Cinzia Talamo · Marcella Bonanomi

Knowledge Management
and Information Tools for
Building Maintenance
and Facility Management
Knowledge Management and Information Tools
for Building Maintenance and Facility Management
Cinzia Talamo Marcella Bonanomi
•

Knowledge Management
and Information Tools
for Building Maintenance
and Facility Management

123
Cinzia Talamo Marcella Bonanomi
Department of Architecture, Built Department of Architecture, Built
Environment and Construction Environment and Construction
Engineering (ABC) Engineering (ABC)
Politecnico di Milano Politecnico di Milano
Milan Milan
Italy Italy

ISBN 978-3-319-23957-6 ISBN 978-3-319-23959-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015949460

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

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To Mauro
Preface

This book deals with the subject of information management; this process is
analyzed within the Facility Management field, with a particular focus on the
aspects connected with building maintenance management.
The market of Facility Management (FM) is significantly growing in the last ten
years with a general tendency to more and more integrated services, longer-term
contracts, and expansion of the strategic activities.
The increasing complexity of the organization models, the enlargement of the
areas of interest and involved disciplines, the creation of new roles, the requests of
new competences and support tools, the increasing expectations for the efficiency
improvement in the processes, and the demand of improvements in the practices of
planned maintenance are just some of the main effects of the rapid growth of the
FM field which is still young but very dynamic and promising.
Furthermore, if we consider the latest developments of the BIM (Building
Information Modeling) applications, the current scenario may appear even more
complex, but at the same time full of potential. The possibility to have a unique and
coherent three-dimensional building model, collecting all the information coming
directly from the design and construction phases, paves the way for new and more
advanced experimentations. These experimentations may be focused at least on two
topics: on one side, the way for integrating, in the BIM model, information related
to the operations and maintenance phase and, on the other side, procedures enabling
the interoperability of information systems for FM within BIM environments.
Within this “multi- and interdisciplinary” scenario, information management has
a fundamental role and acquires various meanings according to different timescales.
Regarding the “past”, information management in a FM service means to be able
to collect over time and process various data coming from several sources and
concerning conditions, events, and actions that had affected the building. The aim is
to create a knowledge base, constantly growing. The knowledge base is an essential
condition to be able to predict next behaviors and costs, develop indexes for the
systematic comparison of process and performance, and have more and more
awareness about criticalities. Regarding the “present”, information management

vii
viii Preface

means to be able to collect and process data in real time in order to monitor the
conditions of the buildings, the performances of the suppliers, the development
of the planned activities, the ongoing expenditures, and the requests for interven-
tions. Regarding the “future”, information management means to process data
useful to develop previsions, draw scenarios, plan actions, and promote
innovations.
So, information represents an important value for FM services, since it is fun-
damental for the efficiency and effectiveness of the service, the quality of the assets
and the processes, and the evolution of the organizational models. At the same time,
information is a cost. Information costs for collecting, processing, sharing, and
updating. If we consider how many data are connected to the large amount of
entities constituting a real estate and to the high number of operators and processes
in the long life cycle of the buildings, it is easy to understand that information
represents the essential condition for the development of the service, but at the same
time a high risk of inefficiency and runaway expenditures. Strong inefficiencies are
possible if, as it may happen, the activities that require the information collection
are carried out without an adequate planning phase and appropriate coordination.
The cases of negative experiences in building inventory activities are not rare: they
may result excessively expensive and difficult to be completed, since they collect
excessive amounts of data or because they are not oriented to a selective infor-
mation acquisition.
Furthermore, about the risks of inefficiency in collecting information, we can
mention the recurring situations in which different subjects collect—independently
and in an uncoordinated way—information on the same building with various
purposes. It is possible to find many cases in which, besides the realization of the
building inventory, it is ongoing the development of other processes requiring
information collection (i.e., due diligence, diagnostic, analysis for energy perfor-
mance assessment, risk assessments, etc.). In the absence of a standardized schema
for the identification of different spatial components and building elements, the
various operators may collect information often redundantly or, in some cases,
coming to conclusions that are not in accordance ones with each others. Information
is used only for the specific purpose, but it is not recorded in the knowledge base
of the building.
These are all effects of an inadequate analysis of information needs and defi-
ciencies in the preliminary preparation of support tools (i.e. breakdown and coding
schemes, procedures and instructions for collecting and recording, inspection plans).
From the analysis and comparison of several tender documents (both public and
private), it can be noticed how the common practice is late in maturing a full
awareness of the close relationship existing between management of the services
and information. In many tenders, a generic demand for supply is merely included;
in many others, there is even the lack of a systematic request about strategic topics
that are the inventory processes, the building registry structure, and the information
system.
So, this book intends to investigate these topics with the aim to offer both clients
and suppliers (and also designers and students working and studying in the field of
Preface ix

FM), an overview of the various aspects that should be considered in designing FM

agreements from the point of view of information management. The analysis
proposed by the book is supported by a framework of international standards
dealing with the subjects of FM services, maintenance management, and documents
management, in addition to literature references and outcomes of some experi-
mentation carried out by the authors. In particular, the system of standards, which
contains useful guidelines and specifications for all the subjects concerning infor-
mation management, demonstrates the worldwide interest for developing rules and
references to be used and shared in order to improve communication among all the
stakeholders involved in FM services during the whole life cycle and to enhance
integration and coordination of all the support services.
The book is organized in seven chapters following the information management
process within FM services, with a particular focus on the service of maintenance
management, considered as a strategic service highly involved in the information
management.
In Chap. 1, Cinzia Talamo introduces some main aspects and needs connected to
information management within the Facility Management integrated services.
Starting from the observation of the current evolutions in the FM market and
organizational models, the aim of the chapter is to highlight the activities, devel-
oped within the various levels of a FM service, and the related information needs.
In Chap. 2, Cinzia Talamo analyzes contents, roles, characteristics, and phases of
inventory activities in relation to FM services. Starting from the basic concept
defining the inventory as a continuous process of retrieval, selection, validation,
acquisition, and updating of information, the aim of the chapter is to propose tools
and actions necessary for planning and developing the inventory. The main
activities related to information collection are analyzed (documents audit, regula-
tory review, contract evaluation, diagnostic investigation, acquisition of information
about the “history” of the building) in relation to an overview of the various
information categories.
In Chap. 3, Cinzia Talamo introduces and analyzes the concept of building
registry, interpreted as a database containing information collected through the
inventory and necessary to describe consistency and functional and technical
characteristics of the buildings. First, the chapter aims at clarifying the meaning of
building registry and its relationship with the inventory process and the information
system. Then, the chapter highlights criteria for the classification and the applica-
tion of codes to the buildings and their construction entity parts by analyzing
several international standards that propose various frameworks for the classifica-
tion of information, all ascribable to a hierarchical structure.
Finally, the chapter proposes a synopsis of the information that can be acquired
for the implementation of the building registry and the structure of the data sheets,
interpreted as a tool for data collection.
In Chap. 4, Cinzia Talamo highlights main functions and specific requirements
characterizing an information system for real estate management with a particular
focus on maintenance management process. Starting from the analysis of infor-
mation used in relation to some key functions (building registry, monitoring,
x Preface

collection, and processing of feedback information), the chapter proposes the

structure of the database, which is the core of the information system, by assuming
some reference standards. The aim of the chapter is to propose key aspects of the
information system, useful for the client engaged in the acquisition of a FM service,
when starting the investigation stage, preliminary to the setting of the service and
the subsequent drafting of the tender. The key aspects focus on the definition of a
gradual implementation of the service over time, storage and data processing
modes, procedures for the collection of feedback information, characteristics and
forms of the reporting, and management of the planned maintenance.
In Chap. 5, Cinzia Talamo proposes an interpretation of the core structure of a
FM service, here named “Command Center” (CC), highlighting its characteristics
and activities related to the key functions of planning and coordination of inter-
ventions, monitoring of the outcomes, and management of the information flows.
The aim of the chapter is to propose some models of the command center and
analyze information management, as well as the role of the information system
within the various models.
In Chap. 6, Marcella Bonanomi highlights the need for an Information Lifecycle
Management using BIM methodology within the context of facilities management.
Therefore, the purpose of the chapter is to investigate the topic of information
integration within a BIM environment focusing on information needs of FM
activities. Existing BIM-Objects Information Requirements and data standards are
critically analyzed in order to understand strengths and weaknesses and, at the same
time, pave the way to a possible FM-based implementation.
In Chap. 7, Marcella Bonanomi investigates a possible implementation of the
existing BIM-Objects Information Requirements and data standards in relation to
information needs of FM processes. In order to address this topic, it is presented the
output of a methodological experimentation carried out at Politecnico di Milano
with the aim of defining a datasheet template enabling information exchange to
support FM activities in a BIM environment. The developed data schema may
implement not only current data standards which have some weaknesses concerning
information needs of FM activities, but also existing interoperable overlays between
BIM software and facilities information systems.
Finally, the authors propose a glossary, useful for the better understanding of
terms and definitions used in this book and, at the same time, underlining some
relevant terms that by now belong to the common language of the Facility
Management context.
Acknowledgments Foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to
Professor Giancarlo Paganin, for the continuous and patient support during the
writing process, as well as in editing and proofreading the text. For the same reason,
we would also like to acknowledge Nazly Atta for the enthusiastic cooperation in
the review process.
Contents

1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services:

a Rising Demand Within a Growing Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.1 Developments in the FM Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
1.2 Information for Planning, Managing and Assessing
FM Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
1.3 Key Performance Indicators and Service Level Agreement:
Information to Request and Control the Quality
of the Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
2 Inventory for the FM: Collection and Management of Information
During the Life Cycle of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1 Contents and Role of the Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Information Categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 Sheets and Procedures for the Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4 Phases and Operators in the Inventory Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 The Building Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Role, Basic Logic and Purpose of a Registry System . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2 The Registry System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding
Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5 The System of Data Sheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.6 The Registry and the Information System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.7 The Role of the Building Registry from the Design Phase . . . . . . 100
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4 Information Systems for the Information Management . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.1 The Diffusion of Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2 Information System as a Decisional and Operational Support . . . . 108

xi
xii Contents

4.3 The Core of the Information System: the Database . . . . . . . . . . . 113

4.4 Key Functions of the Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.5 Information Systems and Maintenance Management Process. . . . . 121
4.6 Information Systems Within Management Services . . . . . . . . . . . 128
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5 The Command Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.1 The Control of the Integrated Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2 Key Functions and Role of the Command Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3 Models of Command Centre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6 Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Facility Management
(FM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.1 Need for an Information Lifecycle Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.2 BIM Definition(s) and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.3 BIM-based Knowledge and Process Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.4 Standardized Content and Organization Requirements Along
a BIM Process: LoDs (Levels of Development) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.5 Information Requirements for the Building Operational Phase:
the COBie Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.6 Information Management for the Building Operational Phase:
PAS 1192-3:2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.7 BIM-Objects Information Requirements and Data Standards . . . . . 166
6.7.1 NBS BIM Object Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.7.2 SPie: Specifiers’ Properties Information Exchange . . . . . . . 172
6.7.3 PDTs: Product Data Template(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.7.4 INNOVance: the Italian BIM Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal of a Datasheet
Template for FM Activities in the BIM Environment . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.1 Need for an Implementation of Existing Data Standards
in Relation to Information Needs of FM Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.2 Critical Review of the Reference Scenario. Analysis of Existing
Data Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.3 Adoption of a Maintenance Plan Prototype as an Information
Source for Developing a FM-Based Datasheet Template . . . . . . . 185
7.4 BIM Software and Information Systems. Existing Overlay
and Possible Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Chapter 1
Knowledge Management for Facility
Management (FM) Services: a Rising
Demand Within a Growing Market

Abstract The aim of this chapter is to introduce the main aspects and needs
connected with information management within the facility management integrated
services. The market of Facility Management (FM) in Europe has been significantly
expanding in the last ten years with a general tendency to more and more integrated
services, focusing on strategic initiatives within longer-term contracts. Within this
scenario of market increase, the field of FM services has also been involved with
rapid developments, related to various aspects connected with integration of ser-
vices and strategic planning, such as: the enlargement of the areas of interest; the
increasing complexity in the forms of contracting and in the organization models;
the changing of the roles and the skills of the operators; the increasing expectations
for the improvement of efficiency in the processes; the demand of improvements in
the practices of planned maintenance; etc. In this situation of rapid evolutions, the
information management is a subject that is becoming more and more important
and strategic, highlighting several key factors, that have to be deeply investigated in
order to pursue the improvement of the effectiveness and the integration of FM
services. The main key factors may be summarized as: knowledge-bases for the
strategic, tactical and operational levels of the integrated services; procedures and
tools for selecting, collecting and managing information; procedures and criteria for
orienting and checking the quality of information; requirements for the information
systems.

