves instead of men?
Said another:
Ye learned men of this city of favour,
What will cure salt which looses its flavour?
One of the gnostics was one asked, “Do you not think that he to
whom transgression is attractive does not know Allah?” To which the
gnostic replied, ` I do not doubt that he who prefers this world to the
hereafter, does not know Allah.” This latter thing is by far the worse.
Furthermore you should not think that the giving up of wealth would
qualify anyone to join the company of the learned men of the
hereafter. Glory is more harmful than wealth. For this reason Bishr
ibn-al-Harith3 related that a certain Bab’ once told him: “Whenever
you hear a man say, `We were told,’ what he really means is, ‘Harken
unto me’.” This same Bishr buried over ten’ baskets full of books
used to say, “I have an urge to relate traditions but not until this
urge subsides will I relate.” He also, as well as others besides him,
said,
I. Quranic Jalut, Surah 11, 250.
2. One of the Quranic characters (Surahs )CXVIII: 76-82, XXIX: 38,
and LX: 25) Qarun has been identified with Korah of the Bible
(Num, XVI). The Quranic legend is based upon the Tahnudie
tradition of Korah’s great wealth, and appears to be also
confused with that of Crocsus. See al-Th`alibi, Oisas al-Anbiya’,
 pp. 203-207: G.A. Barton. “Korah”, in The Jewish Encyclopaedia;
D. B. MacDonald, “Karun”, in TheEncvclopaedia of Islam.
3. Known also asal-Hafr(A.H.227JA.D.842).Seeibn-Khallikan,Vol.
1,pp. 158-160; al-Baghdadi, Tarikh Baghdad, Vol. VII, pp. 67-80:
4. Literally means “door”; a title given by dervishes to their great
shaykhs.
5. Cf. Tarikh Baghdad, Vol. Vm, p. 71,1,14, where the number is
eighteen.
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“If you felt an urge to relate traditions, resist it and keep quite; but if
you feel no urge, go ahead and relate.” This is because the pleasure of
the glory of imparting knowledge and of occupying the position of a
guide is greater than all the joys of this world. Consequently whoever
should give in to the urge of his lust for such glory, the same would be
from the children of this world. Thus Sufcan al-Thaw ri said, “The
temptation to recite a tradition is more insidious than that of family or
wealth.” How then is it possible for people not to fear its temptation?
The chief of the Apostles was told, “And had We not stablished
thee, thou hadst well nigh learned to them a little.”‘ Sad Sahl.’ “All
knowledge, except that which pertains to the hereafter, is of the earth
earthly; and all work is in vain except it he sincere.” He also said, “All
men are dead except the learned; all learned men are in a state of
stupefaction except those who practise their knowledge; all those who
practise their knowledge are conceited except those who are sincere;
and those who are sincere are constantly afraid until they know their
fate.”
Abu-Sulavrnan al-Darani’ said, “If a man should pursue the study
of tradition or get married, or travel in search of a living, the same
has placed his faith in this world.” (By the study of tradition al-Darani
had in mind the study of singular chains of authorities of (the study of
traditions which are of no use for the hereafter). Jesus said, “How
could he who persists ‘in the paths of this world while his destination
is the hereafter, or he who seeks knowledge in order to show off and
not for the sake of following its precepts, be counted among the
learned?”‘
Salih ibn-Kavsan al-Bast-11 said, “One day I came upon the
I. Surah, XVII: 76.
2. Abu-Muhammad Sahl ibn-’Abdullah ibn-Yunus al-Tustari (A.H. 283/
A.D. 896): see ibn-Khallikan, Vol. 1, p. 389.
3. A.H. 234/A.D. 849-50; see ibn-Khallikan. Vol. 1, pp. 494-95 Yaqut,
Buldan, Vol. II, p. 536.
4. Cf. Luke 9:62.
5. A.H. 144 A.D. 761: see ibn-Qutavbah, p. 245; Tadhkirat al-Hujjuz,
Vol. 1, p. 140.
teachers while they were praying Allah to save them from evil doers
who are versed in the law.” Abu-Hurayrah related that the Apostle of
Allah once said, “Whoever would seek knowledge with which men
draw near to Allah and would use it to attain some earthly desire
would not on the day of resurrection find his way to Paradise.”‘ Allah
also described the teachers of falsehood as those who would expend
their knowledge in order to devour this world and described the
learned men of the hereafter as humble and ascetic. Thus He said
concerning the teachers of falsehood, “Moreover, when Allah entered
into a covenant with those to whom the Scriptures were given. (and
said), `Ye shall surely make it known to men and hide it not.’ they cast
it behind their backs, and sold it for a sorry price! Vile i s that which
they purchase.’’ And concerning the learned men of the hereafter
Allah said, “Among the people of the Book are those who believe in
Allah and in what hath been sent down to you and in what hath been
sent down to them, humbling themselves before Him. They barter not
His signs for a mean price. These! their recompense awaiteth them
with their Lord.”‘ One of the Fathers said, “On the last day the learned
men will be judged with the prophets while the judges will be judged
with the magistrates.” By judges is meant every jurist who intends to
seek the world through his knowledge.
Abu-al-Darda’ related that he had heard the Prophet say. “Allah
revealed to one of the prophets saying, `Say unto those who study
jurisprudence for a purpose other than religion and to those who
acquire knowledge for a purpose other than that of doing according to
it, say unto them that they appear before people in sheep’s clothing
but inwardly they are raving wolves. Their tongues are sweeter than
hone but their hearts are more bitter than cal icvnth. They act
deceitfully against Mt; and scorn Me. Verily I shall ,. ii front them with
temptations which would confound even the wise.”‘
AI-Dahhak5 related on the authority of ibn-’Abbas that the
Ibn-. Iajah; Intro., 23: 3. 2. Surah m: 184.
3 Surah ID: 198-99. 4. Cf. Matt. 7: 15, 15: 8.
5. Porbabh ibn-Suhan. one of the Companions; see Tahdhib
al-.Asma’
p. 321.
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Apostle of Allah once said, `The learned men of this people are two.
First, he whom Allah has given knowledge which in Earn he freely
placed at the disposal of his fellowmen, taking from them nothing in
return and charging no price for it. He shall be blessed by the birds of
the air, the fish of the sea, the beasts of the earth and by the guardian
angels’ He will, on the day of resurrection, appear before Allah as a
noble lord and will join the company of the apostles. Second, he whom
Allah has given knowledge which he withheld from his fellow men,
using it to enrich himself, the same will on the day of-resurrection be
bridled with a bit of fire while a crier will raise his voice among the
crowds and say, `Behold this man, Allah gave him knowledge but he
withheld it from his fellowmen and used it to enrich himself.’ He will
continue to be tormented until all men are judged. More drastic than
this is what has been related concerning a certain man who was in the
service of Moses and went around saying, “Moses, the friend of Allah,
has told me,’ “Moses, the confidant of Allah, has told me,” “Moses the
intimate of Allah, has told me” and so on until he became very
wealthy. Then he disappeared and Moses began to inquire about him
in an attempt to find him. Finally there came to Moses one day a man
leading a pig with a black rope tied to its neck. As the man stood
before Moses the latter said, “Knowest thou such and such a man?” To
which the visitor replied, “Yes I do. He is this pig.” On seeing that
Moses exclaimed, “O Allah! I beseech Thee to transform this creature
into his former state in order that I may ask him why and how such a
thing has come upon him.” But Allah declared unto Moses in a
revelation saying, “Not even if thou callest upon Me by what Adam
hath called would I grant thy request. Nevertheless I shall tell thee
why I have brought this upon him. It is because he was wont to use
religion to gain the world.”
Still more drastic than either is what is related on the authority of
Mu’adh ibn-Jabal who heard the Prophet say, “Among the afflictions of
the learned man is to prefer talking to listening. Talking

Ar. a!-Kiram al Katibun; cf supra, p. 87. They are also known as al-
Hafazah.
2. Cf. tbn-Majah, Intro., 24: 1.
involves embellishments and accretions, and those given to it are not
safe from error, while in silence is safety and wisdom.”
Among the learned are those who would guard their knowledge
and dislike the idea of sharing it with others-these will occupy the first
depth in Hell. There are others who are in the habit of regarding their
knowledge as equivalent to power and position; and if the”. are ever
contradicted or slighted they become infuriated - these will occupy
the second depth in Hell. Others confine their knowledge to the
circles of nobility and wealth and deem the poor classes unworthy of it
- these will occupy the third depth in-Hell. Others appoint themselves
judges and hand down faulty opinions - these will occupy the fourth
depth in Hell. Other learned men employ in their discourses Jewish
and Christian arguments in order to make their erudition seem great -
these will occupy the fifth depth in Hell. Others regard their
knowledge as something virtuous and honourable and continually
dwell on it before men-these will occupy the sixth depth in Hell. And
finally there are the learned men who are the victims of vanity and
conceit. Whenever they preach they upbraid, and whenever they are
admonished they show resentment - these will occupy the seventh
depth in Hell. Therefore O brother, observe silence, for through it you
will overcome Satan. Do not laugh without cause and do not move
without direction.
According to another tradition we are tolc “Verily man may
possess a reputation extending over East and West; but before Allah it
would not amount to the weight of the wing of a mosquito.”
It has been related that a certain man from Khurasan who had
attended one of the circles of al-Hasan al-Basr came back after the
meeting with a bag containing five thousand dinars and ten garments
of the finest silk and said. `O abu-Sa’id, here is some pocket money
and a change of clothes.” In answer al-Hasan said, “May Allah save
thee. Gather up the money and thy garments for I have no need for
either. Verily he who occupies a position like mine and will accept
from people such things as thou has offered, will on the day of
resurrection meet Allah in dishonour.”
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It has also been related on the authority of Jabir’ that he heard
the Apostle of Allah say, “Do not attend the circle of any learned man
except him who would call upon you to relinquish five things in favour
of five others, namely to relinquish doubt in favour of belief. hypocrisy
in favour of sincerity, worldliness in favour of asceticism, pride in
favour of humility, and enmity in favour of love.”
Allah said, “And (Qarun) went forth to his people in his pomp.
Those who were greedy for this present life said, `Oh that we had the
like of that which hath been bestowed upon Qarun! Truly he is
possessed of great good fortune. But they to whom knowledge had
been given said, `Woe to you! The reward of Allah is better for him
who believeth’.”2Thus Allah identified the people of learning as those
who prefer the hereafter to this world.
Another characteristic expected of learned men is that their
works should not contradict their words. In fact they should not
demand anything unless they are ready to be the first to do it. Thus
Allah said. “Will ye enjoin what is right upon others, and forget
yourselves?”3 And again, “Most hateful is it to Allah that ye say that
which ye do not.”4 Allah said again in the story of Shu`avb,s “I will not
follow you in that which I myself forbid you. “ 6 And again, “But fear
Allah and He will give you knowledge.”“ Allah also said, “Fear Allah
and know...” s and again, “Fear Allah and hearken....” 9 Said Allah to
Jesus, “O thou son of Mary! Warn thyself and when thou art warned,
warn the people. Otherwise thou shouldst be ashamed of
Me. “10
The Apostle of Allah said, “The night I was carried to heaven, I
passed by several people whose lips were being cut off with scissors
1. Ibn-’Abdulah al-Ansari, (A.H. 78/A.D. 697); see ibn-Qutaybah, pp.
156-
57. 2. Surah, XXVIII: 79-80.
3. Surah, II: 41. 4. Surah, LXI: 3
5. One of the prophets mentioned in the Qur’an. SeeSurahs VII:
83,86, 88,
90, sea; XI: 85, 89, 93, 97: XXVI: 177; XXIX: 35.
6. Surah, XI: 90. 7. Surah, 11: 282. 8. Surah, 11:
190. 9. Surah, V: 107.
10. Cf. Luke 4: 23.
of fire. On asking them who they were, replied, `We were learned met
who were wont to enjoin good but do it not and to forbid evil but
commit it ourselves”‘‘ He also said, “The destruction of my people is
brought about bya wicked learned man and an ignorant worshipper.
The worst people are the wicked learned men and the best are the
good learned men.”2
Al-Awza`i’ once said, “The sarcophagi’ of the unbelievers
complained to Allah of the stench of the corpses they contain.
Thereupon Allah revealed unto them that the stench of the corpses of
the teachers of falsehood would be worse.”Al-Fudayl ibn-’Ivad once
said, “I have been informed that on the day of resurrection the
wicked learned men will be brought to judgment before the
idolators.” Abu-al-Darda’ said. “Woe once to him who doth not know,
and woe seven times to him who doth know but doth not do
accordingly.” Al-Sh’bi also said. “On the day of resurrection a group
from the people of Paradise will confront a group from the people of
Hell and ask them, `What caused you to be thrown into Hell when we
were admitted into Paradise through your instruction and teaching?’
To which the latter will reply, ‘We were wont to enjoin good but do it
not and to forbid evil but commit it ourselves’.”
Hatim al-Asamm` said, “No one on the day of resurrection would
be more sorrowful than he who had taught men knowledge which
they put in practice and which he himselfneglected;consequently they
were saved through him and he was doomed.” Malik ibn-Dinar said,
“If he learned man does not do according to his knowledge, his words
will fail to penetrate the hearts of his hearers just as the dew fails to
soften the rocks.”
1. Cf. Hikyat al-Awiiva Vol. ll, p. 387.
2. Ibid., Vol. 1, 242.
3. ‘Abd-al-Rahman ibn-’Umar, founder of the Awza`i system in Syria.
He
worked in Beirut and d. A.H. 157/A.D. 774. See ibn-Khallikan,
Vol.1, pp.
492-93.
4. Ar. nawawis pl. of nawas from Gr.
5. A.H. 237/A.D. 851-52. See ibn-al-`Imad al-Hanbali, Shadharal al-
(Dhahab fi Akhbar man Dhahab (Cairo, 1350), Vol.11, p. 87; al-
Sha’rani,
al-Tabaqat al-Kubra (Cairo, 1343), Vol. 1, pp. 68-69.
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The poet said:
Admonisher of men, thou wouldst be indicted when
Thou chidest them for that which thou thyself dost do;
Advice thou givest and then thyself the sin commit
And scoff the love of life while loving it more than they.
And another said:
If thou condemn a sin and then commit
The same transgression, shame upon thy head.
Ibrahim ibn-Adham’ said, “While in Makhah, I came across a
stone on which was inscribed. “Turn me over and thou shalt have
warning’. Thereupon I turned it over and lo and behold I found
inscribed onit,’Ifthouactestnotaccordingtothypresentknowledge, why
then shouldst thou seek new knowledge’?” Ibn-al-Sammak’ once said,
“Many are they who remind others of Allah while they themselves
forget Him; who frighten others of Allah while they trespass against
Him; who draw others near to Allah while they themselves are far
from Him; who call others unto Allah while they themselves flee from
Him; who read Allah’s Holy Books while they themselves deviate from
His wav!” lbraham ibn-Adham also said, “In speech we are always
careful to use a language free of error, but when it comes to deeds we
commit errors and fall short of the ideal set before us.” Al-Awza`i said,
“When boasting asserts itself, humility disappears.”
Makhul3 related that. `Abd-al-Rahman ibn-Ghanam’ said, ` -Ten of
the Companions of the Apostle of Allah told me, `As we were studying
one day in the mosque of Quba’ the Apostle of Allah came
A.H. 1611A.D. 778; see ibn-’Asakir, Vol. 11(Damascus,1330), pp.
167-96; al-Kutubi, Fawat al-Itafayat (Bulaq, 1283), Vol. 1, pp. 34.
2. A.H. 183/A.D. 799. See ibn-Khallikan, Vol. Il, pp. 296-97.
Al-Shami. (A.H. 11 3/A.D. 731). Seeibn-Qutavbah,p.230, ibn-
Khallikan, Vol. II, pp. 585-86. He is also known sa al-Dimashqi.
4. A.H. 78/A.D. 697, see ibn-Sa’d. Vol. VII, Pt. 2, p. 152; Tadhkirat
a!-Huff az Vol. 1, p. 48.
5. A village two milies south-east of al-Madinah. Itsmosque is
celebrated in Islam and is said to have been the mosque of piety (al-
lagwa).
160 ‘

upon us and said: You may study whatever you wish, but Allah will not
reward you unless you do according to that knowledge’.”‘ Jesus said,
“The parable of him who acquires knowledge but does not
accordingly, is like the parable of the woman who has secretly
committed adultery and, on becoming pregnant, her sin becomes
known. So it is with him who does not do according to his knowledge;
on the day of resurrection he will be openly disgraced by Allah.”
Mu’adh ibn-Jabal said, “Beware of the learned man’s error, which
because of the exalted position of its perpetrator, is emulated by
men.” `Umar said, “Through the error of a learned man a whole
people may be led to error.” “Three things will bring about the end of
time; one of these three is the error of the learned man.” Ibn-Mas’ud
said, “There will come a time wherein the sweetness of hearts will
become salty. At that time neither he who possesses knowledge nor he
to whom it is imparted will reap any benefit therefrom. The hearts of
the learned men will be like the saline land; the rains of heaven will
fall upon it but fail to make it fresh.” This will take place when the
hearts of learned men incline after the love of this world and give it
preference over the hereafter. Then will Allah rob men of the springs
of wisdom and will extinguish the lights of the true faith in their
hearts. When you meet the learned among them he will protest before
you his fear of Allah while trespassing and sin are evident in his
deeds. How fat then are the tongues and how lean the hearts. Verily,
by Allah-there is none but He-this would not have been so if the
teachers had taught for the sake of Allah and the students had studied
for His sake.”

The following is written in both the Bible and the Gospel, “Seek
no new knowledge unless you have put into practice what you already
know.” Hudhayfah2 said, “You are in a time wherein anyone who will
neglect a tenth of his knowledge will surely perish; but the time will
come wherein anyone who will put into practice a tenth of his
knowledge, the same will be saved because the idle are numerous.”
I. Hih}at al-.l;rliva’, Vol. 1, p. 236.
2. Ibn-al-Yaman al-Sahabi (A.H. 36/A.D. 657). See ibn-Qutavbah, pp.
134-Y
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What is true of the learned men is true of the judges concerning
whom the Prophet said, “There are three kinds of judges: One judges
justly with knowledge; the same will inherit Paradise. Another judges
unjustly whether or not he has knowledge; the same will roast in Hell
fire. A third judges contrary to the ordinances of Allah; the same will
also roast in Hell fire.”‘ K`abz said, “At the end of time there will be
learned men who will urge people to abjure this world while they
themselves renounce it not; they place the fear of Allah in the hearts
of men while they themselves fear Him not; they forbid men to seek
the favour of those in authority while they themselves curry favour
with them; they prefer this world to the hereafter, slander everyone,
associate with the rich and avoid the company of the poor, they are
jealous of one another concerning knowledge and fight over it as
women fight over the love of men; the anger of one of them is aroused
if his companion would talk to another besides himself. Verily they are
the enemies of the Merciful One.”
The Prophet said, “Verily Satan may bait you with knowledge.”
When asked how would that be, Muhammad replied that Satan would
say to you, “Seek ye knowledge and do nothing until ye master it.”
Then will man continue to seek knowledge and defer action until he
finally dies having done nothing. .

Sirri al-Saqti said, “A certain man who was overzealous in

mastering all esoteric knowledge suddenly withdrew from the world
and devoted his life to worship. Thereupon I asked him why he had
done so. To which he replied, “I saw in a dream someone say unto me,
‘How long will you persist in wasting knowledge?’ I replied, ‘Verily I
shall study and preserve it.’ He said, ‘The preservation of
knowledge lies in putting it into practice.’ Consequently I dropped
seeking knowledge and bent myself on work and action.” IbnMas’ud
Al-Tirmidhi, al-Ahkam, 1; ibn-Majah, al-Ahkam, 3.
AI Ahbar (A.H. 32/A.D. 652-3). See ibn-Qutaybah, p. 219; M.
Schmitz, art. “K’ab al-Ahbar” in Encyclopaedia of Islam.
said, “Knowledge is not the prolific retention of tradition, but rather
the fear of Allah.”‘

Al-Hasan al-Basri said, “You may study whatever you wish, but
Allah will not reward you unless you do according to that knowledge.
Verily the concern of the insolent is the retention of tradition and that
of the learned men is wisdom.” Malik ibn-Anas said, “Verily the
seeking of knowledge as well as the imparting of it is good, provided
the intentions are also good. Above all seek your daily provision of
knowledge and let nothing else interfere.” Ibn-Mas`ud said, “The
Qur’an was revealed in order that men may direct their lives
according to its teaching. But instead you have made the study of it
your life work. There will also come a time when some will attempt to
modify it - these are not the worthy among you”. The learned man
who does net do according to his knowledge is like a sick man who
prescribes treatment for others, or like a hungry and half starved man
who works out delicious menus of food but cannot taste them.
Describing a similar thing Allah said, “But woe be unto you for what
ye utter (of Allah).`And according to a tradition the Prophet said, “Of
the dangers which threaten my people I fear nothing except the error
of the learned man and a hypocrite discussing the
Qur’an.”3
Another characteristic expected of the learned man is that he be
concerned with the acquisition of knowledge, useful in the hereafter
and conducive to good work (ta’at). He should avoid those branches
of knowledge which are of little use and which lend themselves to
disputation and argument: Thus he who shuns the science of practical
religion and takes to disputation is like a sick man suffering from
many diseases who meets a clever physician, and despite the fact that
the time is precious and limited, he wastes it in inquiring about the
properties of drugs and medicines and about the curiousities of the
medical profession and neglects the all important question of his own
affliction. This certainly is tLe limit of insolence.
I . Hikyat al Awilya, Vol. I, p.131.
2. Surah XXI: 18.
3. Cf. al-Darimi, Intro., 23.
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It has been related that a certain man came to the Apostle of
Allah and said, “Teach me some of the strange facts of knowledge.”
To which the Apostle replied, “What hast thou done with the
Beginning of knowledge?” “But what is the beginning of i nowledge?”
the man retorted. The Prophet replied, “Hast thou known the exalted
Lord?” “Yes”, said the man. “And what hast thou done for Him?” “Oh
well,” replied the man. “And has thou know what death is?” added the
Prophet. “Yes”, replied the man. “And what hast thou prepared for
it?” Inquired the Prophet, “Oh well,” protested the man. Thereupon
the Prophet said, “Go thou first and do these things and then come
and we shall teach thee some of the strange facts of knowledge.”
The knowledge acquired should be like that which Hatim al-
Asamm, the disciple of Shaqiq al-Balkhi’ learned from his teacher.
Thus it is said that Shaqiq once asked Hatim how long he had been in
his company. Hatim replied, “Thirty-three years.” Shaqiq then said,
“And what have you learnt during this period?” “Eight things,” replied
Hatim. Thereupon Shaqiq exclaimed, “Verily we are Allah’s and unto
Him is our return. I have spent my life trying to teach you but you
have learnt only eight things!” Hatim replied, “Frankly I have learnt
nothing else and I do not like to lie about it,” Shaqiq then said, “Well,
out with these things and let me hear them.” Hatim then said, “I
looked around and beheld that every man has something or someone
whom he loves and with whom he remains intil the hour of death
arrives, at which time they part. Consequently I made charity the
object of my love so that when the hour of death arrives the object of
my love accompanies me to the grave.” “Thou hast done well, Hatim,”
said Shaqiq, “let us now hear the second thing thou hast learnt “
Hatim replied, “I have pondered over the words of Allah when he
said, `But as to him who shall have feared the majesty of the Lord,
and shall have refrained his soul from lust, verily, Paradise - that shall
be his dwelling place,’= and have come
I. According to ibn-Khallikan,Vol. 1,p.404, Shaqiq, died in A.H.
153/A.D.
770; while according to ibn-al= Imad al-Hanbali, Sbadhwmt al-
Dhahab fi
Akhbar man Dhahab (Cairo, 13 50), Vol. I, p. 341, he died in A.H.
194/
A.D. 810.
2. Surah, LXXIX: 40-11.
to know that the words of Allah are the truth. Consequently I have
mortified myself and suppressed lust until my soul found its abode in
the obedience of Allah. Thirdly, as I looked around the people I found
that everyone treasures and exalts whatever valuable things he
possesses. I then turned to the words of Allah, `All that ye possess
passeth away but that which is with Allah abideth’,’ and began to give
unto Allah whatever valuable things fell into my hands. Fourthly, as I
looked around I saw that everyone places his trust in wealth, descent,
honour, and lineage-things which on examination I found to be empty.
I then pondered over the words of Allah, `Verily the most honourable
of you in the sight of Allah is the most pious of you,’-’ and immediately
turned with all my soul to piety in order that I may become
honourable before Allah.
“Fifth, I looked around and beheld these people slandering and
cursing one another, all because of jealousy. Then I turned to the
words of Allah, ‘It is We who distribute their subsistence among them
in this world’s life,’’ and consequently I abjured jealousy and extended
my love to all realizing that man’s lot is from Allah. As a result I
dislike people no more.
“In the sixth place, I saw men oppress and fight one another.
Whereupon I turned to the words of Allah, `Verily Satan is your foe;
for a foe then hold him.” Accordingly I took Satan for a foe and ceased
to hate people.
“The seventh thing I learnt was the following: As I looked around I
saw that everyman was running after bread, and debasing himself and
committing all manner of unlawful things in the effort to gain his end.
Then I recalled the words of Allah, `There is no moving thing that
moveth upon the face of the earth but its provision is from Me’.’
Realizing that I was one of those moving things whost provision is
from Allah, I devoted myself to the things which ar Allah’s, and
entrusted my fate into His hands.
I . Surah, XVI: 98. 2. Surah, MAX 13.
3. Surah, XLID: 31. 4. Surah, XXXV: 6. 5. Surah,
XI: 8.

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“The eighth thing which I learnt was this: I looked around and
found that every man has placed his trust in something created - one
in his possessions and another in his wealth, a third in his profession
and the fourth in his health. In short all creatrid beings placed their
faith in things which are like themselves created. I then turned to the
words of Allah, `And to him who putteth his trust in Him will Allah be
all-sufficient,’’ and from that moment on I placed my trust in Allah,
verily He is all-sufficient “
Then Shaqiq said, “O Hatim, may Allah prosper thee. Verily I
have examined the Pentateuch, the Gospels, the Psalms, and the
great Qur’an and found that all goodness and religion centre around
these eight things; whoever would practise them would conform to
the teachings of these four books.”
No one bothers about the acquisition of this type of knowledge or
even acknowledges its existence except the learned men of the
hereafter; while the learned men of this world apply themselves to
those branches of knowledge which help to gain for them wealth and
position, neglecting all the knowledge which Allah sent the Prophets
with to impart in this world.
Al-Dahhak ibn-Muzahim` once said, “When I was young the
learned men used to teach one another piety, but nowadays they learn
nothing but scholastic wrangling (kalam).”
Another characteristic expected of the learned man is that he be
not disposed to indulgence in his food and drink, and luxury in his
dress, furniture, and housing. Rather he should prefer economy in all
things, emulating thereby the blessed Fathers. He should be more
readily satisfied with the least ofeverything, and the closer he draws
to penury the closer he draws to Allah and the greater will his rank be
among the learned men of the hereafter. This is attested by the story
related about Ibrahim al-Khawwas’ who was a friend of Hatim al-
I. Sarah, LXV: 3.
2. A.H. 1021A.D. 720-2 I; see ibn-Qutavbah, p. 232.
3. A.H. 291/A.D. 904; see al-Baghdadi, Tarikh Baghdad, Vol. VI, pp.
7-10;
al-Sha’rani, Vol. 1, pp. 83-84.
Asamm Said Ibrahim “Once upon a time I and three hundred and
twenty pilgrims arrived at al-Rayy in the company of Hatim. We were
all headed to Makkah for the pilgrimage. The men-had their woollen
cloaks but lacked both provisions and provision bags. On arriving at
al-Rayy we came upon a merchant of abstemious habits who loved the
poor and therefore offered us shelter and food for the night. In the
morning our host asked Hatim whether or not he had anything to do
because he wanted to call on a certain sick jurist in the town. Hatim
replied `Visiting the sick is meritorious, and hearkening unto the
learned is a form of worship. I shall therefore accompany you.’ The
sick jurist was Muhammad ibn Muqatil,’ the judge of al-Rayy. As they
arrived at the gate of his mansion they beheld a great and imposing
palace. This made Hatim wonder and say (to himself), `Such a palace
is the property of a learned man!” On being admitted they entered the
palace and lo, they were in the midst of an imposing wide, and
spacious house with luxurious curtains and draperies. But Hatim still
wondered. They then stepped into the hall in which the patient lay on
a soft mattress. Over his head stood a lad waving a fan. While Hatim
remained standing the merchant sat down beside ibn-Muqatil and
inquired about his condition. Noticing that Hatim was still standing,
ibn-Mugatil motioned him to take a seat but Hatim declined. Ibn-
Mugatil then inquired whether or not Hatim wanted anything done for
him, to which Hatim replied, `Yes I wish to ask you a question.’ `Ask’,
said ibn-Muqatil. Hatim replied, `Sit up that I may ask thee.’ Ibn
Muqatil sat up and Hatim proceeded to ask him saying, `From where
did you get your learning?” From trustworthy reporters who related
their knowledge to me directly,’ said ibn-Muqatil. `And wherefrom did
they get theirs?’ asked Hatim. `From the Companions of the Apostle
of Allah,’ replied ibn-Muqatil. `And wherefrom did the Companions
get theirs?’ asked Hatim. From the Apostle of Allah,’ replied ibn-
Muqatil. `And the Apostle?’ inquired Hatim. `From Gabriel who got
his from Allah,’ replied ibn-Mugatil.
`Tell me then,’ said Hatim, `in that which Gabriel received from
Allah
and transmitted to the Apostle who in turn passed it on to his
Unidentified.
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Companions who conveyed it to trustworthy reporters who in turn
gave it to you, did you hear of any learned men who advanced in
worth before Allah because he led a life of luxury in his house and
because his wealth exceeded that of a prince?’ `No’, said ibn-Muqatil.
`What have you learnt then from those trustworthy reporters?’ asked
Hatim. To this ibn Muqatil replied, `I have learnt that he who
renounces this world and seeks the next, showing love to the poor and
preparing for the hereafter, will be favoured by Allah.’ Hatim then
exclaimed, `The example of whom have you followed, that of the
Prophet and his Companions and their virtuous followers or that of
Pharaoh’ and Namrud; the first to employ gypsum and bricks in
masonry? You teachers of falsehood, the ignorant man who is rabidly
desirous of the pleasures of this world would see you and those of
your kind and would say to himself that if the learned men lead such a
life, there is no reason why he should not do the same.’ Having said
this, Hatim left, and ibn-Muqatil’s sickness became more acute. The
details of the incident soon spread among the people of al-Rayy and
then informed Hatim that al-Tanafisi3 in Qazwin was more
extravagant. Hearing this Hatim proceeded to Qazwin and on his
arrival, called on al-Tanafisi and addressed him saying, `May Allah
have mercy upon you, Sir; I am a non-Arab (a’jami) who wishes you
would teach me the elements of my religion and the commencement
of my prayer, namely, how to perform the ceremonial of ablution
preparatory to worship.’ AI-Tanafisi rose up (to demonstrate the
ceremonial) while Hatim watched. Al-Tanafisi performed the ablution
applying water thrice to those parts of his body which, according to
the ritual, should be washed, and told Hatim to perform the
ceremonial in the same way. Hatim then said, `Could you please stay
where you are until I perform the ceremonial before you and thus
1. Cf Surahs XXVII: 38, LX: 38; see also al-Tabari, Jami’ al Bayan
(Cairo 1323-30), Vols. XX, p. 49, XXIV, p. 43, where Pharaoh is
said to have been the first to use mortar and brick in masonry.
2. Al-Tabari, Vol. 1, pp. 217,219,220,252-65,319-25; al-Tha`alibi, pp.
68-70; Bernard Heller, art. “Namrud” in Encyclopaedia of Islam.
3. Probably abu-’Abdullah Muhammad ibn-Ubayd ibn-abi-Umayyah,
(A.H. 204/A.D. 819-20); see ibn-Sad, Vol. VI, p. 277; Tadhkirat al-
Huffaz, Vol. ],pp. 304-5.
be sure I have learnt it correctly?’ Thereupon al-Tanafisi moved aside
and Hatim proceeded with his ablution. When he got to the washing
of his arms up to the elbows he applied water four times. Al-Tanafisi
who was watching protested saving, `You have been extravagant.’ `In
what respect,’ inquired Hatim. `In washing your arms four times,’
was the reply. `Great Allah!’ exclaimed Hatim. `for the use of an extra
handful of water you think I have been extravagant; but your
indulgence in all this luxury you do not consider to be extravagance!’
Al-Tanafisi then realized that Hatim’s real purpose was to reprimand
rather than to learn. He consequently locked himself up in his home
and saw no one for forty days”
When later Hatim entered Baghdad, its inhabitants came to him
and said, “O abu-’Abd al-Rahman, you are a stammering non-Arab, vet
no one ever talks to you without being silenced. Hatim replied, “Three
characteristics enable me to overcome my adversary: I rejoice when
he is right, grieve when he is wrong, and endeavour not to act
foolishly towards him.” When Ahmad ibn-Hanbal heard this, he said,
“Allah be praised; how great is the wisdom of this man! Come let us
call on him.” When the company got to his house, ibn-Hanbal
addressed him saying, “O abu-’Abd-al-Rahman, what will insure
salvation from this world?” Hatim replied, “You will not be saved until
you possess four characteristics: Overlook men’s ignorance and spare
them yours; give them from you substance and except nothing from
theirs. Not unless you do these will you be saved.”
“He then proceeded to al-Madinahwhere he was welcomed by its
inhabitants. Addressing them he said, `which city is this?’ They
replied, `The city of the Apostle of Allah.’ He then asked, `Where is
the palace of the Apostle of Allah so that I might go and worship in
it?” `He had none,’ they replied, `all he had was a modest house half
buried in the ground.’Where then are the palaces of his Companions?’
`They had none either.’ was the reply, ‘all-they had were modest
houses half buried in the ground.’ Thereupon Hatim said, `Men, this,
then, is the city of Pharaoh.’ Infuriated they brought him before the
governor and said, `This foreigner says that this is the city of
Pharaoh.’ The governor asked Hatim why he had said such a thing
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and the latter replied, `Be patient with me please. I am a foreigner, a
stranger in this city. When I arrived in it I inquired whose city it was
and was told that it was the city of the Apostle of Allah. I then asked
where his palace was? Hatim then recalled the whole story and in
conclusion quoting the words of Allah, `Ye had in the Apostle of Allah
a good example,” said, `Whose example have you then followed, that
of the Apostle of Allah or that of Pharaoh, the first to employ gypsum
and brick in masonry?’ Hearing that, they released him and let him
alone.” This then is the story of Hatim al-Asamm. Other stories from
the lives of the Fathers concerning their disregard for physical
comforts and the use of ornaments will be related in due course.
The truth of the matter is that the use of permissible things for
ornament is not unlawful although its practice develops a fondness for
it which is hard to undo. Persistence in it is not possible except
through practices which will inevitably lead to committing sins such
as adulation, compromise, and hypocrisy as well as to otherprohibited
offenses. It is, therefore, wise to avoid these things because whoever
indulges in the luxuries of this world would never be safe. Had safety
been compatible with indulgence in luxury, the Prophet would not
have been insistent on renouncing this world and all its pleasures
even to the extent of taking off the embroidered shirt 2 and removing
the gold seal-ring whenever he delivered a sermon (khutbah),’ which
thing will be discussed later.
It has been related that Yahya ibn-Yazid al Nawfali’ once wrote to
Malik ibn-Anas saying:
“In the name of Allah the Merciful the Compassionate. May
His blessing be on His Apostle Muhammad.
From Yahya ibn-Yazid ibn-’Abd-al-Malik to Malik ibn-Anas:
I have been informed that you wear fine clothes, eat choice
I. Surah, )MM: 21.
2. Ibn-Sad, Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 152.
3. Ibid, Vol. 1, Pt. 2, pp. 160-61.
4. A.H. 1651A.D. 781-82; see al-Sam`ani, p. 571 a-b.
food, recline on comfortable couches, and station at your door
chamberlains. At the same time you have assumed the seat of learning
and men have come to you from every direction, selecting you as their
imam and accepting your pronouncements as the final word. Fear
then Allah and humble yourself. I have written to you this letter of
advice. No one besides Allah has seen its contents. Peace be with
you.”
Malik wrote back saying:.
“In the name of Allah the Merciful the Compassionate. May His
blessing be on Muhammad, our Lord, and on His Companions.
From Malik ibn-Anas to Yahva ibn-Yazid: The peace of Allah be upon
you.
“I have received your letter which I accept as the token ofyour.
interest and sympathy, and as the evidence of your refined character.
May Allah bless your piety and reward and prosper you for your
advice. I seek the help of Allah; there is no strength nor power but in
Him.
“As to your charge that we eat choice food, wear fine clothes,
station chamberlains at our door, and recline on comfortable couches,
may we state that at times we do all these but usually beg the
forgiveness of Allah. May we, however, add that Allah said in His
Book, `Say: What hath prohibited Allah’s goodly raiment, and the
healthful viands which He hath provided for His servants?”‘
Furthermore we know very well that abstinence from these things is
better than indulgence in them. At any rate do not neglect us in the
matter of writing and we shall not forget you. Peace be with you.”
See, then, the sense ofjustice which Malik displayed: he admitted that
to abstain from these things was better than indulgence in them, yet
at the same time he handed down the opinion that they were
permissible, and he was right in both. Thus it may be possible for men
of the calibre of Malik, whose sense of justice enabled him to admit
the fairness of such advice, to confine themselves to that which is
I Surah VD: 30.
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.-,The Book of Knowledge
permissible without either hypocrisy or deception and without
overstepping their bounds and doing that which is reprehensible. But
this is not possible for others, because to flirt with luxury in those
things which are permissible is extremely dangerous. It is far removed
from the fear of Allah which is the quality of the learned men of Allah.
Characteristic of the fear of Allah, however, is to avoid all manner of
risk.
Another characteristic expected of the learned man is that he
keeps away from the magistrates and, as long as he can help it, not to
come near them at all, and rather avoid their company despite any
efforts on their part to seek him out, because the world is attractive
and inviting while the power to dispense with its riches is in their
hands. To associate with them, therefore, would necessarily involve
the learned man in seeking their approval and winning their hearts,
although they are unjust and unrighteous. It is, then, the duty of every
religious man to censor them by exposing their tyranny and decrying
their practices. For he who frequents their palaces will either seek
their favour and consequently forget the blessings which Allah has
bestowed upon him, or hold his peace and allow their misdeeds to go
uncensored, thereby courting their favour. He may also undertake to
justify their sins and improve their standing in order to gain their
pleasure, which is the limit in perjury and falsehood. Or he may hope
to share their luxury, which is downright lawlessness. (A discussion of
what is permissible to accept from the riches of magistrates and what
is not permissible, especially such things as jobs and rewards, will be
taken up in the Book on the Lawful and the Unlawful). In short, their
company is a source of evil and it is, therefore, necessary for the
learned men of the hereafter to be careful and beware.
The Prophet said, “He who goeth out to the desert to live
becometh hardy and he who devoteth himself to the chase becometh
unmindful, while he who frequenteth the company of magistrates is
led astray.’ And again, “Ye will have rulers some of whom ye will find
out and then reject. He that rejecteth them will be acquitted and
I. Al-Tirmidhi, Fitan, 69.

172

he that abhorreth them will be saved. But he that approveth of their

ways and followeth their example will be rejected by Allah.” “Shall we
then fight them?” the Prophet was asked. “No”, he replied, “not as
long as they pray.”‘
Sufvan al Thawri said, “There is in hell a valley which is not
inhabited except by the Qur’an readers who frequent the palaces of
the king.” Hudhayfah said, “Expose not yourselves to temptation!” He
was then asked. “What temptation?” “The gates of the rulers,” he
replied, “into which you enter giving your approval to their lies and
praising them for virtues they do not possess.”
The Apostle of Allah also said, “As long as the learned men
associate not with the rulers, they are the deputies of the Apostles of
Allah over His servants. But when they associate with rulers they
betray the Apostles. Beware, therefore, of them and avoid them.”
(This tradition was related by Anas).
Al-A’mash was once told, “You have revived knowledge through
your many disciples.” But he said, “Wait! One-third of these disciples
pass away before its knowledge matures; another, which hangs
around the gates of the rulers, is the worst of all men; while of the
remainder only a few succeed.” For this reason Said ibn-al-Musayyab
said, “If you see a learned man frequent the houses of the rulers,
beware of him because he is a thief.”Al-Awza’i said, “There is nothing
more hateful to Allah than a learned man who frequents the house of
a governor.
The. Apostle of Allah also said, “The worst learned men frequent
the houses of the rulers while the best rulers frequent the houses of
the learned men.” Makhul al-Dimashgi said, “He who has studied the
Qur’an and mastered the science of religion yet associates with rulers
and flatters them for gain will wade through a sea of fire in the midst
of hell and will cross in that flaming sea as many steps as he had
taken in the company of rulers.”

AI-Tavalisi, No. 1595.

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Samnun’ once said, “How stupid is the learned man who is
continually sought for in his circle but is never found there; and when
the caller inquires about his whereabouts he is said to be at the
governor’s house.” He also said, “I often heard it said that whenever it
is discovered that a learned man is fond of this world, people should
immediately suspect the sincerity of his religion. Finally I began to do
the same myself, so that henceforth I never called on a governor
without taking myself to task for it on my leaving him; I usually found
that I was to blame despite the face that, as you well know, I have
always confronted him with rude and harsh words and repeatedly
contradicted his wishes. Still more I had hoped to be spared
altogether the humiliation of calling on him, although I have received
nothing, not even a drink of water, from him.” Continuing, Samnun
said, `Nevertheless the learned men of our time are even worse than
the learned men of Israel: they tender the ruler cheap advice and tell
him the thing which would please. Were they to remind him of his
obligations and ofthe things wherein lies his salvation, he would have
found them boring, and would have disliked their visits to him. Yet this
would have been their own salvation before the Lord.”
Al-Hasan al-Basri said, “There lived before your time a man who
had embraced Islam at a very early date and who had enjoyed the
company of the Apostle.” (‘Abdullah ibn-al-Mubarak held that al-Hasan
al-Basri had in mind S’ad ibn abi-Waqqas). “He did not frequent the
company of governors; on the contrary he avoided them altogether.
And so one day his sons pointed out to him that men whose Islam was
not as old as his and who, unlike himself, did not enjoy the company of
the Prophet, frequent the company of governors, and asked him why
he did not do the same. He replied and said, ‘O my sons! Shall I go
and stand by a stinking corpse surrounded by men? By Allah! If I can
help it I shall never join them ‘Then his sons said, ‘We shall then die of
starvation, father.’ To which he replied, ‘I would rather starve to death
as a believer than die as a fat hypocrite’.” Al-Hasan then remarked,
‘By Allah he beat them,
l. Abu-al-Qasim Samnun ibn-Hamzah, died before A.H. 297/A.D.
909-10; see aI-Baghdadi, Tarikh, Baghdad, Vol. IX, pp. 234-37.
because he had realized that beneath the sod, the flesh and the fat of
the man rather than his beliefs, decay.” This implies that those who
frequent the company of governors can never escape hypocrisy which
is contrary to faith and beliefs.
Abu-Dharr once said to Salamah;’ “O Salamah, frequent not the
company of rulers because you get nothing of their wealth without
their robbing you of something better of your religion.” As a matter of
fact this constitutes a great temptation which confronts learned men
and places in the hand of Satan a terrible instrument which he can
use against them, especially in the case of the learned man who has a
pleasing voice and an attractive speech. Satan persists in whispering
in his ear that through his preaching and visits to them he may be
able to turn them away from injustice and to induce them to observe
the dictates of the law, until finally the learned man imagines that his
visits to governors are an integral part of religion. However, no sooner
does he call on the governors than he begins to pay them compliments
and flatter them with praise and eulogy, wherein lies the destruction
of religion. Thus it is said that when the true learned men acquire
know ledge they go to work accordingly and when they go to work
they become absorbed in their work, and when they become absorbed
in their work they lose their interest in this world, and when they lose
interest in this world they seek the way of Allah, and when they seek
the way of Allah they turn their back and flee from the world.
‘Umar ibn-`Abd al-’Aziz wrote to al Hasan saying, “Peace be
upon you. Recommend to me some on whom I can call for aid to
enforce the ordinances of Allah.” Al-hasan replied, “The people of
religion will have nothing to do with you, and of the people of this
world you will have none. Seek, therefore, the noble for they will not
dishonour themselves by committing treason.” If it is the duty of the
people of religion to stand aloof even from such a ruler as ‘Umar
ibn-’Abd-al-’Aziz who was the greatest ascetic of his time, how then
can it be fitting for them to seek and associate with other rulers?

I. Ibn-al-Akwa’, (A.H. 7i/A.D. 693-94): see ibn-Qutaybah, p. 615; ibn-

Sa’d, Vol. IV, Pt. 2, pp. 38.41.
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The early learned men, such as al-Hasan al-Basri, a1-Thawri, ibn-
al-Mubarak, aI-Fuadavl,1 Ibrahim ibn-Adham, and Yusuf ibn-Asbat`,
repeatedly censored the learned men of this world, both Makkans
and Syrians, either for their fondness for this world or for associating
with rulers.
Another characteristic expected of the learned man is that he not
be impatient to give his opinion but on the contrary, whenever
possible, think twice and be extremely careful. Only when he is asked
about something which he knows to be explicity expressed in the
Qur’an or tradition, or definitely accepted by catholic consent (if
*ma’), or analogy (qiyas), should he give his opinion. Butwhenever he
is confronted with something about which he has some doubt, he
should say, “I do not know”. Ifhe is asked about something on which
he has formed an opinion through independent interpretation (ijiihad)
and speculation (takhmin), he should be careful not to commit himself
but refer the question to someone else who is more capable than
himself. This is wisdom itself because the danger of undertaking
independent interpretation is very great.
According to one tradition. “Knowledge comprises three parts:
the expressed word of the Qur’an, the observed Usage of the Prophet,
and finally a great deal which I do not know.”‘ Al-Sh’abi said. “I do not
possess even the half of all knowledge.” Therefore the reward of him
who will abstain from speech where he does not know out of respect
to Allah will not be less than that of him who will speak where he
knows, because to confess one’s ignorance is the most difficult thing
for man to do. Yet this was the custom of the Companions and the
Fathers. Thus whenever ibn-`Umar was asked to give an opinion on
anything he used to say, “Go unto the governor in whose hand are the
affairs of men and place the responsibility upon him.” Ibn-Mas `ud
said. “He who would express an opinion on every

1. Ibn-’had, (A.H. 197/A.D. 803); see ibn-Qutavbah, p. 256.

2. Died after A.H. 190/A.D. 806; see al-Fihrist, p. 184; al-Sha’rani,
Vol. 1,
pp. 52-53.
3. Cf ibn-J1ajah, Intro.. 8.
question put to him is truly mad.” And again, “The refuge of the
learned man lies in the words ‘I do not know.’ Whenever he abandons
this refuge he will be bested.” Ibrahim ibn-Adham said, “There is
nothing more formidable to Satan than the learned man who, in both
speech and silence, manifests his knowledge. Of him Satan would say,
`Behold his silence is more formidable than his speech’.”
Someone, describing the abdal,’ said, “Only when gnawed by the
pangs of hunger do they eat; only when overcome by lack of sleep do
they rest; and only when the need for speech is imperative do they
speak.” In other words they do not speak unless they are asked and
even then they will not talk if they could find someone to answer for
them. If it should become imperative for them to speak they will open
their mouths and reply. They considered the practice of starting to
speakbefore being asked a manifestation of a latent lust for flourish.
As `Ali and `Abdullah ibn-`Abbas once passed by a man who was
addressing a,crowd they said, “This man is saving: `Know me O ye
people.” Someone has said that to ask the true learned man a
question is as difficult as the extraction of one of his molar teeth. lbn-
`Umar used to say, “Do you wish to use us as a bridge by which you
could cross over to Hell?” Abu-Hafs al-Naysaburi’ once said, “The true
learned man is he who, when asked a question, would hesitate to
reply lest he be told on the day of resurrection, `From whence have
1. Also budala’, sing. bidi, badal and Badil. A degree in the Sufi
hierarchical order of saints, who, unknown to the masses,
participate by means of their powerful influence in the
preservation of the arrangement of the universe. Others hold that
the abda! are certain righteous men of whom the world is never
destitute; when one dies, Allah substitutes another in his place.
They are seventy in number, forty of whom are in Syria and thirty
in other countries. Still another group holds that they are
substitutes for and successors of the prophets and are seven in
number. Through them Allah takes care of the seven climates.
They are respectively the successors of Abraham, Moses, Aaron,
Idris (Enoch). Joseph, Jesus, and Adam. See T’arifat, p. 44; Dict.
of Tech. Terms. pp.104.48; I goldziher, art. “Abdal” in
Encyclopaedia of Islam. Cf. also Kashf al-Mahjub, p. 214.
2. ‘Umar ibn-Salim al-Haddad, (A.H. 2701A.D. 8830; see al-Sha’rani,
Vol. 1, 70-71.
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you answered the questions (which were put to you)?’“ Whenever he

was asked a question, Ibrahim al-Taymi’ used to weep and say, “Is it
because you could find no one else that you seek -ne?”
Abu al= Aliyah al-Riyahi,2 Ibrahim ibn-Adham, and Sufyan al-
Thawri used to carry on discussions with two or three men or
thereabout, but the moment the number increased beyond that they
would stop their discussion and depart.
The Apostle once said, “I do not know whether ‘Uzayl , was a
prophet or not: nor whether Tubba’ was accused or not; nor do I know
whetherdhul-al-Qamayns was a prophet or not.” And when he was
asked about the best -and worst spots on earth he replied that he did
not know, and put the question to Gabriel on the latter’s next visit and
Gabriel too declared that he did not know and had to wait until Allah
made known to him that the best spots on earth were the mosques
and the worst were the market-places.”
Ibn-’Umar used to reply to one question out of every ten he was
asked, while ibn-’Abbas used to answer nine and decline to reply to
the tenth. There were also, among the jurists, men who said, ‘We do
not know’ more frequently than ‘We know’. Among these were

1. Died in prison in A.H. 921A.D. 710-11, when he was locked up by al-

Hajjaj~see al-Fihrist, p. 183; ibn-Sa’d, Vol. VI, pp. 199-200; al-
Sha’rani, Vol. I, pp. 35-26.
2. Rufay’, (A.H. 90 A.D. 709); see ibn-Sad, Vol. VI, Pt. I, pp. 81-85; iibn-
Quta)**, p. 231; al-Sha’rani Vol. I, p. 30.
3. Usually identified with Ezra the scribes. See Surah, IX: 30 Jami’al-
Bayan, Vol. III, pp. 19-21, Vo. X, pp. 78-79; al-Tha`alibi, pp. 329-
333; Bernhard Heller art. “Uzair” in the Encyclopaedia of Islam.
4. The royal title of the kings of the second Himyarite Kingdom (ca.
A.D. 300-525, interrupted only by the first Abyssinian period, A.D.
340-78) that has survived in Muslim literature.
5. Alexander the Great. Mentioned in Surah XVII: 82, 85, 93, where he
s invested with a divine commission for the extirpation of impiety
and idolatry. Later legend makes him a prophet. See Jami’ al-
Bayan, Vol. XVI, PP. 7-12; al-Tha`alibi, pp. 345-56; E. Mittwoch,
art. “Dhu’1-kanuin” in die Encyclopaedia of Islam.
6. Muslim, Masajid, 288.
Sufvan al-Thawri, Malik ibn-Anas, Ahmad ibn-Hanbal, al-Fudayl
ibn-’Iyad, and Bishr ibn-al-Harith.
‘Abd-al-Rahman ibn-abi-Layla’ once said that he had met in the
Madinah Mosque one hundred and twenty of the Companions of the
Apostle of Allah, not one of whom, on being asked a question or
invited to express an opinion, would answer but would rather have
one of his colleagues spare him the responsibility. And according to
another report it was usual fpr each one of them, on being asked a
question, to refer it to his colleague who in turn would do the same,
and so on, until it had gone all around the Companions and had finally
come back to the first.
It has been related that one of the refugees of the mosque
vestibule (Ashab al-Suffah)2 was given a roasted head of a calf,
although he was in a dire need for food he would not touch it but
passed it,on to one of his colleagues who in turn passed it on to
another, and so on, until it had finally come back to the first refugee.
See, then, how things have become now very different among the
learned men. Thus the repulsive things have now become desirable
and the desirable, no longer sought.
Attsting to the value of caution in undertaking the responsibility
of giving judgment and expressing legal opinions is the authentic
tradition which says, “People will not be judged except by three: a
governor, a deputy, and an intruder.” Someone has related that the
Companions used to decline four things: the imamate, legacies
1. A.H. 83/A.D. 702; ibn-Sad, Vol. VII, pp. 74-7; ibn- Khalliken, Vol. I,
p. 492.
2. Better known as AN al-Suf fah. Among the believing Makkans who
had accompanied the Prophet on his migration to al-Madinah and
among those who came from other places, there were some who
were destitute, without means or shelter. They, therefore,
encamped wider suf fah (the northern part of the mosque which
was covered with a roof but had open sides). Here\they lived and
were provided with food and clothing by the community and were
called the guests of Islam (ad if al-Islam). In later times they
became highly venerated See Hikyat al Awliya ; Vol. l, p. 337, Vol.
U, p. 39; Reckendorf, art. “Ahl al-SutTa” in the Encyclopaedia of
Islam.

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(wasiyah), deposits (wadi yah), and the handing down of legal
opinions (fatwa or futya). Another said, that among jurists, the
quickest to hand down a legal opinion is the least learned among
them, and the most reluctant is the most religious.
The activities of the Companions and their followers (al-tabi’un)
were confined to five things: reading the Qur’an, building mosques,
glorifying (dhikr) Allah, enjoining good, and forbidding evil because of
what they heard the Prophet say concerning the son of Adam, namely
that, with the exception of three things, all that he says will be held
against him. These three are: to enjoin good, to forbid evil, and to
glorify Allah. Said Allah, “In most of their secret talk is nothing gocd;
but only in his who enjoineth almsgiving, or that which is right, or
concord among mea.”‘
Acerain learned man saw, in his sleep, one of the speculative
jurists (ashab al-ray) of al-Kufah and asked him, “What do you now think
of your opinions and theories?” Thereupon the speculative jurist
turned his face in agony and said, “We have neither found it
worthwhile nor have we liked its outcome.” Describing such men abu-
Hasan2 said, “Anv one of them would readily express his opinion on
problems which would have induced `Umar ibn-al-Khattab to summon
all the men who took part in the battle of Badr for consultation.”
Except under compelling circumstance silence continued to be the
practice of the learned. We are told in our tradition, “if ye see a man
given to silence and asceticism seek him because he teacheth
wisdom.”
It has also been said that the learned men are either ordinary
men who hand down legal opinions and are the close friends of rulers
or distinguished learned men who are well versed in theology and the
works of the heart and spend their lives in the solitude of oratories
(zawaya)3 throughout the world.
1. Surah, W: 114,
2. Ibn-Hasan in B and C, but more correctly abu-Hasin’Uthman
ibn-’Asim
ibn-Hasin. (A.H. 129/ A.D. 745-46); see ibn-&d, Vol. VI, p. 224.
3. Sing, zawiyah.
It was customary to liken Ahmad ibn-Hanbal to the Tigris from
the water of which everyone drew, and Bishr ibn-al-Harith to a
covered well of fresh water visited by a single person at a time. It was
also the custom to describe a certain individual as a learned man,
another as one who disputes (mutakallim), a third as given to more
disputation (kalam), and a fourth as given more to work (‘amal). Abu-
Sulavman (al-Darani) once said, “Knowledge is closer to silence than
to loquacity.” It was also said, “When knowledge increases loquacity
decreases, but when the latter increases the former decreases.”
 Salman (al-Farisi)’ once wrote to abu-al-Darda’, to whom he ‘,ad
been united by the Prophet in the ties of brotherhood,’ saying, “O my
brother! I have been told that you have been practising medicine and
treating patients. Now if thou be really a physician, speak, for in that
would be assurance and healing. But if thou be only a practitioner, for
Allah’s sake, do not kill any Muslim.” Henceforth abu-al-Darda gave
no more medical advice. Whenever Anas was asked anything he used
to say, “Ask our master, al-Hasar..”‘ And whenever men would inquire
of ibn-’Abbas it was his custom to say, “Ask Jabir ibn-Zayd”;’ while ibn-
` Umar would say, “Ask Sa’id ibn-al-Musayyab.”
It has been related that a certain Companion recited twenty
traditions in the presence of al-Hasan al-Basri. He was then asked to
explain them but he demurred and said that he had nothing to add.
Thereupon al-Hasan proceeded to explain them one by one and all
were amazed at his excellent commentary and erudition. Equally
amazed, the Companion reached down and picked up a handful of
pebbles and throwing them at the company exclaimed, “How dare you
ask me about learning when you have this great authority in your
midst?”
1. A close Companion of the Prophet. The date of his death
uncertain but is
generally placed toward the end of A.H. 35/A.D. 556. See ibnsa’d,
Vol. IV’ Pt. I, pp. 53-67.
2. See al-Tirmidhi, Zuhd, 64. 3. A1-Basri.
4. Al-Azdi, (A.H. 103/A.D. 721-22); see ibn-Sad, Vol. VII, Pt. I., pp.
130-33.
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Another characteristic expected of the learned man is that he
devotes the greatest part of his attention to esoteric knowledge, the
observation (muraqabah) of the heart, the path of the hereafter and
how to journey thereon, as well as to an abiding faith in finding that
path through self-mortification (mujahadah) and observation. For self-
mortification leadsto contemplation (mushahadah), andthrough the
intricate details of the sciences of the heart fountains of wisdom will
gush forth. Books and formal education are of little help in this field
because the wisdom which passes all understanding is only achieved
through self-mortification, observation and watching, the active
fulfilment of outward and inward duties, coming before Allah (julus) in
solitude (khalwah) and bringing the heart before His presence
(hudur) through pure reflection (fikr) and sole devotion to Him. This is
the key of illumination (llham) and the fountainhead of revelation
(kashj). For while many a student has persisted in his studies but was
unable to go beyond the words he had heard, many have confined
their attention in their studies to what was important and were active
in works, and bent on the observation of their hearts; consequently
Allah has blessed them with wisdom which passes all understanding.
For this reason the Prophet said, “He who would act according to his
knowledge would be rewarded by Allah with further knowledge.” It
was also said in one of the books of the ancients, “O children of Israel!
Say not that knowledge is in the heavens; who then will bring it down
to earth? Nor say that it is in the mighty deeps of the earth; who then
will bring up to heaven? Nor say that it is beyond the seas: who then
will bring it across the waves? Verily knowledge is in your hearts.
Follow, therefore, before me in the manner of the angels (ruhanivun)
and adopt the ways of the saints (siddiqun). Then will I pour of My
knowledge into your hearts until they overflow with
wisdom.”
Sahl-ibn-`Abdullah al-Tustari once said, “The learned men, the
worshippers, and the ascetics departed from this life with their hearts
closed; only the hearts of the saints and the martyrs were opened.” He
quoted the words of Allah when He said, “And with Him
are the keys of the secret things; none knoweth them but He.”‘ And
had it not been for the fact that the enlightenment of the heart of him
who has a heart with the inner light determines the esoteric
knowledge (‘ilm al-zahir) the Prophet would not have said, “Consult
thy heart whenever they should recommend something to thee and
give thee a dispensation to do it.” Then he said on the authority of his
Allah, “the servant will continue to draw near unto Me with
supererogatory works and meritorious deeds (nawafil) until he wins
My favour, at which time I shall be his ears and his eyes..”‘ Many are
the subtle meanings of the mysteries of the Qur’an which dawn upon
the hearts of those who have devoted themselves to invocation (dhikr)
and reflection (f kr), but are not found in the books of commentary
and remain unknown to the best commentators. Yet when such
meanings are revealed to the watchful devotee (murid) and are then
brought to the attention of commentators they would deem them good
and would realize that they are the outcome of the workings of a pure
heart and the gracious blessings of Allah on the high mind which
aspires to Him. Similarly the science of revelation (mukashafah) and
the secrets of the science of practical religion (mu amalah) as well as
the subtleties of the passing thoughts (khawaiir) of the heart are, each
and every one of them, seas the depths of which are too great to be
sounded and can be traversed by seekers only to the extent to which
each of them has been given the power and the ability to do good.
Describing such men, `Ali, in the course of a long conversation, said,
“The hearts are like vessels; the best among them is that which can
hold the most of good. Men are of three kinds: divine (rabbani)
learned men, seekers of knowledge for the hope of salvation, and rude
ruffians who follow every cry and are swayed by every passing wind.
They follow not the light of knowledge and stand not on its firm
foundation. Verily knowledge is better than wealth; for while you
guard wealth, it is knowledge which guards over you. Knowledge
increases by spending while wealth diminishes therewith. Knowledge
is a religion worthy of acceptance. Through it man is assured of the
ability to live in accordance with the will of Allah in this life and of
kindly words from his fellowmen after his death. Knowledge governs
while wealth is
1. Surah VI: 59. 2. Al-Bukhari, Rigaq, 38. 183

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governed. With the loss of wealth its value vanishes and its hoarders
are dead even while they live. On the other hand the learned men will
live as long as time shall last.” Taking a deep breath and pointing to
his breast, `Ali said, “Herein is abundant knowledge, but I can find no
one to carry it on. Instead I find seekers who I cannot trust; they
exploit religion for worldly gain, employ the gifts of Allah for fastening
their yoke on His saints (awliyaand exalt themselves therewith over
His people. I find men who follow the righteous but, for the least
matter, become the victims of doubt and scepticism. They have
neither understanding nor insight. I find gluttons guilty of indulgence,
easily led in the ways of lust.Ifindmenluredbythedesire to amass
wealth and hoard it, who follow their appetite and have closer
resemblance to grazing cattle than to human beings. On my Allah!
Thus will knowledge perish when its people die. But the world will not
be destitute of men who will champion the cause of Allah, some
openly in public while others secretly for fear of persecut;on, lest the
proofs and evidence of existence be nullified. How many are they and
where are they to be found? Such men boast of the smallest number
but in worth they are the greatest. They have no equals among men;
their strength lies in their heart. Through them Allah will preserve the
proofs of His existence until they entrust His testament to their
successors or plant its seeds in the hearts of their fellow-saints. With
their knowledge they attacked the basic problem and arr.ved at the
core of the truth, penetrating what the pampered have deemed
inaccessible and delighting in what the foolish have feared. They go
through this life with bodies, the spirits of which look for heaven.
They are the saints of Allah among His people, His trustees and
deputies on earth, and the missionaries (du’ah) who summon men to
His religion.” He then wept and said, “Oh how much I long to see
them!” What he mentioned at the end is the description of the learned
men of the hereafter, the greater part of whose knowledge is obtained
through works and continued self-mortification.
Another characteristic of the learned man is that he should be
greatly concerned with the strengthening of his faith (yaqin) which is
the mainspring of religion. Said the Apostle ofAllah, “Faith is belief
in its entirety.” Acquiring the science of faith is, therefore,
indispensable. By this I mean its rudiments which, when acquired,
‘wi11 open its path for the heart. For this reason the Prophet said,
“Acquire faith.” This means that you should associate with those who
have faith, receiving from them the science of faith, and persisting in
following their example so that your faith may wex strong as has
theirs. Furthermore a little faith is better than much work. Thus when
the Prophet was consulted concerning a man of much faith and many
sins and another who was steadfast in worship but had little faith, he
said, “There is none without sin. But anyone who is intelligent by
nature and also has faith will not suffer from sin, because whenever
he sins he will repent and ask forgiveness. He will then be forgiven
and left enough virtue wherewith he will enter Paradise.” For this
reason the Prophet said, “Verily among the things of which you have
been given the least, are faith and patience. Whoever has been given
his share of these two would not care what he had missed of night
prayer and day fasting.” In the testament of Luqman to his son we
read, “O my son! Work is not possible except through faith. Man does
not accomplish except in proportion to his faith, and does not fail
except when it wanes.” Yahya ibn-Mu’adh said, “Monotheism
(tawhid) brings forth light and polytheism (shirk), fire. The light of
monotheism will wipe out the offences of the monotheism more
completely than the fire of polytheism will wipe out the good deeds of
the polytheists.” By the light of monotheism, Yahya meant faith. Allah
also referred to those who have faith in several places in the Qur’an
and pointed out that through faith they receive His blessings and the
happiness of the hereafter.
You may say, “What, then, is the meaning of faith (yaqin), its
strength, and its weakness, since it should first be understood before
it can be sought and studied?” Then you should know that the word
(yaqin) is a homonymous term which two different groups of people
apply to two distinct meanings.
To the philosophers (huzzar) and scholastic theologians
(muttakallimun) the terms yagin signifies lack ofdoubt (i.e.
certainty). The readiness of the person to believe a thing falls into
four states:
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The first is where the evidence for believing and disbelieving is
even; it is described by doubt. Thus when you are asked whether or
not Allah is going to punish a certain person whose manner of life is
not known to you, are not prepared to affirm or deny either for both
are equally possible. Such a state is called doubt (shak).
The second state is where you are more inclined to accept one
position while realizing that the contrary is possible. But this
possibility does not prevent you from giving preference to the
former. For example you may be asked whether a certain person
whom you know for righteousness and piety will be punished or not
if when he dies he is still the same? Because of his evident
righteousness you are more inclined to believe that he will not be
punished. Nevertheless you admit the possibility that something
which requires punishment may have been concealed in his secret
life. This admission equals the inclination but does not rule out the
possibility that it is the more likely. Such a state is described by the
term conjecture (zann).
The third state obtains when one is inclined to believe a thing so
earnestly that he is taken up by it to such an extent that nothing else
seems possible to him and if such a thing ever comes to his mind, he
will refuse to believe it. He does not do this because of any definite
knowledge; for if he would only examine more carefully the first two
states, namely that of doubt and conjecture, he would more readily
admit other possibilities. Such a state is described as a belief
approaching certainty (i’tigad muqarib li-i yagin), which is similar to
the belief of the common folk in. all legal matters (shar’1 ‘at), i.e. they
accept as fact that which is simply hearsay. Thus every group is
certain of the authenticity of its own system (madhhab) and the
infallibility of its own imam or leader. Should any one member of
these groups be reminded of the possibility that his imam might be
mistaken he would resent it very much and refuse to admitt.
The fourth state is that of definite knowledge (m’arifah
haqiqiyah) resulting from evidence which leaves no place for doubt
or any possibility of doubt. When doubt or any possibility of doubt
are ruled out of the state of certainty (yaqin) obtains. As an example
of this state we may cite the following: When a wise man is asked, “Is
there anything eternal (qadim) in existence (wujud)?” he will not be
able to affirm or deny the question instantly because the eternal is not
perceived by the senses (ghayer mahsus) unlike, for example, the sun
and moon which are so perceived. Furthermore the fact that
something eternal exists is not axiomatic in the same way as the fact
that two is greater than one is axiomatic; rather it is like the fact that
the origination (huduth) of anything originated (hadith) is impossible
without a cause (sabab), which is also axiomatic but in a different way.
It is therefore the duty of the mind to hesitate to accept spontaneously
and intuitively the existence of the eternal. But there are some who
may hear these things and on such authority accept them without
question, and continue to believe them. This is the belief (i’tigad)
which coincides with the state of all the common folk.
There are others who believe only through evidence. These are
told that ifnothing eternal exists then all existing things are
originated; and if all existing things are originated then they are
originated without a cause, or some of them are so originated, all of
which is impossible and what leads to the impossible is itself
impossible. Therefore, out of sheer necessity, the mind is compelled to
believe in the existence of something eternal. For there are only three
positions: that all existing things are eternal; that all are originated;
that some are eternal and some are originated. Wall are eternal the
question will have been answered since all are held to the eternal. But
if all are originated we shall have to accept the impossible, namely
origination without a cause. Consequently the third and first positions
are established. Every kind of knowledge thus obtained is called
certainty (yaqin), whether it has been obtained through reasoning
(nazir) such as that above; or through the mind instinctively, as the
impossibility of any originated existence without a cause; or through
tradition, as the knowledge that Makkah exists; or through
experimentation, such as our knowledge that cooked scammony is a
laxative; or through some evidence, as we have already stated. Both
the philosophers and the scholastic theologians require the lack of
doubt before they use this term. Every part of knowledge which is free
from doubt is called certainty (yaqin). Consequently certainty is
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When we said that it was for the learned men of the hereafter to
expend their efforts in the strengthening of the yaqin we had in mind
both meanings, namely the negation of doubt (i.e. certainty and the
giving of full power and control to the yaqin over the soul until is
becomes the dominant ruler over it and sole dispenser of affairs (i.e.

never described with weakness because there are no degrees in the

negation of doubt.
 The second application of the term (yaqin) is that ofthejurists and
the Sufis as well as most of the learned men. In it, no attention is paid
to either conjecture or doubt but rather to the fact that it takes hold of
and prevails over the mind so that it is something said that so and so
does not believe in death, although there is no doubt about it; and
another has a strong faith that his livelihood is incoming, although it
is quite possible that it will never accrue. Thus whenever utesoul
inclines to the acceptance of anything which prevails over the heart
and takes hold of it, and as a result becomes the ruler and dispenser
of the soul either by urging it to action or by forbidding therefrom,
such a thing is called faith (yaqin).
Undoubtedly all men agree concerning the certainty of death and
entertain not the slightest doubt regarding its imminence. Yet there
are some among them who heed not its approach nor prepare for its
advent as though they were not !ure of it. Some, on the other hand,
are so obsessed by the fear of death that they have directed all their
attention towards preparation for it, leaving thereby no room for
anything else. Such a state is described as strength of faith. For this
reason someone has said, “I have seen nothing so certain and at the
same time so completely unheeded as death.” In accordance with this
terminology faith (yaqin) may be described with either strength or
weakness.
faith).
When you understand this, you will perceive what we mean when
we shall say that yaqin may be described in three different fashions,
as to strength and weakness, greatness and littleness, and finally
clearness and vagueness.
As to strength and weakness they are applied to the second
technical meaning of yagin, (namely faith), in so far as faith prevails
over and takes hold of the heart. The degrees of faith in respect to
strength and weakness are unlimited, and the extent to which people
will prepare for death varies in accordance with the extent to which
their faith may differ in regard to these same terms (namely, strength
and weakness).
The existence of varying degrees of clearness and vagueness
within the first technical use of the term yaqin, (namely certainty),
cannot be denied. They exist in the first state, i.e. doubt, as well as in
the second, i.e. conjecture. In neither of these could their existence be
denied. Nor could the existence of these varying degrees of clearness
and vagueness be denied even where doubt has been dispelled. For
example you can readily understand that there is a difference between
your belief in the existence of Makkah and that ofFadak,’ or between
your acceptance of the historicity of Moses and that of Joshua
(Yusha ),2 although you do not really doubt either because the
authority for both is tradition. Yet the one is clearer and more vivid in
your mind than the other, because its evidence is greater since more
historians have mentioned it.
The same thing is true of the philosopher (nazir) in connexion
with any theory arrived at through deduction; because what he
surmises through the evidence of one proof is not as clear in his mind
as that which he establishes through the evidence of several proofs,
although both are equal in the negation of doubt. This, however, is
sometimes denied by the scholastic theologian who draws his
knowledge from books and hearsay sources and does not take into
consideration what he already knows regarding the variations in those
states.
As to littleness and greatness they relate to the appurtenances
(muta’alligat) of the yagin. For example a person’s knowledge may
A small village about six miles north of Madinah. It figured in
early Muslim history. See Yaqut, Buldan, Vol. III, pp. 85j-58.
2. Not mentioned by name in the Qur’an but it is held that Surah,
XVIII: 59 refers to him.
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be described as greater than that of another which meas that his
learning is greater. For this reason the learned man may be very well
versed in all the contents of the law or in only a part of it.
If you then say that you have understood yaqin, its strength and
weakness, greatness and littleness, and clearness and vagueness in
both its meanings as the negation of doubt and as the taking hold of
the heart, and ask what its appurtenance comprise, what the means
whereby it is secured are, and how it can be sought (because unless
you know how and where to seek it you cannot secure it), then you
should know that what the prophets handed down belongs in its
entirety to the means whereby the yaqin is secured. For yaqin
represents a specific knowledge while its appurtenances are the bits
of information which are contained in the law, and there is no hope of
ever counting them. Nevertheless I shall point out some which
constitute the major appurtenance.
One of these is the belief in the unity of Allah (al-tawhid). It is
acknowledged that all things have come from Allah, the Cause of all
causes (musabbib al-asbab), paying no attention to the secondary
causes (wasai’t) and acknowledging that they are all subject to the
will of Allah and have no will of their own. He who believes this has
yaqin. If, over and above his belief, all possibilities of doubt are
removed from his heart, then he possess yagin of the first meaning
(i.e. certainty). But if, over and above his belief, a power will prevail
over his heart which will remove from it all anger provoked by the
secondary causes when they fail him, or gratitude to them when they
serve him, and will make him regard these secondary causes merely
as instruments in the hand of Allah in the same way as the pen in the
hand of the benefactor when he signs his name, as well as the hand
itself, is an instrument for no one will be grateful to either the pen of
the hand, or be angry at them, rather he will acknowledge them as
two instruments subject to the will of their master, two mediums
through which the will was enforced, then he will possess yaqin of the
second meaning, i.e faith.
The secondyagin is the nobler of the two and is the fruit of the

first as well as its life and value. Thus whenever man will examine the
sun, moon, and stars as well as the inanimate plants, animals, and all
things created, and realize that they are subject to the will of Allah in
the same way as the pen is in the hand of the scribe, and that the
eternal power is the source of all, the power of dependence,
contentment, and resignation will prevail over his heart and he will
possess yagin, becoming free of anger, rancour, envy, and ill-temper.
This is one of the doors which leads to the yaqin.
Another is confidence that Allah will guarantee to all their
livelihood according to His word when He said, “There is no moving
thing that moveth upon the face of the earth but its provision is from
Me,”‘ and faith that each individual will receive his portion. It also
involves a belief that whatever has been preordained will befall the
individual. ~Whenever this belief prevails over his heart, he will
maintain his integrity while seeking a living, and neither his stint nor
his greed will increase. Above all he will not regret anything which he
missed. Furthermore this kind of faith (yaqin) has fostered several
good works (ra’at) and praiseworthy habits.
Another is to have one’s heart possessed by the idea that
“whosoever shall wrought an atom’s weight of good shall behold it,
and whosoever shall have wrought an atom’s weight of evil shall
behold it.”2 In other words it is to believe in reward (thawab) and
punishment (‘igab) so that one might realize that the relation of the
acts of worship to reward is like that of bread to satiety, and sin
stands in relation to punishment as poison and venomous vipers stand
in relation to death. So just as men, in order to satisfy their hunger,
strive to obtain bread and store it, whether its quantity is small or
large, so must they strive to fulfil all acts of worship, whether they’ be
few or many. Similarly just as men avoid poisons regardless of the
quantity, so must they avoid all sins, the few and the many as well as
the minor and the major.
Theyagin of the first meaning, (i.e. certainty) is found among all
believers while that of the second meaning, (i.e. faith), is
1. Surah, XI: 8. 2. Surah, XCIX: 7-8.
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characteristic of the favourites of Allah (al-mugarrabun). The fruits of
this faith (yaqin) are genuine observation (muraqabah) of the heart in
its moments of groping (harakat), tranquillity (saknat), and passing
thoughts (khatarat), as well as extreme emphasis on piety and
determined resolve to avoid all evils. The stronger the faith the
stronger the resolution and the stronger the effort.
Another is the belief that Allah is constantly watching you,
knowing all the cogitations of your conscience and the hidden
meditation of your inward thoughts and reflections. This is accepted
by every believer who possesses a yaqin according to the first
meaning, namely certainty, or the negation of doubt; but its second
meaning which is the one we have in mind, namely faith, is very
scarce and is characteristic of the saints. Its fruit is to make man in
his solitude as cultured and refined under all conditions as a man in
audience with an exalted king. He fixes his eyes on the king and sits
before him in silence, maintaining a polite appearance in all his
doings and carefully restraining himself from the slightest thing
which may violate etiquette. There will be no disparity between his
inward thoughts and his outward deeds because he will realize that
Allah watches his inner life just as men watch his outward behaviour.
Consequently his effort to develop and purify his inner life in order to
make it acceptable before the encompassing eyes of Allah should be
greater than his effort to make his outward behaviour agreeable to
men. This state of faith (yaqin) breeds modesty, fear, meekness,
lowliness, submission, and obedience as well as other praiseworthy
qualities; while these qualities are conducive to many superior good
works (ra’at).
In every one of these examples the yaqin is like the tree; these
qualities of the heart are like the branches which shoot out from it;
and the good works and acts which result from these qualities are
like the fruits and blossoms which sprout out from the branches. The
yaqin, then, is the origin and the foundation, and has morekinds and
variations than we have already mentioned. These we shall discuss in
the Quarter on the Saving Matters of Life. For the present what we
have already mentioned is enough.
 Another characteristic expected of the learned man is that he be
sorrowful, meek, pensive, and silent. The signs of the fear of Allah
should be evident in his appearance, clothes, fife, movements, and
poise as well as in his speech and silence. No one will ever view him
without being reminded of Allah. His face will reveal his works forthe
eyes of the righteous one reflect his soul. The marks of the learned
men of the hereafter, too, are recognized in their faces’ which reflect
traquillity (sakinah), lowliness, and modesty. Thus it has been said,
“Allah has not fitted a man with a garment better than submission
with tranquility. It is the garment of the Prophets and the mark of the
virtuous and the saints and the learned.” On the. other hand to
chatter and prate and to indulge in excessive laughter as well as
temper and flippancy are all the outcome of a life of smugness and
ease in which man becomes unmindful of Allah’s terrible punishment
and great wrath. It is the practice of the children of this world who
have forgotten Allah rather than that of the learned men, because, as
al-Tustari said, “The learned men are of three kinds. The first kind
are those who know the commandments of Allah but not the Days of
Allah (ayyam Allah);’ they are t e judges who rule what is lawful and
what is unlawful. This knowledge does not develop fear. The second
kind are those who know Allah but not His Days; they are the
ordinary believers. The third kind of learned men are those who
know Allah as well as His commandments and Days; they are the
saints in whose hearts fear and humility prevail.” By the Days of
Allah al-Tustari meant the unknown punishments which Allah
inflicted and His hidden blessings which He bestowed upon the
preceding ages, and which He will also visit upon the succeeding
generations. Hence anyone whose knowledge encompasses this, his
fear of Allah would increase and his humility would grow.
Hadrat `Umar once said, “Acquire knowledge and develop
thereby poise, dignity, andtolerance. Humble yourselves before your
teachers and let your students do the same before you. And be not
I. Cf Surah, XLVII: 29.
2. The Days of Allah (ayyam Allah) are the epiphanies by which He
reveals His perfection. See Dict of Tech. Terms, p.1545.
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arrogant in your learning lest your knowledge encourage ignorance.”
It is also said, “Allah has not given any of His servants knowledge
without giving him tolerance, humility, good nature, and kindliness as
well.” Of such is the useful knowledge.
We also read in history that, “He to whom Allah gives knowledge,
asceticism, humility, and good-nature is foremost among the pious.”
And in tradition we read, “Verily there are among my people men who
rejoice openly at the extent of the mercy of Allah and weep in secret
for fear of His punishment. They live on the earth but their hearts are
in heaven; they themselves are in this world but their minds are
focussed on the hereafter. They live in tranquillity and draw near unto
Allah through the means (wasa’ilp of His grace.” Al-Hasan al Basri
said, “Tolerance is the vizier of knowledge, kindliness its father, and
humility its garment.”
Bishr ibn-al-Harith said, “He who seeks position through
knowledge and approaches Allah while his heart is full of hatred, will
be detested in heaven and in earth.” It is mentioned in the Books of
Israel (al-Isra’i liyat) that a certain wise man had composed three
hundred and sixty works on wisdom and thus earned the sobriquet al
hakim (the wise). Thereupon Allah revealed to the Prophet of Israel at
that time saying, “Speak unto such and such a person and tell him,
`Thus said the Lord: You have filled the earth with twaddle but you
have not mentioned me in a single word: therefore I accept nothing of
it.” On being so informed, the wise man repented and, abjuring his
twaddle, mixed with the common folk and roamed the streets
befriending all the children of Israel, and humbled himself. Then
Allah revealed to the Prophet saying, “Tell him, now you have gained
my favour.”
Al-Awza’i related that Bilal ibn-S’ad’ used to say, “Whenever you
see a policeman you invoke the protection of Allah
1. Sing, wnsilah, mentioned in Surnhs V: 39 and XVII: 59. Cf.
Jami’al-
BayKm, Vol. Vl, pp. 14&47.
2. Died during the reign of Hisham I,(A.H.105-
1251A.D.72443).Seeibn-
Sa d, Vol. VII, Pt. 2,p.166; also ibn-As ik r, Vol. M, pp. 315-8,
where his
name appears as Bilal ibnSa`id.

against him, but when you see the learned man of this world who
curry favour with all people and hanker after position, you do not
detest them although of the two the latter are the more detestable.” It
has also been related that the Apostle of Allah was once asked,
“Which works are the best?” He replied, “To avoid evil and persist in
the praise of Allah.” He was then asked, “Who are the best
companions?” To which he replied, “A companion who will help when
you ask for aid, and will remember you when you forget to ask.”
“Who, then, is the worst companion?” was the next question. To which
he replied, “A companion who will not remember you if you do not
remind him and will not help you when you ask for help.” He was then
asked, “And who is the most learned man?” The Prophet replied, “He
who fears Allah the most.” “Tell us, then,” they said, “who are the best
among us in order that we might sit at their feet?” The Prophet
replied, “Those who would remind you of Allah whenever they are
seen.” They then asked, “And who are the worst?” To which
Muhammad (S.A.W.) said, “Thy forgiveness, O Allah my Lord!” But
they said, “Tell us, O Apostle of Allah.” He then said, `The learned
men when they become corrupt.”‘ The Apostle also said, “Those who
have been most apprehensive in this world will, on the day of
resurrection, be the most secure, while those who have wept most will
laugh most, and those who have been saddest will be the happiest.”
In one of his sermons Hadrat `Ali said, “My conscience is pledged
to Allah although I am a leader. Verily the crops ofno one will wither if
they were planted with piety, and the roots of no tree will thirst if it
were raised with righteousness. The most ignorant man is he who has
picked up haphazardly tidbits of knowledge which carried him into the
darkness of sin, yet despite this and despite the fad that he has not
spent a single day in study, he has been called learned by disreputable
and evil men. He would go after quantity not knowing that little
knowledge of the right kind is better than a great deal of it which
diverts man from Allah. He would drink, as it were, from stagnant and
stale waters and engage in diverse activities but to no
I. Unidentified.
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avail. Then he would sit down to teach men and to explain to them
what is obscure. If, however, he would be confronted with a weighty
problem he would hand down a wordy and redundant opinion which,
rather than remove all ambiguity, would entangle the inquirer in a
mess of confusion similar to a cobweb, and would so baffle him as to
make it impossible for him to determine whether the man is right or
wrong. He is rooted in ignorance and is the victim of diabolical
madness. He will not decline to answer that which he does not know
and thus avoid error, nor will he strive to gain a strong hold on
knowledge that through its mastery he may prosper. Through his
ignorance blood is shed, and through his juridical opinions unlawful
adultery is rendered lawful. He is not capable of dispensing with the
problems which have been submitted to him and is not equal to the
task which has been delegated to his care. On such men should fall
the worst punishment; they should bewail and lament their fate while
they yet live.”
Hadrat `Ali also said, “Hold fast to knowledge when you hear it,
and mix it not with jesting lest it be rejected.” One of the Fathers
said, `Whenever man jests, his knowledge is impaired.’ It was also
said, “When the teacher is so fortunate as to possess patience,
humility, and good nature, the student’s lot will be perfect; similarly
whenever the student possesses intelligence, good manners, and
keen understanding){the teacher will have nothing more to desire.”
In short the qualities which the Qur’an mentions are indispensable to
the learned men of the hereafter because they should study the
Qur’an in order to go about doing good and not to occupy positions of
power and prestige. Ibn `Umar said, “For a short period of time it
was customary for us to be instructed in the elements of faith before
the Qur’an. Whenever a Surah was revealed we would learn the
lawful things it enjoined and the unlawful things it forbade, its
commandments and its prohibitions, as well as those things at which
we had to stop. But I have also seen men who master the text of the
Qur’an before learning the.elements of faith. They would read the
Qur’an from beginning to end; yet they would not know what it
commands and what it prohibits, nor those things at which one
should stop. They
would handle these things and toss them about as though they were
the most inferior dates in quality.” A similar meaning is expressed in
another tradition which reads, “As Companions of the Apostle of Allah
we were instructed in the elements of faith before the Qur’an; but
there shall come after you people who will master the text of the
Qur’an before the elements of faith; they will observe the rules of its
reading according to the different dialects (hunri7, but will ignore its
precepts and commandments. They will say, “We read the Qur’an;
who could read it better than we? We have knowledge of it; who has
better knowledge of it than we? This shall be their share.” According
to another version, “Those men are the most wicked among this
people.”
It has been said that five qualities inferred from five verses in
the Book of Allah are characteristic of the learned men of the
hereafter. These qualities are fear of Allah, humility, modesty, good
nature, and preference of the hereafter over this world, which is
asceticism.
Fear is based on the words of Allah when He said, “Such only of
His servants as are possessed of knowledge fear Allah.”‘ Humility
finds its authority in the words of Allah when He said, “Humbling
themselves before Allah, they barter not His signs for a mean price.” 2
Modesty finds its support in the following words of Allah, “And lower
thy wing to the believers. “I Good nature is inferred from the words
of Allah when He said, “Of the mercy of Allah thou hast spoken to
them in gentle terms.” Asceticism has its foundation in the words of
Allah when He said, `But they to whom knowledge had been given
said, `Woe to you! The reward of Allah is better for him who believeth
and worketh righteousness!”-’
When the Apostle of Allah recited the verse, “And whom Allah
shall please to guide, that man’s breast shall be open to Islam,” 6 he
was asked what it meant and he replied, “When the light is cast into
the heart the latter receives it gladly.” He was then asked,
1. Surah, XXXV: 25. 2. Surah, UL 199. 3. Surah, XV: 88. 4.
Surah, U:153. 6. Surah, XXVID: 80. 6.
Surah, VI: 125.
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“Has that any signs?” To which he replied, “Yes. The renunciation of
this world of vanity and delusion, the repair to the hereafter, and the
preparation for death before it arrives.”
Another characteristic of the learned man is to have most of his
study and research directed towards the science of practical religion
(‘ilm al a’ma!, especially such influences as would lead to its
corruption, perplex the hearts, stir up doubts and provoke evil, for
the basic idea of religion is to eschew evil. For this reason it was said:
Evil have I known though not
For evil’s sake but to avoid Its toils; and he
who knows it not
Will surely be ensnared thereby.
The practical works are within reach of all, and the best of these
works is to persist in the praise of Allah in thought and word. The
difficult part, however, is to determine what things will corrupt
practical religion and what things will confuse it. These things are
many and its parts are numerous, while a detailed discussion of it is
inevitably long. But the need for it is very great, because through
these corrupting and confusing influences disaster overtakes the
travellers along the path of the hereafter.
The learned men of this world, rather than attending to the
problems of their day, pursue the strangest hair-splitting in judicial
decisions and cases. They take special pains in formulating
hypothetical cases which will probably never take place. But if some
of these cases should ever take place, they will not occur in their own
experiences but in those of others, in which event there will be many
capable of handling them. These pressing problems which they have
neglected continue to haunt them night and day, troubling their
thoughts and minds, and perturb them in their actions. Thus how far
removed from happiness is he who neglects pressing and intimate
concerns in favour of the unnecessary concerns, of others, preferring
to gain thereby the approval and the plaudits of men rather than
those of Allah. Still worse, the reprobates of this world call such a
person a superior man, a thorough scholar, and a veAatile learned
man. But

199

his reward from Allah is that, in this world, he will gain nothing from
men’s approval of him. On the contrary, misfortunes will overshadow
his happiness, and finally he will stand on the day of resurrection
bankrupt, and will be filled with regret when he views the gains of the
doers of good and the success of those who have won Allah’s favour.
Truly this is “the complete ruin”, (which is spoken of in the Qur’an)
Al-Hasan al-Basri said, “It is agreed that the man whose words
bear the greatest resemblance to those of the Prophets and whose
way of life is closest to that of the Companions is he whose words are
for the greater part concerned with inward thoughts, the influences
which corrupt works and perplex minds as well as with the hidden and
unknown qualities which characterize the appetites of the soul.”
Al-Hasan was also told, “O Abu-Sa’id! You utter words which are
never heard from others besides yourself. Whence did you get them?”
He replied, “From Hudhayfah ibn-al-Yaman.” Hudhayfah was then
asked, “We see that you utter words which are never heard from any
of the Companions besides you. Whence did you get them?”
Thereupon he replied, “From the Apostle of Allah who favoured me
therewith. While others querried him about good, I querried him
about evil for fear of falling therein. As to good, I realize that its
knowledge will not escape me.”2 At another time the Apostle said “I
have come to realize that he who knows not evil knows not good.” And
according to another version, “People were wont to ask the Apostle
saying, `O Apostle of Allah! What is the reward of him who does such
and such a thing?’ and would query him regarding meritorious deeds.
But I used to ask him saying, `O Apostle of Allah! What would corrupt
such and such a thing?” When the Apostle of Allah saw that I was
continually asking him about the bane of good works, he favoured me
with the special knowledge.”
L Cf. Surahs XXII: II, XXXIX: 17.
Cf Surah II: 7, XXXIH; 47, LVII: 13. These refer to the
“hypoctities”of aI-Madinah who professed to follow Muhammad
(S.A.W.) but opposed him secretly.
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Hudhayfah was also specially favoured with the knowledge of the
hypocrites (al-munafiqun), and was unique in his acquaintance with
the science and causes of hypocrisy and the subtleties of temptations.
For that reason Hadrat `Umar and `Usman as well as the elders of
the Companions used to query him about the ordinary and particular
temptations. It was also customary for him to be asked about the
hypocrites, and he would tell how many of them were still alive, but
would not reveal their names. Hadrat `Umar used to ask his advice as
to whether he could see in him any traces of hypocrisy, but
Hudhayfah always declared him free of that affliction. Furthermore,
whenever `Umar was invited to officiate at a funeral he would first
look around and see whether Hudhayfah was present among the
mourners, and if he were he would proceed with the service;
otherwise he would refrain. Hudhayfah was also called the man with
the inner feeling (sahib al-sirr). Thus to take care of the stations and
states of the heart has always been the concern of all the learned
men of the hereafter, because it is the heart which endeavours to
draw near to Allah. Yet this branch of knowledge has now become
unknown and forgotten to the extent that whenever a learned man
would address himself to any part of it, he would be considered odd
and unusual, and his efforts would be branded as the. embellishments
of preachers. How far and different from that are the researches
which men now carry in the niceties of dialectics and argumentation!
The poet was right when he said:
Many are the roads, but truth is a single path,
And those who tread this way are few;
They pass unrecognized, their goal unknown,
While slowly and steadily they presss along. Men do
not know for what they were created,
And most of them fail to see the path of truth.
In short, most men incline toward the line of least resistance and
pursue what is most agreeable to their nature, because truth is
better, its discovery difficult, its attainment hard, and its road rough,
especially as it pertains to the knowledge of the qualities of the heart
and to its purification from blameworthy traits. It is a continual
source of torment to the spirit; he who pursues it is like the person
who takes his medicine and bears its bitterness in the hope of being
cured, or like the man who fasts throughout his life and suffers all the
rigors involved in order to enjoy breaking his fast after death. Yet
when was this path ever popular or attractive? For this reason there
were in al-Basrah one hundred and twenty speakers engaged in
preaching and warning, but of those engaged in the science of
religion (‘ilm a! yaqin), the study of the states of the heart and the
qualities of the inner self, there were only six,’ among whom were al-
Tustari, al-Subayhi,2 and ‘Abd-al Rahim.’ To the former there always
flocked a great and numberless crowd, while to the latter only a small
group which seldom exceeded ten usually came. Valuable and
precious things are not fit except for the elite, and what is placed at
the disposal of the mob is cheap.
Another characteristic of the learned man is that he should rely
in his studies on his insight and understanding which enlighten his
heart, rather than on manuscripts and books, or the blind acceptance
of what he hears from others. Only the lawgiver, in what he has
ordered and said and the Companions, whose deeds testify that they
received their knowledge from the Prophet, should be emulated. Then
when the lawgiver is emulated through the acceptance of his words
and deeds, care should be taken to understand their significance
(sirr). The follower performs an act simply because the lawgiver did it.
But the lawgiver did not perform the act except for some particular
significance inherent in it. For this reason the follower should
diligently endeavour to determine the significance of those deeds and
words, because if he is satisfied with the mere retention of what he
hears he is a vessel of information and not a learned man. For this,
reason it was customary to describe a person who was given to the
mere retention of information in his memory, without ever thing to
I. Six in B, three in other copies.
2. Unidentified.
3. ‘Abd-al-Rahman according to B: unidentified. Al-Ghazzali took
these
names, just as he had taken a great deal of the contents of the
Ihya’ from
the Qut-al-Qutub of Abu-Talib al-Makki. see Qut-al-Qurub (Cairo,
1351), Vol. 11, p. 32.
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familiarize himself with its significance and wisdom, as one of the
vessels of information. But he who would remove the veil from his- ,
heart and would allow it to be flooded with the light of guidance
would himself become a leader to be emulated, and therefore should
not blindly follow the example of others. With this in mind ibn-‘Abbas
said, “There is no one except the Prophet whose knowledge is not
sometimes followed and sometimes rejected.” Thus although
ibn-’Abbas had received his knowledge of jurisprudence from Zayd
ibn-Thabit and had studied the Qur’an reading at the feet of Ubavy
ibn-K’ab,’ he later contradicted both in jurisprudence and Qur’an
reading, respectively.
One of the Fathers said, “Whatever is handed down to us on the
authority of the Apostle of Allah we accept willingly, but what we
receive on the authority of the Companions we may accept and we
may reject. It is, however, a different story when we consider what we
receive from the followers (al-tabi’un), because they were men like
ourselves. The superiority of the Companions liee in the fact that they
witnessed the circumstances under which the Prophet had lived, and
their hearts were endued with the means of perception. Consequently
their first hand knowledge of these circumstances and their ability to
perceive and understand led them to that which is right in a manner
beyond description. The light of prophecy shone upon them to a
degree sufficient to guard them, for the most part, from error.
Furthermore if dependence on heresay is unsatisfactory
imitation, dependence on books and compositions are worse, because
they are a recent novelty, none of which existed during the time of
the Companions and the early days of the followers (al-tabi’un). These
books were all composed after the year 120 of the Hijrah (A.D. 738)
after the death of all the Companions and most of the followers, and
after the passing away of Sa’id ibn-al-Musayvab (A.H. 94/A.D.
I. Famous Qur’an reader (ca. A.H. 32/A.D. 652-3). See ibn-Qutayba
pp. 131-2; al-Filtrist, p. 27, Shams-al-Din al-Jazan, Ghayat al-
Nihavah fi Tabaqat al-Qurra’, ed. Gotthelf Bergstrasser (Cairo,
1933); Vol. 1, pp. 31-2.
713), al-Hasan al-Basri (A. H. I IO/A. D. 728), and the most illustrious
of the followers. In fact, the early Muslims disliked books of traditions
and disdained composition for fear that people would become
dependent on those works and thereby neglect to commit their
contents to memory and fail to read the Qur’an, meditate over its
meaning and remember its commands. On the contrary they said,
“Commit to memor• as we have committed.” For the same reason
Abu-Bakr as well as several of the Companions disliked the idea of
committing the Qur’an in writing in the form ofa book saying, “How
shall we do what the Prophets did not do?” Fearing the dependence
of the people on the written copies of the Qur’an, the Companions
first decided to leave the Qur’an uncommitted to writing and have the
people learn it from one another through oral transmission so that
they might have no other worry or concern. Later, however, Hadrat
‘Umar and the other Companions, apprehensive of human weakness
and laziness and fearful that disagreements concerning a word or an
ambiguous (mutashabih) reading might arise, and having no
authoritative origin to consult, advised that it should be committed to
writing. Thereupon Abu-Bakr gave his consent and had the Qur’an
collected into one volume. Nevertheless, Ahmad ibn-Hanbal was
critical of Malik for compiling al-Muwatta’ and used to say, “He
originated an innovation by doing what the Companions did not do.”
It has been said that the first person in Islam ever to compose
anything was ibn-Jurayj’ who wrote a book on history (al-athar) and
the dialects of Qur’an (huruf al-tafasir) which he based on what he
had heard from Mujahid,2 ‘Ata, and the companion of ibn-’Abbas at
Makkah. Then came the work of Ma’mar ibn-Rashid al-San’ani 3 which
was a compilation of traditions embodying the customs of the
Prophet. This was followed by the Muwatta’ of Malik and the Jami ‘
(corpus) of Sufvan al-Thawri. During the fourth century (of the
l. Abu-a’-Walid ‘Abd-al-Malik ibn-’Abi-al-’Aziz (A.H. I50/A.D. 767). See
ibn-Qutavbah, p. 246; al-Fihrist, p. 216; ibn-Khallikan, Vol. I, pp.
512-13-
2. lbn-Jabr al-Makki aI-Makhzumi (A.H. 101lA.D. 722-23). See ibn-
Sad, Vol. V, pp. 343-4.
3. A.H. 153/A.D. 770. See ibn-Qtaybah, p..252. al-Fihrist, p. 94,
Tahdhib al-.Lenra’, pp. 569-70.
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Hijrah’), however, works on scholastic theology (kalam) appeared
while people engaged more and more in argumentation and
refutation. They developed a liking for debate and inclined to
anecdotes and to their use in preaching. Consequently the science of
religion (‘ilm al-yaqin) began to disappear and the science of the
heart, research into the qualities of the soul, and the study of the
stratagem of the devil became rare and unknown. All but the very few
ignored them. Then it became the custom to call the arguing
scholastic and the story-teller, who embellished his words with
rhymed prose, learned. This was primarily because laymen made up
their audience, laymen who could not distinguish true knowledge from
that which is false, while the acts of the Companions and their
learning were concealed from them and, therefore, they were unable
to refute these men with them. These men, as a result, continued to
enjoy the title `learned’ and the inheriting of such appellatives went
on. At the same time the science of the hereafter became forgotten,
and the difference between knowledge and disputation no longer
known except to a select few who were still able to say, whenever they
were told that one person was more learned than another, that the
former was more teamed while the other was given to mere
distinguishing between knowledge and the ability to dispute and
argue. Thus did the science of religion wane during those early
centuries; but how about its condition at the present time? Things
have come to a point where anyone who would dare show his
disapproval of the present state of affairs would run the risk of being
called insane. It is therefore better for man to mind his own business
and to hold his peace.
Another characteristic expected of the learned man is that he be
extremely careful not to be swayed by novelties and innovations
(muhdathat) despite the fact that all might agree to follow them, or be
deceived by the universal acceptance gained by innovations which
have sprung up since the days of the Companions. On the contrary he
should be diligent in studying the conditions under which the
Companions lived as well as their lives and works. He should find out
to what most of them were given, whether they devoted themselves
1. A.D. 913-1010.
to teaching, writing, debate, law, government, guardianship of
mortmain properties (awggf), execution of wills (wasaya), devouring
the substance of orphans, keeping the company of rulers, and
currying favour with them or rather spent their lives in fear, sorrow
(huzn), reflection (tafakkur), self-mortification, observation of the
outward conduct and the inner self, abstinence from both minor and
major sins, determination to ascertain the hidden appetites of the
soul and the stratagem of the Devil and the like in the esoteric
sciences.
You should know beyond the shadow of a doubt that the most
learned people of the time and those who are closest to the truth are
those who resemble the Companions the most and who are best
acquainted with the way of the early Muslims, because it were they
who transmitted to us our faith and religion. For this reason, to the
charge that he had contradicted some one by his actions, Hadrat `Ali
replied, “The best of us are those who are most persistent in
following this faith. “ Therefore no one should mind contradicting the
people of his day when he agrees with contemporaries of the Apostle
of Allah. Furthermore men are apt to rationalize whatever they may
be doing because of an instinctive disposition to do that thing, and
their flesh does not allow them to admit that therein lies their loss of
Paradise. Consequently they claimed that there was no access to
Paradise except in the doing of it. For this reason al-Hasan al-Basri,
said, “Two innovations have appeared in Islam: A man of bad
judgment who holds that Paradise will be the reward only for those
who see eye to eye with him, and a man of luxury and extravagance
who worships this world; it is the source of all his dissatisfactions and
the fountainhead of all his pleasures; he seeks nothing besides.
Reject, therefore, these two for they are doomed to Hell fire. The
average man finds himself hounded by a sybarite who beckons him to
the luxuries of this world on the one hand, and by a faddist (sahib
hawa) who calls him to follow his whim on the other hand: but Allah
has saved him from both.: Aspiring to be like the righteous fathers he
inquires about their deeds and follows in their footsteps. thus
qualifying himself for a great reward. Be, therefore, likewise.”
A tradition has been related on the authority, of ibn-Mas’ud
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Kith its chain of authorities going back to the Prophet (musnad), and
according to another version stopping short of the Prophet (mawquf),
that the Prophet said, “Of all things, two are best: the word (kalam)
and faith (huda). The best word is the word of Allah (kalam Allah), and
the best faith is the faith of the Apostle of Allah. And beware of
innovations because of all things, thee are the worst. And every
innovation is a heresy, while every heresy is a sin. Verily the end will
not be delayed lest you harden your hearts. Verily whatever was
ordained is now impending, and whatever was not ordained will not
occur.”‘
In the course of his sermon, the Apostle of Allah said, “Blessed is
he whose concern for his own faults keeps him from meddling with
the faults of others, lives on money which he obtained without sin,
associates with the learned and the wise, and shuns the people of
wickedness and vice. Blessed is he who humbles himself, whose
nature has been refined and whose heart has been reformed, who
avoids inflicting evil upon men. Blessed is he who acts in accordance
with his knowledge, who gives away the surplus of his substance and
who withholds whatever is superfluous when he speaks, who lives
within the law and does not overstep its bounds by introducing
innovations.”
Ibn-Mas’ud used to say, “At the end of time good faith is better
than much work.” And again, “You are now in a time wherein the best
among you is he who is quick in the execution ofafl:’airs, but you will
come upon a time wherein the best will be the cautious and
deliberative, because of the abundance of misleading things.” Truly he
spoke the truth because any one who does not at the present time
stop and think, but follows the crowd and does what they have done,
will perish as they have perished.
Hudhayfah said, “Strange as it may seem, accepted practices of
today are the taboos of a day gone by, and the taboos of today are the
accepted practices of a day yet to come. As long as you know the
truth and your learned men belittle it not, you will continue to
I Ibn-Majah, Intro., 7:2.
prosper.” Truly he spoke the truth, because most of the accepted
practices of the present time were taboos during the days of the
Companions. Thus among the accepted practices of our time are
decorating and furnishing the mosques, and expending great sums of
money on their ornate construction and fine rugs which were then
considered innovations. These were introduced by_ the pilgrims, since
the early Muslims seldom placed anything on the ground during
prayer. Similarly disputation and debate are among the most
honoured disciples of the day and are numbered among the best
meritorious works (garubat); nevertheless they were among the
taboos at the time of the Companions. The same is true of the
chanting (talhin) of the Qur’an and the call for prayer, going to excess
in matters of cleanliness and being over fastidious in matters of
ceremonial purity, ruling clothes unclean on petty and far-fetched
grounds, and, at the same time, being lax in ruling foods lawful and
unlawful as well as many other like things.
Ibn-Mas’ud said the truth when he declared, “You are now in a
time wherein passion is harnessed by knowledge, but there will come
a time wherein passion will have priority over knowledge.” Ahmad
ibn-Hanbal used to say, “They have discarded knowledge and followed
strange things. How little is their learning! Verily Allah is our help.”
Malik ibn-Anas said, “In times gone by people were not in the habit of
looking into things as they do nowadays, nor did the learned men ever
say that such a thing was lawful (halal) and the other unlawful
(haram). But I have heard them say that one thing was desirable
(mustahab) and the other undesirable (makruh). In other words they
used to consider the degree to which one thing was desirable and the
other undesirable, whilethequestion ofunlawfulness never arose,
because the sinfulness of the unlawful was evident and clear.
Hisham ibn-’Urwah’ used to say, “Do not ask the people of this
day what innovations they have originated, because they have
prepared an answer for that; rather ask them concerning the usage of

1. Ibnal-Zubayr (A.H. 146/A.b. 763). See ibn-Khallikan, Vol. M, pp.

 1324.

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the Prophet for they are ignorant of it.” It was also the custom of
Abu-Sulayman al-Darani to say, “No one who had been inspired with
something good should attempt to carry it out until he finds its
confirmation in the traditions of the Companions. Let him then give
praise unto Allah for He has approved his intentions.” This he said,
because every innovation, before its inception, strikes the ear and
takes hold of the heart and cause it to deem error as truth. To
conceal that, man summons the testimony of tradition to his aid. For
this reason, when Marwan’ introduced the pulpit (minbar) into the
sanctuary (al-musalla)- at the time of the feast service,’ Abu Sa’id al-
Khudri4 approached him saying, “O Marwan! What is this
innovation?” Manvan replied, “This is not an innovation. On the
contrary this is better than the practice you advocate because the
crowd has become very big, and I desire to have my voice reach all
of them.” But Abu-Sa’id objected saying, “By Allah you will never do
anything better than the things I know and advocate. By Allah I shall
not follow you in prayer today.” Abu-Sa’id disapproved of the action
of Marwan because the Apostle of Allah used to lean, during the
sermon of the feast and the prayer for rain (al-islisga), against a bow
or a cane but not against a pulpit.’ Thus we read in the famous
tradition, “Whoever will introduce an alien element into our religion,
the same is an evil man.”6 In another tradition we have, “The
execration of Allah and all the angels is upon him who will deceive
my people.” It was then asked, “O Apostle of Allah! Who will deceive.
I . Fourth Umayyad caliph (A.H. 64-5/A.D. 683-5).
2. A place of prayer outside the town and mainly in cemeteries.
Following the Prophet it was customary to hold the service of the
two feasts (al-idayn), namely al-Fitr and al-Adha, in such
musallas. See al-Bukhari, al-‘idayn: 6.
3. Either al-Fits or a1 Adha. The pulpit, as a part of the equipment of
the mosque goes back to Muhammad (S.A.W.) himself who raised
such a . pulpit in A.H. 7/A.D. 628-9; see ibn-Sa ‘d, Vol.11, Pt. 2,
pp. 9-13. For the innovation of Marwan, see al-Bukhari, al-’idavn:
6.
4. Sa’d iibn-Malik ibn-Sinn (A.H. 74/A.D. 693-4). See ibn-Qutaybah
p. 136; Tahdhib al-Asma’, pp. 723.4.
5. Cf. al-Bukhari, lstisga’: 1, 7, 18; Muslim, Istisga’: 1-3: abu-
 Dawud, istisga’: 7; ibn MMajah, Salah, 86:5.
6. Cf. abu-Dawud, al-Sunnah: 5.
your people?” The Apostle replied, “He wha will introduce an
innovation and will lead men to follow it.”‘ The Apostle also said,
“Verily Allah had an angel who cries out daily saying, `He who
violates the sunnah of the Apostle of Allah will not enjoy the benefit of
his intercession’.”‘ The relation of him who transgresses against
religion by introducing into it innovations contrary to the sunnah to
him who commits an offence is like that of him who rebels against the
king and attempts to destroy his government to him who disobeys the
sovereign in one particular service. The offence of the latter may be
pardoned but not that of the former.
One of the learned men said, “To ignore what the Fathers have
discussed is insolence, and to discuss what they have ignored is
ostentatious.” Another learned man said, “Truth is not a light matter:
He who oversteps its bounds, transgresses; he who falls short of it,
fails; and he who aligns himself with it, is satisfied.” The Prophet said,
“Follow the middle position to which the high is levelled down and the
low is levelled up.” lbn-`Abbas said, “Error is sweet to the hearts of its
followers.”
Allah said, “Quit those who make their religion a sport and a
pastime.”‘ And again, “Shall he, the evil of whose deeds are so tricked
out to him that he deemeth them good, be treated like him who seeth
things aright?° Thus everything which has been introduced since the
time of the Companions, beyond the demands of need or necessity, is
nothing but sport and pastime
It has been related that the Devil (Iblis)’ sent his soldiers out at
the time of the Companions, but they returned to him distressed.
Thereupon he asked them what the matter was, to which they replied,
“We have never seen the like of these men; we cannot make any
headway against them and they have worn us out.” The Devil then
said, “Verily you will not be able to overcome them, because they
accompanied their Prophet and witnessed the revelation of their
Allah. But there will come after them another group against whom you
will
l. Unidentified. 2. Unidentified.
3. Surah, VI: 69. 4.
Surah, XXXV: 9. 5. From
Gr. Six Boyos.
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prevail.” When the followers (al-tab!’un) came along the Devil sent his
soldiers out again among them, but they returned to him disappointed
and said, “We have not seen anybody more amazing than these men.
We trap them into one sin after another but at the end of the day they
begin to beseech the forgiveness of Allah and He answers their
prayers and changes theirs sins into good works.” The Devil replied,
“You will never prevail over these men because of the integrity of
their belief in the unity of Allah and their obedience to the sunnah of
their Prophet. But after them will come others who will delight your
hearts. You will play with them as you wish, and will lead them by the
reins of their passions as you please. If they will ask for forgiveness of
Allah He will not grant their request; nor will they repent so that Allah
might change their sins into good works.”
And so after the first century (of the Hijrah) there came another
group of men among whom the Devil kindled passions, and so tricked
out to them their innovations that they deemed them lawful, and set
them up as their religion. They neither asked the forgiveness of Allah
nor repented from their sins. Consequently their enemies prevailed
over them and led them anywhere they desired.
The question may be asked, how did the person who related this
know what the Devil had said especially since no one has seen the
Devil or talked with him? Then you shall know that those whose
hearts have been sanctified have the secrets of heaven made known
to them either by inspiration (ilham) which dawns upon them from
where they know not, or by actual vision (al-ru ya al-sadiqah) in their
sleep, or in their wakefulness, which unfolds to them the mysteries
through the contemplation of types (amthilah), just as in sleep. This is
the highest rank, and is one of the high ranks of prophecy, just as
actual vision is one part of forty-six parts of prophecy.
Beware, therefore, lest your share of this knowledge be the
denial of whatever falls beyond the limits of your own finite mind,
because therein the proud and boastful learned men who claim that
they have encompassed all intellectual knowledge have met their
doom. In fact ignorance is betterthan a mind which calls forthe denial
of such things to the saints of Allah. For he who denies the saints such
things is of necessity compelled to deny and reject the Prophets and
will, therefore, be completely outside the pale of religion. In this
connexion one of the gnostics (ari f un) said, “Verily the abdal have
vanished from the earth and have concealed themselves from the
world, because they cannot stand the sight of the learned men of the
time who in the opinion of the abdal are ignorant of Allah, but in their
own opinion and in the opinion of the ignorant are deemed learned.”
Sahl al-Tustari said, “Indeed one of the greatest sins is to be
unaware of ignorance.” To watch the life of the crowd and hear the
words of the foolish are easier (to the abdal than all the babel of the
so-called learned.
Furthermore no words of any learned man who has pursued this
world should be heeded; on the contrary whatever such a man would
say should be questioned, because every man would pursue what
appeals to him and would reject whatever does not agree with his
desire. For this reason Allah said, “Obey not the man whose heart We
have made careless of the remembrance of Us, who followeth his
lusts, and whose ways are unbridled.”‘ The trespassing laymen are
happier than those who are ignorant of the path of religion but believe
that they are learned. For the trespassing layman admits his
shortcomings, asks Allah for His forgiveness, and reparits ofhis sins,
while the ignorant man who regards himself learned addresses
himself to those branches of knowledge which will serve him as means
whereby he will be able to gain this world through the path of
religion. He neither repents of his sin nor asks the forgiveness of
Allah, rather he persists in his sin until death. And since that prevails
on most men, except those who have been rendered infallible by
Allah, so that all hope of reforming them has disappeared, the safest
thing for the cautious man of religion is to seek seclusion (‘uzlah) and
solitude (infirad). This will be discussed in the Book on Seclusion. For
this reason Yusuf ibn-Asbat wrcte to Hudhayfah al-Mar’ashi,’
1. Surah, XVIII: 27.
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“What do you think of one who has not yet been able to find anyone to
join with him in the praise of Allah who is not a criminal and
companionship with him is sin?” In others words Yusuf ibn-Abas
was not able to find any congenial company; and he was right,
because the company of people is never free of backbiting and gossip
or the necessity of overlooking evil. The best that the learned man can
do is either to benefit others by his knowledge or to benefit himself by
the knowledge of others. Had this poor man but realized that it was
not possible for him to impart any benefit without its being tainted
with the blemishes of hypocrisy and the desire of wealth and position,
he would have known that the receiver ofhis benefit is bent on making
it a means for gaining this world and an instrument for evil. In that
case he would be his aid and accomplice, an auxiliary who would
provide him with his tools and instruments. He would be like the
merchant who would supply the brigands with their swords. For
knowledge is like the sword, its proper use is in the service of good as
the proper use of the sword is in the execution of raids (ghazw).
Consequently no merchant is justified in selling his swords to men
from whose conditions he cantell thatthey will employ his
merchandise to carry out their highway robberies.
These, then, are twelve of the characteristics of the learned men
of the hereafter, each one of which represents several of the qualities
of the early learned men. Be, therefore, one of two things: either a
man who possesses these qualities, or a man who, while
acknowledging them admits his failure to live up to them. But never
be the third: one of neither possesses these qualities nor admits his
failure. Otherwise you will confuse yourself and regard religion only
as a means of securing the luxuries of this world, and will liken the
lives of the wicked to those of the versatile learned men. Your
ignorance and rebellion will land you into the midst of those who are
doomed to destruction and despair. We seek refuge in Allah against
the deceit of Satan through which many have perished, and we ask to
Allah to vouchsafe that we become one of those who are not deceived
by this world, nor moved to deny Allah because of their conceit.

SECTION VII
On the Intellect, its Noble Nature, its Definition, and its
Divisions
The Noble Nature of the Intellect: It will be superfluous to show
the noble nature of the intellect (al-’aql) especially because through it
the noble nature of knowledge has been revealed. Intellect is the
source and fountainhead of knowledge as well as its foundation.
Knowledge springs from it as the fruit from the tree and the light from
the sun and vision from the eye. How then could that which is the
means of happiness in this world and the next not be noble or how
could it ever be doubted? The beasts, despite theirweak
understanding, respect the intellect, so that the largest; most
ferocious, and strongest among them, fear the very sight of man,
because they sense his superiority over them, which is the result of
his native resourcefulness. For this reason the Prophet said, “The
position of the chief (shaykh) in his tribal organisation is like unto that
of the Prophet among his people.”‘ This however, is not because of the
abundant wealth of the shaykh, nor because of his great person, or his
enormous power, but rather because of his rich experience, which is
the fruit of his intellect (‘aql). For this reason you find that the Turks
and the Kurds as well as the ruffians among the Arabs and all other
people, despite the fact that they are so close in their lives to the
beasts, respect their shaykhs instinctively. Similarly, when several of
the rebellious Arabs, who had made up their minds to kill the Prophet,
saw him and beheld his noble countenance, they feared him, and
there shone on them through his face the radiant light of prophecy,
although it was only latent in his soul in the same manner as the
intellect.
I . A.H. 207/A.D. 822; see aI-Sha’rmi. Vol. 1, p. 33.
Unidentified.
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To be sure the noble nature of the intellect is perceived
instinctively. It is our purpose, however, to relate what the tradition
and the Qur’an say concerning its noble nature. Thus we find in the
Qur’an that Allah called it light when He raid, “Allahis the Light of the
Heavens and Earth. His Light is like a niche in which is a lamp - the
lamp encased in glass - the glass, as it were, a glistening star.”‘ The
knowledge derived therefrom was called a spirit, a revelation, and a
life. Said Allah, “Thus have We sent the Spirit to thee with a
revelation, by Our command.”r And again, “Shall the dead, whom We
have quickened, and for whom We have ordained a light whereby he
may walk among men, be like him, whose likeness is in the darkness,
whence he will not come forth?” 3 Furthermore, whenever Allah
mentions light and darkness He means thereby knowledge and
ignorance respectively, as is evident in His words, “And He will bring
them out of the darkness into the light.”
The Prophet said, “O ye men! Know Allah and be ruled by
intellect, then ye will know what ye have been enjoined and ye have
been forbidden. Know ye that intellect is your glory before Allah. He
who obeyeth Allah, although his looks may be ugly, his rank lowly, his
station modest, and his appearance shabby, is intelligent; but he who
disobeyeth Allah, although his looks may be good, his rank exalted, his
station noble, his appearance fair, and his power of speech sharp and
fluent, the same is ignorant. For the apes and the pigs are, in the sight
of Allah, saner than he who disobeyeth. Therefore be not deceived by
the honour which the men of this world receive: verily they are of
those who are doomed.”‘ The Prophet also said, “The first thing which
Allah created was the intellect. On creating it Allah ordered it saying,
`Come forth’, and it came forth. He then ordered it saying, `Return’,
and it returned. Thereupon Allah said, `By My power and glory I have
created nothing more reverent towards Me than thee. Through thee I
take and through thee I give,
through thee I reward and through thee I punish”.
 Sarah XXIV: 35. 2. Surah XLII: 5:.. 3. Surah VI: 122.
5. Unidentified.
You may ask, if this intellect is an accident (‘arad), how could it
have been created before all other substances, and if it is an essence
(jawhar), how could it be a self-existent (ga’imbinafsih)essence and
not be isolated? If you should ask such a question, then you should
know that it belongs to the science of revelation(‘ilmal-mukashafah),
and, therefore, it is not proper to discuss it under the science of
practical religion (‘ilm al-mu’amalah)which is our present concern.
It has been related on the authority ofHadrat Anas that a group
of people once commended a certain man in the presence of the
Prophet and praised hm excessively. Thereupon the Prophet said,
“What kind of an intellect hath that man?” But they replied saying,
“We tell these about his diligence in prayer and about the various
good works he doeth and thou inquirest from us concerning his
intellect!” The Prophet answered and said. “The fool doeth more harm
through his ignorance than doeth the wicked through his wickedness.
Moreover, men will not advance to a higher degree of proximity to
Allah except in proportion to their intellect.”
It has also been related on the authority of Hadrat ‘Umar that
the Apostle of Allah said, “Man doth not gain anything like a worthy
intellect which leadeth him to righteousness and dissuadeth him from
sin; nor doth his belief become complete and his religion upright until
his intellect matureth.” And again; “Verily man will attain the rank of
the fasting worshipper through his good character; but no man will
be blessed with good character until his intellect matureth. Then and
only then will his belief become complete, and not until then will he
obey Allah and disobey the Devil.”
It was also related on the authority of Hadrat Abu-Sa’id al-
Khudri that the Apostle of Allah said, “For everything there is a
support, and the support of the believer is his intellect; in proportion
to his intellect will his worship be.” For have you not heard the words
of the sinners in Hell: “Had we but hearkened or understood, we
would not have been among the dwellers of the flames.”‘ It has also
been related on the authority of Hadrat `Umar that he himself once
I Surah, LXVII: 10.
4. Surah V: 18.

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asked Tamim al-Dari2 saying, “What holds the supreme authority
among you?” Tamim replied, “The intellect.” Thereupon `Umar said,
“Thou hast said the truth. I have asked the Apostle of Allah the same
question and he gave me the same reply saying. ` I have asked
Gabriel what the supreme authority was and he answered, `The
intellect’.”
It was also related on the authority of Al-Bara’ ibn-Azib 3 that once
upon a time the questions which were submitted to the Apostle
became too many, and thereupon he said, “O men! For everything
there is a mainstay, and the mainstay of man is his intellect. The most
convincing and the most authoritative among you is he who has the
best intellect.” It was also related on the authority of Hadrat Abu-
Hurayrah that when the Apostle of Allah returned from the raid of
Uhud he heard the people say that so and so was braver than so and
so, and so and so fought better than so and so, and so on. Thereupon
he said, “Ye have not knowledge concerning thing.” “How, O Apostle
of Allah?” they inquired. He replied, “Verily they have fought, each
according to the intellect which Allah hath given him. Their victory
and hope were also proportional to their intellect. Consequently those
of them who were injured in the fray were injured at various stages
(manazil), and on the day of resurrection they will occupy those
stages, each according to his intentions and intellect.”
It was also related on the authority of Al-Bara’ ibn-’Azib that the
Prophet said, “The angels have been earnest and diligent in their
obedience to Allah wholly through their intellect; while the believers
among the children of Adam have endeavoured to do His will as far as
their intellect has allowed. Consequently the most obedient among
them possesses the greatest intellect.” Again it was reported on the
authority of Hadrat `A’ishah that she once said, “O Apostle of Allah!
Wherein do people excel one another in this world?” He replied, “In
2. A.H.40/A.D. 660.61. See ibn-qutaybah, p.149;ibn-Sa’d, Vol. VU,
Pt. 2,
p.n. 129.30; al-Suyuti,Husn al Muhadarah fr-AkhbarMisrw-al-
Qahirah
(Cairo, 1327), Vol. I, pp. 76-7.
3. A.H. 72/A.D. 691-2. See ibn-Qutaybah, p. 166; ibn-Sa’d, Vol. IV,
Pt. 2,
pp. 80-83.
intellect. And in the hereafter?” she added. “In intellect,” he again
replied. Then `A’ishah said, “But are they not rewarded according to
their works?” To which the Apostle replied: “O `A’ishah! Have they
ever achieved anything except in proportion to what Allah has given
them of intellect? Their works will always be in proportion to the
intellect which Allah has given them, and their reward will be in
proportion to their works.”
 It was also related on the authority of ibn-’Abbas that the Apostle
of Allah said, “For everything there is an instrument and a tool, and
the instrument of the believer is his intellect: for everything there is a
mainstay, and the mainstay of man is his intellect; for everything there
is a support, and the support of religion is the intellect; for every
group of men there is a goal, and the goal of the worshippers is the
intellect; for every people there is a missionary (who calls them to the
true faith), and the missionary of the devout is the intellect; for every
merchant there are goods and merchandise, and the merchandise of
the scholars is the intellect; for every house there is a keeper, and the
keeper of the houses of the saints is the intellect; for every ruin there
is rehabilitation, and the rehabilitation of death is the intellect; for
every man there is an offspring who bears his name and perpetuates
his memory, and the offsprings of the saints, who bear their names
and perpetuate their memory, are their intellects; and finally for every
journey there is a shelter, and the shelter of the believers is the
intellect.”
The Prophet also said, “Verily the believer who is most beloved of
Allah is he who toils in the service of Allah and gives counsel to his
people, whose understanding is complete; who admonishes himself
and consequently sees the truth and acts accordingly all the days of
his life, with the result that he himself prospers and leads others to
success.” And again, “The man who possesses the most mature mind
among you is he who fears Allah most, fulfilling best what He enjoined
and desisting from what He has forbidden, although that man may be
the least willing to obey.”

1. AH. 72/AD. 691-2. See ibn-Qutaybah, p. 166; ibn-Sad, Vol. IV, Pt. 2,
pp. 80-83.
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ON THE TRUTH CONCERNING THE INTELLECT AND ITS
DIVISIONS

Let it be known that people have disagreed on the definition of

.he intellect and the truth concerning it. Many have forgotten that the
term has been applied to several things, a fact which has led to the
existing disagreement concerning the definition of the term. The
truth, however, is that the word intellect (aql) is a term used
interchangeably for four distinct meanings in the same way as the
term for eve has been used for several meanings. In the case of such
words, therefore, no one single definition should be expected to cover
the several meanings of the term. On the contrary each meaning
should have its individual definition.
First it is the quality which distinguishes man from the other
animals and prepare him to understand and grasp the theoretical
sciences (nazariyah), and master the abstract (fikriyah) disciplines.
This is exactly what Al-Harith ibn-Asad al-Muhasibi meant when he
said in defining the intellect (aql) as an instinct (gharizah) through
which the theoretical sciences are grasped and understood. It is as
though it were a light cast into the heart preparing it thereby to grasp
things and understand them. Hence he who denies this and limits the
intellect to daruriyah knowledge only, is wrong because he who is
unaware of the existence of these facts as well as he who is fast
asleep, in so far as then possess that instinct, are called intelligent,
although they lack the knowledge of these facts. And just as life is an
instinct whereby the body is disposed to cam out
thevoluntarv(ikhtiyariyah) movements and respond to sense
perception (idrakat hissryah), so is the intellect an instinct whereby
some of the animals are disposed to grasp ie theoretical sciences.
Furthermore if it were conceivable to regard the donkey equal to man
in instincts and sense perception and say that there was no difference
between them except that Allah, just as a matter of course, imbued
man with sciences with which He did not bless the donkey and the
animals, it would also be conceivable to regard the inanimate objects
equal to the donkey in life and say that there was no difference
between them except that Allah, just as a matter of course, endowed
the donkey with some particular
movements. But if the donkey were inanimate and lifeless, it would
have been necessary to say that every movement which the donkey
might perform must have been originated in it by Allah in that
particular sequence. And just as it has been necessary to say that the
donkey would not differ from inanimate objects in movement except
for an instinct characteristic of it which is expressed by the word life:
so would it be in the case of man in relation to the animal, he differs
from it in his grasp of the theoretical sciences through an instinct
which is expressed by the word intellect. This is just like the mirror
which is distinguished from other objects by its ability to reflect
images and colours through a particular quality peculiar of it, namely
its polish. The same is true of the eve which is distinguished from the
forehead in several qualities and characteristics which enable it to
see. Hence the relation of that instinct, (namely, the intellect), to the
sciences is similar to that of the eve to vision; while the relation of the
Qur’an and the law to that instinct in so far as it leads to the unfolding
of the sciences is like that of the light of the sun to seeing. In this
manner, therefore, should this instinct be defined and understood.
Secondly the word ‘aql is applied to that knowledge which makes
its appearance even in the infant who discerns the possibility of
possible things (ja ‘izat) and the impossibility of impossible things
(mustahilat), such as the knowledge that the two are greater than the
one and that the one individual cannot be in two different places at
the same time. It is what one of the scholastics meant when he
defined the word ‘aql as some axiomatic (daruriyah) knowledge, such
as the possibility of possible things and the impossibility of impossible
things. This definition is right, as it stands, because this knowledge is
existent and the application of the word `aql to it is clear. What is
wrong, however, is to deny that instinct, and to hold that only this
kind of knowledge exists.
In the third place the word ‘aql has been applied to that
knowledge which is acquired through experience (empirical
knowledge), in the course of events. Thus he who has been taught by
experience and schooled by time is generally called intelligent (‘aqil),
while he who lacks these qualifications is called unintelligent, stupid
and ignorant. Here, therefore, is another type of knowledge which is
called ‘aql.
In the fourth place the word ‘aql is used when the power of the
instinct develops to such an extent that its owner will be able to tell
what the end will be, and consequently be will conquer and subdue
his appetite which hankers for immediate pleasure.. Whenever such a
power obtains, its owner, in view of the fact that he embarks upon an
undertaking, or refrains from it only after a thorough consideration of
its end rather than in answer to the urge of a carnal appetite, is called
intelligent. This, tooJs among the peculiarities which distinguish man
from the other animals.
As to these four usages of the word ‘aql it should be pointed
out that the first is the foundation of the other three, their origin and
fountain-head. The second is the branch nearest to the first while the
third is an offshoot of both the first and the second combined, since
through the power of the instinct and axiomatic knowledge, are the
empirical sciences acquired. The fourth is the final fruit and ultimate
aim. The first two are native (bi-al-tab’), while the last two are
acquired (bi-al-iktisab). For this reason Hadrat `Ali said:
Knowledge is of two kinds: native and acquired, But no
acquired knowledge is of any use, If there is no native
knowledge, Just as the light of the sun is useless When
the light of the eyes is shut off.
The first, namely the native (matbu’), was intended by the
Prophet when he sad, “Allah has not created a more honoured thing
than the intellect (`aql).”The second, namely the acquired (masmu’), ,.
%as intended by the Prophet when he said, “When men draw near
unto Allah through nighteousness and good works, draw thou near
unto Him through thy learning.” The same is meant by the words of
the Apostle of Allah when he said to Abu-al-Darda’, “Increase in
learning and thou wilt draw nearer unto Allah.” Abu-al-Darda’
exclaimed, “May my father and mother be thy ransom! How can I do
that?” The Apostle replied, “Avoid the prohibitions of Allah and
fulfil His commandments and thou wilt be wise; do the good works
and thou wilt increase in glory and honour in this world and wilt
receive a place of favour and exaltation from thy Lord in the world to
come.”
It was also related on the authority of Hadrat Sa’id ibn-al-
Musayyab that `Umar, Ubavv ibn K’ab, and Abu-Hurayrah called one
day on the Apostle of Allah and said, “O Apostle of Allah! Who is the
most learned of men? He said, “The wise.” “Who is the most
worshipful of men?” they asked, “The wise,” replied the Apostle.
Again they said, “And who is the most excellent of men?” And again
he replied. “The wise.” Thereupon they said, “Is not the wise man he
whose manliness is complete, whose eloquence is manifest, whose
generosity is active, and whose rank is exalted?” The Apostle replied,
“All these are of the things of this world while the hereafter is
reserved by Allah for the pious who fear Him. Verily the wise man is
he who is pious, although he may be abject and despised in this
world.” According to another tradition the Prophet said, “Verily the
wise man is he who believes in Allah, accepts His Apostles, and obeys
His commandments.”
It is very likely that the basic use of the word ‘aql has been for
that instinct, [native intellect], and the same is true of its technical
use. It was, however, applied to knowledge because the latter is, as it
were, its fruit, And just as a thing is known by its fruit so that, as a
result, it is said, “The fear of Allah is knowledge,” and “He who fears
Allah is learned,” because the fear of Allah is the fruit of knowledge,
so has the word ‘aql been used metaphorically for other than that
instinct, [native intellect]. It is not, however, our purpose to discuss
language. All we mean is that these four parts exist and that the term
‘aql is applied to all of them alike. Furthermore there is no dispute
regarding the existence of all but the first part, namely the instinct.
There is no doubt, however, that it exists; in fact it is the origin of the
other three while all the forms of knowledge, are as it were, inherent
in it by nature and come to light when some cause which will bring
them out takes place. Such is the case with knowledge that it would
seem as though there was no external influence whatever in its
appearance: it merely was latent in that instinct and later appeared.
This can be illustrated by the water in the bowels of the earth: it
appears on digging and collects at the bottom of the well and can be
distinguished by the senses; yet throughout the whole operation no
new element was introduced. The same is true of the oil in almond
nuts and the attar in rose petals. For this reason Allah said, “And when
thy Lord brought forth their descendants from the reins of the sons of
Adam and took them to witness against themselves, ‘Am I not,’ said
He, `your Lord?’ They said, `Yes, we witness it’.”‘ what is meant here
is confession in their souls, not verbal profession, because men are
divided in the case of verbal profession into two groups, believers and
unbelievers. Consequently Allah said, “If you ask them who created
them, they will be sure to say, `Allah’.” This means that if they would
only consider their condition, their souls and hearts would subscribe
to the fact that Allah had created them (in accordance with) “the
nature (fitrah) which Allah has given them.”2 In other words every
human being is created and born a believer; still more every human
being is born with an inherent knowledge of reality; inherent since it
is readily disposed to perceive reality. With belief installed by nature
in the human soul, men have split, into two groups; the one has
turned away from that belief and has forgotten all about it- it
comprises the unbelievers; the other has pondered and remembered,
resembling therein one who has a witness, and, in his oversight, for a
while has forgotten all about it, but finally has remembered it. For this
reason Allah said, “Haply they may remember;”‘ and “that those
endued with understanding may recall and remember;”“ and again,
“And remember the favour of Allah upon you, and His covenant which
He had covenanted with you;”5 and again, “And we have rendered the
Qur’an available as a sign to be remembered -but is there anyone who
will remember?”6 It is not, therefore, far-fetched to call this kinds,
remembrance (tadhakkur). Thus remembrance is of two kinds: the one
is to recall a picture which once existed in one’s mind but has since
disappeared,
I . Surah VII: 171. 2. Surah XLM: 87.
3 Cf. Surah XXX: 29. 4. Sumhs II: 221, XIV: 30.
Surah XXXVIII: 28. 6. Surah V: 10.
while the other is to recall a picture which is inherent in one’s mind
by nature (fitrah).
These facts are evident to him who exercises his insight, but are
abstruse to him who is given to blind imitation and simple acceptance
of things on authority (taqlid) rather than to investigation and
personal observation. Consequently you find such men entangled in
these and similar verses, hopelessly lost in the interpretation of
remembrance (tadhakkur) and the confession of the souls, and
continually imagining that the traditions of the Prophet and the
Qur’an are full of contradictions.’ Such an attitude may take hold of
him so that he will regard them with contempt, believing that they are
utterly incoherent. He is like a blind man who enters a house and,
stumbling over some vessels says, “Why were not these vessels
removed from the way and returned to their places?” He is then told
that they are in their right places and what is wrong is his sight. The
same is true of the disorder of the insight: in fact it is worse because
the soul is like the horseman while the body represents the horse, and
the blindness of the horseman is more serious and disastrous than
that of the horse. The relation between insight and sight is evident.
Thus Allah said, “His heart falsified not what he saw,” 2 and again.
“And thus did We show Abraham the kingdom of the Heavens and of
the Earth.”3 The opposite of both insight and sight has beer called
blindness. Thus Allah said, “For surely it is not the eyes that are blind,
but blind are the hearts which are in the breasts.”‘ As to those things
which were revealed to the prophets, some were revealed through the
sight and some through the insight, but both were called seeing
(ni’ayh). In short he whose insight is not keen will grasp nothing of
religion except its husks and outward forms rather than its. pith and
truth. These, then are the things to which the word `aql is applied.
1. Surah LIV: 17. 2. Surah L1: n.
3. Surah VII, 75. 4. Surah XXII: 45.
222

223

The Book of Knowledge

The Book of Knowledge

ON THE INTELLECTUAL DISPARITY AMONG MEN

Men have disagreed concerning the disparity which exists among

their intellects (`aql). But there is no use in repeating the arguments
of those of little knowledge. It is more important to proceed
immediately tothe declaration ofthe truth. The obvious truth in this
case is that this disparity pervades all the four parts of the intellect
except the second, namely axiomatic (daruri) knowledge, such as the
possibility of possible things and the impossibility of impossible
things. Thus he who comprehends tha: iwro are greater than one will
also comprehend the impossibility for one object being in two
different places at the same time, or for a thing being both eternal
(qadim) and originated (hadith). The same is true of all other similar
facts and whatever is comprehended with certain comprehension free
of any doubt. The three other parts, however, are subject to disparity.
As to the fourth, namely, the ability of the power ofthe instinct to
conquer the appetite, the disparity in it among men is evident and
clear; in fact it is evident and clear that, at times, even the individual
betrays a certain degree of disparity therein. This is sometimes the
result of variation in the intensity of different appetites. A wisemen
may be able to overcome one appetite more readily than another; but
the problem is not restricted to this only. The young man may fail to
overcome the appetite of sex and desist from fornication, but when he
advances in age and his understanding becomes mature he will be
able to subdue his lust. On the other hand hypocrisy and pride
increase and grow stronger with age.
This disparity may also be the result of difference in the mastery
of the knowledge which reveals the evil of the other appetites. Thus a
physician may be able to abstain from some of the harmful foods,
while another man may fail simply because he lacks medical
knowledge, although he may be the physician’s peer in intellect and of
the same belief in the harmful effects of those foods. Again the more
mature the physician’s intellect, the stronger will his fear be. Hence
fear is an aid in the service of intellect, an instrument with which to
overcome and break appetites. Similarly, the learned man is more
capable of renouncing sin than the ignorant, because his knowledge of
the evils of sin is greater. I mean the true learned men and not those
of the flowing robes who dote and rave and prate of things they know
little about.
If this disparity is due to appetite it will have nothing to do with
the disparity of intellect, but if it is due to knowledge, then we shall
call this kind of knowledge, intellect, because it strengthens the native
intellect and hence the disparity will be that of the particular
knowledge then involved, after which it will also be named. It may
also be caused by disparities in the native intelellect the ability of
which to stamp out appetite becomes inevitably stronger as it grows
more powerful.
As to the third part, namely, empirical knowledge (‘ulum al-
tajarib),ithe disparity of men in it cannot be denied. They differ
therein in the number of times they are right in their quickness to
comprehend. This may be the result of either disparity in the instinct,
(i.e. native intellect), or disparity in practice and experience. In the
case of the first, i.e. the instinct, which is the origin, the disparity
cannot be denied. It is like a luminary which shines upon the soul,
whose dawning and first rays begin to illuminate the soul at the age of
discrimination and continues to grow and increase very gradually
until it reaches its fullness around the age of forty. Or like the light of
the morning, the beginnings of which are hard to discern but it
increases little by little until it attains its fullness at the rising of the
sun. The disparity of insight is like that of eye sight where the
difference between the weak-sighted man and the keen-sighted is
quite evident.
The law of Allah operates universally among all His creatures and
follows the principles of gradual development. Thus the sex instinct
does not appear at puberty all at one time suddenly; rather it appears
little by little gradually. The same is true of all the other forces and
facilities. In fact he who denies the disparity of men in this instinct is
loose outside the confines of sanity, and he who thinks that the
intellect of the Prophet is the same as that of any of the outlandish
peasants and desert ruffians is himself filthier than any of those
peasants.
Furthermore how could the disparity of instinct (i.e. the native
intellect) be denied when without it men would not have varied in
their ability to understand knowledge, nor would they have been
divided into the stupid who fail to understand anything except after
long and tedious explanation byateacher, the brilliant who respond to
the least sign, and the perfect from whose soul truth emanates
without any previous instruction. Thus Allah said, “Whose oil would
well nigh shine out, even though fire touched it not! It is light upon
light.” (24:35) Such are the Prophets to whom recondite things are
clarified in their inward thoughts without having learnt or heard
anything of the sort. This is expressed by the word inspiration (ilham).
The Prophet expressed the same thing when he said, “Verily the holy
spirit whispered into my heart and said, `Love anyone,, thou shalt part
from him; live anyway thou desirest, thou shalt verily die; do anything
thou wilt - thou shalt be accordingly rewarded’.” This kind of
imparting information by the angels to the Prophets is different from
explicit revelation which involves hearing a definite voice with the ear
and seeing the angel with the eye. Consequently the stage (of
revelation) has been described as whispering into the heart (al nafth fi
al-ruh). As to the stages of revelation (wahi), they are many, but to
embark on a discussion of them under practical religion (‘ilm al-
mukashafah) is not fitting, because they fall under the science of
revelation (‘ilm al-mukashafah). Do not think, however, that the
knowledge of the stages of revelation requires that a person be
himself a receiver of revelation, because it is not unlikely for a sick
physician to know the different stages of health or for the trespassing
learned man to know the various stages of justice despite the fact that
he lacks justice. For knowledge is one thing and the existence of what
is known is another. Consequently not everyone who knows what
prophethood and sainthood are will be a Prophet or a saint, and not
everyone who knows what piety and godliness are will be pious or
godly.
That men are divided into those who take notice by themselves
and understand those who do not understand except through warning
and instruction, and those who benefit from neither, is like the
division of the bosom of the earth into parts where water collects and
increases until it brusts out by itself into springs of living water, parts
where water collects but cannot be reached without digging, and and
parts where not even digging will avail. This is true of the disparity of
men in native intellect. Attesting to the disparity of the intellect is a
tradition narrated by `Abdullah ibn-Salam to the effect that the
Prophet at the end of a long conversation, described the throne and
stated that the angels once asked Allah saying, “ O our Lord! Hast
thou created aught greater than the throne?” Allah replied, “Yes, the
intellect.” The angels said, “How great is it?” Allah answered and
said, “Verily no one can grasp its greatness. Can you number the
sand of the sea?” They said, “No.” Allah then replied, “Verily I have
created the intellect in different kinds as numerous as the sand of the
sea. Some men were given one grain, others two, three and four
grains, still others received a good portion, others a portion equalling
a camel-load, and others even greater.”

You may say, “Why then do some groups among the Sufi
disparage the intellect and reason as well as the rational and the
reasonable?”You should know, then, that the reason for it is that men
have transferred the term intellect or reason (`aql) and the term
rational or reasonable (ma’qui) from their real and original meaning
to another and false meaning, namely argumentation and debate over
contradictions and requisites, which is scholastic theology.
Consequently the Sufis could not tell that men have erred in this
terminology, especially since it has not been possible to remove that
from their minds in view of its current and well established usage. As
a result they disparaged reason and rationalism. Could it be
imagined, however, that the light of the insight, through which Allah
is known and the truthfulness of His Apostle is recognized, will ever
be disparaged or belittled when Allah Himself praised it? And if it
were ever disparaged what other thing could be praised? But if the
praiseworthy knowledge be the law, by what is its truth known? If it
were known through the blameworthy and unreliable intellect, that
the law itself is blameworthy. No attention, however, is paid to him
who says that the law is known through certainty itself (‘ayn al--
yaqin) and the light of belief rather than through intellect, because
we mean by intellect what he means by certain sight and the light of
belief, namely the inner characteristics by which man is distinguished
from the animal and through which he comprehends reality. Most of
these wild errors have arisen from the ignorance of some who sought
realities in words and erred wildly therein, because of the confusion
which exists in the technical terminologies of men.
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