DIgSILENT PowerFactory

Technical Reference Documentation

Synchronous Machine
ElmSym, TypSym
 DIgSILENT GmbH

Heinrich-Hertz-Str. 9
72810 - Gomaringen
Germany

T: +49 7072 9168 0

F: +49 7072 9168 88

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[email protected]
Version: 2016
Edition: 1

Copyright © 2016, DIgSILENT GmbH. Copyright of this document belongs to DIgSILENT GmbH.
No part of this document may be reproduced, copied, or transmitted in any form, by any means
electronic or mechanical, without the prior written permission of DIgSILENT GmbH.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 1

Contents

Contents

1 General Description 5

2 Load Flow Analysis 6

2.1 Reactive Power/Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.1.1 Const. V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.1.2 Const. Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1.3 Q(P)-Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 Reactive Power Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.3 Active Power Control and Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.3.1 Fix Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.3.2 Reference Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.3.3 Primary Frequency Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.3.4 External Secondary Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.3.5 Inertial Power Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.3.6 Active Power: Operational Limits, Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.4 Spinning if circuit breaker is open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Short-Circuit Analysis 12

3.1 Complete Short Circuit Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.2 Short-Circuit According to IEC 60909 or VDE 102/103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.3 ANSI-C37 Short-Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.4 IEC 61363 Short-Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4 Optimal Power Flow 15

4.1 OPF Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4.2 Constraints: Active / Reactive Power Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4.3 Operating Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Harmonic Analysis 16

5.1 Impedance calculation and frequency dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5.1.1 Frequency dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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Contents

5.1.2 Calculation using standard parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1.3 Calculation using frequency transfer functions (operational inductances) . 17

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model 20

6.1 Input Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6.1.1 Conversion of Short-Circuit to Equivalent Circuit Parameters . . . . . . . 22

6.2 Equations for the standard model in PowerFactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6.2.1 Equations for the RMS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6.2.2 Equations for the EMT model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

6.2.3 Mechanical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6.2.4 Mechanical Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6.2.5 Damping Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6.2.6 Acceleration Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6.2.7 Initialisation of the mechanical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6.3 Rotor Angle Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6.3.1 Out of step detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6.4 Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6.4.1 Saturation coefficient calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6.4.2 Options for calculating the saturation factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6.5 Excitation system interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6.5.1 Default equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6.5.2 Modified equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

6.6 Delta Speed Input Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6.7 Inputs/Outputs/State Variables of the Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6.7.1 Stability Model (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6.7.2 EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3 43

7.1 Input parameters and conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

7.2 Model equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

7.2.1 Equations for the RMS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7.2.2 Equations for the EMT model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 3

Contents

7.2.3 Mechanical Equations, Rotor Angles and Delta Speed Input Signal . . . . 46

7.3 Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.4 Excitation system interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.5 Inputs/Outputs/State Variables of the Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.5.1 Stability Model (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.5.2 EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

8 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Classical Model 50

8.0.3 Equations for the RMS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

8.0.4 Equations for the EMT model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

8.1 Inputs/Outputs/State Variables of the Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

8.1.1 Stability Model (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

8.1.2 EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model 53

9.1 Input parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

9.2 Model equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

9.2.1 Equations for the RMS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

9.2.2 Equations for the EMT model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

9.2.3 Mechanical Equations, Rotor Angles and Delta Speed Input Signal . . . . 57

9.2.4 Saturation and parameter dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

9.2.5 Excitation system interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

9.3 Inputs/Outputs/State Variables of the Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

9.3.1 Stability Model (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

9.3.2 EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

10 References 60

List of Figures 61

List of Tables 62

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 4

1 General Description

1 General Description

This document describes the PowerFactory synchronous machine models, as used for the vari-
ous steady state and dynamic power system analysis functions supported by PowerFactory , as
there are:

• Load flow Analysis (Section 2);

• Short Circuit Analysis (Section 3);
• Optimal Power Flow (Section 4);
• Harmonics Analysis (Section 5);

• Stability/ Electromagnetic Transients Analysis (Sections 6, 7, 8 and 9).

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 5

2 Load Flow Analysis

2 Load Flow Analysis

Typically, in load flow calculations, the controlled operation of a synchronous generator is mod-
elled. Figure 2.1 shows the basic concept of a controlled synchronous machine modelled for
load flow analysis.

Figure 2.1: Basic concept of a controlled synchronous machine

2.1 Reactive Power/Voltage Control

The PowerFactory model of the synchronous machine, offers the following options for defining
the Local Controller:

• Const. V
• Const. Q
• Q(P)-Characteristic

2.1.1 Const. V

The Local Controller defined as “Const. V” is typically used for large synchronous generators at
large power stations which operate in voltage control mode (“PV” mode).

When enabling this option, the generator will control the voltage directly at its terminals. As
basis for the controlled [p.u.] value, the voltage of the connected terminal is used. For more
complex control schemes, i.e. controlling the voltage at a remote bus bar or controlling the
voltage at one bus bar using more than one generator, a Station Controller model needs to be
defined.

In this case, the Station Controller adds an offset to the reactive power operating point specified
in the synchronous generator element:

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 6

2 Load Flow Analysis

Q = Q0 + K · ∆QSCO (1)

For more details about the Station Controller, refer to the Technical Reference.

2.1.2 Const. Q

The Local Controller defined as “Const. Q” is typically used for smaller synchronous generators,
like the ones embedded in distribution grids, where the power factor is keep constant (“PQ”
mode). With this type of control, the user can specify the active and reactive power dispatch
of the generator. These parameters can be specificated in different ways, depending on the
selected Input Mode.

The Voltage and Angle boxes are disabled for the “Const. Q” control option. Psum and Qsum will
be controlled in unbalanced load flow.

2.1.3 Q(P)-Characteristic

The Q(P) characteristic is a reactive power control and follows a user-specified characteristic as
shown in the picture 2.2.

The local controller acts as a reactive power controller in which the reactive power setpoint is
adapted according to the active power output of the machine.

The Q(P)-Curve is specified using the element Q(P)-Curve (IntQpcurve).

Figure 2.2: Q(P)-Characteristic

2.2 Reactive Power Limits

There are several ways for specifying reactive power limits:

• Fix reactive power limits in the element

• Fix reactive power limits in the type
• Capability Curve

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 7

2 Load Flow Analysis

Generally, reactive power limits are only considered, if the synchronous machine is set to voltage
control (Const.V) and the load flow option Consider reactive power limits is enabled in the Load
Flow Calculation command. If this option is disabled and the specified reactive power limits are
exceeded, PowerFactory generates a warning message but doesn’t apply any actual limit to the
generator’s reactive power output.

In the case that it is difficult to achieve a well balanced load flow state, an additional scaling factor
can be applied to the reactive power limits. This scaling factor is more for “debugging reasons”
and doesn’t have any physical interpretation. The reactive scaling factor is only considered if
the load flow option Consider Reactive Power Limits Scaling Factor is enabled.

Fix reactive power limits. Fix reactive power limits can either be specified at Element or Type
level of the synchronous machine. Type limits are used when the option Use Limits Spec-
ified in Type is enabled, otherwise, the model takes the Element limits that can either be
defined on a p.u.-basis or using actual units (Mvar).

Capability Curve. The capability curve allows specifying a complete, active power and volt-
age dependent capability diagram (see Figure 2.3). User-defined capability diagrams are
defined using the object IntQlim, which is stored in the Operational Library.

Figure 2.3: Capability curve object

For more information, refer to the Technical Reference of the Capability Diagram.
For assigning a capability diagram to a Synchronous Machine Element, the correspond-
ing reference (pQlim) must be set (see Figure 2.4). If this pointer is assigned, all other

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 8

2 Load Flow Analysis

attributes relating to reactive power limits are hidden and the local capability diagram of
the Synchronous Machine Element displays the reactive power limits defined by the Ca-
pability Curve object (IntQlim) at nominal voltage.

Figure 2.4: Capability Curve reference

2.3 Active Power Control and Balancing

2.3.1 Fix Active Power

Active power will be set to a fix value if:

• Option Reference Machine is disabled

• No External Secondary Controller object is selected
• No Primary Frequency Bias is defined

Besides these local settings, the corresponding options on the Active Power Control page of
the Load Flow Calculation command either activate or deactivate the influence of Secondary
Controller or Primary Frequency Bias.

2.3.2 Reference Machine

The option Reference Machine has two consequences:

• Voltage angle at the machine’s terminal is fixed.

• Machine balances active power if the Active Power Control option as Dispatched is se-
lected and the Balancing option by Reference Machine is enabled, or the Active Power
Control according to Secondary Control is selected and no Secondary Controller is spec-
ified in the network.

2.3.3 Primary Frequency Bias

The primary frequency bias is considered if:

• Parameter Kpf (in MW/Hz) is >0 and

• Active Power Control option According to Primary Control is selected

In this case, PowerFactory considers in all isolated grids a common frequency deviation df and
establishes an active power balance through this variable and the primary frequency bias of the
individual generators:
P = P0 + Kpf · ∆F
where:

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 9

2 Load Flow Analysis

• P: Actual active power in MW

• P0: Active power setpoint in MW
• Kpf: Primary frequency bias in MW/Hz
• dF: Frequency deviation in Hz

The “Primary Controlled Load Flow” represents that state of a power system following an active
power disturbance, in which the primary governors have settled and the system finds a “quasi
steady-state” before the secondary controlled power plants take over the active power balancing
task.

During the “primary frequency controlled” state, there is a deviation from nominal frequency.

2.3.4 External Secondary Controller

For bringing frequency back to nominal frequency and/or for re-establishing area exchange flows
of an interconnected power system, secondary controlled power plants take over the active
power balancing task from the primary control after a few minutes (typically five minutes).

For simulating the “Secondary Controlled” state, which is an (artificial) steady state following the
settling of the secondary control system:

• A Power Frequency Controlled has to be specified and assigned to the machine

• Active Power Control option according to Secondary Control has to be activated.

The actual active power of each generator is the defined by:

P = P0 + K · ∆PSCO (2)
where:

• P: Actual active power of the machine in MW

• P0: Active power setpoint in MW
• K: Participation factor (to be specified in the power-frequency control object)
• dPsco: Total active power deviation of all units controlled by the respective power fre-
quency controller.

For more information related to the Power Frequency Controller object, refer to the correspond-
ing Technical Reference Manual.

2.3.5 Inertial Power Flow

During the first seconds following an active power disturbance such as a loss of generation or
load, before the primary control takes over, the active power balance of the system is established
by releasing energy from the rotating masses of all electrical machines.

This situation can be modelled by enabling the Active Power Control option According to In-
ertias. In this case, the variable dF represents an equivalent frequency rate of change and
active power will be balanced according to the inertia of all generators (defined by the Acceler-
ation Time Constant, to be found on the RMS- and EMT-simulation pages of the generator type
TypSym).

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 10

2 Load Flow Analysis

2.3.6 Active Power: Operational Limits, Ratings

The active power rating can be entered as a Rating Factor on basis of the Nominal Active Power,
which is calculated by the rated Apparent Power times the Rated Power Factor (type-level). De-
rating of generators can be considered by entering a rating factor < 1.

When considering active power limits in a load flow calculation, PowerFactory makes reference
to the Operational Limits (Min. and Max.).

These limits are considered when:

• Generator participates in the active power balancing

• Load Flow option Consider Active Power Limits is selected.

2.4 Spinning if circuit breaker is open

This option decides whether a synchronous machine can be used for driving an island-network.
Typical applications are:

• Load flow set-up for a dynamic simulation of a synchronisation event.

• Island around this generator shall form a supplied island-grid when disconnected from the
main-grid (e.g. during Contingency Analysis).

In case of contingencies that split the system two of more isolated areas, PowerFactory requires
at least one synchronous generator with this option being enabled for assuming that the cor-
responding island can continue operating after having been islanded. Otherwise, the load flow
calculation will assume a complete black out in the corresponding island (all loads and genera-
tors unsupplied).

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 11

3 Short-Circuit Analysis

3 Short-Circuit Analysis

For short-circuit analysis, synchronous machines are represented by their

• Subtransient equivalent
• Transient equivalent
• Synchronous equivalent

depending on the considered time phase following grid fault.

The distinction of the time dependence is due to the effect of increased stator currents on the
induced currents in the damper windings, rotor mass and field winding. In the case of a fault
near to a generator the stator current can increase so that the resulting magnetic field weakens
the rotor field considerably. In steady state short circuit analysis, this field-weakening effect is
represented by the corresponding equivalent source voltage and reactance. The associated
positive sequence model of a synchronous machine is shown in Figure 3.1. The delayed effect
of the stator field on the excitation and damping field is modelled by using different reactances
depending on the time frame of the calculation.

Figure 3.1: Single-phase equivalent circuit diagrams of a generator for short-circuit current cal-
culations which include the modelling of the field attenuation

3.1 Complete Short Circuit Method

In the complete short circuit method, the internal voltage source is initialised by a preceding
load flow calculation.

The complete short circuit method calculates subtransient and transient fault currents using
subtransient and transient voltage sources and impedances.

Based on the calculated subtransient and transient (AC-) currents, PowerFactory derives other
relevant short-circuit indices, such as peak short circuit current, peak-break current, AC-break
current, equivalent thermal short circuit current by applying the relevant methods according to
IEC60909 (see next section).

