A step-by-step introduction to GB

4. X-bar Theory
GB seeks to capture the similarities between different categories of lexical phrases by
assigning the same structure to them (as shown in (30)). Rather than having different phrase
structure rules for VPs, NPs, etc., just the two basic rules in (29) cover all the lexical
categories.

(29) Phrase Structure Rules:

(for any lexical category X, X0=Head)
XP  Specifier X'
X'  X0 Complements (=YP*)

In the trees generated by these rules, the top node (corresponding to left side of the rule) is
known as the mother, with the two daughters introduced by the right side of the phrase
structure rule. The daughter nodes at the same level are known as sisters. In (30) one of the
daughters, X', is also a mother with daughters of her own, just as in normal family
relationships.

(30) Basic X-bar Structure

XP--maximal projection

specifier X'--intermediate projection

X0--head complement(s)

Claims involved in this schemata:

1. All phrases are projected from lexical categories in the same way (i.e. the PSRs in (29).
a. For conjunction: Xn  Xn Conj Xn.
b. For adjunction: Xn  Ym Xn.3

2. A head (=X0) subcategorizes for all and only its sisters.

a. The subcategorized complements are always phrases.
b. Heads and their maximal projections share features, allowing heads to
subcategorize for the heads of their sisters (i.e. rely).

3. In general, specifiers are optional. Evidently, specifiers may be words or phrases.

The following trees illustrate how X-bar theory works. We apply the X-bar rules to
specific categories. First find the head, which determines the type of phrase, then look for
specifiers, complements, adjuncts, and conjunctions. In (31), interpretation is the head, the

3
n may be any bar level (0,1,2=X0, X’ or XP), m may only be 0,2 since only heads or maximal projections may move
or adjoin. Also, the right side of the adjunction rule is unordered; adjectives adjoin on the left, but other NP adjuncts such
as relative clauses adjoin on the right and VP adjuncts such as adverbs may adjoin on either side.

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A step-by-step introduction to GB

musician's is the specifier, and of that sonata is the complement in the NP. The specifier and
complement are each phrases themselves which are also diagrammed via the X-bar phrase
structure rules.4

(31) NP

NP[+poss] N'

D N'[+poss] N0 PP
| | | |
the N0[+poss] interpretation P'
|
musician’s P0 NP
|
of D N'
| |
that N0
|
sonata

In (32), afraid is the head, extremely is the specifier, and of snakes is the complement in
the AP.

(32) AP

Deg A'
|
extremely A0 PP
| |
afraid P'

P0 NP
| |
of N'
|
N0
|
snakes

4
In the trees throughout, a category X by itself (i.e. not X' or XP) is equivalent to X0.

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A step-by-step introduction to GB

(33) shows a VP headed by talked with two PP complements.5

(33) VP
|
V'

V0 PP PP
| | |
talked P' P'

P0 NP P0 NP
| | |
to Sue about N'
|
N0
|
politics

Tree (34) illustrates how conjunction and adjunction fit into the X-bar schemata. The
conjunction rule is shown for black and white;6 huge, black and white; and extremely angry are
all adjuncts which are adjoined to N', showing how the adjunction rule is recursive; the is in the
specifier position and dog is the head of the whole NP.

(34) NP

D N'

the
AP N'

A' AP N'

A0 AP Conj AP AP N'
    
huge A' and A' Deg A' N0
    
A0 A0 extremely A0 dog
  
black white angry

5
Proper names and pronouns are shown as NPs since in English they do not have specifiers or complements. In general,
a triangle under a phrasal node means that further structure is not shown because it is irrelevant to the point being made.
6
In this case, the conjunction could have been shown at either the A' or A0 level instead.

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A step-by-step introduction to GB

At this point, even though we can draw trees for some complex phrases, we still cannot do
even a simple complete sentence such as John hit the ball. The rule S  NP VP does not fit
the X-bar schemata. We also cannot draw a tree diagram for a clausal complement to a verb,
such as the that-clause in Bill read that the economy is poor. In order to make sentences and
clauses fit X-bar theory, we need to determine the head, specifier, and complement for each.
This will be the next topic addressed.

5. Extending X-bar theory to sentences and clauses

5.1 Clausal complements within X-bar theory
In the last section we saw that verbs choose or subcategorize for which complements can
follow them. Consider the verb read. One can read (the book) (to John) or read that the
economy is poor. In the first instance, we can say that read subcategorizes for an optional NP
complement and an optional PP complement headed by the preposition to. The lexical entry
would be:7
read, V, [ _ (NP) (PP[to] ) ]

But what can we do about the complement that the economy is poor? What kind of phrase is
it and how does it fit into X-bar Theory?
Transformational grammar assumes that clauses are built up from sentences using the rule:
S'  COMP S. (35) shows the traditional tree for the VP, ignoring for the moment the internal
structure of S.

(35) VP

V'

V0 S'
|
read COMP S
|
that the economy is poor

Under Transformational grammar, the head of the clause is the sentence and the
complementizer is a specifier. The sentence cannot be the head of any phrase in X-bar theory,
since it is not a lexical item or word; it is most likely a complement. Further, the X-bar
schemata allows more positions within the phrase than the S' rule does, so we need evidence to
determine whether the complementizer is a specifier or a head.

7
Refer back to section 3 for explanation of the subcategorization frames within the lexical entry.

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