Keywords Facility Management Integrated services Information management

Knowledge base

This chapter is authored by Cinzia Talamo.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0_1
2 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

1.1 Developments in the FM Field

The market of Facility Management (FM) in Europe has been significantly

expanding in the last ten years with an estimated volume of several hundred billion
Euros. The growth of FM has to be considered in relation to the data about the
European market: maintenance and renovation building activities continue to have
an important cushioning effect for the entire construction sector (Fig. 1.1). Several
studies and researches highlight that they have been able to absorb part of the decline
in the past period and will stabilize the trend in the next future (Table 1.1) [1].
According to ISS1 (Integrated Service Solutions) [2, 3], the worldwide facilities
management outsourcing market is expected to grow from $972 billion in 2012 to

Fig. 1.1 Total building 6 6

construction output from
4 4
2010 to 2016 and year to year
change in % [1] 2 2
0 0

-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
-8 -8
-10 -10
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
New residential New non residential
R&Mresidential R&M non residential

Table 1.1 Total output Market 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
development in Europe by segments
market segments and %
growth rate in real terms from New residential −4.0 0.1 2.6 4.7 3.7
2013 to 2017 [1] New −5.2 0.6 2.7 2.1 2.3
non-residential
Building R&M −0.3 1.4 1.6 1.1 1.4
Civil −4.2 1.4 2.2 2.6 2.7
engineering
Total −2.7 1.0 2.1 2.2 2.2

1
ISS Group was founded in Copenaghen in 1901 and since then it has grown to become one of the
world's leading Facility Services companies. ISS was originally the abbreviation for International
Service System and from 2001 for Integrated Service Solutions, but today it is only used as the
acronym.
1.1 Developments in the FM Field 3

$1.314 billion in 2018. The growth is evident across all markets, from North
America and Europe to Latin America and Asia Pacific (Fig. 1.2), with a general
tendency to more and more integrated services, focusing on strategic initiatives
within longer-term contracts.
According to the study elaborated in the ISS White Paper [2], the revenue
generated by the global Integrated Facility Management (IFM) market is predicted
to expand at a compound annual growth rate of 6–8 %, to reach $1.314 billion in
2018. The study considers that North America is positioned to remain the largest
IFM market, with new demand from large industrial, retail and public-sector
organisations. More than 50 % of the predicted growth in the global IFM revenue
from 2012 to 2018 is linked to the demand from Americas and Europe, which
combine accounts for two-thirds of the global market (Table 1.2).
Furthermore, the study states that the rate of outsourcing and the demand for
integrated solutions follow similar trend lines. In mature markets with higher
outsourcing penetration, the demand for Integrated Facility Services is typically
higher and growing, while the reverse is true in emerging markets. However, by the
late 2020s, it can be predicted that China’s outsourcing culture will progress to the

Fig. 1.2 Global outsourced 1,400B

facility services market by ~1,314B

Pacific
region (Billions USD) [3] Japan
~1,134B
Asia
1,050B excl.
~972B Japan

~846B Latin
America
~792B

700B
North
America

Nordics
Eastern
Eu.
350B

Western
Europe

2006 2009 2012 2015F 2018F

Table 1.2 Integrated Facility Services (IFS) share of total Facility Services market (%) for the
period 2012–2018 [2]
Pacific (AUS Western Americas (%) Japan (%) Eastern Asia excl.
& NZ) (%) Europe (%) Europe (%) Japan (%)
Market 5 3 6 2 10 9
growth
(12-18)
IFS 10 9 10 6 14 12
growth
(12-18)
4 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

point of accepting modern FM solutions (Fig. 1.3), opening the way for massive
growth in IFM in that emerging market [4].
Within this scenario of quantitative market increase, the field of FM services has
also been involved with rapid developments, related to various aspects connected
with the integration of services and strategic planning, such as:
– the enlargement of the areas of interest, functions and, as a consequence, of the
connected disciplines (Fig. 1.3);
– the increasing complexity of the relationships between the functions and the
forms of services integration (on the side both of contracting and organization
models);
– the consequent changing of operators’ role, responsibilities and skills, both
clients and suppliers, working in a multiple discipline context;
– the increasing expectations for cost-effectiveness, improvement of the efficiency
in the processes,2 monitoring and control of performances from many points of
view (technical, economical, organizational) in the building life cycle, mea-
surement of quality management through benchmarking3;
– the demand of improvements in the practices of planned maintenance;

2
In a study proposed by Goyal and Pitt [5] about the role of innovation management in facilities
management a questionnaire was prepared and distributed among various personnel belonging to
the business industry and the FM field.
Considering the subject of innovation, eight innovation factors were considered: technical,
product, process, business, commercial, production, managerial, organization. It was noticed that
business and process innovation factors received most attention within the FM field.
Approximately 37 % of respondents feel that business and process innovation gain most impor-
tance further enhances the fact that FM is first and foremost about organizational effectiveness.
According to the authors, the result of the responses demonstrated the evolution of FM from an
operational non‐core business support services function to a strategic FM position, which supports
and enhances both the core and non‐core activities of the organization [5].
3
According to the standard EN 15221-7:2012, “Facility Management. Guidelines for Performance
Benchmarking” the benchmark is: a reference point or metric against which a strategy, process,
performance and/or other entity can be measured. Benchmarks are necessary to the process of
benchmarking, that according to the EN standard is part of a process, which aims at establishing
the scope for, and benefits of, potential improvements in an organization through systematic
comparison of its performance with that of one or more other organizations. The measure of
benchmarking may be: quantitative, qualitative, or a combination of both measures.
Quantitative benchmarking may be used for various types of assessment, such as financial
expenditure (i.e. operating costs or capital costs), floor space usage (i.e. space per FTE or linear
meters storage), environmental impacts (i.e. energy consumption or waste production). It uses data
captured by common processes through routine systems (i.e. data collection templates and man-
agement information systems). Instead qualitative benchmarking is connected with entities that can
be distinguished as intangible and it uses data captured by specific processes (i.e. focus groups and
employee surveys). Qualitative benchmarking may be used for various kinds of assessments, such
as: service quality, satisfaction (i.e. end-user/customer satisfaction), productivity (i.e. repeat
business or employee retention). Combination benchmarking may be used for assessments such as:
satisfaction in relation to space usage, service quality in relation to financial expenditure, pro-
ductivity in relation to environmental impacts.
1.1 Developments in the FM Field 5

1980 1990 2000 2010

Soft FM FM automation Business Process
outsourcing (CAFM) Outsourcing (BPO) Workplace
(cleaning, (payroll, human change
IT services
catering, food resources, finance and management
services, mail other internal functions)
Energy Sustainable
room security,
etc.), management workspace and
environmental
performance
Hard FM Contract
outsourcing management and
(mechanical, property Waste Risk mitigation
electrical, management,
management Management of
heating, including space
intelligent buildings
ventilation, planning and
plumbing, design, asset
building management,
property New ways to use
control,
acquisition and technology to enhance
management,
fire and life disposal, and service (dashboards for
relocation monitoring real time
safety systems,
management work orders and KPIs, etc.)
etc.)

Single service Services Total FM Workplace

outsourcing integration management

Fig. 1.3 Evolution of FM services [2]

– the need to connect more and more the maintenance and operations phase with
the design and construction phases.
Among the many complex factors, that, in a situation of dynamic evolutions,
characterize the FM market, the information management is a subject that is
becoming more and more important, especially for the integration of the services.
From this point of view, in current context, several key factors for improving the
effectiveness of FM activities may be identified, such as:
– knowledge-bases constantly fostered;
– procedures and tools for managing the information flow;
– procedures and criteria for orienting and checking the quality of information;
– shared references and clear schemes for organizing input and output data in the
workflow of processes;
– defined requirements for the information systems.
6 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

Facility Management professionals have to deal with a large amount of infor-

mation provided by various domains [6], as they are contemporarily engaged with
different areas, such as: financial management, change management, health and
safety, contract management and building and engineering services maintenance,
etc. [7]. Therefore, assumed the variety of domains, data have to be combined,
integrated and managed in order to create an accessible knowledge, with particular
regard to the information integration, which can be defined as the sharing of
essential data or information between the parties involved in the process [8].
Through the information integration, the parties get an easier access to the infor-
mation required, they are able to understand customers’ needs and reduce lead times
with better results than the ones of their competitors [9].
As Waheed and Fernie [10] emphasize, knowledge is the most significant
organizational source within FM services and it holds the most strategic value in
understanding and managing the relationship between the performance of the
physical resources and their impact on the customers served by those resources.
Furthermore, considering knowledge management in FM services is also funda-
mental not only for better understanding the most strategic role of facilities man-
agement, concerned with resource management, but also for going beyond the idea
that facilities management is simply a form of janitorial function and thus for
promoting innovation [5].
The subject of knowledge opens to a particular view within FM services, starting
from the conceptual chain, that links:
– data (i.e. numbers, texts, images, etc.), that obtain meaning and value only in
relation to a context and processing;
– information that is data processed according to specific goals, referred to a
context and managed to be used, shared and combined;
– knowledge that is the result of applying, processing, relating, combining
information in specific contexts. The process, that leads information to enter in a
system able to develop knowledge, creates the actual value and competitive
advantage for an organization [11].
So, information can be considered the core of this chain aiming at creating
knowledge. Therefore, the activities of collecting, organizing, sharing, elaborating
information have to be considered as crucial and strategic for the quality of the FM
services. About the value of information, several authors [12–14] have investigated
the risks of faulty or wasteful information processing activities caused by poor
quality of information, underlying the significant benefits for a client’s organization
deriving from the improving of the overall information management [12–14].
Various problems, typical in the information management, can arise, worsening
the efficiency of the processes, such as:
– information cannot flow due to various reasons, such as problems in generation,
broken processes, unavailability of a critical process, etc.;
– information is unable to flow because it cannot be identified or because shared
processes are not compatible;
1.1 Developments in the FM Field 7

– excessive information is generated and maintained as well as excessive infor-

mation flows. So, the most appropriate and accurate information cannot be
easily identified;
– inaccurate information flows resulting in inappropriate downstream activities,
corrective actions or verifications.
About this topic, it is interesting to mention a Finnish study proposed by Jylhä
and Suvanto [15] that analyses the quality of information and its impact on the FM
service processes from a lean management perspective. Applying the categories of
lean management (overproduction, inventory, transportation, motion,
over-processing, defects, waiting) to FM processes, the research investigates the
main reasons of waste in information management when the information consumer
does not have immediate access to an adequate amount of appropriate, accurate and
up-to-date information, with the consequences of additional actions or inactivity.
Based on the analysis of cases studies, the research highlights three main impacts
as results of the poor quality of information in the facility service processes. First, a
lot of time is wasted in the searching activity due to non-standardized information
distribution and wrong quantity of information. Then, a lot of time is also spent on
extra works, such as checking and double-processing due to low reliability of
information delivery, low validity of information contents and incomplete infor-
mation. Finally, potential is lost because information is not delivered on time,
irrelevant information covers up relevant information and information is ignored.
Overall, for most authors focused on FM services, knowledge is widely rec-
ognized as a strategic asset as it enables firms to sustain distinctive competencies
and discover innovation opportunities [16, 17].
The knowledge sharing contributes to innovation because it activates an inclu-
sive process of learning. The innovation process involves the acquisition, dissem-
ination and use of new knowledge [18].
In FM context, the relevance of information systems able to efficiently manage
knowledge, in order to translate it into value or profit, arises more and more.
According to Gao et al. [19]:
“Knowledge can be classified into two dimensions. One dimension is to manage existing
knowledge, which includes developing of knowledge repositories, knowledge compilation,
arrangement and categorization; another is to manage knowledge-specific activities, that is,
knowledge acquisition, creation, distribution, communication, sharing and application. For
sustaining these processes, both “hard” conditions and “soft” environments have to be
created and nurtured. Hard side means technological platforms including facilities and
necessary devices. Soft side consists in trust, team spirit and learning climate for improving
contributors’ productivity. […] Knowledge can be communicated, exchanged and shared
thanks to database, data warehouse, statistics, data mining information system”.

Therefore, the subject of information is not simply referable to a list of data to be

collected. On the contrary, it should be faced by considering the many, heteroge-
neous aspects, interacting one to each other, that are organization models, char-
acteristics of the various processes, fields of activities, competencies, types of
clients, customers, providers, etc.
8 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

So, the basic questions about information for FM could be at least:

– What kind of organizational and operative models for managing information?
– What logical structure for collecting, relating and allocating information?
– What categories of information in the steps of the building life cycle in relation
to the various demands for FM services?
– Which activities, procedures and tools can be used?
– How collected information may become a knowledge base supporting the
continuous improvement of services?
– What is the value of knowledge management within FM services?