3.2 Short-Circuit According to IEC 60909 or VDE 102/103

The IEC 60909 (equivalent to VDE 102/103) series of standards only calculates the subtransient
time phase. Short circuit currents of longer time phases are assessed based on empirical
methods by multiplying the subtransient fault current with corresponding factors.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 12

3 Short-Circuit Analysis

Figure 3.2 shows the basic IEC 60909 short circuit model of a synchronous machine.

Figure 3.2: Short-circuit model for a synchronous machine

When calculating initial symmetrical short-circuit currents in systems fed directly from genera-
tors without unit transformers, for example in industrial networks or in low-voltage networks, the
following impedances have to be used:

Positive sequence system:

Z S1 = RS + jXd00 (3)

Negative sequence system:

Z S2 = RS + jX200 = RS + jX2 (4)

Normally it is assumed that X2 = Xd00 . If Xd00 and Xq00 differ significantly the following can be
used:
1
X200 = X2 = · Xd00 + Xq00


(5)
2

Zero sequence system:

00
ZS0 = RS0 + jXS0 (6)

For the subtransient reactance, the saturated value has to be used leading to highest possible
fault currents.

IEC 60909 makes no provision of the pre-fault state. It always considers a voltage factor cmax of
1.1 (or 1.05 in LV-networks). Because this approach would lead to overestimated fault currents,
the impedance is corrected by a correction factor KG :

Un cmax
KG = · (7)
UrG 1 + x00d · sin ϕrG

with cmax : Voltage factor, see IEC 60909-0, item 2.3.2, page 41, Table 1.1.

All other short circuit indices are calculated precisely according to the IEC 60909 (VDE 102/103)
standard.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 13

3 Short-Circuit Analysis

3.3 ANSI-C37 Short-Circuit

Besides IEC 60909, PowerFactory supports short circuit calculation according to ANSI C-37.
Similar to short circuit calculations according to IEC 60909, only subtransient fault currents are
actually calculated.

For further details related to ANSI C-37, refer to the original ANSI C-37 standard and corre-
sponding literature.

3.4 IEC 61363 Short-Circuit

The IEC 61363 standard describes procedures for calculating short-circuits currents in three-
phase ac radial electrical installations on ships and on mobile and fixed offshore units.

The calculation of the short-circuit current for a synchronous machine is based on evaluating
the envelope of the maximum values of the machine’s actual time-dependent short-circuit cur-
rent. The resulting envelope is a function of the basic machine parameters (power, impedance,
etc.) and the active voltages behind the machine’s subtransient, transient and steady-state
impedance. The impedance is dependent upon the machine operating conditions immediately
prior to the occurrence of the short-circuit condition.

When calculating the short-circuit current, only the highest values of the current are considered.
The highest values vary as a function of time along the top envelope of the complex time-
dependent function. The current defined by this top envelope is calculated from the equation:
√
iK (t) = 2 · Iac (t) + idc (t) (8)

The a.c. component Iac (t) is calculated with:

00 0
00 0
Iac (t) = (Ikd − Ikd ) · e−t/Td + (Ikd
0
− Ikd ) · e−t/Td + Ikd (9)

The subtransient, transient and steady-state currents are evaluated using equations:
00
Ikd 00
= Eq0 /Zd00 with Z 00d = (Ra + jXd00 ) (10)

and:
0
Ikd 0
= Eq0 /Zd0 with Z 0d = (Ra + jXd0 ) (11)

Internal voltages considering terminal voltage and pre-load conditions are calculated using
equations: √
00
Eq0 = U 0 / 3 + I 0 · Z 00d (12)

√
0
Eq0 = U 0 / 3 + I 0 · Z 0d (13)

The d.c. component can be evaluated from equation:

√ 00
Idc (t) = 2 · (Ikd − I0 · sin φ0 ) · e−t/Tdc (14)

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 14

4 Optimal Power Flow

4 Optimal Power Flow

The Optimal Power Flow (OPF) function in PowerFactory allows the user to calculate optimal
operational conditions, e.g. the minimisation of losses or production costs by adjusting the
active and reactive power dispatch of the generators.

To consider the synchronous machine in the OPF calculation the following options have to be
assigned on the Optimal Power Flow page of the synchronous machine element.

4.1 OPF Controls

It is possible to enable and disable the active and reactive power optimisation of the machine.
The active power flag allows the active power dispatch of the machine to be optimised in the
OPF calculation. On the other hand, the reactive power flag allows the voltage reference of the
machine to be adapted according to the OPF optimisation function.

When these options are disabled, the synchronous machine is treated as in a conventional load
flow calculation during the execution of the OPF.

4.2 Constraints: Active / Reactive Power Limits

For every machine a minimum and maximum active and reactive power limit can be defined. For
the reactive power limits there is also the possibility to use the limits which are specified in the
synchronous machine type (enable the flag Use limits specified in type) or include a capability
curve (see section 2.2.

The active and reactive power limits will be considered in the OPF if and only if the individual
constraint flag is checked in the synchronous machine element and the corresponding global
flag is enabled in the Optimal Power Flow command.

4.3 Operating Cost

Tho operating costs of the synchronous machine are defined on the Operating Cost The table
Operating Costs specifies the costs ($/h) for the produced active power (MW) of the units. The
representation of the data is shown automatically on the diagram below the table for checking
purposes. The cost curve of a synchronous machine is calculated as the interpolation of the
predefined cost points.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 15

5 Harmonic Analysis

5 Harmonic Analysis

For frequency sweep calculation the synchronous machine is represented by an Impedance

model. For harmonic load flow calculation, two additional models are available: Thevenin Equiv-
alent and Ideal Voltage Source. The harmonic voltages given in the harmonic voltage source
object are referred to the rated voltage of the synchronous machine.

The equivalent circuits of Impedance and the Thevenin Equivalent model for harmonics are
shown in Figures 5.1 and 5.2 (using absolute values).

Figure 5.1: Harmonic load flow impedance model

Figure 5.2: Harmonic load flow thevenin equivalent model

5.1 Impedance calculation and frequency dependency

There are two methods available to calculate the impedance: (i) standard parameters; or (ii)
transient parameters.

5.1.1 Frequency dependency

The input parameters for the reactances in the model are valid at the fundamental frequency.
Therefore, the per-unit values of the inductances and reactances are equivalent for frequency f
equal to the base frequency fbase = fnom :
   
ω L Ω 2·π·f L Ω f
x= · = · = · l = l [p.u.] (15)
ωbase Lbase Ω 2 · π · fnom Lbase Ω fnom

The impedances in the harmonic analysis functions have frequency-dependent reactances due
to the change in frequency in the term ωnom · L. In addition, it is possible to consider the
frequency dependency of the inductances l(f ) and resistances r(f ):
f
z(f ) = r(f ) +  · x(f ) = r(f ) +  · · l(f ) = r(f ) +  · h · l(f ) (16)
fnom

where h = f /fnom is the harmonic order.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 16

5 Harmonic Analysis

This frequency dependency of the inductances l(f ) and resistances r(f ) can be modelled using
characteristics.
Several types of characteristics can be applied to the resistances and reactances, as shown on
the Harmonics/Power Quality page of the synchronous machine type (TypSym) dialog:

• Frequency Polynomial Characteristic (ChaPol)

• Vector Characteristic (ChaVec)
• Matrix Characteristic (ChaMat)

For example, when using the vector characteristic, values for the resistance can be entered
for predefined frequencies (defined through a frequency scale). When using the frequency
polynomial characteristic, the stator resistance can be made frequency dependent using the
parameters a and b according to the functions:
 
b
rstr (f ) = rstr · k(f ) = rstr · (1 − a) + a · (f /fnom )
  (17)
b
rstr (f ) = rstr · k(f ) = rstr · 1 + a · ((f /fnom ) − 1)

5.1.2 Calculation using standard parameters

In the presence of harmonic currents, the average inductance is approximated by:

l00 + lq00
l00 = d (18)
2

If a characteristic is applied to l00 , then the resulting value is l00 (f ). The sequence and grounding
impedance are then calculated as:
z1 (f ) = rstr (f ) +  · h · l00 (f )
z2 (f ) = r2 (f ) +  · h · l2 (f )
(19)
z0 (f ) = r0 (f ) +  · h · l0 (f )
ze (f ) = re +  · h · le

where the internal grounding impedance per-unit values are calculated as (resy +  · xesy )/zb =
re +  · xe using the base impedance zb = ugn2 /sgn (ugn is the nominal voltage of the machine
and sgn is the nominal apparent power).

5.1.3 Calculation using frequency transfer functions (operational inductances)

If the option Use frequency transfer functions is enabled, the harmonic inductance is calculated
using the input parameters provided on the RMS/EMT tabs of the TypSym dialog. Because of
the accurate representation around nominal frequency, this model can increase the accuracy
of sub-synchronous resonance studies based on frequency domain analysis. The effect of
the transient and synchronous reactance is visible only in a very narrow band around nominal
frequency (Figure 5.3).

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 17

5 Harmonic Analysis

Figure 5.3: Frequency domain representation of synchronous machine using the option Use
frequency transfer functions

The positive and negative sequence impedances are calculated using the operational induc-
tances for the d and q axes as shown in Equation 20 (where s is the Laplace operator).

(1 + s · t0d ) · (1 + s · t00d )
ld (s) = ld ·
(1 + s · t0d0 ) · (1 + s · t00d0 )
(20)
(1 + s · t0q ) · (1 + s · t00q )
lq (s) = lq ·
(1 + s · t0q0 ) · (1 + s · t00q0 )

Equation 20 is valid for the standard round rotor synchronous machine model in PowerFactory.
For the standard salient pole machine model, the parameters t00q and t00q0 are zero and the terms
(1+s·t00q ) and (1+s·t00q ) are neglected (this is valid for all following equations based on operational
inductances).
Similarly, the operational inductances of the 3.3 model have an additional term in the numerator
and denominator, utilising the sub-subtransient short-circuit and open-loop time constants t000 d ,
t000 000 000
d0 , tq and tq0 .

This option is not supported for the classical model and the model for asynchronous starting.

The frequency dependent inductances have the form:

(1 +  · ω · t0d ) · (1 +  · ω · t00d )
ld (f ) = ld ·
(1 +  · ω · t0d0 ) · (1 +  · ω · t00d0 )
(21)
(1 +  · ω · t0q ) · (1 +  · ω · t00q )
lq (f ) = lq ·
(1 +  · ω · t0q0 ) · (1 +  · ω · t00q0 )

where ω = ωnom · (h − 1) for the positive sequence and ω = ωnom · (−h − 1) for the negative
sequence inductances.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 18

5 Harmonic Analysis

The positive and negative sequence impedances are then calculated as:
ld1 (f ) + lq1 (f )
z1 (f ) = rstr (f ) +  · h ·
2 (22)
ld2 (f ) + lq2 (f )
z2 (f ) = r2 (f ) +  · h ·
2

The zero sequence and grounding impedances are calculated as in Equation 19.

Depending on the input data available for the model, the time constants for the operational
inductances are taken directly or calculated from the input parameters:

• Short-circuit input data - standard model

The short-circuit time constants are taken directly from the input data and the open-loop
time constants for the standard model are calculated as (using standard assumptions):
ld
t0d0 = t0d · 0
ld
l0
t00d0 = t00d · 00d
ld
(23)
l q
t0q0 = t0q · 0
lq
lq0
t00q0 = t00q ·
lq00

For the salient pole machine, the q-axis time constants are calculated as:
t0q0 = 0
lq (24)
t00q0 = t00q · 00
lq

• Equivalent circuit parameters input data - standard and 3.3 models

From the equivalent circuit parameters, the open-loop time constants and dynamic induc-
tances are calculated according to [1] and [2]. The short-circuit time constants are then
calculated according to Equation 23 and:
000
000 ld
t000
d = td0 · 00
ld
(25)
000 000
lq000
tq = tq0 · 00
lq

• Operational inductances as input data - 3.3 model

In this case no calculation is possible since the data used in the operational reactances
is available. The time constants t1d , t2d , t3d , t1q , t2q , t3q are the short-circuit time constants
and t4d , t5d , t6d , t4q , t5q , t6q are the open-loop time constants.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 19

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

Figures 6.1 to 6.3 show the equivalent circuit diagrams of the standard PowerFactory syn-
chronous machine model, which are represented in a rotor reference system (Park coordinates,
dq-reference frame).

Figure 6.1: d-axis equivalent circuit

Figure 6.2: q-axis equivalent circuit - salient rotor

Figure 6.3: q-axis equivalent circuit - round rotor

The rotor d-axis is always modelled by two rotor loops representing the excitation (field) winding
and the 1d-damper winding. For the q-axis, PowerFactory supports two models, a salient-pole
rotor machine model having only the 1q-damper winding and a round-rotor machine model with
the 1q- and 2q-damper windings. According to the designation in the IEEE guide [3], these two
models can also be referred to as Model 2.1 and Model 2.2, respectively. The model is based
on [4], [5].

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 20

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

The equations presented in this section are valid for the round-rotor machine. The equations
for the salient-rotor machine can be obtained by ignoring the 2q-damper winding variables and
equations.

The standard PowerFactory model is written using subtransient variables. An overview of the
basic equations of the synchronous machine together with how the subtransient model is ob-
tained is given in Section 6.2.

6.1 Input Parameters

The typical parameters available for a synchronous machine are the short-circuit parameters.
They can be entered directly into the standard PowerFactory synchronous machine model (Typ-
Sym) and are listed in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Standard input parameters of the synchronous machine

Name in PF Symbol Unit Description

rstr rstr p.u. Stator resistance
xl xl p.u. Stator leakage reactance
xrl xrld p.u. Coupling reactance between field and damper winding
xrlq xrlq p.u. Coupling reactance between q-axis damper windings
xd xd p.u. Synchronous reactance d-axis
xq xq p.u. Synchronous reactance q-axis
xds x0d p.u. Transient reactance d-axis
xqs x0q p.u. Transient reactance q-axis
xdss x00d p.u. Subtransient reactance d-axis
xqss x00q p.u. Subtransient reactance q-axis
tds t0d s Short-circuit transient time constant d-axis
tqs t0q s Short-circuit transient time constant q-axis
tdss t00d s Short-circuit subtransient time constant d-axis
tqss t00q s Short-circuit subtransient time constant q-axis

If the short-circuit time constants are not available, the open-loop time constants tdss0 (t00d0 ),
tqss0 (t00q0 ), tds0 (t0d0 ) and tqs0 (t0q0 ) can be entered. The short-circuit time constants are the
leading parameters and they are preferred over the open-loop time constants, since the transla-
tion from open-loop to short circuit time constants is done using assumptions. The conversion
in this case is carried out as follows:
x00d
t00d = t00d0 ·
x0d
x00q
t00q = t00q0 · 0
xq
(26)
x0
t0d = t0d0· d
xd
0
x q
t0q = t0q0 ·
xq

In the case of a salient pole machine, the transient reactance x0q and the transient time constant
t0q in the q-axis are not needed. The subtransient time constant t00q is then calculated using xq
instead of x0q .

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 21

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

Table 6.2: Model parameters of the synchronous machine

Name in PF Symbol Unit Description

rstr rstr p.u. Stator resistance
xl xl p.u. Stator leakage reactance
xrl xrld p.u. Coupling reactance between field and damper winding
xrlq xrlq p.u. Coupling reactance between q-axis damper windings
xad xad p.u. Mutual (magnetising) reactance, d-axis
xaq xaq p.u. Mutual (magnetising) reactance, q-axis
xf d xf d p.u. Reactance of excitation (field) winding (d-axis)
x1d x1d p.u. Reactance of 1d-damper winding (d-axis)
x1q x1q p.u. Reactance of 1q-damper winding (q-axis)
x2q x2q p.u. Reactance of 2q-damper winding (q-axis)
rf d rf d p.u. Resistance of excitation winding (d-axis)
r1d r1d p.u. Resistance of 1d-damper winding (d-axis)
r1q r1q p.u. Resistance of 1q-damper winding (q-axis)
r2q r2q p.u. Resistance of 2q-damper winding (q-axis)

The parameters used by the model internally are the parameters shown in the equivalent cir-
cuits (Figure 6.1 to Figure 6.3) and are listed in Table 6.2. If available, the equivalent circuit
parameters can be directly entered in the standard PowerFactory model.

ugn2
The impedance base is calculated using the nominal voltage and apparent power as . The
sgn
rotor variables are referred to the stator windings.

6.1.1 Conversion of Short-Circuit to Equivalent Circuit Parameters

From the short-circuit input parameters, the equivalent damper winding resistances and reac-
tances can be calculated. PowerFactory applies an accurate parameter conversion method as
described in [6] and presented in [4] and [5].

The mutual reactances can be obtained from the synchronous and leakage reactances as fol-
lows:
xad = xd − xl
(27)
xaq = xq − xl

Using the help variables x1 , x2 , x3 , T1 , T2 , a and b, the equivalent model parameters for the
d-axis are calculated as follows:
x1 = xd − xl + xrld
(xd − xl )2
x2 = x1 −
xd
x00 (28)
x2 − x1 · d
xd
x3 =
x00d
1−
xd

 
xd 0 xd xd
T1 = · t + 1 − + · t00d
x0d d x0d x00d (29)
T2 = t0d + t00d

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 22

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

x2 · T1 − x1 · T2
a=
x1 − x2 (30)
x3
b= · t0 · t00
x3 − x2 d d

r
−a a2
Tσf d = + −b
2 4
r (31)
−a a2
Tσ1d = − −b
2 4

Tσf d − Tσ1d
xf d =
T1 − T2 Tσ1d
+
x1 − x2 x3
Tσ1d − Tσf d
x1d =
T1 − T2 Tσf d
+ (32)
x1 − x2 x3
xf d
rf d =
ωn · Tσf d
x1d
r1d =
ωn · Tσ1d
where wn = 2 · π · fn is the nominal angular frequency.

The q-axis model parameters can be calculated analogously to the d-axis parameters in case of
a round-rotor machine (two rotor-loops). For a salient pole machine (one rotor loop), the model
parameters can be calculated as follows:
(xq − xl ) · (x00q − xl )
x1q =
xq − x00q
00 (33)
xq xq − xl + x1q
r1q = ·
xq ωn · t00q

6.2 Equations for the standard model in PowerFactory

The equations are written using the dq rotor reference frame in generator orientation.

The standard PowerFactory synchronous machine model for time domain simulations uses the
rotor fluxes, the speed n and the angle ϕ as state variables. The equations for both the RMS
and EMT model are written using subtransient variables.

In the case of balanced RMS simulation, the available simulated values are positive sequence
complex values. In the case of unbalanced RMS simulation, the available complex phase val-
ues for currents and voltages are first transformed into symmetrical components. For transform-
ing to the dq-reference frame, the variables are shifted by multiplying with the transformation
cos ϕ −  · sin ϕ. The voltages and currents available from the EMT simulation are first trans-
formed from instantaneous values in the αβγ system using the Clarke transformation. The
same transformation as above is used for transforming to the dq rotating reference frame.

Based on the equivalent circuit diagrams according to Figure 6.1 to Figure 6.3, the differential
equations for the model can be derived.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 23

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

The stator voltage equations can be described as follows:

1 dψd
ud = −rstr · id − n · ψq + ·
ωn dt
1 dψq
uq = −rstr · iq + n · ψd + · (34)
ωn dt
1 dψ0
u0 = −rstr · i0 + ·
ωn dt
where n is the speed of the rotor and ωn = 2 · π · fnom is the nominal angular frequency.

The stator flux linkage equations in the d- and q-axis have the following form:
ψd = −(xl + xad ) · id + xad · if d + xad · i1d
(35)
ψq = −(xl + xaq ) · iq + xaq · i2q + xaq · i1q
The stator flux equations can be also written in the following form::
ψd = ψad − xl · id
(36)
ψq = ψaq − xl · iq

where ψad and ψaq are the d- and q-axis components of the magnetising flux:
ψad = xad · (−id + i1d + if d )
(37)
ψaq = xaq · (−iq + i1q + i2q )

The rotor flux linkage equations in the d- and q-axis have the following form:
ψf d = −xad · id + (xad + xrld + xf d ) · if d + (xad + xrld ) · i1d
ψ1d = −xad · id + (xad + xrld ) · if d + (xad + xrld + x1d ) · i1d
(38)
ψ1q = −xaq · iq + (xaq + xrlq ) · i2q + (xaq + xrlq + x1q ) · i1q
ψ2q = −xaq · iq + (xaq + xrlq + x2q ) · i2q + (xaq + xrlq ) · i1q

Introducing the subtransient fluxes:

ψd00 = kf d · ψf d + k1d · ψ1d
(39)
ψq00 = k1q · ψ1q + k2q · ψ2q
the stator fluxes can be expressed using subtransient values as:
ψd = −x00d · id + ψd00
(40)
ψq = −x00q · iq + ψq00

Using these definitions for the flux, the stator voltage equations can be rewritten as ([4], [5]):
x00d did
ud = u00d − rstr · id + n · x00q · iq − ·
ωn dt
x00q diq
uq = u00q − rstr · iq − n · x00d · id − · (41)
ωn dt
x0 di0
u0 = −r0 · i0 − ·
ωn dt
where the subtransient voltages are calculated using coupling factors:
 
kf d dψf d k1d dψ1d
u00d = −n · (k1q · ψ1q + k2q · ψ2q ) + · + ·
ωn dt ωn dt
  (42)
k1q dψ1q k2q dψ2q
u00q = n · (kf d · ψf d + k1d · ψ1d ) + · + ·
ωn dt ωn dt

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 24

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

The coupling factors kf d and k1d and the subtransient reactance in the d-axis x00d are defined as:
xad · x1d
kf d =
(xad + xrld ) · (x1d + xf d ) + xf d · x1d
xad · xf d (43)
k1d =
(xad + xrld ) · (x1d + xf d ) + xf d · x1d
x00d = xad + xl − (k1d + kf d ) · xad

The coupling factors k1q and k2q and the subtransient reactance in the q-axis x00q are defined
depending on whether the machine has a round-rotor or salient-pole rotor. For the salient-pole
rotor machine:
xaq
k1q =
xaq + xrlq + x1q
k =0 (44)
2q
x00q = xaq + xl − k1q · xaq
and for the round-rotor machine (similar as for the d-axis) we have the following:
xaq · x2q
k1q =
(xaq + xrlq ) · (x2q + x1q ) + x2q · x1q
xaq · x1q (45)
k2q =
(xaq + xrlq ) · (x2q + x1q ) + x2q · x1q
x00q = xaq + xl − (k2q + k1q ) · xaq

The electrical torque is calculated using the stator currents and stator fluxes and the nominal
power factor cosn:
iq · ψd − id · ψq
te = [p.u.] (46)
cosn

The rotor voltage equations for the d-axis and q-axis have the following form:
1 dψf d
vf d = rf d · if d + ·
ωn dt
1 dψ1d
0 = r1d · i1d + ·
ωn dt
(47)
1 dψ1q
0 = r1q · i1q + ·
ωn dt
1 dψ2q
0 = r2q · i2q + ·
ωn dt

The following expressions are valid for the rotor currents:

x1d loop · ψf d − (xad + xrl ) · ψ1d
if d = kf d · id +
xdet d
xf d loop · ψ1d − (xad + xrl ) · ψf d
i1d = k1d · id +
xdet d
(48)
x2q loop · ψ1q − (xaq + xrlq ) · ψ2q
i1q = k1q · iq +
xdet q
x1q loop · ψ2q − (xaq + xrlq ) · ψ1q
i2q = k2q · iq +
xdet q

where:
xdet d = (xad + xrld ) · (x1d + xf d ) + xf d · x1d
(49)
xdet q = (xaq + xrlq ) · (x2q + x1q ) + x2q · x1q

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 25

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

For a salient pole machine the current in the 2q-damper winding i2q is zero and the current in
the Q-damper winding has the following form:
ψ1q
i1q = k1q · iq + (50)
x1q

In the above equations the following reactances have been used (reactance sum per a winding
loop):

xf d loop = xad + xrld + xf d

x1d loop = xad + xrld + x1d
(51)
x1q loop = xaq + xrlq + x1q
x2q loop = xaq + xrlq + x2q

6.2.1 Equations for the RMS model

The RMS model uses the equations presented in Section 6.2 where some simplifications are
being done. Normally, for large-scale stability studies the transformer voltage terms and the ef-
fect of speed variations are neglected in the stator voltage equations as discussed in [7]. These
simplifications are also discussed in [3] where it is noted that the speed variation effect should
not be neglected for frequency stability studies especially when studying islanding conditions.
For motor starting applications, refer to the asynchronous starting model in Section 9.

The stator dynamics are relatively fast for stability studies. Therefore, for RMS-simulations,
the derivatives of the stator quantities (transformer voltage terms) are not considered in the
equations. This allows also using bigger time steps compared to the EMT model. Taking into
account this simplification, the stator voltage Equations 41 and 42 can be written as:

ud = u00d − rstr · id + n · x00q · iq

(52)
uq = u00q − rstr · iq − n · x00d · id

where the subtransient voltages are calculated as:

u00d = −n · ψq00
(53)
u00q = n · ψd00

Additional simplification can be made to the model by modifying the effect of the speed variation
on the stator voltages (option available on the Advanced tab of the RMS-Simulation page of
the TypSym edit dialog). Depending on the option selected, Equation 52 and Equation 53 are
modified as follows:

• Effect of speed variation considered

The equations have the form as already presented and the speed is considered in the
equations.
• Effect of speed variation neglected
The speed is set equal to the initial speed in both equations. It is assumed that the speed
changes are small and they don’t have a big effect on the stator voltage [7]. The model is
valid for speed deviations around initial speed.
• Effect of speed variation partially neglected
The speed n is set to initial speed when multiplying with the sub-transient reactances and
stator currents (only in Equation 52). The speed variation is considered when multiplying
the sub-transient fluxes.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 26

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

Another available option is to select an extended model [8] (Advanced tab of the RMS-Simulation
page). This model provides an approximation of the rotor back-swing effect. It is using an iter-
ative time scale separation and is based on the singular perturbation theory. The difference to
the standard model is that in the extended model the electrical and mechanical state variables
need to be corrected for every time step of the RMS simulation. The following corrections are
applied to the rotor fluxes and rotor speed:
∆ψfkd = −rf d /x00d · ∆ψqk
k
∆ψ1d = −r1d /x00d · ∆ψqk
k
∆ψ1q = r1q /x00q · ∆ψdk
(54)
k
∆ψ2q = r2q /x00q · ∆ψdk
∆ψdk /x00d · (kf d · ψf d + k1d · ψ1d ) + ∆ψqk /x00q · (ψ1q · k1q + ψ2q · k2q )
∆nk =
2 · π · fnom · tag · cosn

where the variation of the stator fluxes ψd and ψq over a time step is:
∆ψdk = ψdk − ψdk−1
(55)
∆ψqk = ψqk − ψqk−1

The level of saturation depends on the magnetising fluxes ψad and ψaq . The magnetisation
fluxes are calculated differently dependent on the selected speed variation effect option:

• Magnetisation flux when the effect of speed variation is considered

The magnetising fluxes ψad and ψaq are calculated from Equation 36 and the magnitude
of the magnetisation flux is calculated as:
q
ψm = (ψd + xl · id )2 + (ψq + xl · iq )2 (56)

• Magnetisation flux when the effect of speed variation is neglected or partially neglected
It is assumed that the magnetising flux is equal to the magnetising voltage (speed has
nominal value). This leads to the following simplification using the terminal voltage and
current:

ψad ≈ uq + rstr · iq + xl · id (57)

ψaq ≈ −(ud + rstr · id ) + xl · iq (58)
q
ψm ≈ um = ψad2 + ψ2 (59)
aq

In the case of unbalanced RMS simulation, additionally the negative sequence, the zero se-
quence and neutral equations (if neutral is connected) have to be satisfied.

The negative sequence equations take into account the negative sequence impedance of the
model as shown in Equation 60. Depending on the type of study, the studied phenomena of
interest can be strongly influenced by the value of the negative sequence impedance. Therefore,
it is worth noting that this value is not constant [7].

u2 = −(r2sy +  · x2sy ) · i2 (60)

If the machine has ’YN’ connection (type parameter nslty), the zero sequence impedance
r0sy +  · x0sy can be entered in the model. The internal grounding impedance and neutral
connection information can be also defined (Grounding/Neutral Conductor tab of the Basic
Data page of ElmSym). The internal grounding impedance per unit values are calculated as
(resy +  · xesy )/zb = re +  · xe using the base impedance zb = ugn2 /sgn (ugn is the nominal
voltage of the machine and sgn is the nominal apparent power).

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 27

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

Three different cases can be distinguished depending on the neutral conductor and internal
grounding impedance connection modes:

• No neutral connection and internal grounding impedance connected

In this case there is need only for zero sequence equations:
u0 = −(r0sy +  · x0sy ) · i0 − 3 · (re +  · xe ) · i0 (61)

• N-connection at terminal (ABC-N)

When a neutral conductor is connected, zero sequence and equations for the neutral are
required. Here two sub-cases are possible:
– Internal grounding impedance not connected
u0 = −(r0sy +  · x0sy ) · i0 + un (62)
0 = 3 · i0 + in (63)

– Internal grounding impedance connected

u0 = −(r0sy +  · x0sy ) · i0 + un (64)
un = −(re +  · xe ) · (3 · i0 + in ) (65)

• N-connection at separate terminal (internal grounding impedance is never connected)

u0 = −(r0sy +  · x0sy ) · i0 + un (66)
0 = 3 · i0 + in (67)

6.2.2 Equations for the EMT model

For the EMT model, the stator voltage equations are rewritten ([4], [5]) to be based on the stator
αβ0 stationary reference frame.

The following equations are obtained for the stator voltage uαβ = uα +  · uβ :
x00 diαβ x00 di∗αβ
uαβ = u00αβ − rstr · iαβ −  · 2 · n · x00∆ · e·2·ϕ · i∗αβ − · − ∆ · e·2·ϕ ·
ωn dt ωn dt
(68)
x0 di0
u0 = −r0 · i0 − ·
ωn dt
where the subtransient voltage is calculated by transforming the subtransient voltages in the dq
axis (from Equation 42) to the αβ0 stationary reference frame using the rotor position angle ϕ:
u00αβ = (u00d +  · u00q ) · e·ϕ (69)

x00d − x00q x00 + x00q

In the above equations, x00∆ and x00 are calculated as: x00∆ = and x00 = d .
2 2
The level of saturation depends on the magnetising fluxes ψad and ψaq which are calculated
from Equation 36. The magnitude of the magnetisation flux is calculated as:
q
ψm = (ψd + xl · id )2 + (ψq + xl · iq )2 (70)

Same as for the RMS simulation, if the Connection is set to ’YN’ (type parameter nslty), the
zero sequence parameters can be entered and the internal grounding impedance and neutral
connection information can be defined.

Three different cases can be distinguished depending on the neutral conductor and internal
grounding impedance connection modes:

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 28

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

• No neutral connection and internal grounding impedance connected

In this case there is need only for a zero sequence equation:

1 di0
u0 = −(r0 + 3 · re ) · i0 − (x0 + 3 · xe ) · · (71)
hpi dt

• N-connection at terminal (ABC-N)

When a neutral conductor is connected, a zero sequence and an equation for the neutral
are required. Here two sub-cases are possible:
– Internal grounding impedance not connected

1 di0
u0 = −r0 · i0 − x0 · · + un (72)
hpi dt
0 = 3 · i0 + in (73)

– Internal grounding impedance connected

1 di0
u0 = −r0 · i0 − x0 · · + un (74)
hpi dt
 
xe di0 din
un = −re · (3 · i0 + in ) − · 3· + (75)
hpi dt dt

• N-connection at separate terminal (internal grounding impedance is never connected)

1 di0
u0 = −r0 · i0 − x0 · · + un (76)
hpi dt
0 = 3 · i0 + in (77)

6.2.3 Mechanical Equations

The speed derivative dn/dt of the machine is calculated using the following equation:
 tm − te − tdkd − tdpe
 [p.u.] for generators
tag


dn 
= (78)
dt 
 −tm − te − tdkd − tdpe

 [p.u.] for motors
tag

where:

• tm is the mechanical torque in [p.u.];

• te is the electrical torque in [p.u.] calculated according to Equation 46;
• tdkd is damping torque in [p.u.]

• tdpe is damping torque based on power in [p.u.]

• tag is the acceleration time constant in [s]

From Equation 78 can be seen that, if there is a difference between the torques, the rotor will
be accelerated or decelerated. This equation represents the equation of motion.
dn
In the case of a synchronous motor, if the speed falls under zero, the speed derivative dt is set
to zero so that the motor can not get a negative speed.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 29

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

The base torque is the

 ratio between
 the electrical active power and the nominal mechanical
rad
angular frequency in mech. :
s
sgn · cosn
tbase = [p.u.] (79)
ω0m

6.2.4 Mechanical Torque

The calculation of the mechanical torque tm (parameter xmt) depends on if the machine is
defined as a motor or as a generator:
pt


 − xmdm − dpu · n + addmt [p.u.] for generators
tm = n (80)

xmdm + dpu · n + addmt [p.u.] for motors


where:

• xmdm is the Torque Input input signal in [p.u.];

• addmt is the Additional Torque parameter in [p.u.]. It can be used as an additional MDM
torque for the motor or as an additional pt torque for the generator;
• dpu · n is turbine shaft friction torque in [p.u.];
• pt is the Turbine Power input signal in [p.u.].

6.2.5 Damping Torque

In PowerFactory , the damping torque can be considered in the swing equation by using one (or
more) of the three coefficients available in the synchronous machine type:

• Turbine shaft friction torque coefficient (dpu);

• Damping torque coefficient (dkd);
• Damping torque coefficient based on power (dpe).

The coefficients are used to calculate the damping torques as follows:

• dpu [p.u. torque/p.u. speed] is multiplied by the speed to get the turbine shaft friction torque
(dpu · n) in [p.u.]. It is being considered in Equation 80;
• dkd [p.u. torque/p.u. speed deviation] is used for calculating the Damping torque (param-
eter c : xmdkd) as follows:
tdkd = dkd · (n − nref ) (81)
where nref can be selected to be the nominal speed (1p.u.) of the machine or the speed
of the local reference machine. The damping torque is being considered in Equation 78;
• dpe [p.u. power/p.u. speed deviation] is used for calculating the Damping torque based on
power (parameter c : xmdpe) as follows:
dpe
tdpe = · (n − nref ) (82)
n
where nref can be selected to be the nominal speed (1p.u.) of the machine or the speed
of the local reference machine. The damping torque based on power is being considered
in Equation 78;

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 30

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

If the speed deviation for the damping torque tdkd and tdpe is calculated based on the nominal
speed of the machine, it follows that:

• If the machine operates at nominal speed, the damping torque will be zero.
• If the speed of the machine deviates from the nominal speed, the damping torque will tend
to return the machines speed towards nominal speed.

If the calculated speed deviation is based on the local reference machine speed (only available
for RMS-simulations), it follows that:

• If the machine is the reference machine, the damping torque will be zero.
• If the speed of the machine deviates from the speed of the reference machine, the damp-
ing torque will tend to return the machines speed towards the speed of the reference
machine.

The damping torque based on power can be used to represents the change of electrical load
dependent on frequency, as seen from the machine. This effect is usually included in the load
model.

6.2.6 Acceleration Time Constant

The acceleration time constant tag , which is also referred as the mechanical starting time ([7])
is equal to tag = 2 · H in [s] where H is the inertia constant. In PowerFactory , the user can
choose between entering the acceleration time constant or the inertia constant, either of them
based on the active or on the apparent power of the machine (parameters tag, tags, hpn, h).

The following equation is used for calculating tag from the moment of inertia J:
2
J · ω0m
tag = 2 · H = [s] (83)
sgn · cosn · 1e6
where:

• J is the moment of inertia in [kg · m2 ];

• ω0m is the rated mechanical angular frequency calculated using rated electrical angular
frequency w0 (which uses the nominal frequency) and the number of pole-pairs (cannot
be entered in PowerFactory ) as:
 
ω0 2 · π · fn rad
ω0m = = mech. (84)
pole pairs pole pairs s

• sgn is the Nominal Apparent Power type parameter;

• cosn is the Power Factor type parameter.

In the case of a synchronous motor, also a moment of inertia for a mechanical load can be
entered (RMS- and EMT-Simulation pages of ElmSym). The calculation of tme considers also
the gear ratio (speed ratio) of a gear train. The total acceleration time ttot for the motor is then:
ttot = tag + tme · gear ratio2
 2
J ω0
= tag + · · gear ratio (85)
sgn · cosn · 1e6 pole pairs
J 2
= tag + · (ω0 · gratio) [s]
sgn · cosn · 1e6

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 31

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

where gratio = gear ratio/pole pairs is a parameter which can be entered for the mechan-
ical load. Since for the synchronous machine there is no input parameter for the number of
pole-pairs, this parameter has been introduced within gratio in order that the acceleration time
constants tag and tme have the same base.

6.2.7 Initialisation of the mechanical parameters

The initialisation of the mechanical parameters depends on which input signals are connected
to the model:

• Input signal pt is connected (if xmdm is not connected, then xmdm = 0):

pt = (te + dpu · n + xmdm) · n [p.u.] (86)

• Input signal xmdm is connected:

xmdm = −te − dpu · n [p.u.] (87)

If both input signals pt and xmdm are not connected, then for a generator case xmdm = 0 and
pt is calculated according to Equation 86. For a motor case pt = 0 and xmdm is calculated
according to Equation 87.

The initialisation of the mechanical torque tm (xmt) depends on whether if the machine is de-
fined as a motor or as a generator:
pt


 − (xmdm + dpu · n) [p.u.] for generators
tm = n (88)

xmdm + dpu · n [p.u.] for motors


Per default, the speed n of the machine is initialised to n = 1 [p.u.]. When the circuit-breaker of
a synchronous motor is open and the motor is not spinning, the speed is initialised to zero. This
is useful for motor starting applications in both RMS- and EMT-simulation.

6.3 Rotor Angle Definitions

PowerFactory defines several rotor angles based on different references. Graphical representa-
tion of the rotor angles is given in Figure 6.4.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 32

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

Figure 6.4: Rotor Angle Definitions

The following variables are available:

• f ipol [deg]: Rotor angle of the machine (also called internal rotor angle or load angle).
It is referenced to the local bus voltage, i.e. the terminal voltage, of the generator. It is
calculated as:

f ipol = f i + 90◦ − ϕu [deg] (89)

where ϕu is the voltage angle of the machine terminal m : phiu (or for unbalanced calcu-
lation m : phiu1);
• f irot [deg]: Rotor angle referenced to the reference voltage of the network, i.e. the slack
bus voltage. It is being calculated as:

f irot = f i + 90◦ − ϕini · 180/π − (ϕu ref − ϕini ref · 180/π) [deg] (90)

where ϕu ref is the voltage angle of the reference machine terminal m : phiu (or for
unbalanced calculation m : phiu1), ϕini is the parameter b : phiini (available for terminals)
representing the initial voltage angle of the machine terminal and ϕini ref is the initial
voltage angle of the reference machine terminal. The basic data parameter b : phiini of
the terminal takes into account only the initial dispatch angle of the reference machine and
the vector group phase shift displacement of the transformers (e.g. if the initial dispatch
angle of the reference machine is 0◦ and there is a Dyn5 transformer connected between
the reference machine and the generator,the initial angle of the generator terminal will be
phiini = −210◦ · π/180 = 150◦ · π/180 [rad]);
• f irel [deg]: Rotor angle referenced to the rotor angle of the reference machine, i.e. of the
slack generator. It is the angle between the q-axes (d-axes) of the reference machine and
the generator. df rot [deg] is calculated in the same manner as f irel. The angle f irel is
being calculated according to the following equation:

f irel = f i − ϕini · 180/π − (f iref − ϕini ref · 180/π) [deg] (91)

where f iref is the f i angle of the reference machine;

• f i [deg]: The angle f i is equal to ϕ (phi) expressed in degrees.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 33

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

• phi [rad]: The angle ϕ is the position of the rotor (d-axis) referenced to the reference
voltage of the network. The angle ϕ is a state variable in the model and its time derivative
dϕ/dt is calculated as follows:

ω · (n − fref ) [rad] in the RMS simulation
dϕ  n
= (92)
dt
ωn · n [rad] in the EMT simulation


where fref is an input signal connected to the reference machine frequency automatically
by PowerFactory .
The state variable ϕ is initialised by first calculating the q-axis angle and then shifting this
angle for 90◦ :
π
ϕ = arctan (ut + (rstr +  · xq ) · it ) − [rad] (93)
2
where ut is the terminal voltage of the machine, rstr is the stator resistance, xq is the
q-axis synchronous reactance of the machine and it is the current flowing through the
machine.
For the reference machine (slack), the reference frequency is equal to the speed (fref =
n), so the derivative of the angle is set to zero ( dϕ
dt = 0). When the reference systems
of two separated areas are merged using the pre-synchronising event (EvtPresync), the
input signal fref of one reference machine is connected to the main reference machine
automatically.

6.3.1 Out of step detection

The out of step detection (pole slip) is based on the angle f irel (rotor angle of the machine in
respect ro the rotor angle of the local reference machine). The machine is out of step when
the rotor angle changes 360 degrees from its original operating point. When this happens, an
out of step message is printed in the output window and the output signal outof step is set to
one. To reset the out of step signal, the value of the parameter slipreset needs to be changed
using a parameter event to slipreset = 1 . The out of step detection is carried out only for RMS
simulation.

If the machine is the local reference machine, then f irel remains zero and no out of step can
be detected.

6.4 Saturation

The model described so far is a purely linear model not considering any saturation effects. Gen-
erally, there exists saturation for all reactances of the synchronous machine model. However,
for the purpose of system analysis, main flux saturation can be considered in the model by
considering saturation of the mutual (magnetising) reactances xad and xaq .

Figure 6.5 shows a main-flux saturation curve (full line). The linear line represents the air-gap
line indicating the excitation current required to overcome the reluctance of the air-gap. The
degree of saturation is the deviation of the open-circuit characteristic from the air-gap line. The
y-axis is the terminal voltage in [p.u.] and the x-axis is the excitation current in [p.u.].

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 34

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

Figure 6.5: Open-circuit saturation characteristic

The extent of main flux saturation is different in the d- and q-axis. The saturation data usually
provided is the open circuit saturation characteristic (Figure 6.5) which represents the saturation
in the d-axis. In power system studies this data is being used to calculate the main flux saturation
in the d-axis for salient-pole machines and the main flux saturation in the d- and q-axis in the
case of round-rotor machines [7].

Measurements of the saturation in the q-axis of a round-rotor machines [1], have shown that
the q-axis saturates in a greater extent compared to the d-axis (Figure 6.6). The model in
PowerFactory supports data for separate saturation in the d- and q-axis.

The saturation curve of the main-flux can be defined in PowerFactory by a:

• Quadratic function using parameters SG10 and SG12 ;

• Exponential function using parameters SG10 and SG12 ;
• Smoothed curve with point-pairs of terminal voltage and the corresponding field current or
SG(u) entered in a table (Tabular Input).

In all cases, a saturation coefficient csat is calculated which is used for the calculation of the sat-
uration factors in the d- and q-axis satd and satq . The saturated values of the mutual reactances
are then calculated as:
xad = satd · xadu
(94)
xaq = satq · xaqu

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 35

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

Figure 6.6: d- and q-axis saturation characteristics

When entering the saturation data in the table, the data has to be based on the non-reciprocal
system of the appropriate axis which yields a slope of the air-gap line equal to one. For example,
when entering d-axis saturation data a non-reciprocal system based on the unsaturated value
of the d-axis mutual reactance needs to be used. For the q-axis, a non-reciprocal system based
on the unsaturated value of the q-axis mutual reactance needs to be used. When using the
quadratic or the exponential function, the curve is automatically based on the corresponding
non-reciprocal p.u. system.

The saturation of stator leakage reactance is a current-dependent saturation, i.e. high currents
after short-circuits will lead to a saturation effect of the leakage reactance. Because the use
of unsaturated subtransient reactances would therefore lead to underestimated maximum short
circuit currents, it is recommended to use saturated values for x00d and x00q (“saturated” refers here
to current saturation).

For all other parameters (transient and synchronous reactance), unsaturated values should be
entered.

6.4.1 Saturation coefficient calculation

• Saturation curve defined using a quadratic or exponential function

The function can be defined specifying the excitation current i1.0p.u. and i1.2p.u. needed
to obtain 1.0 p.u. and 1.2 p.u. of the rated generator voltage under no-load conditions
(Figure 6.5). With these values the parameters SG10 and SG12 can be calculated as:
i1.0
SG10 = −1 (95)
i0
i1.2
SG12 = −1 (96)
1.2 · i0
– Quadratic:
Based on the two parameters SG10 and SG12 , a quadratic approximation is applied
and the csat coefficient is calculated as:
 2
 Bg · (ψM − Ag )

 if ψM > Ag
csat = ψm (97)


0 if ψM ≤ Ag


Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 36

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

where:
r
SG12
1.2 − 1.2 ·
SG10
Ag = r (98)
SG12
1 − 1.2 ·
SG10
SG10
Bg = (99)
(1 − Ag )2

– Exponential:
Based on the same parameters SG10 and SG12 , an exponential approximation is
applied and the csat coefficient is calculated as:
exp
SG10 · ψm
csat = (100)
ψm
where the exponent is defined as:
 
SG12
ln 1.2 ·
SG10
exp = (101)
ln(1.2)

• Saturation curve defined using tabular input

A smoothed curve is being created from the entered point-pairs and the Smoothing Factor
(parameter smoothf ac in [%]) csat is calculated as:

f (x,y,ψm )
csat = (102)
ψm

with x(i) = satv(i) and y(i) = satse(i) · satv(i).

The calculation of the excitation current if d [%] from satse [p.u.] (SG(u)) and vice-versa is
done according to:

if d = (satse + 1) · ψm · 100
if d /100 (103)
satse = −1
ψm

6.4.2 Options for calculating the saturation factors

One of the following saturation options can be selected for the synchronous machine type in
PowerFactory :

• d- and q-axis (flux magnitude) saturation

This common saturation option is normally used for the round-rotor machine when only
the open-circuit characteristic is available, which is normally the case (d-axis).
Using the magnitude of the magnetisation flux (calculated according to Equation 59 or 70),
the saturation coefficient csat is being determined. Then, the saturation factors are calcu-
lated as follows:
1
satd =
1 + csat
1 (104)
satq = xaqu
1+ · csat
xadu
where the xadu and xaqu are the unsaturated values of the mutual reactances.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 37

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

• d-axis (flux magnitude) saturation

This option is normally used for the salient-rotor machine when only the open-circuit char-
acteristic is available. The saturation coefficient is calculated same as in the previous
options and the saturation factors have the following form:
1
satd =
1 + csat (105)
satq = 1

• d- and q-axis (flux components) separate saturation

When the characteristics for the d- and q-axis are available, a saturation coefficient is
calculated from each characteristic. For this option, the magnitude of the magnetisation
flux is not used, but its d- and q-axis components appropriately.
The saturation factors are calculated as:
1
satd =
1 + csatd
(106)
1
satq =
1 + csatq

• d-axis (flux component, d-axis) separate saturation

This case is analogue to the d-axis (flux magnitude) case, with the difference that here,
instead of the flux magnitude, the d-axis component of the magnetising flux is being used.
Since the d-axis component has a different form compared to the magnitude of the mag-
netising flux, the saturation will be somewhat different.
The saturation factors are calculated as in Equation 105.

6.5 Excitation system interfacing

All the quantities until now have been based on the standard “xadu” reciprocal p.u. system. The
excitation current in the reciprocal system if d is being initialised as if d = ((xad +xl )·id +ψd )/xad .

6.5.1 Default equations

Excitation system models are usually referred to a non-reciprocal rotor p.u. system of the ma-
chine model (more information can be found in Section 6.6.1 of [7]).

For easier interfacing with the excitation system, the excitation current output signal ie and the
excitation voltage input signal ve can be used which are based on a non-reciprocal p.u. system.
This p.u. system can be also referred to as a no load, no saturation p.u.-system. Under no-load,
steady-state and rated speed conditions, excitation current of ie = 1 p.u. is required to produce
1 p.u. stator voltage on the air-gap line. Excitation voltage of ve = 1 p.u. is the corresponding
excitation voltage. If saturation is used, the values will be higher.

The excitation current ie (output signal) in the non-reciprocal p.u. system is calculated from the
excitation current in the reciprocal system if d as:
ie = xadu · if d (107)

From the excitation voltage input signal ve in the non-reciprocal p.u. system, uf d is calculated
as:
rf d
vf d = · ve (108)
xadu

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 38

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

The excitation voltage input signal is being initialised as:

ve = ie (109)

6.5.2 Modified equations

The user can select between several excitation base system modes in the RMS-Simulation and
EMT-Simulation pages of the ElmSym. The default option is the air gap line mode and it has
been described above.

By selecting a different mode, the value of the parameter if dBase is being modified. Additionally
the user can enter the efdBaseRatio which is the ratio between the exciter rated voltage and the
machine excitation rated voltage.

With these two parameters, the equations for the excitation current and voltage (Equations 107
and 108) obtain a new form:
 
1
ie = xadu · if d · (110)
if dBase

rf d
vf d = · ve · (if dBase · ef dBaseRatio ) (111)
xadu
and similarily, for the initialisation of excitation voltage input signal the following is obtained:
 
1
ve = ie · (112)
ef dBaseRatio

In total there are three different modes available in PowerFactory for configuring the interface to
the excitation system:

• Air gap line mode (no load system without saturation)

This mode is the default in PowerFactory and it has been described above. In this mode
if dBase = 1 and Equation 110 becomes equal to Equation 107.
• No load system with saturation mode
Under no-load, steady-state and rated speed conditions, excitation current of ie = 1 p.u. is
required to produce 1 p.u. stator voltage for the machine with saturation. Excitation voltage
of ve = 1 p.u. is the corresponding excitation voltage.
In this mode if dBase = 1/satd where satd is being calculated for 1 p.u. magnetisation
voltage.
• Full load system with saturation mode
Under full load, steady-state and rated speed conditions, excitation current of ie = 1 p.u. is
required to produce 1 p.u. stator voltage for the machine with saturation. Excitation voltage
of ve = 1 p.u. is the corresponding excitation voltage.
In this mode if dBase corresponds to the excitation current calculated for full load conditions
(equal to ve rated ).

In previous versions of PowerFactory the rotor currents and fluxes of the standard model were
based on the non-reciprocal p.u. system. For compatibility reasons, these quantities are still
available only for the standard model:
iD = xadu · i1d
iQ = xaqu · i1q (113)
ix = xaqu · i2q

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 39

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

xadu
ψe = · ψf d
xf d loop u
xadu
ψD = · ψ1d
x1d loop u
xaqu (114)
ψQ = · ψ1q
x1q loop u
xaqu
ψx = · ψ2q
x2q loop u

where the reactance sums xf d loop u , x1d loop u , x1q loop u and x2q loop u are calculated as in
Equation 51 where xad is being replaced with its unsaturated value xadu and xaq with xaqu.

6.6 Delta Speed Input Signal

The input signal dw (delta speed) can be used to calculated sub-synchronous oscillations be-
tween DC links and synchronous generators. See also IEEE 1204 (Guide for planning DC
links).

The speed can be modified with the additional input signal dw, e.g. connect to Fourier source.
With the new signal it is possible to calculate the damping of a generator connected on a DC
links over a frequency range.

Figure 6.7: Application for Delta Speed input signal

If the dw input signal is connected, the parameter tag (Acceleration Time Constant) is internally
set to ∞.

The input signal dw is per default initialised to zero and modifies the speed as n0 = n + dw.

The dw input signal is available for the RMS- and the EMT-Simulation for all generator models

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 40

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

except the classical model.

6.7 Inputs/Outputs/State Variables of the Dynamic Model

6.7.1 Stability Model (RMS)

Table 6.3: Input Definition of the RMS-Model

Input Signal Symbol Description Unit

ve ve Excitation voltage p.u.
pt Turbine power p.u.
xmdm Torque input p.u.
fref fref Reference frequency p.u.
freflocal Reference frequency of local reference machine p.u.
dw Delta speed p.u.

Table 6.4: State Variables Definition of the RMS-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

psifd ψf d Excitation flux p.u.
psi1d ψ1d Flux in 1d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
psi1q ψ1q Flux in 1q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
psi2q ψ2q Flux in 2q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
speed n Speed p.u.
phi ϕ Rotor position angle rad

Table 6.5: Output Definition of the RMS-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

ut |ut | Terminal Voltage, Magnitude p.u.
utr Terminal Voltage, Real Part p.u
uti Terminal Voltage, Imaginary Part p.u.
pgt Electrical Power (based on rated active power) p.u.
ie ie Excitation Current (in non-reciprocal p.u. system) p.u.
xphi Rotor Angle (xphi = phi) rad
xspeed Speed (xspeed = speed) p.u.
xme te Electrical Torque p.u.
xmt tm Mechanical Torque p.u.
cur1 |it | Positive-Sequence Current, Magnitude p.u.
cur1r Positive-Sequence Current, Real Part p.u.
cur1i Positive-Sequence Current, Imaginary Part p.u.
P1 Positive-Sequence, Active Power MW
Q1 Positive-Sequence, Reactive Power Mvar
fe Frequency Output (f e = xspeed) p.u.
outofstep Out of step (pole slip) is “1” if generator is out of
step and “0” otherwise

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 41

6 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Standard Model

6.7.2 EMT-Model

Table 6.6: Input Definition of the EMT-Model

Input Signal Symbol Description Unit

ve ve Excitation Voltage p.u.
pt Turbine Power p.u.
xmdm Torque Input p.u.
dw Delta speed p.u.

Table 6.7: State Variables Definition of the EMT-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

psifd ψf d Excitation flux p.u.
psi1d ψ1d Flux in 1d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
psi1q ψ1q Flux in 1q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
psi2q ψ2q Flux in 2q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
speed n Speed p.u.
phi ϕ Rotor position angle rad

Table 6.8: Output Definition of the EMT-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

ussd u00d Subtransient Voltage, d-axis p.u.
ussq u00q Subtransient Voltage, q-axis p.u.
ut |ut | Terminal Voltage, Magnitude p.u.
utr Terminal Voltage, Real Part p.u
uti Terminal Voltage, Imaginary Part p.u.
pgt Electrical Power (based on rated active power) p.u.
ie ie Excitation Current (in non-reciprocal p.u. system) p.u.
xphi Rotor Angle (xphi = phi) rad
xspeed n Speed (xspeed = speed) p.u.
xme te Electrical Torque p.u.
xmt tm Mechanical Torque p.u.
cur1 |it | Positive-Sequence Current, Magnitude p.u.
cur1r Positive-Sequence Current, Real Part p.u.
cur1i Positive-Sequence Current, Imaginary Part p.u.
P1 Positive-Sequence, Active Power MW
Q1 Positive-Sequence, Reactive Power Mvar
fe Frequency Output (f e = xspeed) p.u.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 42

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3

The 3.3 model is a more detailed model compared to the standard model. It requires more input
data and can be used for more detailed studies. In this case, the EMT model is to be preferred
since there are no simplifications done as in the RMS model.

The rotor d-axis is modelled by three rotor loops representing the excitation and two damper
windings. The rotor q-axis is also modelled with three rotor loops. According to the designation
in [3], this model is referred to as 3.3 model. The model is based on [3] and [1]. Using high
values for the impedance of certain branches, models with varying degrees of complexity can
be simulated.

Figure 7.1 and Figure 7.2 show the equivalent circuit diagrams of the PowerFactory synchronous
machine model 3.3, which is represented in a rotor reference system (Park coordinates, dq-
reference frame).

Figure 7.1: d-axis equivalent circuit

Figure 7.2: q-axis equivalent circuit

7.1 Input parameters and conversion

The 3.3 model can be used with operational reactances data as given in Table 7.1 or with
equivalent circuit data (model parameters) as given in Table 7.2. Internally the model works
with the equivalent circuit data. If operational reactances data is used, the data is converted to
equivalent circuit data according to the conversion presented in [3].

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 43

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3

Table 7.1: Input data from operational reactances

Name in PF Symbol Unit Description

rstr rstr p.u. Stator resistance
xl xl p.u. Stator leakage reactance
xad xad p.u. Mutual (magnetising) reactance, d-axis
xaq xaq p.u. Mutual (magnetising) reactance, q-axis
t1d, t2d, t3d s Time constants d-axis
t4d, t5d, t6d s Time constants d-axis
t7d, t8d s Time constants d-axis
t1q, t2q, t3q s Time constants q-axis
t4q, t5q, t6q s Time constants q-axis

Table 7.2: Model parameters of the model 3.3 synchronous machine

Name in PF Symbol Unit Description

rstr rstr p.u. Stator resistance
xl xl p.u. Stator leakage reactance
xad xad p.u. Mutual (magnetising) reactance, d-axis
xaq xaq p.u. Mutual (magnetising) reactance, q-axis
xrl xrld p.u. Coupling reactance of all d-axis rotor circuits
xrl2d xrl2d p.u. Coupling reactance between field and 2d damper wind-
ing
x1d x1d p.u. Reactance of 1d-damper winding (d-axis)
r1d r1d p.u. Resistance of 1d-damper winding (d-axis)
x2d x2d p.u. Reactance of 2d-damper winding (d-axis)
r2d r2d p.u. Resistance of 2d-damper winding (d-axis)
xf d xf d p.u. Reactance of field winding (d-axis)
rf d rf d p.u. Resistance of field winding (d-axis)
x1q x1q p.u. Reactance of 1q-damper winding (q-axis)
r1q r1q p.u. Resistance of 1q-damper winding (q-axis)
x2q x2q p.u. Reactance of 2q-damper winding (q-axis)
r2q r2q p.u. Resistance of 2q-damper winding (q-axis)
x3q x3q p.u. Reactance of 3q-damper winding (q-axis)
r3q r3q p.u. Resistance of 3q-damper winding (q-axis)

The synchronous reactances can be obtained as follows:

xd = xl + xad
(115)
xq = xl + xaq

7.2 Model equations

The rotor variables are referred to the stator windings and the equations are written using the
rotor reference frame in generator orientation.

In the case of balanced RMS simulation, the available simulated values are positive sequence
complex values. In the case of unbalanced RMS simulation, the available complex phase val-
ues for currents and voltages are first transformed into symmetrical components. For transform-
ing to the dq-reference frame, the variables are shifted by multiplying with the transformation
cos ϕ −  · sin ϕ. The voltages and currents available from the EMT simulation are first trans-
formed from instantaneous values in the αβγ system using the Clarke transformation. The
same transformation as above is used for transforming to the dq rotating reference frame.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 44

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3

The differential equations can be derived based on the equivalent circuit diagrams according to
Figure 7.1 to Figure 7.2, .

The PowerFactory synchronous machine model for RMS simulations uses the rotor currents,
magnetisation fluxes, the speed n and the angle ϕ as state variables. The EMT model uses two
more state variables (stator fluxes ψd and ψq ).

The stator voltage equations can be described as follows:

1 dψd
ud = −rstr · id − n · ψq + ·
ωn dt
1 dψq
uq = −rstr · iq + n · ψd + · (116)
ωn dt
1 dψ0
u0 = −rstr · i0 + ·
ωn dt
where n is the speed of the rotor and ωn = 2 · π · fnom is the nominal angular frequency.

The rotor voltage equations for the d-axis and q-axis have the following form:

1 dψ1d
0 = r1d · i1d + ·
ωn dt
1 dψ2d
0 = r2d · i2d + · (117)
ωn dt
1 dψf d
vf d = if d · rf d + ·
ωn dt

1 dψ1q
0 = r1q · i1q + ·
ωn dt
1 dψ2q
0 = r2q · i2q + · (118)
ωn dt
1 dψ3q
0 = r3q · i3q + ·
ωn dt

For completing the model, the stator and rotor flux linkage equations in the d- and q-axis are
required:

ψd = −(xl + xad ) · id + xad · i1d + xad · i2d + xad · if d = ψad − xl · id

(119)
ψq = −(xl + xaq ) · iq + xaq · i1q + xaq · i2q + xaq · i3q = ψaq − xl · iq

ψ1d = ψad + (xrld + x1d ) · i1d + xrld · i2d + xrld · if d

ψ2d = ψad + xrld · i1d + (xrld + xrl2d + x2d ) · i2d + (xrld + xrl2d ) · if d (120)
ψf d = ψad + xrld · i1d + (xrld + xrl2d ) · i2d + (xrld + xrl2d + xf d ) · if d

ψ1q = ψaq + x1q · i1q

ψ2q = ψaq + x2q · i2q (121)
ψ3q = ψaq + x3q · i3q

where ψad and ψaq are the d- and q-axis components of the magnetising flux:

ψad = xad · (−id + i1d + i2d + if d )

(122)
ψaq = xaq · (−iq + i1q + i2q + i3q )

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 45

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3

The electrical torque is calculated using the stator currents and stator fluxes and the nominal
power factor cosn:
iq · ψd − id · ψq
te = [p.u.] (123)
cosn

7.2.1 Equations for the RMS model

The equations from Section 7.2 are used for the RMS model where several simplifications have
been made for the stator voltage equations.

The stator dynamics are relatively fast for stability studies. Therefore, for RMS-simulations, the
derivatives of the stator quantities are not considered in the equations. Taking into account this
simplification, the stator voltage Equations 116 can be written as:
ud = −rstr · id − n · ψq
(124)
uq = −rstr · iq + n · ψd

Similar as in the standard PowerFactory RMS model, additional simplification can be made to
the model by modifying the effect of the speed variation on the stator voltages (option located
on the Advanced tab of the RMS-Simulation page of the TypSym edit dialog). Depending on
the option selected, Equation 124 is modified as follows:

• Effect of speed variation considered

The equations have the form as already presented and the speed is considered in the
equations.
• Effect of speed variation neglected
The speed is set equal to the initial speed in both equations. It is assumed that the speed
changes are small and they don’t have a big effect on the stator voltage [7]. The model is
then valid for speed deviations around initial speed.

In the case of unbalanced RMS simulation the same neutral, zero and negative sequence equa-
tions have to be satisfied as in Section 6.2.1.

For the unbalanced RMS simulation, the model 3.3 takes into account also a negative sequence
torque into the equation of motion (Equation 78). The electrical torque te is the sum of the pos-
itive and negative sequence torques. The positive sequence torque te1 is calculated according
to 123. The negative sequence torque is calculated as:
(r2sy − rstr ) · i22
te2 = [p.u.] (125)
cosn

7.2.2 Equations for the EMT model

For the EMT model, there are no changes made to the equations presented in Section 7.2.

For the EMT simulation, the neutral and negative sequence equations that have to be satisfied
are the same as in Section 6.2.2.

7.2.3 Mechanical Equations, Rotor Angles and Delta Speed Input Signal

The mechanical equations, together with the definitions for mechanical torque, damping torque
and acceleration time constant is described in Section 6.2.3.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 46

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3

The rotor angle definitions are identical to the definitions presented in Section 6.3.

The functionality of the delta speed input signal dw is given in Section 6.6.

7.3 Saturation

The model described so far is a purely linear model not considering any saturation effects. Gen-
erally, there exists saturation for all reactances of the synchronous machine model. However,
for the purpose of system analysis, main flux saturation can be considered in the model by
considering saturation of the mutual (magnetising) reactances xad and xaq .

The main-flux saturation and the available options are identical to what is described in Sec-
tion 6.4.

The saturation of stator leakage reactance is a current-dependent saturation, i.e. high currents
after short-circuits will lead to a saturation effect of the leakage reactance. The modelling of the
current dependency of the stator leakage reactance is supported by the Model 3.3 synchronous
machine in PowerFactory . The data can be entered using tabular input of point-pairs of current
and reactance. The data is then transformed to a smoothed curve with a piece-wise linear
function using the dependency curve smoothing factor.

On every simulation step the stator reactance is determined from the curve for a specific value
of the magnitude of the dq-stator current (zero sequence current is neglected):
q 
xl = xl curve i2d + i2q (126)

7.4 Excitation system interfacing

Refer to Section 6.5.

7.5 Inputs/Outputs/State Variables of the Dynamic Model

7.5.1 Stability Model (RMS)

Table 7.3: Input Definition of the RMS-Model

Input Signal Symbol Description Unit

ve ve Excitation voltage p.u.
pt Turbine power p.u.
xmdm Torque input p.u.
fref fref Reference frequency p.u.
freflocal Reference frequency of local reference machine p.u.
dw Delta speed p.u.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 47

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3

Table 7.4: State Variables Definition of the RMS-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

i1d i1d Current in 1d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
i2d i2d Current in 2d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
ifd if d Current in field winding (excitation flux), d-axis p.u.
i1q i1q Current in 1q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
i2q i2q Current in 2q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
i3q i3q Current in 3q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
psiad ψad Magnetisation flux, d-axis p.u.
psiaq ψaq Magnetisation flux, q-axis p.u.
speed n Speed p.u.
phi ϕ Rotor position angle rad

Table 7.5: Output Definition of the RMS-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

ut ut Terminal Voltage p.u.
utr Terminal Voltage, Real Part p.u
uti Terminal Voltage, Imaginary Part p.u.
pgt Electrical Power (based on rated active power) p.u.
ie ie Excitation Current (in non-reciprocal p.u. system) p.u.
xphi Rotor Angle (xphi = phi) rad
xspeed Speed (xspeed = speed) p.u.
xme te Electrical Torque p.u.
xmt tm Mechanical Torque p.u.
cur1 |it | Positive-Sequence Current, Magnitude p.u.
cur1r Positive-Sequence Current, Real Part p.u.
cur1i Positive-Sequence Current, Imaginary Part p.u.
P1 Positive-Sequence, Active Power MW
Q1 Positive-Sequence, Reactive Power Mvar
fe Frequency Output (f e = xspeed) p.u.
outofstep Out of step (pole slip) is “1” if generator is out of
step and “0” otherwise

7.5.2 EMT-Model

Table 7.6: Input Definition of the EMT-Model

Input Signal Symbol Description Unit

ve ve Excitation Voltage p.u.
pt Turbine Power p.u.
xmdm Torque Input p.u.
dw Delta speed p.u.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 48

7 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Model 3.3

Table 7.7: State Variables Definition of the EMT-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

i1d i1d Current in 1d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
i2d i2d Current in 2d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
ifd if d Current in field winding (excitation flux), d-axis p.u.
i1q i1q Current in 1q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
i2q i2q Current in 2q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
i3q i3q Current in 3q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
psiad ψad Magnetisation flux, d-axis p.u.
psiaq ψaq Magnetisation flux, q-axis p.u.
psid ψd Stator flux, d-axis p.u.
psiq ψq Stator flux, q-axis p.u.
speed n Speed p.u.
phi ϕ Rotor position angle rad

Table 7.8: Output Definition of the EMT-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

ut ut Terminal Voltage p.u.
utr Terminal Voltage, Real Part p.u
uti Terminal Voltage, Imaginary Part p.u.
pgt Electrical Power (based on rated active power) p.u.
ie ie Excitation Current (in non-reciprocal p.u. system) p.u.
xphi Rotor Angle (xphi = phi) rad
xspeed n Speed (xspeed = speed) p.u.
xme te Electrical Torque p.u.
xmt tm Mechanical Torque p.u.
cur1 |it | Positive-Sequence Current, Magnitude p.u.
cur1r Positive-Sequence Current, Real Part p.u.
cur1i Positive-Sequence Current, Imaginary Part p.u.
P1 Positive-Sequence, Active Power MW
Q1 Positive-Sequence, Reactive Power Mvar
fe Frequency Output (f e = xspeed) p.u.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 49

8 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Classical Model

8 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Classical Model

In comparison with the detailed model explained in Section 6, the classical model is a simplified
model represented by a voltage behind an impedance. The equivalent circuit diagram is shown
in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1: Classical model equivalent circuit

The classical synchronous machine model can be used for representing equivalents of parts of
a system that are not represented in detail or for not so important machines.

The classical model normally refers to a model where ve is constant. In PowerFactory the model
is extended so that ve is defined as a signal input (ve can be varied by a DSL model) and not a
constant quantity.

The definitions of the rotor angles is the same as presented in Section 6.3.

Since it is a simplified model saturation is not taken into account.

8.0.3 Equations for the RMS model

The voltage equation that needs to be satisfied for the RMS simulation is:
ut = −(rstr +  xstr ) · it + ve 6 ϕ (127)
where the amplitude of ue is initialised as:
q
2
ve = (ut + (rstr +  xstr ) · it ) (128)

In the case of unbalanced RMS simulation the same neutral, zero and negative sequence equa-
tions have to be satisfied as in Section 6.2.1.

The mechanical equations are identical to the equations of the detailed synchronous machine
presented in Section 6.2.3. The model uses only two state variables:

• the speed of the machine n in [p.u.];

• the angle ϕ in [rad] which is initialised as in Equation 93 where xq is replaced by xstr .

8.0.4 Equations for the EMT model

In addition to the two state variables used in the RMS model, the EMT model uses two more
state variables for the stator flux. The following equations need to be satisfied:
ψd = ve 6 ϕq − xstr · id
(129)
ψq = −ve 6 ϕd − xstr · iq

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 50

8 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Classical Model

1 dψd
ud = −rstr · id − ψq + ·
ωn dt
(130)
1 dψq
uq = −rstr · iq + ψd + ·
ωn dt
where the amplitude of ve 6 ϕd and ve 6 ϕq are the d and q component of ve (calculated as in 128).

In addition to the above, the neutral and negative sequence equations that need to be satisfied
are the same as in Section 6.2.2.

The mechanical equations are identical to the equations of the detailed synchronous machine
presented in Section 6.2.3.

8.1 Inputs/Outputs/State Variables of the Dynamic Model

8.1.1 Stability Model (RMS)

Table 8.1: Input Definition of the RMS-Model

Input Signal Symbol Description Unit

ve ve Excitation voltage p.u.
pt Turbine power p.u.
xmdm Torque input p.u.
fref fref Reference frequency p.u.
freflocal Reference frequency of local reference machine p.u.

Table 8.2: State Variables Definition of the RMS-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

speed n Speed p.u.
phi ϕ Rotor position angle rad

Table 8.3: Output Definition of the RMS-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

ut |ut | Terminal Voltage, Magnitude p.u.
utr Terminal Voltage, Real Part p.u
uti Terminal Voltage, Imaginary Part p.u.
pgt Electrical Power (based on rated active p.u.
power)
xphi Rotor Angle (xphi = phi) rad
xspeed Speed (xspeed = speed) p.u.
xme te Electrical Torque p.u.
xmt tm Mechanical Torque p.u.
cur1 |it | Positive-Sequence Current, Magnitude p.u.
cur1r Positive-Sequence Current, Real Part p.u.
cur1i Positive-Sequence Current, Imaginary Part p.u.
P1 Positive-Sequence, Active Power MW
Q1 Positive-Sequence, Reactive Power Mvar
fe Frequency Output (f e = xspeed) p.u.
outofstep Out of step (pole slip) is “1” if generator is out
of step and “0” otherwise

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 51

8 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Classical Model

8.1.2 EMT-Model

Table 8.4: Input Definition of the EMT-Model

Input Signal Symbol Description Unit

ve ve Excitation Voltage p.u.
pt Turbine Power p.u.
xmdm Torque Input p.u.

Table 8.5: State Variables Definition of the EMT-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

speed n Speed p.u.
phi ϕ Rotor position angle rad

Table 8.6: Output Definition of the EMT-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

ut |ut | Terminal Voltage, Magnitude p.u.
utr Terminal Voltage, Real Part p.u
uti Terminal Voltage, Imaginary Part p.u.
pgt Electrical Power (based on rated active p.u.
power)
xphi Rotor Angle (xphi = phi) rad
xspeed n Speed (xspeed = speed) p.u.
xme te Electrical Torque p.u.
xmt tm Mechanical Torque p.u.
cur1 |it | Positive-Sequence Current, Magnitude p.u.
cur1r Positive-Sequence Current, Real Part p.u.
cur1i Positive-Sequence Current, Imaginary Part p.u.
P1 Positive-Sequence, Active Power MW
Q1 Positive-Sequence, Reactive Power Mvar
fe Frequency Output (f e = xspeed) p.u.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 52

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model

Compared to the 2.1 model (standard salient machine model), this model requires more input
data because it contains additional impedance branches. The parameters of these branches
are dependent of the square root of the slip and represent eddy-current effects of solid rotor.
This model is suitable for motor starting simulations. For detailed analysis the EMT model is
to be preferred since there are no simplification done as in the RMS model. For example, in
studies where the torque is of true interest, the EMT model is more appropriate.

This model is based on [9]. More information can be found in [10], [11], [12]. In opposite to
[9], where α dictates the imaginary part components of the eddy-current resistances, in Power-
Factory the real and imaginary parts are√to be entered directly. The parameters x1de , r1de , xf de ,
rf de , x1qe and r1qe are all dependent of slip.

Figure 9.1 and Figure 9.2 show the equivalent circuit diagrams of the PowerFactory synchronous
machine model representing eddy-current effects of solid rotor, written in a rotor reference sys-
tem (Park coordinates, dq-reference frame).

Figure 9.1: d-axis equivalent circuit

Figure 9.2: q-axis equivalent circuit

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 53

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model

9.1 Input parameters

The model representing eddy-current effects can be used only with with equivalent circuit data
(model parameters) as given in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1: Model parameters of the model 3.3 synchronous machine

Name in PF Symbol Unit Description

rstr rstr p.u. Stator resistance
xl xl p.u. Stator leakage reactance
xad xad p.u. Mutual (magnetising) reactance, d-axis
xaq xaq p.u. Mutual (magnetising) reactance, q-axis
xrl xrld p.u. Coupling reactance of all d-axis rotor circuits
x1dc x1dc p.u. Coupling reactance between 1d-axis damper windings
x1d x1d p.u. Reactance of 1d-damper winding (d-axis)
r1d r1d p.u. Resistance of 1d-damper winding (d-axis)
x1de x1de p.u. Eddy-current reactance of 1d-damper winding for slip =
1p.u. (d-axis)
r1de r1de p.u. Eddy-current resistance of 1d-damper winding for slip =
1p.u. (d-axis)
xf d xf d p.u. Reactance of excitation (field) winding (d-axis)
rf d rf d p.u. Resistance of excitation (field) winding (d-axis)
xf de xf de p.u. Eddy-current reactance of excitation (field) winding for
slip = 1p.u. (d-axis)
rf de rf de p.u. Eddy-current resistance of excitation (field) winding for
slip = 1p.u. (d-axis)
x1qc x1qc p.u. Coupling reactance between 1q-axis damper windings
x1q x1q p.u. Reactance of 1q-damper winding (q-axis)
r1q r1q p.u. Resistance of 1q-damper winding (q-axis)
x1qe x1qe p.u. Eddy-current reactance of 1q-damper winding for slip =
1p.u. (q-axis)
r1qe r1qe p.u. Eddy-current resistance of 1q-damper winding for slip =
1p.u. (q-axis)

The synchronous reactances can be obtained as follows:

xd = xl + xad
(131)
xq = xl + xaq

9.2 Model equations

The rotor variables are referred to the stator windings and the equations are written using the
rotor reference frame in generator orientation.

In the case of balanced RMS simulation, the available simulated values are positive sequence
complex values. In the case of unbalanced RMS simulation, the available complex phase val-
ues for currents and voltages are first transformed into symmetrical components. For transform-
ing to the dq-reference frame, the variables are shifted by multiplying with the transformation
cos ϕ −  · sin ϕ. The voltages and currents available from the EMT simulation are first trans-
formed from instantaneous values in the αβγ system using the Clarke transformation. The
same transformation as above is used for transforming to the dq rotating reference frame.

Based on the equivalent circuit diagrams according to Figure 9.1 to Figure 9.2, the following
differential equations can be derived.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 54

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model

The PowerFactory synchronous machine model for RMS simulations uses the rotor currents,
magnetisation fluxes, the speed n and the angle ϕ as state variables. The EMT model uses two
more state variables (stator fluxes ψd and ψq ).

The stator voltage equations can be described as follows:

1 dψd
ud = −rstr · id − n · ψq + ·
ωn dt
1 dψq
uq = −rstr · iq + n · ψd + · (132)
ωn dt
1 dψ0
u0 = −rstr · i0 + ·
ωn dt
where n is the speed of the rotor and ωn = 2 · π · fnom is the nominal angular frequency.

The rotor voltage equations for the d-axis and q-axis have the following form:
1 dψ1d
0 = r1d · i1d + ·
ωn dt
1 dψ1de
0 = r1de · i1de + ·
ωn dt
(133)
1 dψf d
vf d = if d · rf d + ·
ωn dt
1 dψf de
0 = if de · rf de + ·
ωn dt

1 dψ1q
0 = r1q · i1q + ·
ωn dt
(134)
1 dψ1qe
0 = r1qe · i1qe + ·
ωn dt

For completing the model, the stator and rotor flux linkage equations in the d- and q-axis are
required:
ψd = ψad − xl · id
(135)
ψq = ψaq − xl · iq

ψ1d = ψad + xrld · (if d + if de ) + (xrld + x1dc ) · i1de + (xrld + x1dc + x1d ) · i1d
ψ1de = ψad + xrld · (if d + if de ) + (xrld + x1dc ) · i1d + (xrld + x1dc + x1de ) · i1de
(136)
ψf d = ψad + xrld · (i1d + i1de ) + (xrld + xf d ) · (if d + if de )
ψf de = ψad + (xrld + xf d ) · if d + (xrld + xf d + xf d e) · if de + xrld · (i1d + i1de )

ψ1q = ψaq + x1qc · i1qe + (x1qc + x1q ) · i1q

(137)
ψ1qe = ψaq + x1qc · i1q + (x1qc + x1qe ) · i1qe

where ψad and ψaq are the d- and q-axis components of the magnetising flux:
ψad = xad · (−id + i1d + i1de + if d + if de )
(138)
ψaq = xaq · (−iq + i1q + i1qe )

The electrical torque is calculated using the stator currents and stator fluxes and the nominal
power factor cosn:
iq · ψd − id · ψq
te = [p.u.] (139)
cosn

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 55

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model

9.2.1 Equations for the RMS model

The equations from Section 9.2 are used for the RMS model where several simplifications have
been made for the stator voltage equations.

The stator dynamics are relatively fast for stability studies. Therefore, for RMS-simulations, the
derivatives of the stator quantities are not considered in the equations. Taking into account this
simplification, the stator voltage Equations 132 can be written as:
ud = −rstr · id − n · ψq
(140)
uq = −rstr · iq + n · ψd

Similar as in the standard PowerFactory RMS model, additional simplification can be made
to the model by modifying the effect of the speed variation on the stator voltages (option
i speedV ar on the Advanced tab of the RMS-Simulation page of TypSym). Depending on the
option selected, Equation 140 is modified as follows:

• Effect of speed variation considered

The equations have the form as already presented and the speed is considered in the
equations.
• Effect of speed variation neglected (recommended option)
The speed is set equal to the initial speed in both equations. It is assumed that the speed
changes are small and they don’t have a big effect on the stator voltage [7]. The model is
then valid for speed deviations around initial speed.

For studies where the torque is of true interest, the EMT model is more appropriate. For RMS
motor starting applications it is highly recommended to neglect the effect of speed variation. In
this case the simulated torque is of similar magnitude as in the EMT case.

In the case of unbalanced RMS simulation the same neutral, zero and negative sequence equa-
tions have to be satisfied as in Section 6.2.1.

For the unbalanced RMS simulation, the model for asynchronous starting takes into account
also a negative sequence torque into the equation of motion (Equation 78). The electrical torque
te is the sum of the positive and negative sequence torques. The positive sequence torque te1
is calculated according to 139. The negative sequence torque is calculated as:

(r2sy − rstr ) · i22

te2 = [p.u.] (141)
cosn

9.2.2 Equations for the EMT model

For the EMT model, there are no changes made to the equations presented in Section 9.2.

For the EMT simulation, the neutral and negative sequence equations that have to be satisfied
are the same as in Section 6.2.2.

When simulating asynchronous starting of a synchronous motor, the rotor angle (see 9.2.3) of
the machine is initialised always with the same value when the circuit-breaker of the machine
is open. This yields one of many possible solutions. The DC components of the simulated
variables depend on the rotor position with respect to the terminal voltage where the machine
will be connected. The DC components can be varied by changing the initial angle of the
reference (for example: synchronous machine, voltage source, external grid) or by modifying
the execution time of the circuit-breaker closing event.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 56

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model

9.2.3 Mechanical Equations, Rotor Angles and Delta Speed Input Signal

The mechanical equations, together with the definitions for mechanical torque, damping torque
and acceleration time constant, are described in Section 6.2.3.

The rotor angle definitions are identical to the definitions presented in Section 6.3.

The functionality of the delta speed input signal dw is given in Section 6.6.

9.2.4 Saturation and parameter dependency

The model described so far is a purely linear model not considering any saturation effects. Gen-
erally, there exists saturation for all reactances of the synchronous machine model. However,
for the purpose of system analysis, main flux saturation can be considered in the model by
considering saturation of the mutual (magnetising) reactances xad and xaq .

The main-flux saturation and the available options are as described in Section 6.4.

The saturation of stator leakage reactance is a current-dependent saturation, i.e. high currents
after short-circuits will lead to a saturation effect of the leakage reactance. The modelling of
the current dependency of the stator leakage reactance is supported by this model of the syn-
chronous machine in PowerFactory . The data can be entered using tabular input of point-pairs
of current and reactance. The data is then transformed to a smoothed curve with a piece-wise
linear function using the dependency curve smoothing factor.

On every simulation step the stator reactance is determined from the curve for a specific value
of the magnitude of the dq-stator current (zero sequence current is neglected):
q 
xl = xl curve i2d + i2q (142)

The additional impedance branches that are introduced to represent eddy-current effects, have
parameters (x1de , r1de , xf de , rf de , x1qe and r1qe ) that are multiplied with the square root of the slip
√
slip. The values entered for this parameters in TypSym need to be for slip = 100%. Internally
the values are being kept and the dependent parameters are always updated according to:
p
x1de = x1de slip100% · slip
p
r1de = r1de slip100% · slip
p
xf de = xf de slip100% · slip
p (143)
rf de = rf de slip100% · slip
p
x1qe = x1qe slip100% · slip
p
r1qe = r1qe slip100% · slip

A threshold for the minimum slip is defined by using the parameter slipmin . By setting this
parameter to 100%, the parameter dependency can be neglected.

9.2.5 Excitation system interfacing

Please refer to Section 6.5.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 57

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model

9.3 Inputs/Outputs/State Variables of the Dynamic Model

9.3.1 Stability Model (RMS)

Table 9.2: Input Definition of the RMS-Model

Input Signal Symbol Description Unit

ve ve Excitation voltage p.u.
pt Turbine power p.u.
xmdm Torque input p.u.
fref fref Reference frequency p.u.
freflocal Reference frequency of local reference machine p.u.
dw Delta speed p.u.

Table 9.3: State Variables Definition of the RMS-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

i1d i1d Current in 1d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
i1de i1de Eddy-current in 1d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
ifd if d Current in field winding (excitation flux), d-axis p.u.
ifde if de Eddy-current in field winding (excitation flux), d-axis p.u.
i1q i1q Current in 1q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
i1qe i1qe Eddy-current in 1q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
psiad ψad Magnetisation flux, d-axis p.u.
psiaq ψaq Magnetisation flux, q-axis p.u.
speed n Speed p.u.
phi ϕ Rotor position angle rad

Table 9.4: Output Definition of the RMS-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

ut ut Terminal Voltage p.u.
utr Terminal Voltage, Real Part p.u
uti Terminal Voltage, Imaginary Part p.u.
pgt Electrical Power (based on rated active power) p.u.
ie ie Excitation Current (in non-reciprocal p.u. system) p.u.
xphi Rotor Angle (xphi = phi) rad
xspeed Speed (xspeed = speed) p.u.
xme te Electrical Torque p.u.
xmt tm Mechanical Torque p.u.
cur1 |it | Positive-Sequence Current, Magnitude p.u.
cur1r Positive-Sequence Current, Real Part p.u.
cur1i Positive-Sequence Current, Imaginary Part p.u.
P1 Positive-Sequence, Active Power MW
Q1 Positive-Sequence, Reactive Power Mvar
fe Frequency Output (f e = xspeed) p.u.
outofstep Out of step (pole slip) is “1” if generator is out of step
and “0” otherwise

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 58

9 RMS- and EMT-Simulation - Asynchronous starting model

9.3.2 EMT-Model

Table 9.5: Input Definition of the EMT-Model

Input Signal Symbol Description Unit

ve ve Excitation Voltage p.u.
pt Turbine Power p.u.
xmdm Torque Input p.u.
dw Delta speed p.u.

Table 9.6: State Variables Definition of the EMT-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

i1d i1d Current in 1d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
i1de i1de Eddy-current in 1d-damper winding, d-axis p.u.
ifd if d Current in field winding (excitation flux), d-axis p.u.
ifde if de Eddy-current in field winding (excitation flux), d-axis p.u.
i1q i1q Current in 1q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
i1qe i1qe Eddy-current in 1q-damper winding, q-axis p.u.
psiad ψad Magnetisation flux, d-axis p.u.
psiaq ψaq Magnetisation flux, q-axis p.u.
psid ψd Stator flux, d-axis p.u.
psiq ψq Stator flux, q-axis p.u.
speed n Speed p.u.
phi ϕ Rotor position angle rad

Table 9.7: Output Definition of the EMT-Model

Parameter Symbol Description Unit

ut ut Terminal Voltage p.u.
utr Terminal Voltage, Real Part p.u
uti Terminal Voltage, Imaginary Part p.u.
pgt Electrical Power (based on rated active power) p.u.
ie ie Excitation Current (in non-reciprocal p.u. system) p.u.
xphi Rotor Angle (xphi = phi) rad
xspeed n Speed (xspeed = speed) p.u.
xme te Electrical Torque p.u.
xmt tm Mechanical Torque p.u.
cur1 |it | Positive-Sequence Current, Magnitude p.u.
cur1r Positive-Sequence Current, Real Part p.u.
cur1i Positive-Sequence Current, Imaginary Part p.u.
P1 Positive-Sequence, Active Power MW
Q1 Positive-Sequence, Reactive Power Mvar
fe Frequency Output (f e = xspeed) p.u.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 59

10 References

10 References

[1] Ontario Hydro, “Determination of Synchronous Machine Stability Study Constants, Volume
2,” Tech. Rep. EL-1424-V2, EPRI, 1980.
[2] P. Dandeno and J. Service, “Experience with translation of turbogenerator operational test
data and corresponding d and q axis stability models, into standard inductance and time
constant forms,” PSCC, 1990.

[3] IEEE, “Guide for Synchronous Generator Modelling Practices and Applications in Power
System Stability Analyses,” Tech. Rep. 1110-2002, IEEE, 2002.
[4] B. Oswald, Netzberechnung 2: Berechnung transienter Vorgänge in Elektroenergiever-
sorgungsnetzen. VDE-Verlag, 1 ed., 1996.

[5] B. Oswald, Berechnung von Drehstromnetzen: Berechnung stationärer und nichtsta-

tionärer Vorgänge mit Symmetrischen Komponenten und Raumzeigern. Springer Vieweg,
2 ed., 2013.
[6] M. Winkler and B. Oswald, “Ermittlung und Dokumentation der Modellparameter für die
Simulation des nichtstationären Betriebsverhaltens von Elektroenergiesystemen,” Wis-
senschaftliche Zeitschrift der Technischen Universität Dresden, vol. 37, no. 4, 1988.
[7] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1994.
[8] I.Erlich and G.Rasulyar, “Quasistationäre Synchronmaschinenmodelle zur Simulation elek-
tromechanischer Ausgleichsvorgänge,” Elektrie, Berlin, vol. 47, no. 9, 1993.

[9] M. Canay, “Equivalent Circuits of Synchronous Machines for Calculating Quantities of the
Rotor during Transient Processes and Asynchronous Starting Part II. Salient-Pole Ma-
chines,” Brown Boveri Rev., vol. 3, 1970.
[10] M. Canay, “Equivalent Circuits of Synchronous Machines for Calculating Quantities of the
Rotor during Transient Processes and Asynchronous Starting Part I. Turbogenerators,”
Brown Boveri Rev., vol. 2, 1969.
[11] M. Canay, “Asynchronous starting of synchronous machines with or without rectifiers in the
field circuit,” Proceedings IEE, vol. 119, no. 12, 1972.
[12] M. Canay, “Physical significance of sub-subtransient quantities in dynamic behaviour of
synchronous machines,” Proceedings IEE, vol. 135, no. 6, 1988.

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 60

List of Figures

List of Figures

2.1 Basic concept of a controlled synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.2 Q(P)-Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.3 Capability curve object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.4 Capability Curve reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.1 Single-phase equivalent circuit diagrams of a generator for short-circuit current

calculations which include the modelling of the field attenuation . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.2 Short-circuit model for a synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5.1 Harmonic load flow impedance model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5.2 Harmonic load flow thevenin equivalent model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5.3 Frequency domain representation of synchronous machine using the option Use
frequency transfer functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

6.1 d-axis equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

6.2 q-axis equivalent circuit - salient rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

6.3 q-axis equivalent circuit - round rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

6.4 Rotor Angle Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6.5 Open-circuit saturation characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

6.6 d- and q-axis saturation characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6.7 Application for Delta Speed input signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7.1 d-axis equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

7.2 q-axis equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

8.1 Classical model equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

9.1 d-axis equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

9.2 q-axis equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 61

List of Tables

List of Tables

6.1 Standard input parameters of the synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6.2 Model parameters of the synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

6.3 Input Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6.4 State Variables Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6.5 Output Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6.6 Input Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

6.7 State Variables Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

6.8 Output Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7.1 Input data from operational reactances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

7.2 Model parameters of the model 3.3 synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

7.3 Input Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.4 State Variables Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7.5 Output Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7.6 Input Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7.7 State Variables Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

7.8 Output Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

8.1 Input Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

8.2 State Variables Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

8.3 Output Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

8.4 Input Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

8.5 State Variables Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

8.6 Output Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

9.1 Model parameters of the model 3.3 synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

9.2 Input Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

9.3 State Variables Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

9.4 Output Definition of the RMS-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

9.5 Input Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

9.6 State Variables Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

9.7 Output Definition of the EMT-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Synchronous Machine (ElmSym, TypSym) 62