Case Studies:

I. Reducing Pollution on the Black Sea Coast

By Natalia Kurakina and Anastasia Minina, Department of Information Systems, St. Petersburg
Electrotechnical University

Highlights

o Researchers use GIS to monitor and estimate water quality and pollutant concentration.

o GIS streamlines analysis and planning for an improved sea environment.

o ArcGIS helps decision makers resolve the

pollution problem in the Black Sea.

Marine pollution has been a concern for a long

time, but during the last decade, the issue has
become more pressing as human influences have
exacerbated the problem and vast ecosystems
have been affected. It is no longer a local or
regional matter; it is a major international problem
that must be addressed with a systematic
approach. Map of the Black and Azov seas, which is
structured as separate layers: cities, rivers,
seas, forests, roads, borders, railways, etc.
A Vast Ecosystem in Danger

Seas inside and surrounding Russia have intensive anthropogenic loading, both in water bodies and as a
result of industrial activities near catchment basins. The main sources of pollution are river drainage,
sewage, and water transportation.

Pollution in the Black Sea is particularly worrisome, especially as Russia prepares to hold the 2014
Winter Olympics in Sochi. There are dire ecological consequences to deal with because of chemical,
physical, and biological pollution; the change of the hydrological balance of the Black and the Azov seas;
and man-made stressors on the seas.

The Black Sea's deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the
atmosphere. These hydrochemical characteristics, along with the Black Sea reservoir's climatic features
and social/economic impacts of its use, influence the character of shelf vegetation, its vertical and
horizontal distribution, and specific structure. Policy makers within the Russian Federation need accurate,
up-to-date spatial data to be able to make informed decisions about water resource management.

There are many factors that influence the ecology of water bodies, and GIS makes analysis and planning
for an improved sea environment easier with its visualization capabilities. Analysts at St. Petersburg
Electrotechnical University are using ArcGIS software for data management, to create thematic maps,

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and to support stakeholders in decision making as they administer marine policies. They have developed
a system for monitoring and estimating water quality that facilitates managing large amounts of data for
mapping and analysis. This helps organizations set pollution standards and conduct appropriate wildlife
management.

Developing the System

The process for creating the system to estimate water conditions uses ArcInfo software. The GIS contains
the following:

o Basemap, which includes cities, rivers, seas, forests, roads, borders, and railways
o Geodatabase of the ecological situation, including observation posts on the Black Sea, a table of
pollutant concentrations, and a table of
maximum permissible concentrations of
pollutants

To estimate water quality, analysts compare data

from observation posts with a control and calculate
water characteristics using specific criteria. They
can process large amounts of data to estimate
when a specific observation post will exceed the
maximum permissible concentrations of a pollutant.
The analysts use this process to determine the Designated observation sites along the Black
changes in substance concentrations in the coastal Sea with tables for substance concentrations
area of the Black Sea. Values of a maximum and for maximum permissible concentrations
of pollutants.
concentration level are used as a measure of a
water body's impurity.

Team members charted over time the changes of substance concentration, which they used to determine
when an observation site would exceed the maximum permissible value of substance concentration. The
interpolated values of pollution concentration at points where values were unknown was determined using
ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst.

Monitoring the Black Sea's Water Resources

The researchers discovered rather high concentrations of pollutants along the coasts of Sochi, Hosta,
Adler, and Gelengic. Over time, the level of pollutants, such as hydrocarbons, stabilized and didn't exceed
0.03 mg/l in the ports of Anapa, Novorossisk, and Gelengic. The maximum concentration values in these
three ports were lower than in 2000; in the port of Tuapse, they were two times higher; and in the port of
Sochi, they were approximately the same value. All the average and maximum concentration surface-
active material in the coastal zone from Anapa to Sochi for the last five years did not exceed the limit of
25 mkg/l.

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GIS implementations are helping decision makers
in the Russian Federation who are working to
resolve the pollution problem in the Black Sea.
Values of pollutant concentrations have been
substantially lowered, and there is optimism that
pollution will not be an issue during the 2014 Winter
Olympics.

More Information

For more information, contact Natalia Kurakina (e- The change of NO2 concentration in Sochi
mail: [email protected]) or Anastasia Minina (e- over time.
mail: [email protected]).

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 II. Impact of Climate Changes on Gray Whale Feeding Grounds Tracked with GIS
By Maggie Jones, Esri Conservation Writer
The mammoth, 40-ton gray whale is nourished by microscopic phytoplankton, plants that contain
chlorophyll and depend on nutrients in the ocean to survive.
Phytoplankton are a link in a remarkable food chain; they serve
as the primary food for shrimp and other crustaceans, which are
the life source of gigantic gray whales. Researchers at Coastal
Ecosystems Research Foundation (CERF), a Canadian nonprofit
organization, have attempted to link the concentration of
chlorophyll a, the blue-green pigment in phytoplankton, to gray
whale distribution in order to better understand the relationship
between whales and their feeding grounds. They are tracking the
concentration of chlorophyll a in the ocean using geographic
information system (GIS) technology, a process that could be
crucial in sustaining the gray whale herds that populate the
Pacific Ocean.
Spring Journey North
Every spring, gray whales make the long journey up the Pacific
Migrating Gray whales stop to
coastline from Baja California to feast on the swarming mysid feed in areas rich with
shrimp found among kelp beds along the rocky coast of British chlorophyll fed shrimp (coded
with a 2). Researchers in area
Columbia, Canada. Many gray whales go further north into the R analyzed relationships of
Bering and Chukchi seas, feeding on benthic macrofauna. As water temperatures, base food
early as the 1980s, the whales began looking for alternative chain elements, and whale
behavior patterns.
feeding grounds, and the question arises whether this is the
result of insufficient nourishment.
Michelle Kinzel, a CERF researcher, and Roberto Venegas, a research scientist with the College of
Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences (COAS) at Oregon State University, suspect that global climate
changes are altering food webs and impacting all types of species within a coastal ecosystem. Kinzel and
Venegas used GIS to track the distribution of gray and humpback whales, as well as the availability of
food in their feeding grounds, to see if climate change affects whale distribution and behavior.
CERF has collected data on the number and distribution of gray whales visiting the summer feeding
grounds since 1996 by means of sight and satellites. Whales can be tracked by visually identifying
markings distinct to individual whales. This descriptive information can be put into GIS, to generate maps,
which depict the factors that influence a specific whale's choice of feeding grounds and show changes in
those factors over time.

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Satellite Imagery Used
CERF used imagery obtained using a Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS) instrument
aboard a satellite to study the relationship between whale distribution and concentrations of chlorophyll a.
Color in the world's oceans is in the visible light range and varies depending on the amount of chlorophyll
and other plant pigments in the water; the intensity of green color in the ocean is a direct measurement of
the amount of phytoplankton. Quantification of variations in chlorophyll a levels was derived from the
SeaWiFS data taken from various sampling stations off the coast at sites selected using GIS analysis.
To determine where whales were congregating, researchers observed individual whales and referred to
their residency patterns, recorded with GPS and processed with GIS. (Residency patterns are determined
by geographic locations, numbers of whales returning to an area, and the number of days they feed
there.) Researchers found that whales exhibit site fidelity, meaning they often return to the same feeding
grounds year after year. This discovery enabled the team to apply control variables to the study of feeding
patterns. Researchers used Esri's ArcView software to visualize this data, better understand its
geographic context, discover relationships, and identify patterns
in whale activity.
Using Animal Movement (an ArcView Spatial Analyst extension),
they analyzed habitat usage in terms of site fidelity to try and
discover why the whales were seeking new feeding grounds. The
researchers hypothesize that fluctuations in sea temperature
affect the base food chain element chlorophyll, impacting shrimp
density and, therefore, the change in whale food supplies from
year to year.
Whales Expand Their Ranges
By determining the range that whales traveled, the team
quantified core areas (areas where whales spend 50 percent of
their time) and home ranges (areas where whales spend Red stars indicate buoys that
95 percent of their time). Data gathered from 1995 to 2001 was collect chlorophyll data
information near a whale
delineated using GIS technology, and maps were studied to
feeding ground. Yellow circles
analyze trends and correlations between whale home ranges and symbolize whale sightings.
residency patterns relative to anomalies or fluctuations in
chlorophyll concentrations. Kinzel and her team found that the
size of gray whale home ranges expanded in 1998 and 1999 compared to 1996 and 1997.
The tracked whales expanded their home ranges because they stayed in their typical feeding grounds for
shorter periods, then dispersed to find new feeding areas. The years the whales expanded their ranges
corresponded with the years of the El Niño and La Niña climate changes. In particular, home ranges were

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largest during La Niña years. Major shifts in oceanographic processes are caused by the El Niño
phenomenon, a warming of the ocean's surface when currents of nutrient-poor tropical water replace the
cold, nutrient-rich surface water that supports great populations of fish and nourishment. La Niña cools
the surface of the water, also disrupting marine habitats. Kinzel and Venegas hypothesized that whale
residency and site fidelity correlate to the availability and
suitability of food.
The climate change seemed to have caused a shift in the primary
food dominating shallow water communities, from several species
of swarming mysid shrimp (the gray whales' main nourishment
source) during non-El Niño years to schooling anchovy fish (the
humpback whales' food) common in the warmer currents of El
Niño events. That shift could be a driving factor in the whales' The whale tail fluke shows
distinctive markings that allow
change of feeding ground preference.
researchers to track behaviors
Because restrictions such as limited data points hinder making a and patterns of individuals
decisive correlation between chlorophyll a concentration and within a population.

whale distribution, the jury is still out. Nonetheless, the

methodology of employing satellite imagery to better understand ecosystem-based processes and
analyze animal behaviors has prospects for application in other environmental research studies.
The idea that changing chlorophyll a levels directly affect the entire food chain, from phytoplankton to
shrimp to whales, deserves further investigation. CERF researchers are continuing to assess whale
habitats to prove their hypotheses as well as establish a geodatabase that will serve as a reference for
whale habitat management and conservation. To read more about whale research projects in Baja and
British Columbia, visit the CERF Web site at www.cerf.bc.ca. To learn more about Kinzel's gray whale
project, e-mail her [email protected].

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 III. Volunteer Divers Map Habitats of Endangered Grey Nurse Sharks
By Chris Roelfsema and Carley Bansemer, Unidive

The population of grey nurse sharks along the east coast of Australia has been listed as critically
endangered under the Commonwealth's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
This means there is a high chance this population could become extinct if urgent remedial actions are not

taken.

Grey nurse shark photographed in a habitat along the coastline of South East Queensland,
Australia (photo: C. Roelfsema 2003).

Grey nurse sharks are docile despite their fierce appearance and feed mainly on fish. They are not known
to attack humans. In the past the species had an undeserved reputation as a man-eater, and thousands
were killed by spear and line fishers until the 1970s, causing a dramatic decline in their numbers.
Although they are now fully protected in Australian water, they are still critically endangered and the level
of protection needs to be increased. The Queensland government requires more research be undertaken
on grey nurse sharks and their critical habitats to protect them from key threats to survival.

Research such as this is time-consuming and expensive and, as such, the Queensland government has
relied greatly on the diving community (recreational and professional) for data. As a result of the data
collected by divers and the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, six sites have been identified as key
aggregation sites for grey nurse sharks in southeast Queensland. Furthermore, the Queensland
government is now considering management options for the protection of the grey nurse sharks from key
threats at these sites.

There had been no detailed maps made of these key aggregation sites although maps would improve
understanding of these habitats and their importance to the grey nurse shark.

The researchers received help in mapping and surveying the habitats from a team of volunteers of
Unidive (the University of Queensland's underwater club). Unidive received funding from the World
Wildlife Fund and the Threatened Species Network to undertake this project, which was coordinated by
the authors. In kind support (e.g., training, knowledge, hardware and software, and photo and video
equipment) was received from the Center for Marine Studies and the Biophysical Remote Sensing Group
(School of Geography, Planning and Architecture) both at the University of Queensland and the
Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service.

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During 2003, volunteers conducted more than 600 dives at the different sites to collect the information
needed to create maps and characterize the habitats. They focused their surveys on mapping the habitat
and identifying and counting fish, both invertebrate and substrate species.

The mapping had two primary components: water

depth and feature mapping. For both components,
Esri's ArcView 3.x was used to analyze the data
and produce maps. Esri products are some of the
major educational GIS tools used by the School of
Geography, Planning and Architecture at the
University of Queensland and were used for this
project.

For water depth mapping, the dive boat was

equipped with an echo sounder that was directly
linked to a handheld Garmin GPSMAP 76
A habitat map of the grey nurse shark made positioning device. The boat traversed over the
from bathymetry and feature mapping surveys habitat, and the GPS stored the position and depth
conducted by volunteer divers.
every five to 10 meters. This information was then
downloaded and the location and depth imported
into ArcView using existing Garmin software and an ArcView extension (Avgarmin). The Avgarmin
extension transfers Garmin GPS data file format into ArcView shapefiles, which results in quick and easy
interpretation of the GPS data.

Since the depth measurements would not pick up all characteristic features (e.g., gullies, walls, caverns,
caves, ridges), feature mapping was needed. Feature mapping was conducted by placing a Garmin
GPSMAP device (either a model 76 or 72 depending on individual dive requirements) in a dry bag. The
bag was connected, via a float with a dive flag, to a line that a scuba diver held. The diver swam
underwater over and around the characteristic features followed by the GPS at the surface. A second
diver made notes on waterproof paper about the feature types and size while recording the time. Using an
underwater range finder, the diver measured and recorded feature sizes (e.g., cave height, gully width).
The data from the GPS was then downloaded and imported into ArcView.

Since the diver's watch was synchronized with the GPS time, the notes could be linked to the position
stored in the GPS. Point (e.g., cave), line (e.g., wall), and polygon (e.g., outline of a big rock) features
were then digitized matching the time (using the identify tool in ArcView) of a location with the
corresponding time of the notes. For each point, line, or polygon created, the administrative information
(notes on the waterproof paper) was transferred into the table of the shapefile. For each feature, depth
was recorded as well. This data, together with the bathymetry data, was then presented in the view.
Contour lines were then manually digitized using the view by plotting the depth of point features and the
graduated symbols of the depth measurement.

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Cross sections of habitats were determined by using the ArcView distance measurement tool to measure
the distance from a fixed point to a characteristic depth spot such as contour line or top of rock. Distance
and depth were then plotted in a graph to symbolize the profile, which will help divers interpret depth
contours better.

To determine the surface area covered by rock or sand, the surface area of the polygons was calculated
using ArcView extension Xtools. This extension has several options and can also be used to combine or
merge features. The ArcView Layout tool helped create maps overlaid with a grid. This grid will help
divers pinpoint grid cell coordinates on the map that resemble the position where grey nurse sharks have
been sighted.

The second focus of the survey was to gather information about the diversity of the plants and animals.
Divers were assigned jobs to specifically search for fish, invertebrate, or substrate species. When they
saw an unfamiliar species, they noted the characteristics and then used reference ID books after the dive
to identify them properly. The abundance of fish species was determined by having divers swim for five
minutes in a set direction and counting the fish families in an imaginary tunnel with a radius of two and
one-half meters. Using quadrates of half-meter squares, they counted substrate and invertebrate groups.
This information about diversity was integrated into the labeling of the different features in the map as
well.

In December 2003, the project was completed and the understanding of habitat selection by grey nurse
sharks will have been enhanced. More data about the biological and physical characteristics of the sites
is becoming known, and the project produced georeferenced maps with underwater features of the key
aggregation sites.

Protection of critical grey nurse shark habitats has been recommended by national and state
governments. The data collected through this project and the monitoring program will enable assessment
of the effectiveness of any management measure implemented (and thus justify its implementation) to
protect grey nurse sharks and improve the ecological health of these sites.

This project shows that through training in the use of GPS operations and ArcView 3.x, volunteers can
successfully create georeferenced maps that can be used to better understand grey nurse sharks in their
habitats.

For more information, visit http://unidive.org/grey_nurse_project.

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 IV. Sources of Mortality in Commercial Fisheries Predicted With GIS

The influence of humans, especially commercial

fisheries, presents a significant threat to marine
mammals. Marine mammals may become entangled in
fishing gear and subsequently die as a result of an
infected entanglement wound, starve because the gear
may prevent feeding, or drown due to the fishing gear
restraining their ability to breathe. Marine mammal
stranding networks across the United States seek to find
answers to why marine mammals die by examining the
carcasses that wash ashore.

GIS is increasingly being used in nontraditional ways.

Digitization of the rope marking's black
This study, conducted by the National Oceanic and and white interface occurs pixel by pixel
Atmospheric Administration's National Ocean Service using the point feature editing tool.
(NOAA-NOS) and the College of Charleston located in
Charleston, South Carolina, documents the application of GIS for marine mammal forensics to determine the
types of fishing gear that may cause entanglement. Photographs of entanglement wounds on bottlenose
dolphins were examined and analyzed using ArcGIS 8.1, which is already being used throughout NOAA to
manage its spatial data. Gear is often fishery specific; therefore, delineating wounds caused by a specific gear
type may facilitate the investigation of a fishery potentially responsible for an entanglement.

Stranded animals are often examined internally and externally through autopsy procedures to determine the
cause of death, especially if the source of mortality appears to be human-related. Internal indications of possible
marine mammal entanglement in a fishery may include a stomach full of fish remains, froth in the lungs and
bronchi indicating asphyxiation, or subdermal hemorrhaging beneath the site of a wound. Externally, fishing
gear may leave marks on the epidermis of entangled marine mammals, providing a clue to the potential source
of mortality.

Simulated Wound Study Using GIS

Wounds on entangled marine mammals vary in pattern and width depending on the type of fishing gear
responsible for entanglement. Nets used by fisheries may cause hatch marks along an entangled marine
mammal's body, monofilament lines may cut off appendages or severely lacerate the body, and ropes may
leave broad areas where skin is rubbed off. To model the types and patterns of wounds associated with
different fishing gear, particularly fishing lines, an experiment was conducted to mimic wound impressions that
may be seen on entangled animals.

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 Commercial suppliers (Rocky Mount Cord Co., Rocky Mount, North Carolina; Wellington
Leisure Products, Madison, Georgia) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS,
Southeast Regional Office, St. Petersburg, Florida) donated samples of rope varying in
diameter, braiding, and material for use in this study. The rope samples were dipped in
paint and pressed upon a canvas board to obtain a rope marking, or "rope signature." The
imprint that a particular braiding style leaves on the epidermis of an entangled marine
mammal is unique to each type of rope. Digital images of the rope markings were taken
and imported into Adobe PhotoShop. The digital pictures of each braiding style were
converted to grayscale images, and the contrast/brightness of each picture was adjusted
to 100 percent contrast to obtain a black and white representation of each marking. All
images were saved as JPEG files and imported into the ArcMap application of ArcGIS as
new shapefiles using the ArcCatalog application. The editor tool in ArcMap was used to
create new point and segment features that outlined the black and white interface of the
shapefile. Once the base layer (rope marking) is removed from the view, a signature map
remains, which can be superimposed onto pictures of entanglement wounds.
Digitized map
of double style "GIS enabled us to produce maps outlining the impressions that a particular braiding style
braiding. would make in the epidermis of an entangled animal," says Leslie Burdett, biological
science technician (NOAA–NOS). "I used these maps to match braiding types to
entanglement wounds from photographs of dolphins that stranded in the past."

The digitized outline of the black and white interface of each JPEG image was scaled and overlaid onto
photographs of wounds from the historical entanglement cases in an effort to match a braiding scheme with a
wound pattern and to match the type of line that may have contributed to an entanglement wound. Marine
mammal stranding networks commonly have archived photographs of historical stranding cases. Many of the
historical pictures were not digital; rather, hard copies of the photographs were scanned into the computer.

"Matching the braiding types to the historical photos was challenging," says Burdett, "because details of the
pictures were difficult to see due to factors such as an inappropriate exposure level, the angle at which the
picture was taken, a lack of measurement scale, and basic obscurities that result from scanning. Our
experimentation with this technique indicates that pictures taken during necropsies should be at a 90-degree
angle to the wound, include a scale for measurement, and allow proper light to view contrasting aspects of the
wounds."

Of five photographs analyzed using this technique, there was one successful match (20 percent). The outline of
the twisted braiding style matched the impression of an entanglement wound on a dolphin's epidermis.

Twisted Fingerprints

Ideally, this technique will function similarly to fingerprint matching, in which an entanglement wound would
have defined physical characteristics that could be matched to a cataloged braiding scheme. Once a match is
made, the fisheries that utilize the particular gear type can be further analyzed as a potential source of the
marine mammal entanglement.

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"This technology has promising potential to help
scientists and managers determine sources of fishery
mortality on dolphins that do not have gear attached to
them," says Wayne McFee, research wildlife biologist
(NOAA–NOS). "For example, the match between the
twisted braiding map and the historical entanglement
photograph depicts an animal with entanglement wounds
caused by a twisted braided rope. To pinpoint the fishery
that may be responsible for the entanglement, only
fisheries that utilize ropes with twisted braiding should be
examined."
The editor tool allows the digitization of the
This technique eases entanglement source identification rope marking's black and white interface to
because fisheries that do not employ the gear type create map delineating the outline of the rope
associated with particular entanglement wound braiding. The map of the marking is then
impressions can be excluded from investigation. superimposed onto photographs of marine
mammal entanglement wounds.
Combined with fishery data on gear utilized for fishing
practices, the ArcGIS maps outlining different braiding style impressions may help pinpoint the potential source
of mortality. Ultimately, this method would facilitate management, since definitive matching of entanglement
wounds could be associated with specific rope used by fisheries. Thus, some fisheries may be ruled out from
regulatory implementation because the specific gear type is not employed.

Forensic Applications

For this study, preliminary results demonstrate the utility of using ArcGIS for marine mammal forensic
investigations. Burdett, McFee, and Dr. Cassandra Runyon, associate professor at the College of Charleston,
were able to successfully match a braiding style to a historical entanglement wound on a bottlenose dolphin.
Further studies, however, should be conducted to support, develop, and validate this method. This study
provides a preliminary framework upon which future studies may expand. For example, a database should be
created to compare the wounds seen on historical and new entanglement cases with prototype maps created
for each braiding style. Also, the widespread use of digital photography will greatly enhance the accuracy of this
technique as each individual pixel may be digitized rather than relying on approximations from scanned images.
GIS serves as an important analytical tool that can be utilized in various capacities. This study illustrates the
potential to combine new technology with preexisting forensic techniques in order to answer critical questions
regarding the source of marine mammal mortality.

For more information, contact Leslie Burdett, biological science technician, National Ocean Service (tel.: 843-
762-8618, e-mail: [email protected]); Wayne McFee, research wildlife biologist, National Ocean Service
(tel.: 843-762-8592, e-mail:[email protected]); or Dr. Cassandra Runyon, associate professor, College
of Charleston (tel.: 843-953-8279, e-mail: [email protected]).

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