1.2 Information for Planning, Managing and Assessing

FM Processes

The standard EN 15221-1:2007, “Facility Management—Part 1: Terms and

Definitions” considers Facility Management as the integration of processes within
an organization to maintain and develop the agreed services which support and
improve the effectiveness of its primary activities. Starting from this basic concept,
the subject of information should be considered in relation to some fundamental
statements.
First of all, the agreed support services (facility management services) are pro-
vided in a coordinate way through an integrated management in relation to various
levels, characterized by different tasks, competences and responsibilities. According
to the standard EN 15221-1:2007, it is possible to list three main levels.
The first one is the strategic level, characterized by decision makers whose
mission is the achievement of the objectives of the organization in the long term
period through actions such as:
– defining the Facility Management strategy in compliance with the organization
strategies;
– drawing policy guidelines for space, assets, processes and services;
– maintaining relations with the client and authorities, lessees and tenants,
strategic partners, associations etc.;
– developing risk analysis and providing the direction to adapt changes in the
organization, first simulating and then managing the impacts of services on the
primary activities;
– setting the Service Level Agreements (SLAs) and the Key Performance
Indicators (KPIs) for the monitoring activities4;

4
According to the standard EN 15341:2007, “Maintenance Key Performance Indicators”, indicator
is: measured characteristic (or a set of characteristics) of a phenomenon, according to a given
formula, which assesses the evolution. Indicators are related to objectives. The indicators can be
used to: measure a status; compare (internal and external benchmarks); diagnose (analysis of
1.2 Information for Planning, Managing and Assessing … 9

– constantly supervising the Facility Management organization.

The second level is the tactical one, characterized by the managers’ compe-
tences, engaged in the implementation and the monitoring of the strategic objectives
for the medium term, whose main tasks are:
– developing business plans and budgets;
– managing projects, processes, agreements and Facility Management teams;
– making Facility Management objectives feasible;
– defining SLAs and interpreting KPIs (performance, quality, risk and value);
– managing and optimizing the use of resources;
– monitoring compliance to laws and regulations;
– reporting results and changes;
– communicating with internal or external service providers at a tactical level.
The third level is the operational one and it is managed by operators that deliver
the planned services in accordance with the SLAs to the end users day by day,
constantly monitoring and checking the service processes by:
– monitoring the service providers;
– carrying out the planned activities;
– receiving requests for service, i.e. via help desk or service line;
– collecting data for performance evaluations, feedback and demands from end
users;
– reporting to tactical level;
– communicating with internal or external service providers at an operational
level.
These different levels, that should be integrated and coordinated, intersect a
broad and open list of functions (Table 1.4), that could be present in FM services,
provided to respond to the various areas of demand (Table 1.3) for managing
spaces, infrastructures, people and organizations. If we compare the basic categories
of demand proposed by the standards EN 15221-1:2007 and EN 115221-4:2011,
“Facility Management—Part 4: Taxonomy, Classification and Structures in Facility
Management” (Table 1.3) with the broad list of functions proposed by Cotts [20]
(Table 1.4), we would notice that many of the various functions are involved in
more than one area of demand.
It is easy to understand that the same information or document (i.e. related to the
destination of a room, the type of an equipment, etc.) should be shared, without
redundancies, by several functions. In the meantime, this information or document
could be useful for various areas (i.e. accommodation, utilities, health-safety and
security, etc.), as well as for different types of roles within the three levels. These
roles (i.e. the client, the decision makers, the managers, the customers, the end

(Footnote 4 continued)
strengths and weaknesses); identify objectives and define targets to be reached; plan improvement
actions; continuously measure changes over time.
10 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

Table 1.3 Basic categories of demand for FM services [34, 37]

Space and infrastructure
Accommodation (space) – Strategic space planning and management
– Programming and briefing
– Design and construction
– Lease and occupancy management
– Building operations and maintenance
– Renovation and/or refurbishment
Workplace (working – Workplace design and ergonomics
environment) – Selection of furniture, machinery and equipment
– Move management
– Equip internal and external environment
– Signage, decorations, partitions and furniture
replacement
Technical infrastructure – Energy/utilities management
(utilities) – Environmental sustainability management
– Technical infrastructure operations and maintenance
– Building management systems operations and
maintenance
– Lighting maintenance
– Management of waste (hazardous) disposal
Cleaning (hygiene and – Hygiene services
cleanliness) – Workplace cleaning, machinery cleaning
– Building fabric and glass cleaning
– Cleaning equipment provision and maintenance
– Outdoor space cleaning and winter services
Outdoor (land, site, lot, parking) – Hiring of special measuring equipment
– Fitting out with machinery and equipment
– Retail unit space management
People and organization
Health, safety and security – Occupational health services
– Security management
– Access control, I.D./smart cards, locks and
key holding
– Disaster planning and recovery
– Fire safety and protection
Hospitality (supports for a hospitable – Secretarial and reception services
working environment) – Help desk services
– Catering and vending
– Organization of conferences, meetings and
special events
– Personal services
– Provision of work wear
ICT (Information and Communication – Data and telephone network operations
Technologies) – Data centre, server hosting and operations
– Personal computer support
– IT security and protection
– Computer and telephone connections and
moves
(continued)
1.2 Information for Planning, Managing and Assessing … 11

Table 1.3 (continued)

People and organization
Logistics (transport and storage of goods and – Internal mail and courier services
information) – Document management and archiving
– Reprographic systems, copying and printing
– Office supplies
– Freight forwarding, storage systems
– People transport and travel services
– Car park and vehicle fleet management
Other support services – Accounting, auditing and financial reporting
– Human resource management
– Marketing and advertising, photographic
services
– Procurement, contract management and legal
advice services
– Project management
– Quality management

Table 1.4 Basic functions in FM services [20]

Functions Areas of activity
Management of the organization Planning; organizing; staffing; directing; controlling;
evaluating
Facility planning and forecasting Business unit knowledge gathering; strategic facility
planning (three to ten years plans); facility operational
planning (twelve months to three years); space
forecasting; financial forecasting and macro-level
estimating; capital program development
Lease administration Out leasing; lease administration; property management
Space planning, allocation and Space allocation; space inventory; space forecasting;
management space management
Architectural/engineering planning Macro-level programming; building planning;
and design architectural design; engineering design of major
systems; macro-level estimating; as built maintenance;
disaster recovery planning; design document
preparation and updating; code compliance; traffic
engineering; zoning compliance
Workplace planning allocation and Workplace planning; workplace design; furniture
management specification; estimating; as built maintenance; code
compliance
Budgeting accounting and Programming; work plan preparation; budget
economic justification preparation (1–2 years); economic justification;
financial forecasting (1–2 years); budget formulation;
budget execution
Real estate acquisition and disposal Site selection and acquisition; building purchase;
building lease; real estate disposal
(continued)
12 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

Table 1.4 (continued)

Functions Areas of activity
Sustainability Site selection decisions to minimize environmental
impacts; environmental policies to minimize waste and
reduce resource usage; project management in
compliance with environmental regulation; workplace
improvements for productivity; aligning design with
business functions
Construction project management Project management; construction management;
procurement management; preparation of “as built”;
project evaluation
Move, add, change management Alteration management; renovation management;
project management (MAC) furniture installation; ICT installation; provision of
furnishing; equipping; relocations; procurement;
preparation of “as built”; project management
Operations, maintenance and repair Exterior maintenance (roof, shell, window systems);
preventive maintenance; breakdown maintenance;
cyclic maintenance; grounds maintenance; road
maintenance; custodial maintenance; pest and rodent
maintenance; trash removal; hazardous waste
management; energy management; inventory of
systems and equipment; maintenance projects; repair
projects; correction of hazards (i.e. asbestos, bad air
quality, radon, underground leaks, etc.); disaster
recovery; procurement
Technology management Operations; maintenance; data system operations and
reconfiguration; network management; “as built”
maintenance; integrated workplace management system
(IWMS)
Facility emergency management Emergency preparedness planning; threat assessment;
command, control and communication; mitigation
strategies; training, drill and exercise; disaster recovery
planning
Security and life-safety Code compliance; operations; crime prevention through
management environmental design; access control; physical
deterrents; electronic security; vulnerability assessment
General administrative services Food services; reprographics; fleet management;
property disposal; moving services; procurement;
moving services; procurement; health program
management; records management and storage

users, the suppliers, etc.) could use the same information in relation to different
ways and aims: for instance the decision maker for processing aggregate data and
indexes, the manager for developing a report, while the technical operator for
extracting precise data for the execution of a work.
The scenario of the use of information and documents becomes even more
complex if we apply a process-based approach to management systems to the field
1.2 Information for Planning, Managing and Assessing … 13

of Facility Management in accordance with the EN ISO 9000:2005, “Quality

management systems. Fundamentals and vocabulary” and in particular the quality
cycle of Plan, Do, Check and Act (PDCA) as defined in the ISO 10014:2006,
“Quality management. Guidelines for realizing financial and economic benefits”.
In general, the quality management aims at ensuring that delivery meets demand,
processes are optimized and continuous quality improvements are in place, and,
consequently, that the results of service delivery and processes are measured over
time. The standard EN 15221-3:2011, “Facility Management—Part 3: Guidance on
quality in Facility Management” underlines that within the client’s organization
very often QMS (Quality Management Systems) already exists and that their aim is
the improvement of the effectiveness of the client primary activities. So, in such
situations, the existing QMS should be extended to the quality management in the
FM processes especially aligning the quality indicators.
Applying quality management within FM processes (Fig. 1.4) implies the
development of two parallel processes, applicable at all levels, both of them aiming
at the continuous improvement, strongly interdependent, constantly sharing and
interchanging information and managing key-performance indicators, as well as
benchmarking data.
The result of a vision of the FM processes, developed according to the quality
cycle (PDCA), is a complex framework of actions carried out within the three
levels, like the one proposed by the standard EN 15221-3:2011. The large amount
of information and documents (each one containing various information), that are
involved in the development of the processes, are summarized below (Tables 1.5,
1.6 and 1.7).
A framework similar should be drawn before planning the whole process of FM.
In fact a fundamental and preliminary task of a FM service is the definition of:

PLAN DO CHECK ACT

Strategic
Analysis of
strategic

Client interface
Translate SL to controlling
Integrate services deviations
activities Fullfillment of
Optimize/improve
Strategic planning requirements

Customer interface Continuous

tactical

Coordination Quality control

Organize activities improvement
Delivery Cost control
Acquisition/resources process
operational

Ordering Feed back of Operational

FM service process Delivery
activities measures
products/services

Needs
Needs , Require Service
and demands
Demands ments Level (SL)

FM quality management Organize Compare agreed Rework/

Measure results
measurement and delivered subsequent work
process

Fig. 1.4 A vision of the FM processes, developed according to the quality cycle (PDCA), derived
from the quality management process [36]
14 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

– the framework of the information and the documents that are expected to be
collected and used over time (information and documents taxonomy5);
– the rules and the procedures for their collection (inventory process) (Chap. 2);
– the organization and the logic structure of the databases (registry system)
(Chap. 3).
The lack of this overall and preliminary vision is often the cause of inefficiencies
and delays in the processes, superabundance or defects of information, errors in
timing and costs previsions, with the risks of a poor information quality as
described in the previous paragraph. Furthermore, a well-structured registry system
(Chap. 3) is the fundamental condition for the development of indicators and sta-
tistical elaborations, useful for benchmarking and forecasts regarding various
subjects (i.e. costs, behaviors of technical elements over time, energy performances,
works durations, risk factors, resources consumption, etc.).

1.3 Key Performance Indicators and Service Level

Agreement: Information to Request and Control
the Quality of the Services

As several authors [21–23] emphasise a long-term strategic plan is fundamental for

planning, monitoring and forecasting implications and improvements of FM ser-
vices. In the development of this kind of plan, from the ealier phases of analysis,
aiming at assessing the current situation and defining the long term strategic
directions, data gathering represents one of the first steps. Already in these early
stages, it would be appropriate that all the data gathered were collected according to
a basic framework. This framework should be derived from the registry system
(Chap. 3), if it already exists, or vice versa it could represent the basis for the future
registry.
Later, in the phase of demand of a FM service, a client should have a clear vision
of the set of information (taxonomy) that are expected to be collected in relation to
several functions (Tables 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7).
This awareness would allow to correctly develop the specifications and, in the
following phases, to guide the decisions about the structure of the building registry,
the tasks connected with the inventory and the choices of the information system.
Defining, in the preliminary phases, the set of information is not an easy task, but
the client should face the effort to analyze his needs and organization, not only
understanding the types of services to ask for, but also drawing the set of basic
information connected with each service (Tables 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7).

5
See the standard EN 15221-4:2011, “Facility Management—Part 4: Taxonomy, Classification
and Structures in Facility Management”.
Table 1.5 Taxonomy of information and documents using PDCA cycles at strategic level
PLAN DO CHECK ACT
Strategic Client interface Actions Alignment with client’s Consulting Reporting to client Change management at
level organization strategic level
Information – FM strategy – Strategic Strategic reports regarding: operating costs; – List of contact
and – Action plans topics list space utilization and costs; benchmarks; information including
documents – Investments project – Information fulfillment of quality requirements; project responsibilities and
plans and reports of related cost and results; customer requirements of
– Reports about projects satisfaction survey; compliance survey; data/information
customer change requests and related results – Communication
feedback/complaints guideline of the
– Due diligence organization
– Standardized
means/documents for
communication with
the FM community
– Documents about
agreed changes
– Documents about
change management
actions
Quality Act. – Identifying demand Fulfillment of requirements
1.3 Key Performance Indicators and Service Level Agreement …

management – Needs and demand

strategic level specifications
Inf. and doc. – List of required
demands (concerning
space/workplace,
equipment, assets,
supplies, etc.)
– Performance
agreements
– Strategic space plan
15

(continued)
Table 1.5 (continued)
16

Act. FM agreement Lead FM Control FM organization Managing improvement

organization process
Inf. and doc. – FM
organizations
plan
– Strategic FM
projects
– FM reporting
– Laws and
regulations
Strategy Act. Strategic planning and Strategic project Strategic controlling Communication external
strategy development (Strategy relations
implementation)
Inf. and doc. – FM standards – Approved – Approved demands list – List of contact
regarding (operations demands list – FM standards information including
and maintenance, – FM standards – Investment projects list responsibilities and
space, cleaning, – Investment – Project descriptions requirements of
security, etc.) projects list – Project plans data/information
– FM procedures for – Project – List of external
evaluation of facilities descriptions contacts derived from
and buildings – Project plans contracts, providers,
– Procedures for associations, etc.
auditing of service
qualities according to
SLA and KPIs
1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …
Table 1.6 Taxonomy of information and documents using PDCA cycles at tactical level
PLAN DO CHECK ACT
Tactical Customer interface Act. Alignment with customer – Coordination Reporting to customer – Change
level customer/client management at
– Consulting of tactical level
customer – Communication
with customer
Inf. – Information – Information about FM – Information
and about FM teams about FM teams
doc. teams – Procedures of change – Procedures of
– Procedures of management change
change management
management
Quality Act. – SLA elaboration – Compare results
management – Quality control
tactical level Inf. – List of required demands (concerning – Information about FM – Information
and space/workplace, equipment, assets, teams about FM teams
doc. supplies, etc.) – Procedures of change – Procedures of
– Performance agreements management change
– Strategic space plan management
FS-organization Act. Service level Manage FM team – Evaluation Continuous
1.3 Key Performance Indicators and Service Level Agreement …

agreement (SLA) performance improvement

– Cost control process
Inf. – List of external contacts derived from – Project register – SLA and KPI
and contracts, providers, associations, etc. – Contract – Facility performance
doc. – Contract register evaluation report
– Contract evaluation report report
– Competence
development
plan
(continued)
17
Table 1.6 (continued)
18

Tactics and central Act. Tactical planning – Service Monitoring – Provider

and central functions coordination performance management
– Manage central – Communication
functions with end users
Inf. – Actual provider register – Facility register – Health, safety, security – Provider
and – Provider evaluation report – Facility services and the environment register
doc. – Strategic space plan contract reports – Provider
– Space utilization report (occupancy and – Evaluation – Laws, regulations, evaluation
use of space) reports insurance report
– Laws and regulations resources – List of requirements – Performance
register – FM KPIs evaluation
– FM KPIs report
1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …
1.3 Key Performance Indicators and Service Level Agreement … 19

Table 1.7 Taxonomy of information and documents using PDCA cycles at operational level
PLAN DO CHECK ACT
Operational Facility Act. Product Product Evaluation, Operational
level products planning map Reporting measures
and Inf. – Reports about the evaluation of the planning of the
facility and facility services
services doc. – Work orders
– Information about FM teams
– Facilities evaluation report and customer satisfaction
surveys reports
– Reports about the measure of the service results
according to SLA and KPI
– FM reports about operations and maintenance data
(i.e. fulfilled activities, status data, condition data,
emergency and break downs, corrective actions, etc.)
– FM reports about service requests of end users and
change requests of end users
– Reports about complaints (i.e. cleaning, malfunctions,
etc.)
– Reports about security issues and moves
– Building register
QM Act. Organizing Data Measure Improve
measurement collection results measurement

A useful way for making this task easier could be starting from the types of
performances that are expected from the several areas of the services, that is
defining set of indicators.6
Defining the services and the levels of expected quality is a fundamental oper-
ation, so the indicators7 usually should be clear since the earlier phases of prepa-
ration of Facility Management agreements. As Varcoe [22] underlines: “Applying

6
Major facility performance measurement practices are benchmarking, balanced scorecard
approach, post occupancy evaluation and measurement through metrics of key performance
indicators. Between the various effective performance models, according to a comparative study
presented by Meng and Minogue [21], KPI is the most popular model for FM practitioners and
organizations. The study, based on the empirical data collected from a questionnaire survey and a
series of expert interviews, underlines that the ten most important performance indicators identified
by the respondents are: client satisfaction, cost‐effectiveness, response time, service reliability,
health, safety, environmental compliance, staff commitment, client‐service provider relationship,
IT application.
7
The Standard EN 15221-2:2006, “Facility Management—Part 2: Guidance on how to prepare
Facility Management agreements” stresses the fact that both parties (Client and service provider)
should ensure that the responsibilities for designing, updating and reporting of management
information are fully understood and articulated in the Facility Management agreement.
Procedures should be prescribed for the production of reports and performance indicators to any or
all stakeholders, especially if financial penalties or inducements may be paid. If necessary, parties
may consider an independent audit of such reports and performance indicators.
20 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

the disciplines of performance measurement helps managers and operators alike to

determine firstly those issues that are crucially important to the overall organization
and its success, and second those ones that are similarly critical to the successful
delivery of the specific function or operation concerned. As such the technique
focuses on the core information sets that are needed to effect reliable and effective
management and operation—vital knowledge irrespective of whether or not it is
then applied in a performance measurement system of some sort”.8
Since indicators need information to be developed, starting from them, it is
possible to draft a list of information and to map the processes in which it is
generated and elaborated.
For this purpose, it is correct to acquire a taxonomy of indicators from which to
select and adopt the ones that are appropriate for the specific situation.
The taxonomy could be based on the following general categories, deduced from
standard EN 15221-7:2012, “Facility Management—Part 7: Guidelines for
Performance Benchmarking”:
• General Financial indicators:
Costs per FTE,9 workstation, square meter NFA10 including: annual operating
expenditure; annualized capital expenditure; annual revenue income; total
facility costs;
• Spatial indicators:
– Net Floor Area per FTE (sqm NFA)
– Net Floor Area per person (sqm NFA)
– Net Floor Area per workstation (sqm NFA)
– Net Floor Area/Total Level Area (%)
– Internal Area/Total Level Area (%)
– Gross Floor Area/Total Level Area (%);
• Environmental indicators:
– Total CO2 emissions (tonnes per annum)
– CO2 emissions per FTE (tonnes per annum)
– CO2 emissions per sqm NFA (tonnes per annum);

8
Varcoe [22] also reports about the tasks of the Measurement Steering Group promoted by the
BIFM Council since 1995, whose aim was the development of a facilities management perfor-
mance measurement standard. The Protocol draft was based on a measurement framework
structured according to the following items: standard units; the organization; the estate; the
buildings; facilities management (operational services/cost centers, functional use of space;
financial performance; other performance); comparisons.
9
According to the standard EN 15221-7:2012, FTE (Full Time Equivalent) can be determined by
dividing the total number of hours worked by the number of regular working hours in a working
week (i.e. working 32 h when a regular working week consists of 40 h equals 0.8 FTE).
10
According to the standard EN 15221-6:2011, NFA (Net Floor Area) is the calculated area of
Internal Floor Area (IFA) excluding the Interior Construction Area (ICA) that is: IFA-ICA = NFA.
1.3 Key Performance Indicators and Service Level Agreement … 21

• Energy indicators:
– Total energy consumption (kWh per annum)
– Energy consumption per FTE (kWh per annum)
– Energy consumption per sqm NFA (kWh per annum);
• Water indicators:
– Total water usage (cm per annum)
– Water usage per FTE (cm per annum)
– Water usage per sqm NFA (cm per annum);
• Waste indicators:
– Total waste production (tonnes per annum)
– Waste production per FTE (tonnes per annum)
– Waste production per sqm NFA (tonnes per annum).
In order to define the information connected with the indicators, it can be useful
to apply to each indicator both the attributes and the methods for data gathering
proposed by the standard EN 15221-3:2011. The standard proposes the following
list of attributes:
– category;
– code/number/identifier (mainly for information systems);
– name;
– description of the characteristics;
– facility product or facility service the indicator is related to;
– area (category, geographical area, level);
– area/region the indicator is related to;
– definition of the indicator;
– measured value and validity/reliability constraints;
– target value, range, tolerance, limit values and validity/reliability constraints;
– measurement method;
– timing;
– frequency of measurement;
– sample size and reliability of measurement;
– for calculated indicator, the calculation algorithms and weighting factors;
– source of data/information (i.e. measurement by whom, audit, report, etc.);
– condition when measurement shall or have been made;
– validation process.
Regarding data gathering, the standard EN 15221-3:2011 lists several types of
sources, such as:
– measurements (regarding measurable characteristics);
– laboratory testing;
– inspections;
– checklists;
22 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

– counting;
– telephone surveys;
– questioners;
– mail surveys;
– research;
– analysis (i.e. complain analysis, gap analysis, etc.);
– observations;
– focus groups surveys;
– workshops;
– purchase from outside source;
– meeting client;
– market research forums;
– interviews;
– third party professional opinion.
Furthermore, considering that building maintenance is a crucial aspect of facility
management and a lot of information is involved in the maintenance processes, it is
advisable that facility managers, in the early phases of demand of the services,
clearly define the core indicators connected with maintenance tasks. A useful list,
from which it is possible to choose the indicators most appropriate for the specific
situations, is the one proposed by the standard UNI EN 15341:2007, “Maintenance
Key Performance Indicators”. The standard structures the indicators in levels that
represent a breakdown structure. Indicators below level one are a detailed
description of indicators at an higher level. The magnitude and number of levels
may be established by each company. Some of the indicators most frequently
present in FM agreements are summarized in the Table 1.8. These indicators should
be integrated with the ones concerning health, safety and security (Table 1.9).
Studies on performance assessment of facilities [23–29] indicate the need to
select core indicators and optimize the number of indicators assumed in order both
to obtain a more precise but relevant set of KPIs and avoid redundant information.
In particular, Lavy et al. [27] underline that facility management professionals
would benefit from categorization of the core indicators, as they could more
effectively utilize them. At this aim, Lavy et al. [29] propose an interesting review
of the studies about the categorization of the indicators (Table 1.10). Starting from
these studies, it is interesting to mention the research work proposed by Lavy et al.
[28], whose aim is the identification and categorization of core indicators. The
proposed indicators (Table 1.11) are arranged in a list, based on four categories of
KPIs, from which facility managers can select the most appropriate ones according
to the requirements dictated by their specific contexts, that is:
– financial indicators, which relate to costs and expenditures associated with
operation and maintenance, energy, building functions, real estate, plant, etc.;
– physical indicators, which are associated to the physical shape and conditions of
the facility, buildings, systems and components;
1.3 Key Performance Indicators and Service Level Agreement … 23

Table 1.8 Maintenance key performance indicators [41]

Maintenance Key Performance Indicators
Economic Level 1 Total maintenance cost
indicators Assets replacement value
Total maintenance cost
Added value plus external costs for maintenance
Total maintenance cost
Quantity of output
Level 2 Total internal personnel cost spent in maintenance
Total maintenance cost
Total external personnel cost spent in maintenance
Total maintenance cost
Total contractor cost
Total maintenance cost
Total cost of maintenance materials
Total maintenance cost
Total maintenance cost
Total energy used
Level 3 Corrective maintenance cost
Total maintenance cost
Preventive maintenance cost
Total maintenance cost
Condition based maintenance cost
Total maintenance cost
Predetermined maintenance cost
Total maintenance cost
Improvement maintenance cost
Total maintenance cost
Cost of training for maintenance
Number of maintenance personnel
Technical Level 1 Total Operating time
indicators Total operating time + downtime due to maintenance
Number of failures due to maintenance creating
environmental damage
Calendar time
Annual volume of wastes or harmful effects related to
maintenance
Calendar time
Number of injuries for people due to maintenance
Working time
Level 2 Total operating time
(Total operating time + downtime related to failures)
Total operating time
(Total operating time + downtime related to planned and
scheduled maintenance)
(continued)
24 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

Table 1.8 (continued)

Level 3 Preventive or Predetermined or Condition based
maintenance time causing downtime
Total downtime related to maintenance
Number of failures causing injury to people
Total number of failures
Number of failures causing damage to the environment
Total number of failures
Total operating time
Number of maintenance work-orders
Total operating time
Number of failures
Organizational Level 1 Number of internal maintenance personnel
indicators Total internal employees
Planned and scheduled maintenance man-hours
Total maintenance man-hours available
Number of injuries to maintenance personnel
Total maintenance personnel
Man-hours lost due to injuries for maintenance personnel
Total man-hours worked by maintenance personnel
Level 2 Production operator maintenance man-hours
Total production operators man-hours
Level 3 Corrective or preventive or condition based maintenance
man-hours
Total maintenance man-hours
Overtime internal maintenance man-hours
Total internal maintenance man-hours
Number of work orders performed as scheduled
Total number of scheduled work orders
Number of maintenance internal personnel man-hours for
training
Total internal maintenance man-hours
Number of the spare parts supplied by the warehouse as
requested
Total number of spare parts required by maintenance

– functional indicators, which are related to the facility and the buildings function
and express building appropriateness through space adequacy, parking, etc.;
– users’ satisfaction.
1.3 Key Performance Indicators and Service Level Agreement … 25

Table 1.9 Health, safety and Health, safety and security indicators
security key performance
Cost of solved safety non-conformances for the month
indicators [42]
Employee perception of management commitment
Health and safety prevention costs within the month
Lost time (in hours) due to accidents (including fatalities)
i.e. 100,000 h worked
Lost time (in hours) due to non-fatal accidents i.e. 100,000 h
worked
Number of fatalities i.e. 100,000 h worked
Number of non-conformance with legal or internal standards in
safety inspections
Number of reportable accidents i.e. 100,000 h worked
(including fatalities)
Number of reportable non-fatal accidents i.e. 100,000 h
worked
Number of safety inspections for the month
Number of solved safety non-conformances for the month
Percentage of attendance at occupational health and safety
(OHS) committee meetings
Percentage of corrective actions closed out within specified
time-frame
Percentage of fatal accidents relative to all accidents (non-fatal
and fatal) i.e. 100,000 h worked
Percentage of health and safety representatives (HSR) positions
filled.
Percentage of issues raised by H&S Reps implemented
Percentage of occupational health and safety (OHS) committee
recommendations implemented
Percentage of products/services assessed for health and safety
impacts
Percentage of significant products and services categories
subject to procedures in which health and safety impacts of
products and services are assessed for improvement
Percentage of staff with adequate occupational health and safety
(OHS) training
Total of hours in safety and health training in the month
26 1 Knowledge Management for Facility Management (FM) Services …

Table 1.10 Literature review for the categorization of KPIs [29]

Sources Categories
Financial Functional Physical Survey based
Amaratunga and Financial FM internal Customer’s
Baldry [30] implications processes relations
Learning and
growth
Gumbus [24] Financial Operational Customer’s
implications Learning and relations
growth
Hinks and McNay Business Space Maintenance Environment
[31] benefits equipment and service
Change
consultancy
Ho et al. [25] Safety and Ground and
security environment
Size and use of Energy
facility consumption
Cleaning
Maintenance
Parking
Refurbishment
Augenbroe and Energy Thermal
Park [32] Lighting comfort
Maintenance
Massheder and Business Acquisition Portfolio
Finch [33] disposal Building
Performance

The list and the categorization of KPIs (Table 1.11) is the starting point for the
study11 and it could represent a useful reference to be assumed by facility managers
as basic framework of indicators.

11
The study presented by Lavy et al. [27] aims at expressing the categories of KPIs (Table 1.11)
with fewer indicators. In particular, KPIs, such as building maintenance cost, grounds keeping
costs, cleaning costs and maintenance expenditure, are summarized by the maintenance efficiency
indicator (MEI). KPIs, like current replacement value and deferred maintenance possess, are
expressed in the form of a condition index (CI). Buildings physical condition (quantitative and
qualitative) and building performance index are indicated by a CI as well. The CI includes a
widely used facility condition index (FCI), which is actually a collective indicator for a building
maintenance and replacement program. The indicators related to capital expenditures, such as
capital cost and renewals and replacement expenditure, are conveyed by a replacement efficiency
index (REI), which includes comparing the actual replacement expenditure with the cost of expired
systems in the facility [27, 28].
References 27

Table 1.11 Categorization of KPIs [27–29]

Financial Functional Physical User satisfaction
Operating costs Building physical Productivity Customer/building
Occupancy costs condition— Parking occupants’
Utility costs qualitative Space satisfaction with
Capital costs Building physical utilization products or
Building maintenance condition— Employee or services
cost quantitative occupant’s Community
Grounds-keeping cost Building turnover rate satisfaction and
Custodial cost performance Mission and participation
Current replacement index (BPI) vision, and Learning
value (CRV) Resource Mission environment,
Deferred maintenance consumption: dependency educational
and deferred energy; water; index (MDI) suitability,
maintenance backlog materials Adequacy of and appropriateness
Capital renewal Property and real space of facility for its
Maintenance estate waste function
efficiency indicators Health and safety Appearance
(MEI) Indoor
Facility condition environmental
index (FCI) quality (IEQ)
Accessibility for
disabled
Security
Site and location

References

1. 78th EUROCONSTRUCT Conference, Milan, 18–19 Nov 2014

2. Hodge G, Poglitsch R, Ankerstjerne P (2014) Perspectives on the FM market development. In:
ISS white papers. Available via DIALOG. http://www.publications.issworld.com/ISS/
External/issworld/White_papers/Perspectives_on_the_FM_market_development
3. ISS A/S (2014) ISS A/S prospectus. In: ISS prospectus. available via DIALOG. http://files.
shareholder.com/downloads/ABEA-5ASMJV/440511910x0x730225/07165661-D99F-45B4-
81D5-08E13FC5E719/English_Language_Offering_Circular_ISS
4. The Hackett Group (2013) Category insight report: facilities management v5.2
5. Goyal S, Pitt M (2007) Determining the role of innovation management in facilities
management. Facilities 25(1/2):48–60
6. Irizarry J, Gheisari M, Williams G, Roper K (2014) Ambient intelligence environments for
accessing building information: a healthcare facility management scenario. Facilities 32
(3/4):120–138
7. Atkin B, Brooks A (2009) Total facilities management, 3rd edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford
8. Lee HL, Whang S (2000) Information sharing in a supply chain. Int J Technol Manage 20
(3/4):373–387
9. Sezen B (2008) Relative effects of design, integration and information sharing on supply chain
performance. Supply Chain Manage: Int J 13(3):233–240
10. Waheed Z, Fernie S (2009) Knowledge based facilities management. Facilities 27(7/8):258–
266
11. Stewart T (2001) Wealth of knowledge. Doubleday, New York
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12. Jylhä T (2013) Creating value or waste? Evaluating the production of real estate services with
lean thinking. Dissertation, Aalto University
13. Franssila H (2012) Information waste: qualitative study in manufacturing enterprises. In:
Moller C, Chaydhry S (eds) Advances in enterprise information systems II. CRC Press, Taylor
& Francis Group, London
14. Hicks BJ, Culley SJ, McMahon CA (2006) A study of issues relating to information
management across engineering SMEs. Int J Inf Manage 26(4):267–289
15. Jylhä T, Suvanto M (2015) Impacts of poor quality of information in the facility management
field. Facilities 33(5/6):302–319
16. Grant RM (1996) Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm. Strateg Manage J 17:109–122
17. Chen C (2004) The effects of knowledge attribute, alliance characteristics and absorptive
capacity on knowledge transfer performance. R&D Management 34(3):311–321
18. Moorman C, Miner AS (1998) Organizational improvisation and organizational memory.
Acad Manage Rev 23:698–723
19. Gao F, Li M, Nakamori Y (2002) Systems thinking on knowledge and its management:
systems methodology for knowledge management. J Knowl Manage 6(1):7–17
20. Cotts DG, Roper KO, Payant RP (2010) The facility management handbook, 3rd edn.
667 American Management Association—AMACOM, New York
21. Meng X, Minogue M (2011) Performance measurement models in facility management: a
comparative study. Facilities 29(11/12):472–484
22. Varcoe BJ (1996) Facilities performance measurement. Facilities 14(10/11):46–51
23. Cohen R, Standeven M, Bordass B, Leaman A (2001) Assessing building performance in use
1: the Probe process. Build Res Inf 29(2):85–102
24. Gumbus A (2005) Introducing the balanced scorecard: creating metrics to measure
performance. J Manage Educ 29(4):617–630
25. Ho DCH, Chan EHW, Wong NY, Chan M (2000) Significant metrics for facilities
management benchmarking in the Asia Pacific region. Facilities 18(13/14):545–555
26. Tucker M, Pitt M (2009) Customer performance measurement in facilities management.
A strategic approach. Int J Prod Perf Manage 58(5):407–422
27. Lavy S, Garcia JA, Dixit MK (2014) KPIs for facility’s performance assessment, Part I:
identification and categorization of core indicators. Facilities 32(5/6):256–274
28. Lavy S, Garcia JA, Dixit MK (2014) KPIs for facility’s performance assessment, Part II:
identification of variables and deriving expressions for core indicators. Facilities 32
(5/6):275–294
29. Lavy S, Garcia JA, Dixit MK (2010) Establishment of KPIs for facility performance
measurement: review of literature. Facilities 28(9/10):440–464
30. Amaratunga D, Baldry D (2003) A conceptual framework to measure facilities management
performance. Prop Manag 21(2):171–189
31. Hinks J, McNay P (1999) The creation of a management-by-variance tool for facilities
management performance assessment. Facilities 17(1/2):31–53
32. Augenbroe G, Park CS (2005) Quantification methods of technical building performance.
Build Res Info 33(2):159–172
33. Massheder K, Finch E (1998) Benchmarking metrics used in UK facilities management.
Facilities 16(5/6):123–127

Standards and Laws

34. EN 15221-1:2007, “Facility management—part 1: terms and definitions”

35. EN 15221-2:2006, “Facility management—part 2: guidance on how to prepare Facility
Management agreements”
36. EN 15221-3:2011, “Facility management—part 3: guidance on quality in facility
management”
Standards and Laws 29

37. EN 115221-4: 2011, “Facility management—part 4: taxonomy, classification and structures in

facility management”
38. EN 15221-7: 2012, “Facility management—part 7: guidelines for performance benchmarking”
39. ISO 10014:2006, “Quality management—guidelines for realizing financial and economic
benefits”
40. EN ISO 9000:2005, “Quality management systems—fundamentals and vocabulary”
41. EN 15341:2007, “Maintenance key performance indicators”

Websites

42. https://rapidbi.com/samplekeyperformanceindicatorskpi/
Chapter 2
Inventory for the FM: Collection
and Management of Information During
the Life Cycle of a Building

Abstract The aim of the chapter is to analyze the contents, the role, the character-
istics and the phases of the inventory activities in relation to the FM services. In the
chapter the meaning of real estate inventory is introduced, underlying that it might be
considered as a continuous process of retrieval, selection, validation, acquisition and
updating of information. According to this vision, several criteria, characterizing the
process of inventory, are highlighted: progression (it means defining in advance the
purposes and the characteristics of the information to be acquired and the criteria of
priority, in order to determine the timing of the progressive acquisition in relation to
available resources); dynamism (the inventory should not be interpreted as an
operation that is done una tantum); specificity (the contents of the inventory might be
defined on the basis of a series of questions concerning the purposes of the services,
the characteristics of the real estate, the information already in possession), the
multiplicity of sources. Later, the main activities related to the collection of infor-
mation are analyzed (documents audit, regulatory review, evaluation of contracts,
diagnostic investigation, acquisition of information about the “history” of the
building) in relation to the various categories of information, that are listed, and to the
steps of development of the inventory, that are described.

Keywords Real estate inventory
Information acquisition
Procedures
Surveys

2.1 Contents and Role of the Inventory

A thorough knowledge of the real estate is an essential condition for the accurate
determination of the services to be outsourced (in Global Services1 or in other
contractual formula) for the definition of the proper indicators concerning the
various services, for requiring and evaluating the offers, for estimating economic

This chapter is authored by Cinzia Talamo.

1
See the Italian standard UNI 11336:2004, “Global service for maintenance of buildings—
Guidelines”.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 31

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0_2
32 2 Inventory for the FM: Collection and Management of Information …

benefits. Probably this is the reason why the subject of Real estate inventory is
becoming more and more important within FM services [1].
Contextually to the preparation process of a contract for FM services, the client,
before developing the specifications of the services, should evaluate the consis-
tency, the quality and the availability of information in his possession. This pre-
liminary investigation ought to be carried out with a proper methodology and
procedure in order to be able to document with certainty the available knowledge.
From this survey three different situations may appear:
– the available information is sufficient for the development of the contract
specification;
– the information available is not exhaustive and/or it is not mutually integrated
and coherent and/or not compliant to the actual situation of the assets. In this
case inventory activities are necessary for integration and revision;
– the information is missing or unusable. Therefore, it is necessary to start an
inventory.
In order to understand the purpose, the role and the execution modalities of a real
estate inventory, first of all it is necessary to clarify its meaning. An inventory might
be basically defined as a system of activities and procedures aiming at providing the
knowledge of the dimensional and physical characteristics of a Real Estate.
The goal of a Real Estate inventory is to gather the information useful for
planning, managing and checking the provision of facility services. This goal is
achievable through a plurality of integrated activities, such as analysis, audits,
surveys, collection and selection of technical, administrative and legal data and
documents. These data and documents are acquired, managed and progressively
updated within a systematic process.
Therefore, it is possible to introduce an extension of the general concept of real
estate inventory by interpreting it as a continuous process of retrieval, selection,
validation, acquisition and updating of information. In order to be able to obtain,
through the support of appropriate information management tools, different kinds of
information at any time, this process has to be organized in a proper way.
Essentially, on one side: information about the current extent and conditions of the
assets; on the other side: basic information about significant events that have
marked the history of the buildings (i.e. initial situation, maintenance operations,
adjustments, replacements of parts, transformations, etc.).
This interpretation of inventory as a continuous process leads to consider several
criteria that converge to define the purpose and the distinctive features of the Real
estate inventory:
– progression, that is, information should be progressively acquired in a system-
atic manner, controlled and filed appropriately. The use of resources and
expertise, that a process of inventory involves, especially on large-scale assets,
requires operating according to a “strategy of progression”. This means to define
in advance the purposes and the characteristics of the information to be acquired
and the criteria of priority, in order to determine the timing of the progressive
2.1 Contents and Role of the Inventory 33

acquisition in relation to available resources. The definition of information, to be

acquired by the various activities within inventory, must consider the real
possibility of their retrieval, according to the means and the time available. So, a
careful preliminary analysis should be conducted, in order to define the basic
information, that is information that can be considered essential and have to be
present for the startup of the services and the information that instead can be
acquired in a deferred time (Chap. 1). Therefore, a plan should be developed
preliminary to the execution of the inventory activities:
– dynamism. The inventory should not be interpreted as an operation that is done
una tantum, but as a continuous process of acquiring and updating information,
organized in such a way that at any time it is possible to know the current state
of consistency of the real estate assets;
– specificity. The inventory might not be a standard service designed in a general
way; vice versa its contents might be defined on the basis of a series of questions
pertaining to the purposes of the services, the characteristics of the real estate,
the information already in possession. In particular, it is important to get an
overall view of the offered services, that is, the set of services, their requirements
and their integration forms. This allows to consider at the same time and in a
unified way the information needs of all the provided services (form and con-
tents, uses of the information that has to be collected);
– the level of detail in relation to the needs and the resources. Since the complete
collection of information requires significant time and costs, the inventory
procedure should be planned in advance and the extent of the collection eval-
uated according to a case-by-case basis and after careful evaluation, both of the
functions and uses, and of the resources available. According to the standard EN
1533:2011, “Criteria for design, management and control of maintenance ser-
vices for buildings”: “the necessary information are those that describe fully the
asset and its state of compliance with respect to its usability and its asset value”.
Inventories aimed at gathering large amounts of information, oversized and
excessive in relation to the actual needs or available resources—in terms of
human, financial and time resources—determine situations characterized by
high costs, difficult implementation, as well as problems in updating data;
– the multiplicity of sources. The information to be collected through an inventory
can be different for type and derive from various sources (i.e. surveys, docu-
ments audit, regulatory audits, overview, etc.) (Tables 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7).
Consequently, in the design and planning of the inventory, the source of the
information should be clearly specified, in order to define the precise and dif-
ferent methodologies to be adopted in relation to the backgrounds of the
information, to select the necessary skills and guide appropriately the actions of
the operators.
Moreover, the inventory might be considered within a broader system of
activities related to the acquisition of knowledge. The inventory can become, for
instance, the opportunity for coordinating a series of cognitive activities, to be
performed in series or in parallel, with the possibility of pursuing the organizational
34 2 Inventory for the FM: Collection and Management of Information …

INVENTORY

Preliminary
activities
Planning Programming Implementation

Audit Documents review Scheduling Surveys

Preliminary Information Checks and tests

investigations taxonomy
Collection of
System of information
supports
Storing of
Priority criteria information

Resources requested

Fig. 2.1 The inventory process [7]

and economic optimization. This optimization is achievable by rationalizing

operations and resources through activities such as surveys, documentary research,
organization and collection of feedback data, implementation of the information
system.
For this purpose, it may be useful to introduce a step, preliminary to the
inventory, by developing a general information framework, which defines the
taxonomy of information and their sources (Tables 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7).
Starting from this framework, two important actions can be set.
The first consists in the definition of the inventory plan, that is defining time,
phases and procedures for collecting, organizing and returning information.
The second consists in the individuation of several preliminary activities,
involving surveys and collection of information (Fig. 2.1) in order to avoid the risks
of superabundance of data and the repetition of information acquisition [2].
The activities that should be considered in coordination with the inventory are
various, such as:
– the documents audit for the realization and management of archives (Table 3.3,
Chap. 3). The documents audit should be an activity always present in the
development of an inventory. It consists first of all in the collection and con-
sultation of available documentations, and subsequently in the possible search of
the missing documents considered as necessary for specific goals of knowledge
and control. The preliminary documents audit allows to know the information
already available, thus avoiding in the inventory, during surveying and data
capture, to search for information already existing. So, the real estate inventory
could also represent the opportunity to develop archives where documents,
regarding the buildings throughout their life cycle, can be classified, preserved
and updated [3]. Many advantages and synergies may result from considering
jointly the development of the inventory and the documents archives. Firstly, all
2.1 Contents and Role of the Inventory 35

the documents and the information can be organized according to the same
coding system for the registry of the buildings and their parts (Chap. 3).
Secondly, the operations of survey and documents research can be better
organized and optimized. Thirdly, it is possible to make documents traceable
and “map”, within them, information that can be collected in the development of
the inventory in differed times, according to a principle of gradualism. In this
way, it is possible to avoid many survey operations just by extracting infor-
mation from existing documents. Of course, once documents, data and existing
information have been collected, selected and organized, it is necessary to assess
their adequacy and make possible actions of completion/updating:
– the regulatory review (assessment of compliance). This review is usually carried
out with the purpose of determining the status of compliance with respect to
mandatory regulations. The application context may consist both in the planning
of the works necessary for the adaptation to regulations and standards and in a
due diligence2 process. In both cases the evaluation of compliance presupposes
the existence of basic information coming from the inventory, such as: mor-
phological and dimensional spaces, their intended uses, characteristics of the
technical elements, etc.;
– the evaluation of contracts, aimed at rebuilding the overall situation of existing
contracts;
– the diagnostic investigation. The identification of the state and the interpretation
of conditions and causes of degradation of a building require the availability of
descriptive information, characteristics and performances of technical elements;
– the acquisition of information about the “history” of the building, that is
information on events that have affected the building throughout its life cycle
such as transformations of use, replacements, repairs, recurring failures, con-
sumption, cost of intervention, etc. This kind of information is extremely useful
for instance for the safety control, the interpretation of faults, the forecast over
time of the behavior of materials and components and the mean operating time
between failures.
Finally, considering the role of inventory within FM processes, it is necessary to
underline its important link with information systems (Fig. 3.3) (Chap. 4).
The decision to acquire and implement an information system makes clear the
need of starting inventory processes in order to collect information; vice versa
inventory actions, launched in response to different needs of knowledge about the
real estate, highlight the need of a well-framed platform in order to organize,
manage, update and make available the collected data.

2
According to the standard EN 15221-2:2006, “Facility Management. Guidance on how to prepare
Facility Management agreements”, due diligence is: compilation, comprehensive appraisal and
validation of information of an organization at the appropriate stage of the Facility Management
agreement required for assessing accuracy and integrity at the appropriate stage of the agreement
process.
36 2 Inventory for the FM: Collection and Management of Information …

In the market of FM services, the tendency of supplying the inventory service

linked with the implementation of an information system is becoming more and
more widespread. This tendency makes clear that it is advisable to coordinate the
setting and the development of an inventory with the activities of selection, cus-
tomization and management of an information system. The benefits for the effi-
ciency, effectiveness and coherence of the information framework concern different
aspects:
– the information and the methods for the collection and storage of inventory data
(i.e. sheets type, categories, form and sources of information to be collected,
etc.) are defined in accordance with the structure and the operating procedures of
the information system;
– the preliminary identification of the needs for knowledge defines at the same
time both the information to be collected through the inventory activities and the
functions and data processing requested to the information system;
– the preliminary knowledge of the framework of procedures, functions and
application modules, which may characterize an information system, cooperates
to define the framework of the information to be collected through the
inventory;
– the definition of the overall framework of knowledge (taxonomy) to be acquired
through the inventory and of the priorities in collection may opportunely guide
the implementation plan of the information system;
– the activity of data entry, carried out according to a first basis of information
collected through the inventory (or according to a set of data taken as a sample),
allows to test and evaluate the best way to enter and use data in relation to all the
various types of potential users of the information system. This test can give the
opportunity of revising and improving something in the inventory plan or better
defining the features of the information systems such as the design/customization
of the interfaces, or the reporting standards;
– in the inventory, activities of information collection find support and facilitation
in some functions, typical of the most common information systems, such as the
acquisition of drawings in both digital and paper formats and the interface with
databases or other information systems.

2.2 Information Categories

An inventory process aims at collecting information that can be referred to two

categories of knowledge.
The first category concerns the quantitative consistency of the buildings con-
stituting the real estate. This involves the acquisition of information relating to the
quantitative aspects and dimensions of the buildings and their surrounding areas.
The information related to the quantitative consistency of the spaces can take
different characterizations and specifications depending on the possible uses of
those data.
2.2 Information Categories 37

The second category concerns the technical characteristics of the building. This
involves the acquisition of information on technical elements (building and
equipments). These kinds of information can significantly vary in quantity and
contents in relation to the level of detail of the technical analysis. In general, for the
description of the technical characteristics, the inventory should identify at the
minimum level the kinds and amounts of technical elements present in each
building. At a superior level, the inventory should instead collect information
identifying technical and commercial characteristics (i.e. data relating to constituent
materials and components, the method of execution, the type and/or structural
arrangement, the geometrical configuration and dimensions, etc.).
Concerning the issue of diversification and progression of information over time,
the European standard EN 15331:2011 proposes two levels of data collection for
the aspects related to buildings maintenance services.
The first one, the preliminary level of data collection, is related to the needs of
identifying and quantifying the property to be maintained. This level includes:
– location;
– gross volume and surface area, divided according to the intended use (refer to
standards if applicable);
– general characteristics of component parts (i.e. position inside the building,
drawings, technical datasheet, instructions for maintenance issued by manu-
facturer, etc.);
– level of compliance with legal and regulatory requirements (objectives to be
attained);
– status of maintenance upgrading in accordance with pre-determined operational
specifications;
– external constraints (monumental and environmental, servitudes (i.e. right of
way), agreements with public bodies and bordering landowners, etc.);
– legal and/or technical documents relating to the installation, operation and
maintenance of systems and equipments;
– status of distribution systems and data concerning consumption (i.e. energy,
water, etc.);
– type and characteristics of services required to ensure operation of the building
(i.e. premises for doorkeeper and cleaners, heating, etc.).
The second level, suggested by the European standard, deals with a detailed
information that could be collected, after the preliminary data collection. The
information categories required may include, according to the specific needs of the
case, for example:
– for buildings and equipment: identification, location and description supported
by an appropriate coding system;
– drawings with sizes, position and layout of the various building components
(referred to the “as built” status of the building and updated during
maintenance);
38 2 Inventory for the FM: Collection and Management of Information …

– data about maintenance activities already performed (history of the

components);
– assessment of efficiency, functionality and compliance with applicable rules and
standards;
– residual service life, for each component, predicted in accordance with age,
quality and use conditions, and in relation with the initially foreseen service life;
– technical specifications: especially concerning equipments and building services
in order to identify characteristics and ‘established operating conditions’;
– repair or replacement costs (i.e. estimates in accordance to official or regional
price list);
– cost for unavailability and/or down-state: cost estimates, at least for critical
components, arising from the down-state of the components or from their
inability to provide the services for which they are intended to (i.e. costs for
liabilities, damages, damage to the corporate image, etc.);
– information about critical construction techniques;
– instructions for inspections, operation manuals and maintenance manuals:
experience and recommendations of the builder/manufacturer useful to develop
an appropriate maintenance plan.
The level of detail of the information to be collected is determined by several
considerations, such as:
– cognitive purposes;
– types of management services to be activated;
– information already available before the inventory;
– data availability;
– technical characteristics of the elements and their criticality in relation to the
building, the function it performs, the faults that may affect them and related
risks.
Given these considerations, a building may be described with different levels of
detail, according to the different classes of installed technical elements.
Considering the difficulties related to the exact description of the technical
characteristics of the building elements, the manager of the inventory should pre-
viously define the framework of the information needs and develop a careful pre-
liminary assessment of the acquisition priorities related to the uses of the data.
Several activities are involved in defining the quantitative consistency and the
technical characteristics of the buildings:
– retrieval, analysis and organization of available technical documents, such as:
design drawings, “as built” drawings, specifications, technical project docu-
ments, supply contracts, documentation of any changes of the original project,
manuals and maintenance plans, works archives, archives of the building, etc.
(Chap. 3);
– verification of the reliability of the examined data;
– evaluation of the possible integration/update of available data through targeted
technical surveys;
2.2 Information Categories 39

– general dimensional and technical surveys extended to the whole building in

case of lack or unreliability of data;
– making other integrative kinds of surveys (i.e. photographic, about materials).
Information about quantities and technical characteristics of the buildings is
fundamental for the development of a knowledge base responding to various pur-
poses related to the management of real estate assets, such as, among others:
– expression of demand requirements for the supply of building management
services;
– startup of the information system;
– definition of policies and strategies for the management of the real estate (i.e.
maintenance, renovation, enhancement, alienation, etc.);
– planning of maintenance activities;
– support to management functions (i.e. administrative, technical, logistics, etc.);
– programming, implementation, monitoring and controlling the facility man-
agement services;
– security management.

2.3 Sheets and Procedures for the Inventory

The inventory, considered as a long term process, needs a well-structured system of

supports. This system should be prepared before starting the inventory and it should
be based, first of all, on sheets and procedures. The creation of the apparatus of
sheets must carefully follow planned activities, starting from a general information
framework (taxonomy) that may be required by the various basic processes in
Facility Management services (Chaps. 1 and 3). Although at the beginning of the
inventory several sheets might not be immediately filled in, it is appropriate, before
starting the information collection, to have an overall reference frame, as organic as
possible, of all the information that are needed, of their use and sources (Table 3.18).
In this way, it is possible to achieve two purposes: firstly, to avoid problems of both
deficiency and data overlap [4] (Chap. 1); secondly, to check that all the information
necessary to carry out basic facility management processes is collected. If operating
according to the criterion of gradualism, it will be possible to define an order of
priority in the data collection over time just by selecting types of information from
the taxonomy [5, 6].
To make the system of sheets actually effective, it is necessary to preliminarily
identify and acquire criteria for the classification and the application of codes to the
buildings and their construction entity parts. In this way any information, gathered
during the inventory process, can be related to an entity uniquely identifiable and
located. The classifying and coding criteria should be applicable to the whole
building, divided hierarchically into technological units, technical elements, com-
ponents and their constituent materials [5]. These criteria, that allow to define the
40 2 Inventory for the FM: Collection and Management of Information …

registry system, may be defined by assuming classification standards such as the

UNIFORMAT II E 1557-09, “Criteria and standards for classification” (Chap. 3).
Therefore, in brief, preliminary, fundamental operations are:
– the assumption of a classification and coding system in order to allocate the
collected information;
– the development of a system of sheets in order to have always the same ref-
erence frame for the organization of information.
In fact, these are the two basic conditions for the coherence and continuity in the
process of information acquisition. Both the activities of the inventory can be
developed in a deferred way over time, even by different operators, and the data can
be constantly updated.
Besides these aspects, a further condition must be considered to provide an
adequate basis to the inventory process: a system of procedures must be developed
coherently with the contents of the sheets. The procedures have to provide
guidelines for the inventory activities by defining, in a systematic and formalized
way, subjects such as: methods of surveying; data collection parameters and
measurement criteria, tools, necessary skills and responsibility.
The system of procedures ensures the possibility to make the inventory activities
always repeatable in the same way; consequently the information, acquired over
time, will be easily aggregated, controlled and compared. In this sense, a useful
reference for defining procedures can be found in the standard UNI 11150-3:2005,
“Qualification and control of building design for building rehabilitation Part 3:
Diagnostic for building rehabilitation”. This standard provides basic guidelines,
useful for the development of procedures, dealing with the various kinds of oper-
ations that can be conducted during an inventory, such as: surveys investigating the
geometric and dimensional characteristics of buildings and identifying materials
and construction techniques, as well as photo collection.
In particular, the standard defines:
1. the geometric-dimensional survey. According to the standard, the geometric-
dimensional survey has to be conducted on the basis of a survey plan that should
define:
– the object to be detected and its parts;
– the level of precision and the extension in relation to the complexity and
nature of the object and/or its parts;
– procedures and instruments to be adopted in relation to the levels of preci-
sion and extension assumed (i.e. measuring procedures with manual, optical,
electronic, photographic, photogrammetric tools, etc.);
– how to record and process measures (i.e. averages, statistical evaluations,
etc.);
– the selection criteria of the scale and the symbolisms of representation;
2.3 Sheets and Procedures for the Inventory 41

2. the photographic survey. The standard suggests that the photographic survey
should be conducted on the basis of a survey plan defining:
– terms and conditions of registration, relatively to the object building and its
parts;
– size ratios and technical elements visible (materials and conformations) at the
moment of the survey;
– equipments (i.e. camera, video camera, etc.), points and modes of shooting
and return;
3. the observation and description of materials and construction techniques. The
standard states that the survey of materials and construction techniques has the
purpose of describing the technological system of the building. It may take
the form of a report or various kinds of drawings (i.e. the board mapping the
materials). The survey of materials should be conducted on the basis of a plan
describing at least (according to the type of element): the structural and func-
tional model, the techniques and materials of construction, the types of joints.
Moreover, aiming at planning the inventory activities in a more efficient way, the
procedures should also indicate the average time needed for the execution of the
various main activities. The time can be expressed in indices, defined according to
the specific nature of the survey, for example, man hours/sq. meter or man
hours/room or man hours/building. In this sense, considering the inventory as a
gradual and continuous process of acquiring information, in order to collect relevant
benchmarks for the future activities, every survey campaign should be monitored in
an appropriate way, recording the length of time of the various types of activity.
It should be stressed that the time required for the different activities of the
inventory varies widely in relation to a number of conditions, such as:
– characteristics of the buildings;
– presence, in a real estate, of similar buildings;
– geographic location and accessibility;
– consistency, adequacy and level of updating of information and documents
already available;
– organization of the existing documents;
– availability of information to be collected;
– human resources involved in the inventory activities;
– support tools;
– sources of information;
– ways of recording information;
– presence of information systems already operating, etc.
42 2 Inventory for the FM: Collection and Management of Information …

2.4 Phases and Operators in the Inventory Process

The inventory can be considered as a set of activities developed within a process

organized in different stages and according to several operating modes. An
inventory process may be activated within various situations, for example: services
of planned maintenance; outsourcing processes of management functions; inter-
ventions of renewal and valorization or exploitation of real estate; start-up of an
information system; processes of acquisition/sale of real estate, etc. Each of these
situations can influence in some ways the various phases and/or procedures of an
inventory. However, it is possible to draw a general description of the process
necessary for its development by identifying the main steps:
The preliminary phase
The preliminary phase of an inventory includes a series of activities that lead to a
preliminary definition of the overall framework of the information that have to be
acquired. This phase focuses primarily on some preliminary investigations, mainly
concerning: characteristics of the services and priority objectives of management;
characteristics of the Real Estate (i.e. age, technical characteristics and recurring
types, location, functions, etc.); clients’ requirements; existing information, docu-
ments and drawings already available. These investigations are carried out primarily
through interviews with the client, visits to the archives of documents and buildings
surveys;
The planning phase
This phase includes, on the basis of what has been acquired in the preliminary
phase, the construction of a taxonomy that illustrates the overall list of the infor-
mation to be acquired. The development of the information taxonomy has to be
integrated by some activities, such as:
– acquisition and organization of the available existing documents, with verifi-
cation of their state of completeness and updating, in relation to the need for
knowledge and objectives assumed;
– development of the system of supports (Chap. 3), that is the assumption of a
classification and coding system concerning spaces and technical elements, the
development of a system of procedures to guide survey activities, collection,
organization and storage of information;
– assumption of priority criteria for the information collection, namely the iden-
tification of both basic information reckoned to be immediately necessary in
relation to the service management and subordinate information, that can be
collected over time in a further phase of acquisition;
– definition of: human and financial resources necessary for developing the
inventory activities; methods of organization of the several types of activities;
competences required for each of them; methods of organization and returning
of information;
2.4 Phases and Operators in the Inventory Process 43

The programming phase

This phase should include the scheduling of the activities to be carried out in
relation to the available resources and (concerning the geometric and dimensional
surveys) to the possibility to visit the buildings;
The implementation phase
In this phase all the scheduled activities will be carried out, as well as many other
activities have to be planned, such as: periodic checks of the progress of the
scheduled activities, tests of correct implementation and procedures effectiveness,
verification of usability of the collected data. In the implementation phase, the
collected information are stored according to the provided tools and supports (i.e.
paper sheets, database, information system, etc.).

References

1. Paganin G (2005) L’acquisizione delle informazioni per la manutenzione dei patrimoni

immobiliari. Esselibri, Napoli
2. Jylhä T, Suvanto M (2015) Impacts of poor quality of information in the facility management
field. Facilities 33(5/6):302–319
3. Rowe WH (1996) The building pro forma. In: RSMeans (ed) Cost planning and estimating for
facilities maintenance. Wiley, Hoboken
4. Franssila H (2012) Information waste: qualitative study in manufacturing enterprises. In:
Moller C, Chaudhry S (eds) Advances in enterprise information systems II. Taylor & Francis
Group, London
5. Cipriano V, Paganin G, Parente S, Talamo C (2010) Real estate inventory, information
management, strategies for energy rehabilitation: proposal of a tool supporting knowledge and
decisions. In: Villegas L, Ural O, Abrantes V, Lombillo I, Liaño C (eds) Proceedings of the
37th IAHS world congress on housing—design, technology, refurbishment and management
of buildings, Santander
6. Molinari C, Paganin G, Talamo C (2002) Information systems for real estate management. In:
Hinks J, Shiem-Shin Then D, Buchanan S (eds) Proceedings of the CIB W70 global
symposium—applying and extending the global knowledge base, Glasgow
7. Talamo C (2011) L’organizzazione delle informazioni nei servizi di gestione immobiliare.
Maggioli Editore, Santarcangelo di Romagna (RN)

Standards and Laws

8. EN 15331:2011, “Criteria for design, management and control of maintenance services for
buildings”
9. UNI 11336:2004, “Global service for maintenance of buildings—Guidelines”
10. EN 15221-2:2006, “Facility Management—Part 2, “Guidance on how to prepare Facility
Management agreements”
11. UNIFORMAT II E 1557-09, “Criteria and standards for classification”
12. UNI 11150-3: 2005, “Qualification and control of building design for building rehabilitation—
Part 3: Diagnostic for building rehabilitation”
Chapter 3
The Building Registry

Abstract The aim of the chapter is to analyse the building registry, interpreted as a
data base, supported by appropriate methods for the breakdown and the classifi-
cation of the building and its parts, containing the information necessary to describe
the consistency, the functional and the technical characteristics. The chapter
highlights the role of the registry within FM services, its contents and relation with
the inventory and the information system. Considering the risks of inefficiency,
connected with the absence of a pre-determined framework for the collection and
organization of information, first of all, some key concepts are introduced: the
registry must be able to collect and connect documents and information, both on
spaces and technical elements; the registry should be drawn according to the
principle of gradualism and it should grow over time starting from a minimum
information set; the structure of the registry depends on the “registry system”, that
can be considered as a framework of criteria useful for the classification and coding
of spatial and technical elements and of an apparatus of data sheets, useful for
collecting information. Starting from these assumptions, some subjects are anal-
ysed: the role of documents review for the collection of a large amount of infor-
mation, developed and used in the building life cycle; the criteria for breaking
down, classifying and coding the building and its parts. Starting from the prevailing
logical breakdown scheme, consisting in the representation of the building as a
hierarchical open structure applicable both to spaces and technical elements, several
international standard references are introduced and analyzed; the contents and the
structure of the system of data sheets, listing, with the support of international
standards, the information that can be acquired over time.

Keywords Building registry
Registry system
Classification and coding
Data

sheets

This chapter is authored by Cinzia Talamo.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 45

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0_3
46 3 The Building Registry

3.1 Role, Basic Logic and Purpose of a Registry System

The processes of information collection, developed through the inventory, are

preliminary and supportive to the subsequent activities, that are fundamental for the
design and supply of services, such as: the organization of knowledge and the
management of information flows.
It is well known that the conditio sine qua non for an efficient Facility
Management service is the development and management of a system of infor-
mation concerning the dimensional, functional and technical characteristics of the
Real Estate [1–4]. This information platform must be able to grow gradually over
time and collect information about the operating status and the events concerning
spaces and technical elements constituting the buildings (i.e. faults, interventions,
renovations, transformations, etc.).
It is a knowledge base, which must be considered as a system:
– characterized by different information categories;
– dynamic, as in constant growth;
– properly structured, since it must be able to collect data coming from different
sources and to make them available to be aggregated, compared, verified and
elaborated.
Although most of the operators in the field of FM are aware of the fundamental
importance of information management, the analysis of the current practices shows
that the operation and maintenance phase, considered as the terminal of the whole
construction process, is that one most influenced by the poor organization of
information occurred in the previous stages (Chap. 1).
The development of a knowledge base is, in fact, one of the most expensive and
complex tasks in the setting of a management (operation and maintenance) service.
Strong inefficiencies are possible if, as it often happens, the activities that require
the information collection are carried out without an adequate preparatory stage and
appropriate coordination [5–7]. Facility managers should consider a framework of
information quality attributes (Table 3.1).
The cases of not positive experiences in building inventory activities are many
and well known. For example, inventories may result excessively expensive and
difficult to bring to completion since excessive amounts of data have been collected,
or they may be not efficient because they have not been preliminarily oriented to a
selective information acquisition. These situations are usually due to operations
carried out in absence of an adequate phase of proactive analysis of the information
coming from the design and construction phases and with deficiencies in the pre-
liminary preparation of support tools (i.e. coding schemes, data, procedures and
instructions for recording, inspection plans, etc.). It should also be noted that the
absence of a “design of the information” to be used as a basis for the realization of
3.1 Role, Basic Logic and Purpose of a Registry System 47

Table 3.1 Framework of information quality attributes [5]

Attribute Component Key questions
Accessibility Mode and What is the information format? How is information
media distributed? How can information be accessed? Is
information accessible when needed? Is information access
restricted?
Traceability Can the data source be identified? Can original data be
traced?
Reliability Is the information available when promised? Is the mode
and media as promised?
Contents Accuracy Is the information error-free? Is the information content
reliable?
Uniqueness Is the information the same for everyone? Is it possible to
get customized information? Is it possible to benefit from
being the only one having certain information?
Relevance Is the information really needed by the user? Does the
information help to solve the problem at hand?
Completeness How complete is the information? Is it deficient?
Availability Coverage How wide is the area covered by the information? Does the
information reach all relevant users?
Volume How much information is available? Are there multiple
sources of information? How frequently is the information
updated?
Consistency Is the information coherent and logical?
Timeliness Real-time Is the information provided in real-time?
History Is the provided information based on collected data of past
events?
Validity Unambiguous Does the information include obscurities?
Objectivity Can the information be considered objective?
Effectiveness Can the information affect its users’ choices? Can the
information make its user change his or her way of
working?
Does the information benefit its user? How?
Cost Is the information free? How much does the information
cost?
Are the benefits of the information greater than its cost?

complex processes (i.e. public works) is itself a symptom of two typical discomforts
of the sector:
– the first one due to the inability to define a vision of the overall work;
– the second one that can be attributed to a lack of leadership in the
process/project management.
Still focusing on the subject of inefficiency in collecting information, it should be
noted that situations in which different operators collect, independently and not
co-ordinately, information on the same building with various purposes, are
48 3 The Building Registry

frequent. It is possible to find many cases in which, besides the realization of a

building inventory, it is ongoing the development of other processes that require an
information collection (i.e. due diligence, diagnostic, analysis for energy perfor-
mance assessment, risk assessments, etc.).
In the absence of a standardized scheme for the identification of spatial com-
ponents and building elements, the various operators may collect information often
redundantly or, in some cases, coming to conclusions that are not in accordance one
to each other. In other cases, information is used only for a specific analysis but it is
not recorded in the knowledge base of the building. It can be considered, for
example, the investigation that leads to determine the constructive features of a
building envelope, which should be assumed to determine the energy performance
of a building. The information, if there is a scheme identifying building elements
and a catalogue describing technical characteristics, can be directly included in the
knowledge base. Furthermore, such information can also be associated to the
concerned technical element, together with information coming from other sources
concerning, for example, the state of degradation observed in a process of due
diligence or during a diagnostic procedure.
The acquisition of this information, according to a pre-determined framework,
may avoid expensive documental research and survey during the design and
development of FM services. Assuming a pre-determined framework for the col-
lection and organization of information means to develop a registry system.

3.2 The Registry System

First of all, in this context, a registry can be interpreted as a data base—supported

by appropriate methods for the classification1 of the buildings and their technical
components and spaces—containing the information needed to describe consis-
tency, functional and technical characteristics of the built assets. In particular, the
registry collects and organizes information on buildings regarding identification,
location, destination, sizes, legal and administrative conditions, technological
characteristics and performances. Moreover, the task of the registry is to contain

1
According to the standard ISO 15489-1:2004, “Information And Documentation—Records
Management—Part 1: General”, classification is: systematic identification and arrangement of
business activities and/or records into categories according to logically structured conventions,
methods, and procedural rules represented in a classification system.
The standard underlines the importance of coding for indexing. According to the standard
indexing is a process of establishing access points to facilitate retrieval of records and/or infor-
mation. Besides classification and indexing allow appropriate linking, grouping, naming, security
protection, user permissions and retrieval, disposition, and identifying fundamental records.
Guidance on indexing can be found in the standard ISO 5963:1985, “Documentation—Methods
for examining documents, determining their subjects, and selecting indexing terms”.
3.2 The Registry System 49

BUILDING REGISTRY

SPACES TECNHICAL ELEMENTS

REGISTRY REGISTRY

Fig. 3.1 The partition of the building registry

Fig. 3.2 The registry system

Criteria of Criteria of System of
classification coding sheets

REGISTRY SYSTEM

BUILDING REGISTRY

and make available information regarding the history of the buildings and their
current state of operation.2
In order to better clarify the meaning of the building registry, some key issues
must be highlighted:
– the registry collects information, both on spaces and technical elements, which
need to be related one to each other. In this sense it is appropriate to consider the
registry as subdivided in a registry for spaces and a registry for technical ele-
ments (Fig. 3.1);
– the registry should be drawn according to the principle of gradualism and it should
grow over time starting from a minimum information set, essential to the basic
requirements related to the management of the service considering aspects such as
characteristics of the elements, their criticality, types of services, etc. This growth
must be possible both vertically, i.e. by inserting additional levels of detail, and
horizontally, that means, having the possibility to add new cataloged items;
– the structure of the registry depends on what we could call “registry system”
(Fig. 3.2). It can be considered as a framework of criteria useful for the clas-
sification and coding3 of spatial and technical elements and of an apparatus of
data sheets, useful for collecting information always according to the same
formalized scheme.

2
See the standard UNI 10951:2001, “Systems of information for the maintenance management of
buildings. Guidelines” and the standard UNI 11447:2012, “Urban Facility Management Services.
Guidelines to set and program contracts”.
3
According to the standard ISO 15489-1:2001, the purpose of coding is associated with a location
function, where the number or code indicates the “address” of the record, so that the record may be
retrieved by specifying the residence within the records system.
50 3 The Building Registry

Fig. 3.3 The link between

the registry system and the Classification and
coding rules, sheets
inventory process

REGISTRY
INVENTORY
SYSTEM

Information Structure of the registry

REGISTRY

A strong and fundamental relation links the registry system to the inventory
process (Fig. 3.3) (Chap. 2). Before starting the inventory process, it is important to
have acquired the rules for collecting and archiving correctly information (Fig. 3.4).
Therefore, it is important to give priority to the development of a registry system,
accurately drawn according to the specific characteristics of the real estate and
Client’s organization and requirements. On the contrary, it is common to observe,
by analysing technical specifications of FM contracts, the request of inventory
services without any specification neither about criteria and requirements to be
considered, nor about roles and responsibilities in the development of a registry
system.
For better organizing the various categories of collected information, the registry
of a building may be further divided into sections, that are “sub-registries” (i.e.
identification registry, technical registry, functional registry, administrative registry,
etc.).

3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review

As already mentioned (Chap. 2), before developing survey activities, in setting the
inventory plan, documents4 should be gathered, analysed and reviewed. On the
contrary, by analysing technical specifications of FM services, it often happens to
observe that no mention is made by the client to the collection of documents, nor

4
According to the standard ISO 15489-1:2004, “Information and documentation—Records man-
agement—Part 1: General”, document is: recorded information or object which can be treated as a
unit. Moreover, according to the standard EN 13460:2009, “Maintenance. Documentation for
maintenance”, the document is: the physical support of the information in a specific form. This
may take the form of a paper sheet, the screen of a video monitor of a computer system, an
electronic board, a blackboard, etc. and the figures, type, size and distribution on the available
surface may vary without affecting the main purpose of the information system. A document is
permanent. Program results displayed on a screen do not make any document unless it is stored.
Document can be information stored in a database which can be shown on a screen or printed out.
3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review 51

Fig. 3.4 The registry and the

Registry
system
sources of information Classification
and coding
criteria

Inventory
Feed back
information

Registry
system
Classification
and coding

Preliminary phase
Design criteria
documents
Feed back
information

Registry
system
Classification
and coding
Operations and criteria
maintenance

REGISTRY
documents Feed back
information

Registry
system
Outcomes of Classification
and coding
investigation criteria
activities (diagnostic
surveys, energy audits, Feed back
risk assessment, etc.) information

Registry
system
Classification
and coding
Implementation phase

Outcomes of criteria
investigations
Feed back
information Registry
system

Classification
and coding
Outcomes of criteria
maintenance
activities Feed back
information

criteria are given about the ways of gathering them. In this way, a very important
source of information is reduced to a mere acquisition of papers and files. Vice
versa, documents review is a very important and demanding activity aimed at
searching, selecting, analysing, gathering and organizing the various and hetero-
geneous documents [8] coming from the design, construction, operations and
maintenance phases (Tables 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4). These documents are valuable
sources of information, useful to describe both the characteristics and the conditions
(degradations, compliance and operating states) of the buildings and the significant
events occurred during their life cycles.
According to this vision and pursuing the improvement of the effectiveness of
the service, in the planning of the document review, at least three viewpoints should
be considered.
52 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.2 Criteria for the organization of building managerial files [33]
Section A (building registry)
Collects documents concerning:
– Establishment and management of the registry
– Identification of a building system (break down structure)
– Identification of operators responsible for the building systems
– Description of the building systems
– Graphic documents
Section B (mandatory requirements)
Collects documents concerning:
– Environmental protection
– Reduction of energy consumption
– Hygiene and safety in the building
– Conformity to standards
– Fire prevention
– References to the land register
– Constraints
Etc.
Section C (operating and maintenance)
Collects documents concerning:
– Economics and finance
– Real estate values
– Context, performance and needs
– Renewal works
– Maintenance programmes and works

First of all, document review is fundamental for extracting orientations useful to

plan the activities of information collection. It allows to draw a list, distinguishing
information already available within the documents, those ones to be verified
through an on-field survey and the absent ones that, if necessary, should be
acquired.
Secondly, document review can be considered within a broader programme of
audit.5 Therefore, it can be useful not only for searching information inside doc-
uments, but also for setting up documented evaluation processes about the

5
According to standard EN ISO 19011: 2011, “Guidelines for auditing management systems”
within internal or external audits of management systems, an audit is a: systematic, independent
and documented process for obtaining audit evidence and evaluating it objectively to determine the
extent to which the audit criteria are fulfilled. For the same standard two other terms and definition
are important. Audit evidence are records, statements of fact or other information, which are
relevant to the audit criteria and verifiable. Audit evidence can be qualitative or quantitative. Audit
criteria are: set of policies, procedures or requirements used as a reference against which audit
evidence. If the audit criteria are legal (including statutory or regulatory) requirements, the terms
“compliant” or “non-compliant” are often used in an audit finding.
3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review 53

Table 3.3 List of documents and data sources [8]

Categories Documents and sources of data
Title/insurance/real Original deeds, as recorded
estate Matters of record of which the title is subject, including trust and
tax/mortgages partnership agreements
Insurance policies (property insurance, general liability, etc.)
Real estate tax bill
Mortgage financing, including amendments
Plot or site plan showing boundaries, casements, and major ground
features and topography
Bonds (performance/completion, labour and materials, and local
government surety) presently in effect
Operations— Data referring to income and expenses
income and Existing leases and amendments, and projected leases already received
expenses
Chart of accounts
Market studies conducted by or otherwise available to seller used in
project development or any other market information
All office buildings deemed competitive, their rent and level of
concessions
Pre-opening budget
Pre-opening service contracts
Pre-opening activities and schedule milestones
Resumes of proposed general manager, resident manager and other key
personnel
Proposed inventory of initial operating supplies
Proposed initial working capital budget
Permits, licenses or pending applications
Revenue histories and projections for all tenants paying percentage rents
Management Existing or proposed property management, marketing and leasing
contracts contracts and associated fee structures
Existing or proposed vendor or service contracts
Agreements affecting site
Marketing, leasing and other related agreements and associated fee
structures
Master plan Site plan and documents to verify planning board or similar agency
documents—all approval
master plan related Documents related to clearance of environmental impact
drawings and
Other master plan related documents, if any
documents
Zoning, building Zoning:
permits, – Attorney’s zoning opinion and certifications from architects and
inspections, and engineers regarding zoning
certificates of
– Zoning applications, zoning analysis (height, setback, and average
occupancy
calculations), annual report, and decisions rendered
– Zoning ordinance and internal design standards, etc.
(continued)
54 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.3 (continued)

Categories Documents and sources of data
Building permits:
– Building permits for base building
– Building permits for infrastructure
– Other building department records
– Building permits for tenant space renovations
– Exceptions from building and zoning code
Building inspections for base building and tenant work, including
violations:
– Base building
– Elevators
– Fire alarms
– Electrical
– Plumbing
– Violations
Certificates of occupancy:
– Base building
– All tenant spaces
Building Design and construction contracts and correspondence for base building:
documents – Architectural and engineering design contracts for ongoing
(contracts improvements
presently in effect
– Interior design contracts
in the building, all
amendments and – Other design contracts and/or consulting agreements
correspondence – Performance and payment bonds
from contractors, – Insurance
architects, – Finishes, furnishing, and equipment, including handling and installation
engineers, contracts and proposed inventory
attorneys, brokers,
and management) – