Name: Date: Speed Problems READ fe To determine the speed of an object, you need to know the distance traveled and the time taken to travel that distance. However, by rearranging the formula for speed, v= d/t, you can also determine the distance traveled or the time it took for the object to travel that distance, if you know the speed. For example, vedit speed distance and time d=vxt distance speed and time t=dv time distance and speed Use the metric system to solve the practice problems unless you are asked to write the answer using the English system of measurement. As you solve the problems, include all units and cancel appropriately. 'Exampces [J Example 1: What is the speed of a cheetah that travels 112.0 meters in 4.0 seconds? Looking for ‘Solution Speed of the cheetah, a2d@_ 1120m _ 2m speed = # = 28m Given 7 40sec sec Distance = 112.0 meters The speed of the cheetah is 28 meters per second. Time = 4.0 seconds Relationship d a-4 speed = 4 Example 2: There are 1,609 meters in one mile. What is this cheetah’s speed in miles/hour? Looking for Solution Speed of the cheetah in miles per hour, 28m, _Lmile 3,600 see _ 63 miles Given see" 1,609m~ Thour ~~ hour Distance = 112.0 meters ‘The speed of the cheetah in miles per hour is ‘Time = 4.0 seconds 63 mph, Relationships speed and 1, 609 meters = 1 mileName: Acceleration Problems Ee READ @ + Acceleration is the rate of change in the speed of an object. To determine the rate of acceleration, you use the formula below. The units for acceleration are meters per second per second or m/sec”, ‘Acceleration = Fital speed ~ Beginning speed Time + A positive value for acceleration refers to the rate of speeding up, and negative value for acceleration refers to the rate of slowing down. The rate of slowing down is also called deceleration. + The acceleration formula can be rearranged to solve for other variables such as final speed (v2) and time (4). vy = vt (axt) examPLes [J ses her velocity from 2.0 m/sec to 10.0 m/sec in 3.0 seconds, What is the skater’s +A skater inere acceleration? | Looking for Solution Acceleration of the skater 10.0m_2.0m 8.0m Given Acceleration = 2m Beginning speed = 2.0 m/sec 3 seo sec’ Final speed = 10.0 m/seo ‘The acceleration of the skater is 2.7 meters per Change in time = 3 seconds second per second. RelationshipName: Date: [sal ty Acceleration Due to Gravity CEs READ (ff Acceleration due to gravity is known to be 9.8 meters/second/second or 9.8 m/sec? and is represented by g. Three conditions must be met before we can use this acceleration: (1) the object must be in free fall, (2) the object must have negligible air resistance, and (3) the abject must be close to the surface of Earth, Inall of the examples and problems, we will assume that these conditions have been met, Remember that speed refers to “how fast” in any direction, but velocity refers to “how fast” in a specific direction. ‘The sign of numbers in these calculations is important. Velocities upward shall be positive, and velocities downward shall be negative. Because the y-axis of a graph is vertical, change in height shall be indicated by y. Here is the equation for solving for velocity: final velocity = initial velocity + (the acceleration due to the force of gravity x time) OR v= vytet second it will be traveling at 9.8 meters/second. However, it began its fall at zero meters/second, Therefore, its average velocity is half of 9.8 meters/second. We can find distance by multiplying this average velocity by time, Here is the equation for solving for distance. Look to find these Imagine that an object falls for one second, We know that at the end of the mm 1 send concepts in the equation orang distance = ttesseleration duet the ores of gaily ti ing fans ‘Netoue «git ones = 9 oni - i eons omiae = 1? y= 58t ‘EXAMPLES [J Example 1: How fast will a pebble be traveling 3 seconds after being dropped? v= vy tat 2, v = 0+ (9.8 meters/sec” x 3 see) = -29.4 meters/sec (Note that gf is negative because the direction is downward.)Name: Date: 2 Analyzing Graphs of Motion Without Numbers a READ i] Position-time graphs ‘The graph at right represents the story of “The Three Little Pigs.” The Pte ee okie parts of the story are listed below. The Thre Ltt Pas + The wolf started from his house. The graph starts at the origin + Traveled to the straw house. The line moves upward. Dick + Stayed to blow it down and eat dinner. The line is flat because position § te sea is not changing, 31 sow = + Traveled to the stick house. The line moves upward again. a + Again stayed, blew it down, and ate seconds, ‘The line is flat = + Traveled to the brick house. The line moves upward. + Died in the stew pot at the bri kc house. The line is flat, The graph illustrates that the pigs’ hous house was the farthest away. sare generally in a line away from the wolf’s house and that the brick Speed-ti 1¢ graphs A speed-time graph displays the speed of an object over time and is based on position-time data. Speed is the relationship between distance (position) and time, v= dit. For the first part of the wolf's trip in the position versus time graph, the line rises steadily. This means the speed for this first leg is constant, If the wolf traveled this first leg faster, the slope of the line would be steeper. Same speed Sihtewer fN 7 Speed ‘The wolf moved at the same speed toward his first two “visits.” His third trip ‘was slightly slower. Except for this slight difference, the wolf was either at one speed or stopped (shown by a flat line in the speed versus time graph, time f suppet Soppes PRACTICE [>—2— Read the steps for each story. Sketch a position-time graph and a speed-time graph for each story. 1. Graph Red Riding Hood's movements according the following events listed in the order they oceutred + Little Red Riding Hood set out for Grandmother’s cottage at a good walking pace. + She stopped briefly to talk to the wolf. + She walked a bit slower because they were 3 talking as they walked to the wild flowers. ® + She stopped to pick flowers for quite a while. + Realizing she was late, Red Riding Hood ran Time Time the rest of the way to Grandmother's cottage.Name: Date: ee ___ A Analyzing Graphs of Motion With Numbers a |READ ff Speed can be calculated from position-time graphs and distance can be calculated from speed-time graphs. Both calculations rely on the familiar speed equation: v= dit. ‘This graph shows position and time for a sailboat starting from its Pomona home port as it sailed to a distant island. By studying the line, you can ; see that the sailboat traveled 10 miles in 2 hours ExAmPtes [J + Calculating speed from a position-time graph i "The speed equation allows us to calculate that the vessel speed during 4 ++ this time was 5 miles per hour. T2338 a v-dt Hours v = 10 miles/2 hours vy = 5 miles/hour, read as 5 miles per hour This result can now be transferred to a speed-time graph, Remember that this speed was measured during the first two hours, 10 The line showing vessel speed is horizontal because the speed was constant during the two-hour period. + Calculating distance from a speed-time graph. Here is the speed-time graph of the same sailboat later in the voyage. 4 Between the second and third hours, the wind freshened and the Eb sailboat increased its speed to 7 miles per hour, The speed remained 7 i miles per hour to the end of the voyage. How far did the sailboat go during this time? We will first calculate the distance traveled between the third and sixth hours. Speed vs. Time TLPage 2 of 4 Uy ‘Ona speed-time graph, distance is equal to the area between the baseline and the plotted line, You know EAR that the area of a rectangle is found with the equation: A = L x W. Similarly, multiplying the speed from the J-axis by the time on the x-axis produces distance, Notice how the labels cancel to produce miles: speed x time = distance 7 miles/hour x (6 hours ~3 hours) = distance 7 miles/hour x 3 hows = distance = 21 miles Now that we have seen how distance is calculated, we can consider the distance covered between hours 2 and 3. 7 ‘The easiest way to visualize this problem is to think in geometric terms. Find the hm atea of the rectangle labeled “Ist problem,” then find the atea of the triangle above, oy and add the two areas. = les g 2 8 Hours Area oftriangle A ‘The area of a triangle is one-half the area of a rectangle. Geometry formula ime _ speed x HE = distance (7 milesfhour —5 milesshour) x & has 2 hours) — distance = 1 mile ‘Area of rectangle B Geometry formula speed x time = distance 5 milesfhour x (3 hours ~2 hours) = distance = 5 miles Add the two areas Area A+ Area B = distance 1 miles +5 mile = distance = 6 miles We can now take the distances found for both sections ofthe speed graph to Position vs. Time 4 complete our position-time graph: MilesName: Date: Acceleration and Speed-Time Graphs EES READ ff Acceleration is the rate of change in the speed of an object. The graph below shows that object A accelerated from rest to 10 miles per hour in two hours. The graph also shows that object B took four hours to ac from rest to the same speed, Therefore, object A accelerated twice as fast as object B. \examptes [J Calculating acceleration from a speed-time graph The steepness of the line in a speed-time graph is related to acceleration, This angle is the slope of the line and is found by dividing the change in the y-axis value by the change in the x- axis value, Speed vs. Time Ay Ax Acceleration Tin everyday terms, we can say that the speed of object A ‘increased 10 miles per hour in two hours.” Using the slope formula: Acceleration = AY = 10mph—Omph _ Smph Ax Zhours—Ohour hour + Acceleration = Ay/Ax (the symbol A means “change in”) 10 mph —0 mph)/(2 hours — 0 hours) + Acceleration = 5 mph/hour (read as 5 miles per hour per hour) + Acceleration Beginning physics students are often thrown by the double per time label attached to all accelerations. It is not so alien a concept if you break it down into its parts: ‘The speed changes. .. during this amount of time: ‘5 miles per hour per hour Accelerations can be negative. Ifthe line slopes downward, Ay will be a negative number because a larger value of y will be subtracted from a smaller value of y Calculating distance from a speed-time graph ‘The area between the line on a speed-time graph and the baseline This follows from the rate formula: equal to the distance that an object travels. Distance Rate or Speed = ————= sara ani Time ved i Or, rewritten: wad miles/hour x 3-hovrs = 3 milesPage 2 of 3 Notice how the labels cancel to produce a new label that fits the result, Here is a speed-time graph of a boat starting from one place and sailing to another: The graph shows that the sailboat accelerated between the second and third hour, We can find the total distance by finding the area between the line and the baseline. The easiest way to do that is to break the area into sections that are easy to solve and then add them together, A+B+C+D = distance + Use the formula for the area of a rectangle, A= Lx 17, to find areas A, B, and D. Speed vs. Time + Use the formula for finding the area of a triangle, A = / x w/2, to find area C, A+B4+C+D = distance 10 miles +5 miles +1 mile +21 miles PRACTICE [>—2— Calculate acceleration from each of these graphs. 1. Graph 1: ‘Speed ve, Tine ees per Monte 37 milesName: Date: = - ‘f Projectile Motion nite READ i] Projectile motion has vertical and horizontal components Projectile motion has vertical and horizontal components. Gravity affects the vertical motion of an object. When we drop a ball from a height, we know that its speed increases as it falls. The increase in vertical speed is due to the acceleration gravity, g=9.8 m/sec?. So the vertical speed of the ball will i after each second, After the first second has passed, the speed will be 9.8 m/sec. ‘After the next second has passed, the speed will be 19.6 m/sec and so on. Pee ‘The acceleration of gravity affects only the vertical component of the motion. Horizontal motion is not affected by gravity. So if we neglect the friction from air, when we throw an object horizontally, its initial horizontal speed will not change. For example, if we throw a marble horizontally at a speed of 5 m/see, the marble will be 5 meters horizontally from our hand after one second, 10 meters after 2 seconds, and so forth. HORIZONTAL SPEED. Solving projectile motion problems Solving projectile motion problems requires using equations. To solve these problems, follow the steps: + Read the problem carefully. You may want to diagram the problem to help you understand it. what you know from the problem and what you need to solve for. + Determine which equations for vertical motion or horizontal motion will help you solve the problem. You may need more than one equation to solve the problem, Some important equations are listed below, + Solve the problem and check your work. Horizontal distanced, = vyt This equation is a rearranged version of the speed equation: v= d/t vy should be read as “the initial velocity in the x- direction.” Vertical velocity y= Bt Gravity (g) is included in these equations because = ~ vertical speed accelerates due to gravity when an Vertical distance d, = 4.91 object is falling. + The equations above are suitable ONLY for situations where the projectile starts with zero vertical velocity, like a ball rolling off a table. If the projectile is launched up or down at an angle, the equations are more complicated.Page 2 of 3 Examp.e [J A boy runs at a speed of 3.3 meters per second straight off the end of a diving board that is 3 meters above the water. How long is he ‘borne before he hits the water? What is the horizontal distance he travels while airborne? a, What do you know? speed and height 'b. What do you need to solve for? time and horizontal distance cc. What equations will you use? are dy = 4.9t dy = vyt ‘What is the solution to this problem? time: horizontal distance: 30 meters=49 7 d, = 3,3 m/secx 0.78 sec o6t=F ch = 2.6 meters VO6i=+ 078 sec=t PRACTICE [>—=— Solve the following problems. Show your work. ‘A cat runs and jumps from one roof top to another which is 5 meters away and 3 meters below. Calculate the minimum horizontal speed with which the cat must jump off the first roof in order to make it to the other, a. What do you know? b. What do you need to solve for? ©. What equation(s) will you use? 4d. What is the solution to this problem? An object is thrown off a cliff with a horizontal speed of 10 m/sec. After 3 seconds the object hits the ground, Find the height of the cliff and the total horizontal distance traveled by the object a, What do you know? b. What do you need to solve for? c. What equation(s) will you use? d. What is the solution to this problem?Name: Date: 7 — = ‘4 Period and Frequency 4 READ (a The period of a pendulum is the time it takes to move through one Star ne Peri in cycle, As the ball on the string is pulled to one side and then let go, the feet eee oe ball moves to the side opposite the starting place and then returns to & A hy > fs fis G > the start. This entire motion equals one cycle. Frequency is a term that refers to how many cycles can occur in one second, For example, the frequency of the sound wave that corresponds to the musical note “A” is 440 cycles per second or 440 hertz, The unit hertz (Hz) is defined as the number of cycles per second. eee The terms period and frequency are related by the following equation: Frequency (hertz) Period (seconds) —> T' “-—_ f Frequency (ety fk "T— Petia (seconds) PRACTICE [>—2—~ 1. A string vibrates at a frequency of 20 Hz. What is its period? 2. A speaker vibrates at a frequency of 200 Hz. What is its period? 3. A swing has a period of 10 seconds, What is its frequency? 4. A pendulum has a period of 0.3 second, What is its frequency? 5. You want to describe the harmonic motion of a swing. You find out that it take 2 seconds for the swing to complete one cycle. What is the swing’s period and frequency? 6. Anoscillator makes four vil rations in one second, What is its period and frequency? 7. A pendulum takes 0.5 second to complete one cycle. What is the pendulum’s period and frequency? 8. A pendulum takes 10 seconds to swing through 2 complete cycles. a. How long does it take to complete one eycle? b, What is its period? ©. What is its frequency? 9. An oscillator makes 360 vibrations in 3 minutes. a. How many vibrations does it make in one minute? b, How many vibrations does it make in one second? ©. What is its period in seconds? 4, Whatis its frequeney in hertPhyzGuide: Uniform Circular Motion Objects moving in a straight line (ID motion) and projectiles (which move in 2D) are said to be undergoing linear or translational motion. For our purposes, “linear” and “translational” mean the same thing. (There is another type of motion, rotational motion, that is very different from linear or translational. And yes, we will study rotational motion later on.) FELIX ETYMOLOGY LESSON ‘Thevword "nea" indicates mation along LINE of some sortstaiht or curved The word "linear" comes fiom the Latin linearis whose rootis Tinea meaning ine; line comes from ‘the Latin num meaning thre. The word “translational comes from "translate which comes fom the Middle English tanslaten, which in tum comes fom the Latin Another example of translational motion is uniform cireular motion: Odie Motion! But how can we describe circular motion? The old familiar x's and y's would be extremely complicated to use for circular motion, We could use polar coordinates, but they are somewhat Words transfer and translat deceptive in describing the translational sense of circular motior "ans" means across andere” (We'll use polar notation for rotational motion.) To kinematically easton: describe circular motion, we will use r, v, a and 7, where \ isthe radu of curvature or the radius ofthe ccle visthe tangential velocity { \ ' \ 7 } a isthe centripetal acceleration \ i Tis the period, the time fora complete cycle. a In the confines of circular motion, when radius is constant, velocity and period are closely related. Consider the distance traveled by an object in circular motion. The distance around the circle is the circumference of the circle. d= 207 Well then, if there is no tangential acceleration (no speeding up or slowing down in the direction of travel), we have uniform motion. What is the equation that applies to that type of motion? If distance is d and time is 7, then tangential velocity in circular motion follows the equation UT = QnelT FREQUENCY ‘Sometimes circular motion is described in terms of frequency (for v). Whereas period refers to how much time it takes for something to happen, frequency refers to how many times per second something happens. Frequency is the inverse of period. '= I/T. If Odie is swung around 2 times each second then his period is T= 1s/2 rev = 0.5 s. The frequency is f= I/T'= 1/0.5 . WHAT? What is as-!?. A typo? A brownie point? NO! A s-! (Le., 1/5) is a unit of frequency. Another name for s~! is hertz (Hz). So Odie's frequency is 2 Hz. CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION While an object maintains circular motion, it is accelerating toward the center of the circle, Ithas been found that this centripetal acceleration follows the equation a = v2/r. ‘The Book of Phyx © Dean Boird All rights reserved Wi0/o4 dbName: Date: eA - - ‘4 Uy Universal Gravitation READ [Ed The law of universal gravitation allows you to calculate the gravitational force between two objects from their masses and the distance between them. The law includes a value called the gravitational constant, or “G.” This value isthe same everywhere in the universe. Calculating the force between small objects like grapefruits or huge objects like planets, moons, and stars is possible using this law. What is the law of universal gravitation? ‘The force between two masses my and ty that are separated by a distance r is given by: Law of universal gravitation Gravitational Cmotant. Distance betneon | (COT HAO™NmPleg?) —masse5 (mi) V \ So, when the masses m and mp are given in kilograms and the distance ris given in meters, the force has the unit of newtons. Remember that the distance r corresponds to the distance between the center of gravity of the two objects. 41,000 kg For example, the gravitational force between two spheres that are touching each other, each with a radius of 0.3 meter and a mass of 1,000 kilograms, is given by: = 6.67 x 10°" Nom? kg? 1000 kex 1,000 ke 9.090185 N (03m+03 my Note: A small car has a mass of approximately 1,000 kilograms. Try to visualize this much mass compressed into a sphere with a diameter of 0.3 meters (30 centimeters). If two such spheres were touching one another, the gravitational force between them would be only 0.000185 newtons. On Earth, this corresponds to the weight of a mass equal to only 18.9 milligrams. The gravitational force is not very strong!Name: Date: Calculat READ. (a If we know the mass and the radius of a planet, star, or other object, we can calculate the strength of its gravitational field using this formula: g Gravitational Field Strength i Gravitational field, g, in N/kg = om where G = 6.67 x 10°" Nem? /kg’, ‘mis the objects's mass in kilograms and ris its radius in meters, exampce [J The planet Mercury has a radius of 2,439,000 meters and a mass of 3.3 x 103 kilograms. Calculate the strength of its gravitational field, Solution: 7 x10" (3,3 10% (44x 10F = 3.70 N/kg PRACTICE [>—2— 1, Venus has a radius of 6,051,000 meters and a mass of 4.9 x 10% kilograms. Calculate the strength of its, gravitational field, 2. Jupiter has a radius of 71,398,000 meters and a mass of 1.9 x 10?” kilograms. Calculate the strength of its gravitational field. 3. Saturn has a radius of 60,330,000 meters and a mass of 5.7 x 10° kilograms. Calculate the strength of its, gravitational field. 4. Neptune has a radius of 24,750,000 meters and a mass of 1,0 x 10° kilograms. Calculate the strength of its gravitational field, 5. Uranus has a gravitational field strength of 8.7 N/kg. Its radius is 25,600,000 meters. What is the planet's mass? 6. Earth has a gravitational field strength of 9.8 Nikg, Its radius is 6,378,000 meters, What is Earth’s mass? 7. The radius of the sun is 700,000,000 meters, Its mass is 1.99 x 10*° kilograms, Calculate the strength of its gravitational field,Name: Date: In this skill sheet, you will practice solving problems that involve torque. Torque is an action that is created by an applied force and causes an object to rotate, Any object that rotates has a torque associated with it. Torque, +, can be calculated by multiplying the applied force, F; by r. The value, The lever arm of a force 1; is the perpendicular distance between the point of rotation and the line of action of the force (the line along which the force is applied, Lever arm t= Fxr aS A 2 ‘The unit of torque is newton-meter (N-m). ‘pe For many situations the distance r is also called the lever arm, (ae Center of rotation Force ‘A see-saw works based on torque. As you know, the lighter person (or a cat!) canyousee why the ste-w is balanced? has to sit further out for the see-saw to be level. You know now that this is because the only way to make the torque of the heavy person equal to the torque of the light person is to increase the lever arm of the light person. ExamPLe [J For an object to be in rotational equi jum about a certain point, the total torque about this point must be zero. For the example shown in the figure, calculate the . magnitude and direction of a force that must be applied at 40N point B for rotational equilibrium about point P. 4 mE a rT Ere ‘Looking for ‘Solution Magnitude and force that | Fie X Pep = Fright * Fright point B for rotational equilibrium, Fiep x 0.25 m= 40N x 0.75 m. Given Let the force at point B equal Figg. = 30N-m en 9.25m Teg) = 0.25 meter Fig = 120N ines For rotational equilibrium, 120 N must be applied ; downward at point B. Torque to the left of P = Torque to the right of P Fen * Mien = Fright ® TrightPhyzGuide: Sources of Forces REAL OBJECTS FOR REAL FORCES All forces in Newtonian mechanics are exerted by real objects. A foot, for example, is a teal object that can exert a force on a buttock. Now, for most real objects to exert a force, there must be “physical contact.” If the foot does not come into contact with the buttock, the foot will not exert a force on the buttock. “How can anything exert a force,” you might ask, “without contact?” Imagine yourself suspended 100 m up in the air, then suddenly released. You begin to accelerate, so there must be a force acting despite the fact that there appear to be no objects exerting any forces on you, So what force (and what object) pulls you down? That’s right: gravity (due to the earth) is acting on you. Other exceptions to the contact rule are electric, magnetic, and so- called “inertial forces.” Itis important, as you solve force problems, that you think in terms of real objects in contact with a system as the “agents of force.” Whenever you draw a force on a force diagram, you must also be able to identify the source (a real object) associated with that force. “Inertia,” “momentum,” “centrifugal,” and “centripetal” are not forces: Where’s the real object? “Mr. Centripetal” does not exert a force, although a string certainly can. A football in mid-air is in contact only with air. Only the earth and air exert forces (gravity and drag) on it; the kicker does not. The kicker exerts a force only as long as his or her foot is in contact with the ball. ‘The road— through friction—exerts the forward force that acts on a car, not its velocity, momentum, Mr. Centripetal, or the engine (a 200 hp engine cannot accelerate a car on sheer ice), Below is a list of objects that forces can be attributed to, and a list of things forces cannot be attributed to. Dig in, and Stay out! 7 Did the foot come into contact with the buttock? Legitimate Objects (OK) legitimate Objects (No-No's) string floor centripetal forces or thrower (ofa ball after the ball body spring acceleration has been released) earth exhaust gas centrifugal forces kicker (same as thrower) hand feet friction tension road air acceleration drag table water gravity lift charge current inertia normal force magnet velocity thrust momentum electricity my, ma, '/amv2 Remember: FORCES don't exert forces; OBJECTS exert forces! magnetism ‘The Book of Phyz.© Dean Baird Al rights reserved. Thanks to Fred Hendel at The University of Michigan. ansno dbNewton's First Law Newton's First Law states that an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force. It may be seen as a statement about inertia, that objects will remain in their state of motion unless a force acts to change the motion. Any change in motion involves an acceleration, and then Newton's Second Law applies; in fact, the First Law is just a special case of the Second Law for which the net external force is zero. Newton's Second Law Fret =ma Newton's Third Law Newton's third law: All forces in the universe occur in equal but oppositely directed pairs. ‘There ate no isolated forces; for every external force that acts on an object there is a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction which acts back on the object which exerted that external force. Without specifying the nature or origin of the forces on FP FP the two masses, Newton's 3rd law states that if they arise > ey oe a from the two masses themselves, they must be equal in my Mm. — ™agnitude but opposite in direction so that no net force arises from purely internal forces. ‘Newton's third law is one of the fundamental symmetry principles of the universe. Since wwe have no examples of it being violated in nature, itis a useful tool for analyzing situations which are somewhat counter-intuitive, For example, when a small truck collides head-on with a large truck, your intuition might tell you that the force on the small truck is larger. Not so!Name: Date: Newton's Second Law READ fe Ts ‘Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object is directly related to the foree on it, and inversely related to the mass of the object, You need more force to move or stop an object with a lot of mass (or inertia) than you need for an object with less mass. ‘The formula for the second law of motion (first row below) can be rearranged to solve for mass and force, Metin WieNeeun iin kee acceleration (a) force (F) and mass (im) force acceleration = fore mass ‘mass (i) acceleration (@) and force (F) = mass = —foree_ ‘acceleration force (F) acceleration (a) and mass (7) poo exampces [J How much force is needed to accelerate a truck with a mass of 2,000 kilograms at a rate of 3m/sec”? F = mxa = 2,000 kg x 22 = 6,000 kg: 24 = 6,000N see’ seo’ ‘What is the mass of an object that requires 15 N to accelerate it at a rate of 1.5 m/sec”? PRACTICE [>—2—~ ‘What is the rate of acceleration of a 2,000-Kilogram truck if’ force of 4,200 N is used to make it start moving forward? ‘What is the acceleration of a 0.30 kilogram ball that is hit with a force of 25 N? How much force is needed to accelerate a 68 kilogram-skier at a rate of 1.2 m/sec”? What is the mass of an object that requires a force of 30 N to accelerate at a rate of $ m/sec”? What is the force on a 1,000 kilogram-elevator that is falling freely under the acceleration of gravity only? What is the mass of an object that needs a force of 4,500 N to accelerate it at a rate of 5 m/sec’ What is the acceleration of a 6.4 kilogram bowling ball if'a force of 12 N is applied to it?Name: Date: Mass vs Weight Pil nen What is the difference between mass and weight? Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an + Weight is a measure of the gravitational force ‘object. Mass is not related to gravity. between two objects. + ‘The mass of an object does not change when it |+ The weight of an object does change when the is moved from one place to another. amount of gravitational force changes, as when an Mass is commonly measured in grams or object is moved from Earth to the moon, kilograms, + Weight is commonly measured in newtons or pounds. Teightlessness: When a diver dives off of a 10-meter diving board, she is in free-fall. Ifthe diver jumped off of the board with a scale attached to her feet, the scale would read zero even though she is under the influence of gravity, She is “weightless” because her feet have nothing to push again. Similarly, astronauts and everything le a space shuttle seem to be weightless because they are in constant fie fall. The space shuttle moves at high speed, therefore, its constant fall toward Earth results in an orbit around the planet, EXAMPLES [J + On Earth’s surface, the foree of gravity acting on one kilogram is 2.22 pounds. So, ian object has a mass of 3.63 kilograms, the force of gravity acting on that mass on Earth will be: 3.63 kg x Bae pounds = 8.06 pounds + On the moon's surface, the force of gravity is about 0.370 pounds per kilogram. The same newborn baby, if she traveled to the moon, would have a mass of 3.63 kilogeams, but her weight would be just 1.33 pounds. 3.63 kg x nae = 1.33 pounds [PRACTICE [>—2—~ 1. What is the weight (in pounds) of @ 7.0-Kilogram bowling ball on Earth’s surface? ‘What is the weight of a 7.0-kilogram bowling ball on the surface of the moon? 2, 3. What is the mass of a 7.0-kilogram bowling ball on the surface of the moon? 4, Describe what would happen to the spring in a bathroom scale if you were on the moon when you stepped on it, How is this different from stepping on the scale on Earth? 5. Would a balance function correctly on the moon? Why or why not? 6. Activity: Take a bathroom scale into an elevator. Step on the scale, a, What happens to the reading on the scale as the elevator begins to move upward? to move downward? b, What happens to the reading on the scale when the elevator stops moving? c. Why does your weight appear to change, even though you never left Earth’s gravity?Name: Date: | - : ‘ A Lf Equilibrium ce reap [ial ‘When all forces acting on a body are balanced, the forces are in equilibrium, Here are ean free-body diagrams for you to use for practice working with equilibrium. Remember that an unbalanced force results in acceleration. Therefore, the forces acting on an object that is not accelerating must be at balanced. These objects may be at rest, or they could be moving at a constant velocity, Bither way, we say that the forces acting on these objects are in equilibrium, Exampce [J a pe What force is necessary in the free-body diagram at right to achieve equilibrium? Looking for Solution ‘Th 600 N=400N+?N | Giver 600 N is pressing down on the box. 400 N is pressing up on the box. ‘known force: ?N 200N=?N Relationship ‘You can solve equilibrium problems using simple equations: 600N=400N+2N —| 600N- 400N=400N-400N+2N PRACTICE [>—2—~ For each free-body diagram, supply the force or forces necessary to achieve equilibrium. 1. Draw a force arrow, and write in the force, aa 2N 42N 2. Supply the missing force. 406 N 108N ?NName: Date: [eA a ty Work Ee In science, “work” is defined with an equation, Work is the amount of force applied to an object (in the same direction as the motion) over a distance. By measuring how much force you have used to move something over a certain distance, you can calculate how much work you have accomplished, ‘The formula for work is: Work (joules) = Force (newtons) x distance (meters) W=Pxd A joule of work is actually a newton meter; both units represent the same thing: work! In fact, one joule of work is defined as a force of one newton that is exerted on an object to it a distance of one meter. 1.0 joule = 1.0N x 1.0 meter = 1.0 newton-meter \ExampLes [J How much work is done on a 10-newton block that is lifted 5 meters off the ground by a pulley? Looking for Solution The amount of work done by a pulley in unit of newtons and meters, Work = 10Nx5m ‘Work = 50 newton-meters Given ‘The lift force applied by the pulley = 10 N | i arene er eecee ete The ley did 50 newton-meters or 50 joules of ‘Relationship SCS | Work =Foree x distance joule I newton-meter (PRACTICE P>—2z— 1. Inyour own words, define work in scientific terms. Be complete in your definition, 2. How are work, force, and distance related? 3. What are two different units that represent work? 4, For the following situations, determine whether work was done, Write “work done” or “no work done” for each situation. An ice skater glides for two meters across ice, a b. The ice skater’s partner lifts her up a distance of | meter, The ice skater’s partner carries her across the ice a distance of 3 meters. d. After setting her down, the ice skater’s partner pulls her across the ice a distance of 10 meters. e. After skating practice, the ice skater lifts her 20-newton gym bag up 0.5 meter.PhyzGuide: Work We now have several quantities that we can use to describe the behavior of body. Our understanding ‘and application of kinematics and dynamics (Newton's laws of motion) can take us a long way in our understanding of nature. Another useful way of describing and understanding nature is in terms of energy. The use of energy concepts to describe nature is helpful, but is not a new or independent way of analyzing the universe, Energy considerations are simply Newton’s laws expressed in different terms. Just as “hola” has the same fundamental meaning as “hello,” but in a different language. ‘The first energy-related concept we must understand is work, We all have a colloquial understanding of, “work,” and in some ways itis similar to the physical definition of mechanical work, Work is done on an object when a force acts on the object and produces a displacement in the direction. of force. Work is the scalar product of that force and distance. Work is a scalar quantity. W=F- d= Fdcosp Fisthe force exerted {is theastnce moved The SI units of work are N-m = (joule) ¢ lethe angle teen force and displacement vectors IMPORTANT: For work to be done, the force (or a component of force) must act in the direction of motion. For instance, suppose you push a heavy crate across the floor (j¢ # 0). You exerted a force in the horizontal direction which moved the crate in the horizontal direction. If you had exerted a force of 250 N and moved the crate 4m, the work you did on the crate would be W=250N-4m= 10005 (The “cos” is left out because the direction of force and direction of motion are the same.) Consider, however, a child pulling a wagon as shown, The child exerts a force at an angle to the motion. Only F, the ‘component of force in the direction of motion, “counts” for TA works doing work. The force component in the y-direction done! produces no displacement, it therefore does no work. If the child exerts a force of 25 N on the wagon at an angle => ‘of 30° and moves the wagon 4 m, the work done is F, W=25 N- 4m cos(30°) = 875 . u Lastly, consider two cases in which no work is done, a cee NO work First, a person exerts a great force against a wall. Although is donel the force is great, the displacement is zero. Second, a heavy suitcase is carried a distance horizontally. “But wait!” you say, “a force is acting (to hold up the suitcase) over a distance, surely work is being done!” If d this evil thought were running through your mind, re-read F = the definition of work. Itis very important that you understand that information! NO work is done ‘The Book of Phyz © Dean Baird Al rights reserved top20 dbName: Date: EN, Work Done against Gravity a Reap [ial Any time you lift an object, you do work against gravity, We use the same formula for work that you already know (Work = force x distance), but it’s expressed in a slightly different form: Work against gravity = mass x acceleration due to gravity x height W= mgh Force is written in the form mg, where m is mass and g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/seo”. We use h for height because only the vertical distance an object moves matters for calculating work against gravity Did you know...If you have to lift a new sofa to a second-floor apartment, the work done against gravity is the same whether you haul it straight up the side of the building with ropes or take a longer path up the stairs. Only the vertical distance matters because the force of gravity is vertical. ExampLe [J You lift a 2-liter bottle of cola from a grocery bag on the floor to a reftigerator shelf that is 0.8 meter high. If the bottle has a mass of 2.02 kilograms, how much work did you do against gravity? Looking for Solution The amount of work done against gravity, W = mgh Given W = 2.02 kg x 9.8 m/sec? x 0.8 m mass of bottle = 2,02 kilograms | W = 15.8 joules acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec” height = 0.8 meter Relationship W=mgh PRACTICE [>—2—~ 1. JaiAnna, who has a mass of 45 kilograms, climbed 3 meters up a ladder to rescue her cat from a tree. How much work against gravity did she do? 2. A tram inside the Gateway Arch in Saint Louis, Missouri lifts visitors to a window-lined observation room 192 meters above the ground. How much work does the tram’s motor do against gravity to carry two 55- kilogram passengers to this room? (You may ignore the work done by the motor to carry the tram itself) 3. Youpick up 10-newton book off the floor and put it on a shelf 2 meters high. How much work did you do? 4, Elijah does 44 joules of work against gravity to pull a 0.5-kilogram rope with a 1.0-kilogram bucket attached up to the floor of his tree house, How many meters high is his tree house? 5, Alejandra weighs 225 newtons. How much work does she do against gravity when she climbs to a ledge at the top of a 15-meter climbing wall? 6. A window-washer stands on a scaffolding 30 meters above the ground, If he did 23,520 joules of work to reach the scaffolding, what is his mass?Name: Date: ‘A Potential and Kinetic Energy att READ ee Potential energy is stored energy. The formula for the potential energy of an object i Ep mgh where m equals mass in kilograms, g is the acceleration of gravity, and / equals the height of the object, The mass (m) of the object times the acceleration of gravity (g) is the same as the weight of the object in newtons. The acceleration of gravity is equal to 9.8 m/sec”. mass of the object (kilograms) x 28 32 = weight of the object (newtons) see’ Kinetic energy is energy of motion. The formula for the kinetic energy of an object is: Ey = jm? where m equals mass in kilograms and v equals the velocity or speed of the object in meters per second. To do this calculation, square the velocity value, Next, multiply by the mass, and then, divide by 2, Energy is measured in joules or newton-meters. : m IN = 1kg-—S, A joule = 1kg EXAMPLES [J] Example 1: A 50-kilogram boy and his 100-kilogram father went jogging. Both ran ata rate of 5 m/sec. Who had mote kinetic energy? Although the boy and his father were running at the same speed, the father has more kinetic energy because he has more mass, 2 ram? ‘The kinetic energy of the boy:€, = dm? = 460 kg)(S2)° = 625 gh 2 see! Lin? 2 7 ‘The kinetic energy of the father: E, = 5mv" = 1,250 kgP 3 see’ Example 2: What is the potential energy of a 10-newton book that is placed on a shelf that is 2.5 meters high? ‘The book’s weight (10 newtons) is equal to its mass times the acceleration of gravity, Therefore, you can easily use this value in the potential energy formula: Ep = mgh = (1ON)(2.5 m) = 25N-m PRACTICE [>—2—~ Show all calculations, Write all energy values in units of joules. One joule = one newton-meter 1. What is the potential energy of a 2-kilogram potted plant that is on a 1 metet-high plant stand?Work refers to an activity involving a force and movement in the directon of the force. A force of 20 newtons pushing an object 5 meters in the direction of the force does 100 joules of work. Energy is the capacity for doing work. You must have energy to accomplish work - it is like the “currency” for performing work. ‘To do 100 joules of work, you must expend 100 joules of energy. Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of using energy, which are numerically the same. If you do 100 joules of work in one second (using 100 joules of energy), the power is 100 watts. Work-Energy Principle W, nat ~ ate MV Final i amy, initial The change in the kinetic energy of an object is equal to the net work done on the object. This fact is referred to as the Work: mechanics problem solving. It is derivable from conserv inergy Principle and is often a very useful tool in of energy and the application of the relationships for work and energy, so it is not independent of the conservation Jaws. It is in fact a specific application of conservation of energy. However, there are so many mechanical problems which are solved efficiently by applying this principle that it merits separate attention as a working principle, Fora straight-line collision, the net work done is equal to the average force of impact times the distance traveled during the impact. Average impact force x distance traveled = change in kinetic energy If a moving object is stopped by a collision, extending the stopping distance will reduce the average impact force.Name: Date: eal Ly 4 In science, work is defined as the force needed to move an object a certain distance, The amount of work done per unit of time is called power. ExamPLe [J Suppose you and a friend are helping a neighbor to reshingle the roof of his home. You each carry 10.0 bundles of shingles weighing 300. newtons apiece up to the roof which is 7.00 meters from the ground, You are able to carry the shingles to the roof in 10,0 minutes but your friend needs 20.0 minutes. Both of you did the same amount of work (force x distance) but you did the work in a shorter time, Ws Fed W = 10 bundles of shingles(300 N/bundle) x 7.00 m = 21,000 joules However, you had more power than your friend. = Work (joules) Power (watts) = Tie (seconds) Let’s do the math to see how this is possible, ‘Step one: Convert minutes to seconds, , 60 seconds _ 10 minutes x 22-s2cond = 600 seconds (You) 20 minutes x 22-Sec0nds - 4, 200 seconds (Friend) minute Step two: Find power. 21,000 joules enero | wae ae 1, 200 seconds 17.5 watts (Friend) As you can see, the same amount of work that is done in less time produces more power. You are familiar with the word watt from a light bulb. Is it now clear to you why a 100-watt bulb is more powerful than a 40-watt bulb?Name: Date: all —— = ‘ Uy Power in Flowing Energy 10. reap [Ea Power is the rate of doing work. You do work if you lift a heavy box up a flight of stairs. You do the same amount of work whether you lift the box slowly or quickly, But your power is greater if you do the work in a smaller amount of time. Power can also be used to describe the rate at which energy is converted from one form into another. A light bulb converts electrical energy into heat (thermal energy) and light (radiant energy). The power of a light bulb is the rate at which the electrical energy is converted into these other forms. To calculate the power of a person, machine, or other device, you must know the work done or energy converted and the time, Work can be calculated using the following formula Work (joules) = Force (newtons) x distance (meters) We Fed Both work and energy are measured in joules. A joule is actually another name for a newton'meter, If you push ‘an object along the floor with a force of 1 newton for a distance of 1 meter, you have done | joule of work. A motor could be used to do this same task by converting 1 joule of electrical energy into mechanical energy Power is calculated by dividing the work or energy by the time, Power is measured in watts. One watt is equal to one joule of work or energy per second. In one second, a 60-Watt light bulb converts 60 joules of electrical energy into heat and light. Power ean also be measured in horsepower. One horsepower is equal to 746 watts. Work or Energy Goules) Time (sec) P=Wit Power (watts) Exampce [J A cat who cat weighs 40 newtons climbs a tree that is 15 meters tall in 10 seconds. Calculate the work done by the cat and the cat’s power. Looking for Solution The work and power of the eat | Given Work = 40 N + 15 m= 6005 ‘The force is 40.N. The distance is 15 m The time is 10 seconds. Relationships Work = Force x distance ‘The work done by the eat is 600 joules, Power= Worltime ‘The power of the cat is 60 wats, In units of horsepower, the cat’s power is | (60 watts)(1 hp / 746 watts) = 0.12 horsepower.PhyzGuide: Simple Machines YOU CAN'T GET SOMETHIN’ FOR NOTHIN’! Simple machines are used to change the size or direction of force. Usually, the advantage of a simple machine is that it allows a user to exert a small force to accomplish a task that would normally require a large force. For example, a person of ordinary strength is able to lift a car with the help of a hydraulic press. Itis important to note that while a simple machine may “multiply your force,” you are not getting something for nothing. The work output of a simple machine is equal to the work input. In fact, real output under non-ideal conditions is Jess than input: the ratio of work output to work input is called “efficiency.” €= Woul Win Consider the following simple machines: The Lever A big force is needed to lift the rock. The person exerts a small force over a large distance to produce a large force acting on the rock. The force acting on the rock, however, acts over a small distance. The Hydraulic Press PHYZVEGT A big force is needed to lift the auto, A person exerts a small force over a large distance via the small piston on the left to produce a large force lifting the auto. The force acting on the auto, however, acts over a small distance. The Book of Phyz © Dean Bard. Alrights reserved. rorano dbName: Date: Efficiency EK READ re] Ina perfect machine, the work input would equal the work output. However, there aren’t any perfect machines in our everyday world, Bicycles, washing machines, and even pencil sharpeners lose some input work to friction. Efficiency is the ratio of work output to work input. It is expressed as a percent, A perfect machine would have an efficiency of 100 percent. EXxaMPLe [J ‘An engineer designs a new ean opener. For every twenty joules of work input, the can opener produces ten joules of work output. The engineer tries different designs and finds that her improved version produces thirteen joules of work output for the same amount of work input. How much more efficient is the new version? Efficiency of the first design Efficiency of the second design Efficiency = Work output Efficiency = Work output work input work input _10 joules 13 joules 20 joules 0 joules = 50% = 65% The second design is 15% more efficient than the first. PRACTICE [>—2—~ 1. Acell phone charger uses 4.83 joules per second when plugged into an outlet, but only 1.31 joules per second actually goes into the cell phone battery, The remaining joules are lost as heat, That's why the battery feels warm after it has been charging for a while. How efficient is the charger? 2. A professional cyclist rides a bicycle that is 92 percent efficient. For every 100 joules of energy he exerts as input work on the pedals, how many joules of output work are used to move the bicycle? 3. An automobile engine is 15 percent efficient. How many joules of input work are required to produce 15,000 joules of output work to move the cat? 4. Ittakes 56.5 kilojoules of energy to raise the temperature of 150 milliliters of water from 5°C to 95°C. If you use an electric water heater that is 60% efficient, how many kilojoules of electrical energy will the heater actually use by the time the water reaches its final temperature? 5. A power station bums 75 kilograms of coal per second. Each kg of coal contains 27 million joules of energy. a, What is the total power of this power station in watts? (watts = joules/second) b. The power station’s output is 800 million watts. How efficient is this power station? 6. Armachine requires 2,000 joules to raise a 20 kilogram block a distance of 6 meters. How efficient is the ‘machine? (Hint: Work done against gravity = mass x acceleration due to gravity x height.)Name: Date: [eal i Efficiency and Energy ae] reap [ial Efficieney describes how well energy is converted from one form into another. A process is 100% efficient if no energy is “lost” due to friction, to create sound, or for other reasons. In reality, no process is 100% efficient. Efficiency is calculated by dividing the output energy by the input energy. If ‘you multiply the result by 100, you will get efficiency as a percentage. For _Efficieney ‘example, if the answer you get is 0.50, you can multiply by 100 and write ‘your answer as 50%, Output energy (J) Input energy (3) EXampPce [J You drop a 2-kilogram box from a height of 3 meters. Its speed is 7 m/see when it hits the ground. How efficiently did the potential energy turn into kinetic energy? ‘Looking for Solution You are asked to find the efficiency. iG E, = (2 kg)(9.8 m/sec*)(3 m)=58.8 J iven - ‘The mass is 2 kilograms, the height is 3 meters, Ex, =(1/2)(2 kg)(7 m/sec)? = 49 J and the landing speed is 7 m/sec. _| The input energy is the potential energy, and the Relationships ~ ‘output energy is the kinetic energy. Kinetic energy = 1/2mv? Efficiency = (49 J)/(58.8 J)=0.83 or 83% Potential energy = mgh | The effici 0.83 or 83% (0.83 x 100). Efficiency = (output energy)/(input energy) a a rac PRACTICE [>—2— 1, Engineers who design battery-operated devices such as cell phones and MP3 players try to make them as efficient as possible. An engineer tests a cell phone and finds that the batteries supply 10,000 J of enerey to make 5500 J of output energy in the form of sound and light for the screen. How efficient is the phone? 2. What's the efficiency of a car that uses 400,000 J of energy from gasoline to make 48,000 J of kinetic energy? 3. A 1000 kilogram roller coaster goes down a hill that is 90 meters tall Its speed at the bottom is 40 nv/sec. a, What is the efficiency of the roller coaster? Assume it starts from rest at the top of the hill, 'b. What do you think happens to the “lost” energy? ©. Use the concepts of energy and efficiency to explain why the first hill on a roller coaster isthe tallest, 4, You see an advertisement for a new free fall ride at an amusement park. The ad says the ride is 50 meters tall and reaches a speed of 28 m/sec at the bottom, How efficient is the ride? Hint: You can use any mass you wish because it cancels out. 5. Imagine that you are working as a roller coaster designer. You want to build a record-breaking coaster that goes 70 m/sec at the bottom of the first hill. You estimate that the efficiency of the tracks and cars you are using is 90%. How high must the first hill be?Name: Date: Momentum 3.4 READ. (i Which is more difficult to stop: A tractor-trailer truck barreling down the highway at 35 meters per second, or a small two-seater sports car traveling the same speed? You probably guessed that it takes more force to stop a large truck than a small car, In physics terms, we say that the truck has greater momentum, We can find momentum using this equatio momentum = mass of object x velocity of object Velocity isa term that refers to both speed and direction, For our purposes we will assume that the vehicles are traveling in a straight line. In that case, velocity and speed are the same. ‘The equation for momentum is abbreviated like this: p = m xv. Momentum, symbolized with a p, is expressed in units of kg-m/see; m is the mass of the object, in kilograms; and vis the velocity of the object in m/sec. PRACTICE [>—2—~ Use your knowledge about solving equations to work out the following problems: 1. Ifthe truck has a mass of 2,000 kilograms, what is its momentum? Express your answer in kg-m/sec. 2. If the car has a mass of 1,000 kilograms, what is its momentum? 3. An 8-kiogram bowling ball is rolling in a straight line toward you. [fits momentum is 16 kg-m/sec, how fast 4. A beach ball is rolling in a straight line toward you at a speed of 0.5 m/sec. Its momentum is 0.25 kg-misec. What is the mass of the beach ball? 5. A 4,000-kilogram truck travels in a straight line at 10.0 nv/sec. What is its momentum? 6. A 1,400-kilogram car is also traveling in a straight line, Its momentum is equal to that of the truck in the previous question. What is the velocity of the car? 7. Which would take more force to stop in 10 seconds: an 8.0-kilogram ball rolling in a straight line at a speed of 0.2 m/sec or a 4.0-kilogram ball rolling along the same path at a speed of 1.0 m/sec? 8. The momentum of a car traveling in a straight line at 20 m/sec is 24,500 kg-misec, What is the car’s mass? 9. A0.14-kilogram baseball is thrown in a straight line at a velocity of 30 m/sec. What is the momentum of the baseball? 10, Another pitcher throws the same baseball in a straight line. Its momentum is 2.1 kg-m/sec. What is the velocity of the ball? 11. A L-kilogram turtle crawls in a straight line at a speed of 0.01 m/sec. What is the turtle’s momentum?Name: Date: Uy Impulse 3.1 READ f A change in momentum for an object is equal to impulse, Momentum changes when velocity changes. impulse = change in momentum Force is what changes velocity, Therefore, when momentum changes a force must be involved for a period of time. The following equation relates impulse to change in momentum. Force x time = Final momentum ~ Initial momentum. Fxt = mvy—my Momentum (p) is expressed in units of kg-m/s; m is the mass of the object, in kg; and v is the velocity of the object in m/sec. Impulse is expressed in units of N-sec. 1 N'sec = | kg-m/sec because 1 newton = 1 kg-m/sec”: 1K seo = 1K sec’ = 1 N-see Examptes [J ‘A net force of 50 newtons is applied to a 20-kilogram cart that is already moving at 1 meter per second. The final speed of the cart was 3 meters per second. For how long was the force applied? Lookingfor Solution ‘The speed of the cart after 3 seconds. = my, — mV) Given Force applied = 50 newtons ¢ = (20kg)G m/sec) — (20 kg)(1 m/sec) Mass of the car = 20 kilograms oom Initial speed of the cart = I m/sec 1 = (GO kgum/sec) ~ (20 kgun/sec) ___ Final speed ofthe eart=3 m/see 40 kom oN Relationships | p= kgm) — 0.8 soe time = change in momentum + Force . ie The force was applied to the cart for 0.8 second.Name: Date: ee a ig Momentum Conservation Ste READ @ Just like the third law of motion says that forces are equal and opposite, changes in momentum are equal and opposite. This is because when objects exert forces on each other, their motion is affected. ‘The law of momentum conservation states that if interacting objects in a system are not acted on by outside forces, the total amount of momentum in the system cannot change. The formula below can be used to find the new velocities of objects if both keep moving after the collision. the momentum of a system before = the total momentum of a system after 1% ints) * "2¥2 Git ~ "1¥3 coat) *2¥4 (Hay Iftwo objects are initially at rest, the total momentum of the system is zero, the momentum of a system before a collision = 0 For the final momentum to be zero, the objects must have equal momenta in opposite directions. the momentum of a system after a collision 0 = myst mgry mvs = —(rmgv4) ExXamPLes [J Example 1: What is the momentum of a 0.2-kilogram steel ball that is rolling at a velocity of 3.0 mise momentum = m xv = 0.2 kg = 06 kg: Example 2: You and a friend stand facing each other on ice skates. Your mass is 50 kilograms and your friend’s mass is 60 kilograms, As the two of you push off each other, you move with a velocity of 4 m/sec to the right, ‘What is your friend’s velocity? Looking for Solution | _ Your friend’s velocity to the lef myvy = (yyy) Given (50 kg)(4 misec) = ~(60 kg)(v,) Your mass of 50 kg. yee . Your friend's mass of 60 kg Gm) four velocity of 4 mise id Your velocity of 4 m/see to the right, -3.33 miseo = v4 Relationship eno) Your friends velocity to the left is 3.33 mv/see.Name: Date: OoNN Collisions and Conservation of Momentum 3. (READ (& There are two main types of collisions: elastic and inelastic. + Aslongas there are no outside forces (such as friction), momentum is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions. + Conservation of momentum makes it possible to determine the motion of objects before and after colliding, + ‘The steps from the text for using momentum to solve collision problems are provided in the graphic below. Use these problem-solving steps and the problem-solving table to complete this skill sheet. Keep in mind that bounces have greater momentum change. Problem Solving Stops 1. Draw a diagram 2, Decide whether the collision is elastic or inelastic 3, Assign variables to represent the masses and velocities of the objects before and after the collision 4, Use momentum conservation to write an equation stating that the total momentum before the collision equals the total after. ‘Then solve it. Before collision Examece [J 2,000kg Smisec 6,000kg A.2,000-Kilogram railroad car moving at $ m/sec collides with a 6,000- = kilogram railroad car at rest, If the cars coupled together, what is their velocity after the is inelastic collision? 0 msec After collision 2,000kg + 6000k9 V,=? ‘my = the velocity of the combined railroad cars after an inelastic eollision | ¢a9q9 (5 m/sec) + (6000 kg)(0 mises) = (2000 kg +6000 ke), Given Initial speed and mass of both cars: ‘my =2,000 kg, vj =5 m/sec mz = 6,000 kg, vp = 0 m/sec seo = (8000 kg), #000ke Gi Lom/see = ¥y Combined mass of the two ears: my + my = 8,000 kg ‘The velocity of the two combined cars after the Relationship collision is 10 msec, mv + v= (rm + mq)PhyzReference: Thermal Properties Constants | NOTE: 1 Celsius degree = 1 Kelvin (Careful: 1° C # 1K) Coefficient of Thermal Coefficient of Volume Expansion (linear) [o or a] Expansion [6 or b] Material ax 1071S Material Bx 101°C Aluminum 24 Ethyl Alcohol 75 Brass 18 Glass (lime) 02 Concrete 07-12 Glass (Pyrex) 0.09 Copper 17 Glycerine 5.1 Glass (lime) 09 ce 05 Glass (Pyrex) 032 Mercury 18 ce Sil Water 21 Invar (Fe-Ni-C) 0.07 Iron 12 Lead 3.0 Thermal Conductivity [k] Lacit 60 : Quartz 0s Material __k (Winv°C) Silver 20 he ® Aluminum 205. Steel 12 pe 705. K ‘Copper 385, Specific Heat Capacity [c] {tron (Stee!) 50, Material c (Iikg*C) ne Le Alcohol (ethyl) 2430 aj] Body Fat 017 Aluminum 920 |} o Bric 06 Conerete 2900 1. Concrete 08 Copper 300 ft Glass 0.80 Glass 840 fo a Gold 130 Id ‘Wood (pine) 0.13 Granite 800 ee. fy og Human body 3470 | Tee 2090 oe 0.04 Iron 460 ©) © Glass wool 0.04 aa 130 Down 0.02 Mercury 140 le 0.03 Silver 230 a Steam 2010 [] s Hydrogen aaa Ul Water 4190 7 Wood 1760 Melting Point [T,,], Boiling Point [7,,], Heat of Fusion [L_] and Vaporization [L,] Material Tm (°C) Ly(kg) | Material__T) CC) L, (akg) Alcohol =L14 105,000 Aleohol B 854,000 Lead 330 25,000 Lead 1170 870,000 Mercury =39 12,000 Mercury 358 297,000 Nitrogen 210 26,000 Nitrogen -196 201,000 Oxygen 219 14,000 Oxygen =183 213,000 Silver 961 88,000 Silver 2193, 2,335,000 Tungsten 3410 184,000 Tungsten 5900 4,813,000 Water 0 335,000 Water 100 2,260,000 The Book of Phyz © Dean Bale. Al rights reserved 78106 dbTemperature ‘A convenient operational definition of temperature is that it is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy associated with the disordered microscopic motion of atoms and molecules. The flow of heat is from a high temperature region toward a lower temperature region, The details of the relationship to molecular motion are described in kinetic theory. The temperature defined from kinetic theory is called the kinetic temperature, Temperature is not directly proportional to internal energy since temperature ‘measures only the kinetic energy part of the internal energy, so two objects with the same temperature do not in general have the same internal energy (see water-metal example). ‘Temperatures are measured in one of the three standard temperature scales (Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit). ica wine [Lenv?] tthe temperature nergy of two objects Is. average the same, then a their average defines the kinetic temperature transatlonal KE nine k = Boltzmann constant Their internal energies and specific heals wll not necessarily be the same,Name: Date: Specific Heat READ) Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to raise | gram of a substance 1°C in temperature. + Specific heat values are used in the heat equation is: Q: mel Tp ™ ‘where Q is the heat energy (joules), m is the mass of the substance (kilograms), C,, is the specific heat of the substance (Jkg°C), and (T; - T;) is the change in temperature (°C) “The higher the specific heat, the more energy is required to cause a change in temperature. Substances with higher specific heats require more loss of heat energy to experience a lowering of their temperature than do substances with a low specific heat. Some sample specific heat values are presented in the table below: Teel ‘water (pure) 4,184 ‘aluminum 900 steel 470 silver 235 oil 1,900 concrete 880 glass 800 gold 129 ‘wood 2,500 ‘Water has the highest specific heat of the listed types of matter. This means that water is slower to heat but is also slower to lose heat. EXAMPLE [J + How much energy is required to heat 35 grams of gold from 10°C to 50°C? Looking for Solution ‘The heat energy in joules to heat 35 grams of = mC(To-T, gold by 40°C. a “A T2- T) [ cra Q= (0.35 ky 129; 572) 50°C 10°¢) Mass = 35 grams = 0.35 kilogram Q= (035 1a (129,22) 40re Specific heat of gold = 129 J/g°C T= 50°C and T; =10°C Relationship Q = 1,806 joules To produce the necessary change in temperature, Qi me(T-T) 1.806 joules of eat eneay need to be put into i. this sample of gold,Heat Conduction Conduction is heat transfer by means of molecular agitation within a material without any motion of the material as a whole. If one end of a metal rod is at a higher temperature, then energy will be transferred down the rod toward the colder end because the higher speed particles will collide with the slower ones with a net transfer of energy to the slower ones. Heat Convection Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as air or water when the heated fluid is caused to move away from the source of heat, carrying energy with it. Convection above a hot surface occurs because hot air expands, becomes less dense, and rises (see Ideal Gas Law), Hot water is likewise less dense than cold water and rises, causing convection currents which transport energy. Convection can also lead to circulation in a liquid, as in the heating of a pot of water over a flame, Heated water expands and becomes more buoyant. Cooler, more dense water near the surface descends and patterns of circulation can be formed, though they will not be as regular as, suggested in the drawing Warmer waters? SAY Heat Radiation by the emission of electromagnetic waves which carry energy away from the emitting object. For ordinary temperatures (less than red hot"), the radiation is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radiation is heat transfeName: Date: Density oth READ fe The density of a substance does not depend on its size or shape. As long as a substance is homogeneous, the density will be the Steel density same, This means that a steel nail has the same density as acube Steel cube of steel or a steel girder used to build a bridge. Volume: 0 —2—~ 1. A44.S-newton object is placed in a tank of water. If the water exerts a force of 4.0 newtons on the object, will the object sink or float? 2. The same 4.5-newton object is placed in a tank of glycerin. I the glycerin exerts a force of 5.0 newtons on. the object, wil the object sink or float? 3. You suspend a brass ring from a spring scale. Its weight is 0.83 N while it is suspended in air, Next, you immerse the ring in a container of light corn syrup. The ring appears to weigh 0.71 N. What is the buoyant force acting on the ring in the light com syrup? 4, You wash the brass ring (from question 3) and then suspend it in a container of vegetable oil. The ring appears to weigh 0.73 N. What is the buoyant force acting on the ring? 5, Which has greater buoyant foree, light corn syrup or the vegetable oil? Why do you think this is so? 6. Accube of gold weighs 1,89 N when suspended in air from a spring scale, When suspended in molasses, it appears to weigh 1.76N, What is the buoyant force acting on the cube? 7. Do you think the buoyant force would be greater or smaller if the gold cube were suspended in water? Explain your answer.Name: Date: — |i Archimedes Principle cf READ [Ea Have you ever tried to hold a beach ball underwater? It takes a lot of effort! That's because the buoyant force is much larger than the gravitational force acting on the beach ball. ‘We can use Archimedes principle to calculate the buoyant force =} acting on the beach ball, Archimedes principle states: 14,130 cm® (weighs 138 N) ‘The buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. ‘A beach ball has a volume of 14,130 em, This means that if you push the ball underwater, it displaces 14,130 em? of water. Archimedes principle tells us that the buoyant force on the ball is equal to the weight of that water. Because the weight of 14,130 cm? of water is 138 newtons, the buoyant foree acting on the beach ball is 138 newtons. 0.0N. In air, a beach ball weighs 1.5 newtons. However, if you measure the weight of a floating beach ball in water, a spring scale reads 0.0 newtons. The apparent weight of the ball is 0.0 newtons. ‘The buoyant force acting on the floating beach ball is equal to: (The gravitational force acting on the ball) - (Apparent weight of ball in water) 1.5N-0.0N = 15N e The buoyant force acting on the floating beach ball is equal to the gravitational force pulling the ball downward. ‘The floating ball displaces only 153 cm? of water. 153 em? of water weighs water displaced 1.5 newtons. The ball displaces an amount of water equal to its own weight. = yy floating ball Exampce [J 4153 cm? la A 5-cm? block of lead weighs 0.55 N. The lead is carefully submerged in a tank of mereuty, One om? of mercury weighs 0.13 N. What is the weight of the mercury displaced by the block of lead? Will the block of lead sink or float in the mereury? Given | Solution : ‘Volume of block = 5 cm? ‘The lead will displace 5 cm? of mercury. Weight of lead block = 0.55 N 5 em? mercury x 0.13 N/I om? mercury = 0.65 N Looking for | Weight of mercury displaced The buoyant force of mercury, 0.65 N, is greater Will the lead sink or float? than the weight of the lead, 0.55 N. Therefore, egg pC the block of Lead will float, elationships 1 cm? mercury weighs 0.13 NName: Date: eA iy Waves Eom Reap [fal Avwave is a traveling oscillator that carries energy from one place to another. A high point of a wave is called a crest. A low point is called a trough. The amplitude of a wave is half the distance from a crest to a trough. The distance from one crest to the next is called the wavelength, Wavelength can also be measured from trough to {rough or from any point on the wave to the next place where that point occurs. Amplitude One wavelength is crest to crest The speed of a wave Speed (m/sec) yy = f )\ « — Wavelength (meters) Frequency (hertz) EXAMPLE [J ‘The frequency of a wave is 40 Hz and its speed is 100 meters per second. What is the wavelength ofthis wave? Given Solution Frequeney = 40 Tz; Speed = 100 m/sec 100 mises . _100 misee - = Wavel Looking for 40H Wcyclesisve V*veteneth The wavelength 2.5 meters = Wavelength Relationships oe length of thi ; . Speed = Frequency x Wavelength, therefore ‘The wavelength of this wave is 2.5 meters. Speed ++ Frequeney = Wavelength PRACTICE | >—2—~ 1, On the graphic at right label the following parts of a wave: one wavelength, half ofa wavelength, the amplitude, a crest, and a ‘trough. a, How many wavelengths ate represented in the wave above? centimeters b, What is the amplitude of the wave shown above?PhyzGuide: Anatomy of a Wave ‘A wave can be thought of as a disturbance traveling through a medium. The disturbance transports energy through the medium without causing a permanent displacement of the medium itself, (Particles in the medium do undergo motion, but they undergo simple harmonic motion—SHM —so there is no net translation.) There are four fundamental components involved in wave production, each with its own set of quantifiable characteristics. THE SOURCE For a wave to be propagated, something has to vibrate. That something is therefore the source of the waves. The source might be an oscillating hand holding one end of a rope, an oscillating speaker disturbing the air in front of it, or an oscillating electric field on an antenna of a radio station, The source can be described quantitatively through the following attributes. Amplitude is a measure of how much the source deviates from equilibrium during its vibrations. The amplitude of an oscillation indicates how much energy is involved in the vibration: more energy results in greater amplitude. The amplitude of the source is denoted As. The units of amplitude depend on the type of wave being produced. Source frequency is a measure of how many times per second the source oscillates. Frequency is inversely related to the period 7, of the source's motion (=1/T and T =1/). So a quickly vibrating source has a short period (one oscillation doesn’t take much time) and a high frequency (many oscillations are completed in one second). The frequency of the source is denoted f, or v, [vis the lowercase Greek letter nu, so when someone says, “What's nu?” you can respond, “Frequency, silly!”] The units of frequency are 1/s ors, which have been given the alternate abbreviation Hz (hertz, after Heinrich Hertz, 19th century German physicist). Source velocity is (surprisingly enough) the velocity of the source. This is the overall translational velocity of the source, not the vibrational speed of the wave-emitting object. A stationary source is a vibrating object that has no overall translational motion. The motion of the source affects the wavelength of the wave it produces. ‘The source velocity has no effect on the wave velocity. There is no relationship between source velocity and wave velocity. The source velocity and the wave velocity ate unrelated. The wave velocity has no dependence on source velocity. Read this paragraph repeatedly until the independence of source velocity and wave velocity is clear. Source velocity is denoted v, and is measured in meters per second (m/s). The Book of Phyz © Dean Baird. Al rights reserved span dbHl. THE MEDIUM The medium is what the source disturbs. The disturbance propagates through the medium at a specific speed. This speed is called the wave speed. Wave speed is a characteristic of the medium only, Low amplitude waves travel at the same speed as high amplitude waves in a given medium, Waves created by a low frequency oscillator propagate at the same speed as those emanating from a high frequency oscillator, Waves travel faster in stiffer materials (in which the molecules are bound more tightly throughout—when one molecule is disturbed from equilibrium, it quickly disturbs its neighbor, and so on... hey, this sounds like my apartment complex). Wave speed is denoted vy and is measured in meters per second (mis). Ml, THE WAVE ‘The disturbance itself has certain quantifiable features, too. Amplitude is a measure of how much the wave disturbs the medium, and is an indication of the energy being transported by the wave. Amplitude is denoted by an A. Wavelength is the distance between consecutive wave crests. Wavelength depends on two quantities: the frequency of the source f,, and the wave speed in the medium vy. If the source vibrates quickly (high frequency), then many waves will be loaded into the medium each second, and the waves will therefore be closely packed (small wavelength). So A I/f, If waves travel quickly through the medium, one wave will be carried a great distance before the next one is loaded, So A. x v,,. Taken together, we can conclude that the wavelength of a wave is proportional to wave speed and inversely proportional to the frequency of the source: A= vy/fy. Wavelength is denoted by a >, lowercase Greek lambda, and is measured in meters (m). IV. THE OBSERVER ‘As the wave propagates outward, it transmits part of its energy to objects in the medium. ‘An observer sensitive to the waves is forced into oscillation by the waves. The energy of the source is thereby transmitted to the observer via the wave. Observed frequency is a measure of how many waves pass the observer per second. Each wave induces one complete oscillation in the observer. Observed frequency is denoted fp, OF Voos and is measured in I/s or Hz. Of course, one may also refer to the period of oscillation of the observer, Tops. Any type of period is measured in seconds (s). ‘The Book of Phyz © Dean Baird lights reserved arent doName: Date: Standing Waves 20.1 ‘A wave that is confined in a space is called a standing wave. Standing waves on the vibrating strings of a guitar produce the sounds you hear, Standing. ‘waves are also present inside the chamber of a wind instrument. A string that contains a standing wave is an oscillator. Like any oscillator, it has natural frequencies. The lowest natural frequency is called the fundamental, Other natural frequencies are called harmonies. The first five harmonics of a standing wave on a string are shown to the right, ‘There are two main parts of a standing wave. The nodes are the points where the string does not move at all, The antinodes are the places where the string moves with the greatest amplitude, ‘The wavelength of a standing wave can be found by measuring the length of two of the “bumps” on the string, “The first harmonic only contains one bump, so the wavelength is twice the length of the individual bump. 4 wavelength =< PRACTICE [>—z—~ 1. Use the graphic below to answer these questions. a. Which harmonic is shown in each of the strings below? b, Label the nodes and antinodes on each of the standing waves shown below. c. How many wavelengths does each standing wave contain? d. Determine the wavelength of each standing wave,Name: Date: [ial iy ELE Wave Interference Reav [a Interference occurs when two or more waves are at the same location at the same time. For example, the wind may create tiny ripples on top of larger waves in the ocean, The superposition principle states that the total vibration at any point is the sum of the vibrations produced by the individual waves. Constructive interference is when waves combine to make a larger wave. Destructive interference is when waves combine to make a wave that is smaller than either of the individual waves. Noise cancelling headphones work by producing a sound wave that perfectly cancels the sounds in the room. PRACTICE [>—2—~ ‘This worksheet will allow you to find the sum of two waves with different wavelengths and amplitudes. The table below (and continued on the next page) lists the coordinates of points on the two waves. 1. Use coordinates on the table and the graph paper (see last page) to graph wave I and wave 2 individually. Connect each set of points with a smooth curve that looks like a wave. Then, answer questions 2— 9. 2. What is the amplitude of wave 1? What is the amplitude of wave 2? 4, What is the wavelength of wave 1? 5. What is the wavelength of wave 2? 6. How many wavelengths of wave 1 did you draw? 7. How many wavelength of wave 2 did you draw? 8. Use the superposition principle to find the wave that results from the interference of the two wave a, To do this, simply add the heights of wave 1 and wave 2 at each point and record the values in the last column, The first four points are done for you. b, Then use the points in last column to graph the new wave, Connect the points with a smooth curve. You should see a pattern that combines the two original waves. 9. Describe the wave created by adding the two original waves. a-axis Heightofwavel | Height of wave 2 Height of wave 1 + wave 2 (blocks) | (axis blocks) _Graxis blocks) __(raxis blocks) 0 0 0 0 1 08 2 28 ores 15 . 15 3 22 2 02 4 28 0‘The Doppler Effect for Sound Doppler Effect ‘When a vehicle with a siren passes you, a noticeable drop in the pitch of the sound of the siren will be observed as the vehicle passes. This is an example of tthe Doppler effect. An approaching source moves closer during period of the sound wave so the effective wavelength is shortened, giving a higher pitch since the velocity of the wave is unchanged. Similarly the pitch of a receding sound source will be lowered. Source receding ‘Source approaching: fawat=| | Fotserved Hoare sound of longer wavelength | lower frequency, lower pitch, Stationary source of equency fsouce are vei . Qe hi 6 Movin ‘ears sound of Alobservers source shorter wavelength, hear same higher frequency, frequency, * a higher pitch, http://hyperphysies.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/dopp.html Page | of 1 5/17/2011Name: Date: [eal Ly 19.2 Harmonic Motion Graphs ‘A graph can be used to show the amplitude and period of an object in harmonic motion. An example of a graph of a pendulum’s motion is shown below. Position vs, Timo 23 “Tne see) ‘The distance to which the pendulum moves away from this center point is call the amplitude. The amplitude ofa pendulum can be measured in units of length (centimeters or meters) or in degrees. On a graph, the amplitude i the distance from the x-axis to the highest point of the graph, The pendulum shown above moves 20 cm to each side of its center position, so its amplitude is 20 em, ‘The period is the time for the pendulum to make one complete cycle. Iis the time from one peak to the next on the graph, On the graph above, one peak occurs at 1.5 seconds, and the next peak occurs at 3.0 seconds. The period is 3.0 - 1.5 = 1.5 seconds. PRACTICE [>—2—~ 1. Use the graphs to answer the following questions ® Angle vs Time ® Position vs Time & ‘Angle (degrees) 1 2 3 1 2 Time (sec) Time (seo) a, What is the amplitude of each vibration? b. What is the period of each vibration?Name: Decibel Scale ean (i ‘The loudness of sound is Date: ‘measured in decibels (4B). Most sounds fall between zero and 100 on the decibel scale making it a very convenient scale to understand and use. Each increase of 20 decibels (dB) for a sound will be about twice as loud to your ears. U: 10-15 dB 65 dB 70 a6 90 dB iO URN ‘110 dB 20a) Cy aie) EXAMPLE [J ‘A quiet whisper 3 feet away (B00 ei Baekeroutid digs ila Rouse Ordinary conversation 3 feet away ‘A jackhammer cutting up the street 10 fe Wistehiing to headphones at maxiinuin volume Front row at a rock concert —_ The lehkeshible GF physieal Bali row iaiiesy ¢ the following table to help you answer the questions. away’ How many decibels would a sound have if its loudness was twice that of city traffic? Given Looking for ‘The decibel reading for a sound twice as loud as traffic. Relationship OO For every 20 dB increase, a sound is twice as loud. From the table, the loudness of city traffic is 70 dB. Solution City traffic = 70 dB Adding 20 dB doubles the loudness. 70 dB +20 dB = 90 dB 90 dB is twice as loud as city traffic, PRACTICE [>—2—~ 1, How many times louder than a jackhammer does the front row at a rock concert sound? 2. How many decibels would you hear in a room that sounds twice as loud as an average (35 dB) house? 3. You have your headphones turned all the way up. a. If you want them to sound half as loud, to what decibel level must the music be set? b, Ifyou want them to sound 1/4 as loud, to what decibel level must the music be set? 4, How many times louder than city traffie does the front row at a rock concert sound? 5. When you whisper, you produce a 10-dB sound, ‘a, When you speak quietly, your voice sounds twice as loud as a whisper. How many decibels is this? b. When you speak normally, your voice sounds 4 times as loud as a whisper. How many decibels is this? c. When you yell, your voice sounds 8 times as loud as a whisper. How many decibels is this?Name: The Law of Reflection 23.1 ight and the smooth surface of a mirror. However, you can apply this Jaw to other situations. It ean help you win a game of pool or pass a basketball to a friend on the court, In this skill sheet you will review the law of reflection and perform practice problems that utilize this law. Use a protractor to make your angles correct in your diagrams. The law of reflection states that when an object hits a surface, its angle of incidence will equal the angle of reflection, This is true when the Normal object is light and the surface is a flat, smooth mirror. When the object AngS0t, ve na and the surface are larger and lack smooth surfaces (like a basketball and a gym floor), the angles of incidence and reflection are nearly but not always exactly equal, The angles are close enough that understanding the law of reflection can help you improve your game Mirror EXAMPLE [J A light ray strikes a flat mirror with a 30-degree angle of incidence. Draw a ray diagram to show how the light ray interacts with the mirror, Label the normal line, the incident ray, and the reflected ray. Solution: Ray diagram normal line. PRACTICE [>—=— 1. When we talk about angles of incidence and reflection, we often talk about the normal. The normal to a surface is an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the surface. The normal line starts where the incident ray strikes the mirror. A normal line is drawn for you in the sample problem above. a, Draw diagram that shows a mirror with a normal line and a ray of light hitting the mirror at an angle of incidence of 60 degrees. b. Inthe diagram above, label the angle of reflection. How many degrees is this angle of reflection?Name: Date: [eal Ly Refraction 23,2 ‘When light rays cross from one material to another they bend. This bending is called refraction. Refraction is a useful phenomenon, All kinds of optics, from glasses to camera lenses to binoculars depend on refraction, READ (f& Ifyou are standing on the shore looking at a fish in a stream, the fish appears to be in a slightly different place than it really is. That’s because light rays that bounce off the fish are refracted at the boundary between water and air. If you are a hunter trying to spear this fish, you better know about this phenomenon or the fish will get away. Why do the light rays bend as they cross from water into air? A light ray bends because light travels at different speeds in different materials. In a vacuum, light travels at a speed of 3 x 10° m/sec. But when light travels through a material, itis absorbed and re-emitted by each atom or molecule it hits. This process of absorption and emission slows the light ray’s Fish a hefe but appear tobe Ria speed. We experience this slowdown as a bend in the light ray. The greater the difference in the light ray’s speed through two different materials, the greater the bend in the path of the ray. ‘The index of refraction (1) for a material is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the material. son « speedoof light in a vacuum Index of refraction = ed of light in a material The index of refraction for some common materials is given below: ‘Vacuum, Kee PRACTICE 1] >—2— 1, Could the index of refraction for a material ever be less than 1.0? Explain. 2. Explain why the index of refraction for air (a gas) is smaller than the index of refraction for a solid like glas: 3. Calculate the speed of light in water, glass, and diamond using the index of refraction and the speed o' in a vacuum (3 x 108 m/sec). 4, When a light ray moves from water into air, does it slow down or speed up? 5. When a light ray moves from water into glass, does it slow down or speed up?Name: Date: ‘4 Coulomb’s Law nee READ BB In this skill sheet, you will work with Coulomb’s law. There are many similarities and some differences between the equation of universal gravitation and the equation for Coulomb’s law. They ate both inverse square law relationships, and they both have similar arrangements of variables. When two charges g; and gy are separated by a distance r, there exists a force between them that is given by: Coulomb's law Constant: Charges (C) @xi0°N nic?) 4, ts 11> @FO rorce(s) A = K on B—r— V “dietance (rm) where F equals the force in newtons and K is a constant equal to 9 x 10° N-m*/C?. The units of q, and qz are the coulombs (C). Distance is given in meters. Here are some important points about the relationships of the variables in Coulomb’s law. + Force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges. Therefore, if the distance increases by a factor of 2, the force decreases by a factor of 4 + Force is proportional to the strength of each charge. + When the two charges have the same sign (positive or negative), the force between them is repulsive because like charges repel. + When the charges have opposite signs, the force between them is attractive because unlike charges attract, PRACTICE 4[>—2—~ 1. What happens to the force between two charges if the distance between them is tripled? 2. What happens to the force between two charges if the distance between them is quadrupled? 3. What happens to the force between two charges if the distance between them is cut in half? 4. What happens to the force between two charges if the magnitude of one charge is doubled? 5. What happens to the force between two charges is the magnitude of both charges is doubled? 6. What happens to the force between two charges if the magnitude of both charges is doubled and the between them is doubled? istance 7. What happens to the force between two charges if the magnitude of both charges is doubled and the distance between them is cut in half?PhyzGuide: FIELDS a side-by-side comparison of gravitation and electric fields ‘A field is a three-dimensional description of a certain region of space. A particular type of field provides a description of how that particular quantity varies throughout space. Fields do not consist of “field substance.” They are not anything “material.” They are means for describing a distortion in space. A field is a “tool” much like a vector is a tool. Force fields indicate how much force acts on any particle susceptible to that field. Since force is a vector quantity, a force as well as the quantity of force. |d must represent the direction of force GRAVITY ELECTRICITY electricforce gravitational fi electrified = SS I. FIELD AROUND A SPHERICAL MASS Gravitational force exists between any two objects with mass. If a small (test) mass m is placed in the vicinity of the large (field-creating) mass M, a gravitational force F will act on the test mass. If a test mass of 3m is placed in the same place, the gravitational force will be three times as great. The field concept allows a description of a point in space that specifies the quantity and direction of gravitational force per unit of mass, Gravity isalwaysan attractive force,s0 the direction ofthe eld Ts always toward the mass M, Quantitatively, to calculate the field strength g (the amount of force per mass: F/m), we use our understanding of universal gravitation. GMm =F. Ro. GM ao om R The field around a mass is proportional to the quantity of mass M and inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between the center Of mass of M and the point in space where the field is being measured, ‘The Book of Phyz © Dean Bale. Al rights reserved 1, FIELD AROUND A SPHERICAL CHARGE Electric force exists between any two objects with charge. Ifa small (test) charge q is placed in the vicinity of the large (field-creating) charge Q, an electric force F will act on the test charge, Ifa test charge of 3q is placed in the same place, the electric force will be three times as great. The field concept allows a description of a point in space that specifies the quantity and direct of electric force per unit of charge. ‘The direction ofan electric 4 OF Med is defined as the = rection a postive charge ‘would move inthat fed experiences force in the direction ofthe fieldinegative charges — Positive —_ {ike electrons) experience a force in we the opposite direction, 5 +4 1 Quantitatively, to calculate the field strength E (the amount of force per charge: F/g), we use our understanding of Coulomb's Law. koa E.R. bo E aaa Re ue ‘The field around a charge is proportional to the quantity of charge Q and inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between the center of charge of Q and the point in space where the field is being measured. 12n010 JbGRAVITY Il, A UNIFORM GRAVITATIONAL FIELD such as one near the surface of the earth If, instead of looking at a field-generating mass from a distance, we examine a small region of space in the vicinity of the mass, the field has a constant value (instead of having an inverse- square dependence). Again, a larger mass in this, field experiences a greater force, but the ratio of force per mass (ie. the field) is constant. ee OE ver | . 1} | To double the force acting on a given particle, ‘one would have to double the mass of the earth without increasing the volume of the earth. In other words, one would have to double the density of the earth, Doubling the density of the earth would thus double the strength of the gravitational field. es || EL mS Il yyy FIELD UNITS: Since the gravitational field is a description of gravitational force per unit of mass, the units are Units of force divided by units of mass. In the SI system, the unit of gravitational field strength is Nikg (newton per kilogram, which can be simplified to m/s?) Since the electric field is a description of electric force per unit of charge, the units are units of force divided by units of charge. In the SI system, the unit of electric field strength is NIC (newton per coulomb). ‘The Book of Phyz © Dean alt All ights reserved ELECTRICITY Il, A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD such as one between parallel plates If, instead of looking at a field-generating charge from a distance, we examine a small region of space in the vicinity of the charge, the field has a constant value (instead of having an inverse- square dependence). Again, a larger charge in this field experiences a greater force, but the ratio of force per charge (i.e. the field) is constant. To double the force acting on a given particle, one would have to double the charge on the plates without increasing the area of the plates. In other words, one would have to double the charge density of the plates. Doubling the charge density of the plates would thus double the strength of the electric field. "COOKIE SHEET" CALCULATIONS... The electtic field between two charged plates is “TED maa | Dy nll [ESR Dut lle where k is the electrostatic force constant 9 x 10° N-m/C2, Q is the charge on the surface on one plate (the positive one), and A is the surface area of one of the plates. NOTICE that the field strength has no dependence on the distance from either plate: it's uniform between the plates! nono dboName: Date: [eal Y EE] Calculating Electric Fields and Forces READ (fg Electtic field strength can be described in two ways. Sometimes scientists describe electri field strength in newtons per coulomb of charge (N/C). However, in many situations the unit volts per meter (V/m) is used. The thwo units are equivalent. Later, you will be given an opportunity to figure out why this is true, ‘The force on a charge in an electric field is equal to the charge in coulombs multiplied by the electric field strength. This equation is written as: Electric force in newtons (F) = charge in coulombs (q) x electric field strength (E) or gE EXAMPLES [J Example 1: The electric field strength 0.0040. C? a region is 2,200 N/C. What is the force on an object with a charge of Solution: F=qE F = (0.0040 C)(2,200 NIC) = 8.8 newtons Example 2: If an object with a charge of 0.080 C experiences an electric force of 7.0 N, what is the electric field strength? Sol aoa 7 BNC PRACTICE [>—2—~ 1, What is the force of an electric field of strength 4.0 N/C on a charge of 0.5 C? 2. Anelectric field has a strength of 2.0 N/C. What force does it exert on a charge of 0.004 C? 3. Acharge of 0.01 C is ina 120 N/C electric field. What is the force on the charge? 4, fan object with a charge of 0.08 C experiences an electric force of 5.0 N, what is the electtic field strength? 5. An object with a charge of 4.0 x 10°? C experiences a force of 20 x 10° N when placed in a certain point in an electtic field. What is the electric field strength at that point in N/C? 6. Accharge of 0.2 C experiences an electric force of 5 N. What he strength of the electric field in NIC? 7. Challenge! Given that | joule = I newton x 1 meter and 1 volt= 1 joule per coulomb, show that the units newtons/coulomb and volts/meter are equivalent.PhyzGuide: Grauit Basics ‘Anyone who has ever seen lightning knows that electricity can be extremely powerful and dangerous. ‘And yet we use electricity to power our lights and appliances. How? So far we've leamed about charge, the force between charged objects, the fields created by charged objects, and the electric potentials associated with charged objects. Pretty esoteric material (if you find yourself at a party where people are chatting about this kind of stuff, RUN AWAY—you must be at a convention of PhyzGecks), We may understand Coulomb's law, B=F works? The answer lies in the electric circuit ‘THE PLAYERS A simple electric circuit involves two main components: a source of electric potential and an energy-consuming device. For our discussion of a simple Circuit, we will consider a battery for our source of electric potential and a light bulb for our energy-consuming device (a resistor). ‘The “life-blood” of an electric circuit is free-moving electric charge. This is not component or something that has to be added to a battery or lightbulb—it already exists throughout the circuit, Electric circuits are constructed of metal—usually copper. The chemical bonds that hold copper atoms (or those of other metals) together do not involve all the electrons in the atoms; the “leftover electrons” are needed in the metal to keep it electrically neutral, but are free to go anywhere in the metal: they are free electrons. THE ‘The goal is to make the bulb light up, ‘The bulb will emit light only if the filament gets very hot. One way to make the filament hot is to force electrons through it (the electrons jostle the atoms in the filament, jostled atoms jiggle more, jiggling atoms are “hot” atoms). ‘A chemical reaction inside the battery results in one terminal of the battery becoming negatively charged and the other positively charged. This creates a weak electri field between the terminals. Electrons are repelled by the negative terminal and attracted to the positive terminal. Electrons sitting on the negative terminal are like apples hanging from a tree. Apples have potential energy associated with the gravitational force that attracts them to the ground. Electrons have potential energy associated with the electric force that attracts them to the positive terminal. The amount of potential energy each coulomb of charge has (the electric potential) depends on the chemical reaction occurring in the battery. We say that this chemical reaction “creates a potential difference across the terminals.” We rate batteries by the potential differences they can sustain—for example, there is a 1.5V potential difference between the terminals of zine/carbon and alkaline batteries, Potential difference or electric potential (energy per charge) is commonly known as voltage. Voltage is what drives the electrons fiom the negative to the positive terminal, But electrons will flow only if'a conducting path, such as copper wire, connects the terminals. The wire concenttates the electric field between the terminals, and electrons in the wire flow readily. But don’t forget the bulb! Now that we have a way of getting electrons to move, we can force them through the filament as part of their journey to the positive terminal. The potential energy they must lose on this journey is converted by the bulb into heat and light, as described above (way above, at the beginning of this section). ‘The Book of Phyz.© Dean Baird llrightsreserved vq and V=Ea, but what do these things have to do with how a toaster {nthe thin fiament, electrons pile up and give up energy dbPhyzGuide: The Slider Circuit Understanding electric circuits is critical for anyone hoping for full participation in our increasingly technological society (as well as anyone hoping to pass the next physics test), But all this talk of voltage, resistance, current, and the transformation of potential energy in a circuit is enough to short circuit a person’s medulla oblongata! One way to better comprehend a seemingly nebulous concept is through the use of an analogy, Analogies are helpful to the extent that they help us understand a process, but we must, always keep in mind that no analogy is perfect and some important details of a process are often lost or misrepresented in an analogy. With that in mind, let’s consider the slide analogy for electric circuits; ‘we'll present the slide and the circuit side-by-side for comparison, Overview Riders raise themselves to a specific height by climbing the ladder—each rider gains gravitational potential energy. Gravitational force pulls each rider down the slide, where they lose their energy (the gravitational potential energy of each rider is converted to heat— the slide heats up, as do the riders’ buns). Finally, the riders reach the bottom of the slide—the end of their journey. The Ladder: Source of Height Riders won't slide if both ends of the slider are at the same elevation; they'll slide from one point to another only if there isa difference between the elevation of those two points. Greater elevation difference results in greater rate of slide. Rate of rider flow has no other name, Hey, this is only an analogy—what do you want? LOW ELEVATION HIGHER ELEVATION x ‘The Book of Phyz © Dean Baird. Al ights reserved Overview Electrons are raised to a specific electric potential through a chemical reaction in the battery —each electron gains electric potential energy. Electric force pushes each electron through the wire and filament of the bulb, where they lose their energy (the electric potential energy of each electron is converted to heat and light). Finally, the electrons reach the positive terminal—the end of their journey, The Battery: Source of Voltage Electrons won't flow if both terminals of the battery have the same potential; they'll flow from one point to another only if there is a potential difference (voltage) between those two points. Higher voltage results in a greater rate of electron flow. Rate of charge flow is called “current” or “amperage,” and can be measured by an ammeter. LOW VOLTAGE HIGHER VOLTAGE aiisio4 JOje: Run Length If the slide were not part of the slider and riders ‘went straight from the top of the ladder to the ground, we would have a “short ride.” Riders ‘would suffer physical damage and would soon stop using the defective slide. - INITIALLY th iors fallatahigh rate LaTER all ofthe riders have traversed ‘the slide” GAME OVER. The slide provides “gravitational resistance” that prevents such a stampede of riders and instead allows a steady stream of riders on the slide. The longer the slide is (greater resistance), the slower the riders will slide, resulting in a low rate of flow. A shorter slide (small resistance) results in a faster ride and a high flow rate, 2persee ken SMALL RUN LENGTH results {aster de higher flow rate I<— R GGREAT RUN LENGTH results fn flower ride—lowerflow rate Slippery-Sam’s Ratio Rule The relation between rider flow, height and length is called Sam’s Ratio Rule and is just a summary of ‘what we've leamed so far. Rider flow is directly proportional to the elevation of the slide (greater drop = faster fall) and inversely proportional to the run length of the slide (longer slide = slower tide). Simply put: Rider flow = Elevation/Run Length or Rider flow = Slope of the slide. Betty’s Bun-Burning Principle Each rider loses most of his/her gravitational potential energy as he/she slips down the slide, The rate at which the slide is given energy (which is turned into heat) is the “bun-warming” power associated with the slide. Greater power results in ‘warmer buns. Power is directly proportional to how much energy is given by each rider (elevation factor) and how fast the riders are flowing (rider flow). In words: Power = rider flow x the elevation. ‘The Book of Phyz.© Dean Baird. Al ights reserved The Bulb: Resistance If the bulb were not part of the circuit and electrons could go straight from the negative terminal to the positive one, we would have a “short circuit.” The chemical reaction in the battery would run its course very quickly and we'd be left with a dead battery: is 7 Tiny the aruseter readshigh current ‘The bulb provides electrical resistance that prevents such a stampede of electrons and instead allows a steady stream of electrons through the circuit. The greater the resistance of the bulb is, the greater difficulty electrons have traveling through it, resulting in low current. Smaller resistance results in higher current, HIGH RESISTANCE results in tow curRent Ohm’s Law The relation between current, voltage, and resistance in a circuit is called Ohm’s law. Ohm's law is just a summary of what we've learned so far. Current is directly proportional to the voltage provided by the battery (bigger voltage = more current) and inversely proportional to the resistance of the resistor (bigger resistance = less current). In symbols: 1 = VIR. LOW RESISTANCE results HIGH CURRENT Joule’s Law Each electron loses most of its electric pote energy as it passes through the filament of the bulb. The rate at which the filament is given energy (which is converted to heat and light) is the power associated with the circuit. Greater power results in brighter light. Power is directly proportional to how much energy is given by each unit of charge (ie. potential) and how fast the charge is flowing (current). In symbols: P Vv. anes JbName: Date: eA Uy Ohm's Law EE READE A German physicist, Georg 8. Ohm, developed this mathematical relationship, which is present in most circuits, This relationship is known as Ohm's law. This relationship states that ifthe voltage (energy) ina circuit increases, so does the current (flow of charges). If the resistance increases, the current flow decreases. Current (amps) = Voltage (volts) Resistance (ohms, ) To work through this skill sheet, you will need the symbols used to depict circuits in ys —we | diagrams. The symbols that are most commonly used for circuit diagrams are Wie provided to the right. Fe my OL Ifa circuit contains more than one battery, the total voltage is the sum of the Hh eT individual voltages. A circuit containing two 6 V batteries has a total voltage of 12 V. oe [Note: The batteries must be connected positive to negative for the voltages to add.] @ > Sue i EXAMPLE [J > { Ifa toaster produces 12 ohms of resistance in a 120-volt circuit, what is the amount of Switch current in the circuit? Given Solution The resistance (R) is 12 ohms. , resistan 1% = 120v0lt8 © 19 amps The voltage (V) is 120 volts. R- 12ohms Looking for 7 ca eo Pere Oya e current in the toaster circuit is 10 amps. Relationships r=2 R e Ifa problem asks you to calculate the voltage or resistance, you must rearrange the equation J=V/R to solve for or R. All three forms of the equation are listed below. rk VER R=— R Z PRACTICE [p>—2—~ In this section, you will find some problems based on diagrams and others without diagrams, In all cases, show your work. 1, How much current is in a circuit that includes a 9-volt battery and a bulb with a resistance of 3 ohms? 2. How much current is in a circuit that includes a 9-volt battery and a bulb with a resistance of 12 ohms? 3. A circuit contains a 1.5 volt battery and a bulb with a resistance of 3 ohms. Calculate the current.Name: Date: - - “f ; von Uy Series Circuits 14.4 READ (fd Ina series circuit, current follows only one path from the positive end of the battery toward the negative end. The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. The amount of energy used by a series circuit must equal the energy supplied by the battery. In this way, electrical circuits follow the law of conservation of energy. Understanding these facts will help you solve problems that deal with series circuits, To answer the questions in the practice section, you will have to use Ohm's law. Remember that Current (amps) = Voltage (volts) _ Resistance (ohms) Some questions ask you to calculate a voltage drop. We often say that each resistor (or light bulb) creates a separate voltage drop. As current flows along a series circuit, each resistor uses up some energy. As a result, the voltage gets lower after each resistor. If you know the current in the circuit and the resistance of a particular resistor, you can calculate the voltage drop using Ohm’s law. Voltage drop across resistor (volts) = Current through resistor (amps) x Resistance of one resistor (ohms) PRACTICE [>—2—~ 1. Use the series circuit pictured to the right to answer questions (a)-(e). 10 10 a, Whatis the total voltage across the bulbs? @ b. What isthe total resistance of the circuit? c. What is the current in the circuit? 6V +L 4. What is the voltage drop across each light bulb? (Remember that voltage drop is calculated by multiplying current in the cireuit by the resistance of a particular resistor: V= IR.) e. Draw the path of the current on the diagram. 2. Use the series circuit pictured to the right to answer questions (a)-(e). 12 12 192 a, What is the total voltage across the bulbs? b. What is the total resistance of the circuit? c. What is the current in the circuit? 4, What is the voltage drop across each light bulb? e. Draw the path of the current on the diagram. 3. What happens to the current in a series circuit as more light bulbs are added? Why? 4. What happens to the brightness of each bulb in a series circuit as additional bulbs are added? Why?Name: Date: lial iy Parallel Circuits eH READ ee] A parallel circuit has at least one point where the circuit divides, creating more than one path for curren path is called a branch, The current through a branch is called branch current, If current flows into a branch in a circuit, the same amount of current must flow out again, This rule is known as Kirehoff’s current law. Because each branch in a parallel circuit has its own path to the battery, the voltage across each branch is equal to the battery's voltage. If you know the resistance and voltage of a branch you can calculate the current with Ohm's Law (I=V/R). PRACTICE 4[.}>—2—~ 1. Use the parallel circuit pictured right to answer questions (a) - (@) a. Whats the voltage across each bulb? 1av4 1 S)2 Q S) 22 b. What isthe current in each branch? c, What is the total current provided by the battery? d. Use the total current and the total voltage to calculate the total resistance of the circuit. 2. Use the parallel circuit pictured right to answer questions (a) - (4). a. What is the voltage across each bulb? 12v+ 32 8) 32 b. What is the current in each branch? c. What is the total current provided by the battery? . Use the total current and the total voltage to calculate the total resistance of the circuit, 3. Use the parallel circuit pictured right to answer questions (a) - (d). a, What is the voltage across each resistor? 12V+ —— (S)2 Q 8) 30 b. What is the current in each branch? c, What is the total current provided by the batteries? d. Use the total current and the total voltage to calculate the total resistance of the cireuit. 4, Use the parallel circuit pictured right to answer questions (a) - (c). ‘ 9+ a. What is the voltage across each resistor? —— 2a 32 19 b. What is the current in each branch? c. What is the total current provided by the battery?Page 2 of 2 [EA READ @ " In part (d) of problems 1, 2, and 3, you calculated the total resistance of each circuit. This required you to first find the current in each branch. Then you found the total current and used Ohm’s law to calculate the total resistance. Another way to find the total resistance of two parallel resistors is to use the formula shown below. Let, Cuma Lt RRR, ME Bem ey Rx Ry EXAMPLE [J Calculate the total resistance of a circuit containing two 6 ohm resistors. Given - Solution - ‘The circuit contains two 6 Q resistors in parallel. | R 62x62 ‘Looking for 2 O1Gr6 a The total resistance of the cire Ryu = 3:2 Relationships ‘The total resistance is 3 ohms. | Rica = Rix Ba | R, +R, PRACTICE 2) >—2—~ 1, Calculate the total resistance of a circuit containing each of the following combinations of resistors, a, Two 8 Q resistors in parallel b, Two 12 Q resistors in parallel c. A4 Qresistor and an 8 Q resistor in parallel d. A 12 Qresistor and a 3 Q resistor in parallel 2. To find the total resistance of three resistors A, B, and C in parallel, first use the formula to find the total of resistors A and B, Then use the formula again to combine resistor C with the total of A and B. Use this ‘method fo find the total resistance of a circuit containing each of the following combinations of resistors a, Three 8.0 resistors in parallel b. Two 6 Qresistors and a 2.0 resistor in parallel e. A1Q,a2Q, anda 3 Q resistor in parallelName: Date: Electrical Power ey How do you calculate electrical power? In this skill sheet you will review the relationship between electrical power and Ohm’s law. As you work through the problems, you will practice caleulating the power used by common appliances in your home, During everyday life we hear the word watt mentioned in reference to things like light bulbs and electric bills. ‘The watt is the unit that describes the rate at which energy is used by an electrical device, Energy is never created or destroyed, so “used” means it is converted from electrical energy into another form such as light or heat. And since energy is measured in joules, power is measured in joules per second. One joule per second is equal to one watt iance or other electrical component by multiplying the We can calculate the amount of electrical power by an apy voltage by the current, Current x Voltage = Power, or P = IV A kilowatt (kWh) is 1,000 watts or 1,000 joules of energy per second. On an electric bill you may have noticed the term kilowatt-hour. A kilowatt-hour means that one kilowatt of power has been used for one hour. To determine the kilowatt-hours of electricity used, multiply the number of kilowatts by the time in hours. examece [J You use a 1500 watt hair heater for 3 hours. How many kilowatt-hours of electricity did you use? Given ~ Solution i ‘The power of the heater is 1500 watts. 1 ‘The heater was used for 3 hours. | 1500 watts x EOWA 1 5 kitowatts > cee 1000 watts Looking for |_The number of kilowatt-hours. 1.5 kilowatts x 3 hours = 4,5 kilowatt-hours Relationships You used 4.5 kilowatt-hours of electricity. kilowatt-hours = kilowatts x hours PRACTICE [>—2— 1. Your oven has a power rating of 5000 watts. a, How many kilowatts is this? b, If the oven is used for 2 hours to bake cookies, how many kilowatt-hours (kWh) are used? c. If your town charges $0.15/kWh, what is the cost to use the oven to bake the cookies? 2. You use a 1200-watt hair dryer for 10 minutes each day, a, How many minutes do you use the hair dryer in a month? (Assume there are 30 days in the month.) b. How many hours do you use the hair dryer in a month? What is the power of the hair dryer in kilowatts? d. How many kilowatt-hours of electricity does the hair dryer use in a month? fe. Ifyour town charges $0.15/kWh, what is the cost to use the hair dryer for a month?Example Problem _-7 °<* Golfo ogi Series-Parallel Circuit In Figur€ 23-14%. 30.0.0 fessor is connected in parallel with a 20,0-6 résiator:-Thé parallel connection is placed in series with an 8.0-0 resistor, and the entire circuit is placed across a 60.0-V differ- ence of potential, a. What is the equivalent resistance (R,3) of the parallel portion of the circuit? b. What is the equivalent resistance of the entire circuit? ¢. What is the current in the entire circuit? d. What is the voltage drop across the 8.0-1. resistor? e, What is the voltage drop across the parallel portion of the circuit? f. What is the current in each line of the parallel portion of the circuit? Given: See Figure 23-14. Unknowns: Rs, Ry 1, Vir Vpr lay Is Basic equations: V= IR. RE RR + UR = VR) + Re + Solution: a. Ry and Ry are connected in parallel. Their equivalent resistance Peedep dy a a a ls Ros Ra RR 30.00 20.02 60.00 Raa = 1200 b. The circuit is equivalent to a series circuit with an 8.0-0 resistor ‘and a 12.0-0. resistor in series, Figure 23-13. R= Ri + Rs = 8.00 + 1200 = 20.00 ¢. The current in the circuit is Vv _ 60.0 “Ro 3000 d. The Voltage drop actoss the 8.0-0 resistor is, Vi = Ry =, 8.00 AN8.0 2) = 24 V. ., The parallel branch (R, and Rs) behaves as a 12.0-0 resistor, Wwith the sum of the currents through Rp and Ry flowing through it, Therefore, the voltage drop across itis | Vp = TRa3 = (3.00 AY12.0.2) = 36.0 V. f. The 36.0-V drop across the parallel portion of the circuit is the same acrOss all parts of the parallel circuit, Therefore, the cur, 3.00 A. ‘rent through the 30.0-0 resistor is éwv v._ 36.0 ipa X= 362¥ 20 ' R, 3000 The current through the 20.0-2 resistor is v _ 36.0 =e Fee HOA The current through the parallel part of the circuit is 1.20 A + 1.80 A, oF 3.00 A. This value agrees with the value for the current calculated in Part c. ECONOMICS CONNECTION Thomas Edison did not invent the light bulb, but he did develop the first bulb that could be used in homes, and even more impor- tant, a commercially viable disti- bution system for electricity. Edi- son started with the basic assumption that each customer should be able to turn on and off his own light bubs without af- fecting the other bulbs con- nected in the circuit. This meant that bulbs must be connected in parallel. Since only part of the ircuit current flowed through teach bulb, Edison had to design @ high-resistance filament that Fequired only a smal! current for 2 large heating effect. His assis- tants tried over 1600 materials including paper, cloth, thread, {ishlin, fiber, celluloid, Boxwood, ‘coconut shells, spruce, hickory, hay, maple shavings, rosewood, punk, cork, fax, bamboo, and the hair out of a redheaded ‘Scotsman’s beard before he de- voloped @ high vacuum-sealed bulb withsa carbonized cotton L 23.2. Applications of Circuits 485PhyzGuide: Producing EM Waves ‘An electromagnetic (EM) wave consists of an oscillating electric field accompanied by an oscillating magnetic field. The fields oscillate at right angles to each other. So how in the heck do you “build” one? Sounds like you’ ve got to shake a charged pith ball up and down while rattling a magnet side to side! As it turns out, it's not that complicated to make an EM wave; understanding EM wave production is, however, a a\ 7 bit taxing on one’s mental faculties. So hang on tight! K YY magnetism: e a magnetic field is 1. A changing electric field induces a magnetic field perpendicular to the electric Induced around the wire field. (A moving charge sets up a magnetic field—recall this is the principle upon as electric charges move which motors are based.) throught 2.A changing magnetic field induces an electric field perpendicular to the magnetic field. (Charged particles can be made to move through a wire by exposing them fo.a “changing” magnetic field—in a generator the field of the permanent magnet is constant, but the wire’s motion relative to the field changes.) So consider an electron in simple harmonic motion. As it moves, its electric field moves, and it sets up a magnetic field tangentially perpendicular to the motion of the motion of the charge. (What did he say?) Since the magnetic field was zero before the electron moved and now has a particular strength, it qualifies as a changing magnetic field, Remember what changing ‘magnetic fields do (check principle #2 above)? That's right—induce an electric field i moves through the perpendicular to the magnetic field ae an electric fil is inducedin the wire asit Surely you can see what this leads to— electromagnetic proliferation! Changing electric fields induce changing magnetic fields, which induce changing electric fields, a which induce changing magnede fields (and they told two fiends, and tiey tld two oO» friends, and so on, and so on). GOLDIE-LOCKS AND THE SPEED OF LIGHT Gre tintquesions iow pid hts eectommanate potfeation?” How long after tm let Tel hunger does a moguete feld some ito being? Ts instantareous, _] or is there some “lag time?” In other words, how fast are these electromagnetic waves? 7 James Clerk Maxwell, a nineteenth-century Scottish mathematical genius, pondered this problem, His calculations showed that ifthe alternate fields were produced 100 slovly, the energy of the fields would die out. Unfortunately, there was no Tisspeed mechanism like “friction,” or “air resistance” to explain the dissipation of electromagnetic energy. Maxwell’s calculations also showed that if the fields induced teach other too quickly, the energy associated with the fields would increase, again d ‘ith no explanation, In either case, conservation of energy was violated. So Maxwell calculated the speed at which EM waves could propagate so that energy was E conserved (no loss/no gain). The result was Vy = 3.0 x 10" mvs ( = 186,000 mi 700,000,000 mph). “Aye,” said Maxwell, “ahnnit makes goode since!” The speed of light had been measured prior to Maxwell's calculation. It was knowa to be about "This speed Viyouer = 3.0 10° mvs, "OOT-RRREE-JUS!" he must have thought upon discovering oe that light behaved as an electromagnetic wave, "Am T awesome, oottt whot?” NEWTON: MECHANICS::MAX WELL: ELECTROMAGNETISM “This speed Is Juste ‘The Book of Phyz.© Dean Bard lights reserved rans dbTHE MANY FLAVORS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ‘The Electromagnetic Spectrum POWER RADIO INFRARED OPTICAL ULTRAVIOLET X-RAYS GAMMA FREQUENCIES WAVES RADIATION SPECTRUM ~—_—RADIATION RAYS High energy SGoHeUS SoH Eur. Encompassa Used for wireless Includesallvisible Has photochemical, radlationwith Higher energy operproducedby gen- broad range of remote controls lightand waves photoelectric, high photons of very eratorsand vansmitted communication InTVsVCR's.ete. that canbe caught fluorescenteffectspenetvating high penetrating through powerlines wavelengths ‘on photographic power power Bot ¢ Fee i¢ 5 Long waves, AM waves, and short waves are reflected by the earth’s ionosphere, FM and ‘TV waves are shorter in wavelength, and penetrate the ionosphere. ‘The ionosphere becomes more highly reflective when sunlight is not Fortunately, most UV light from the sun is absorbed in the earth's ozone layer. Some people, however, insist on exposing them- selves to these : . as potentially deadly Soonm esonm coon Hednm SO0nm- 40mm “Oonm- eon PAYS Man attempt hitting it. Therefore, AM Yeenm éonm —GO0rm S6Onm SoOnm 4onm to contract skin signals can bounce many cancer. Another times over great distances, ‘The human eye is most sensitive problem we face is Ifall AM stations maintained to yellow-green light, This is the depletion of the ozone normal power, nighttime recep because although the sun is a layer. As IT goes, sun tion would be a mishmash of source of many EM wavelengths, worshippers will rejoice as signals from the dark half of the the dominant wavelength emitted they are able to get that earth. Therefore, the FCC requires by the sun is 555 nm and through deep, dark, deadly tan in most AM stations to reduce power the course of evolution, our eyes matter of minutes, or go off the air at sunset. developed sensitivity to the most maybe seconds! We'll all prevalent wavelength we were of skin cancer, exposed tol but a least we'll look good! x ‘Asan EM wave propagates (tothe right), the electric field oscillates up and down while the magnetic wave oscillates from side to side, ‘The Book of Phyz © Dean air Al ights reserved 7ari06 dboName: Date: The Electromagnetic Spectrum rie ReaD [ia Radio waves, microwaves, visible light, and x-rays are familiar kinds of electromagnetic waves. All of these waves have characteristic wavelengths and frequencies. Wavelength is measured in meters. It describes the length of one complete oscillation. Frequency describes the number of complete oscillations per second. It is measured in hertz, which is another way of saying “cycles per second.” The higher the wave's frequency, the more energy it carries. The Electromagnetic Spectrum Radio and Microwaves Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X rays. Gamma ielevson io toh ig ms Oj Vy f AN ‘Radar ‘Cooking. Hoat Medicine ‘Medicine. Fade cogtanon SP Indisty —Roeoereh yh ea mee Rey ce, Lowenergy High energy ‘Low frequency High frequency Weng Wavetength ‘ ‘Short wavelength, Frequency, wavelength, and speed Ina vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed: 3,0 x 108 m/sec. This quantity is often called “the speed of light” but it really refers to the speed of all electromagnetic waves, not just visible light. It is such an important quantity in physics that it has its own symbol, ¢. ‘The speed of light is related to frequency fand wavelength 2 | THE SPEED OF LIGHT by the formula to the right. (relationship between |) frequency and wavelength) Gr Wavelength (a ‘The different colors of light d Speed of lig —+e = f), that we see correspond to 4 (x 10% misec) C= different frequencies. The i ! peavene) (HS) frequency of red light is lower than the frequency of blue light. Because the speed of both kinds of light is the same, a lower frequency wave has a longer wavelength. A higher frequency wave has a shorter wavelength. Therefore, red light’s wavelength is longer than blue lights. ¢ f When we know the frequency of light, the wavelength is given by:2. = ‘When we know the wavelength of light, the frequency is given by: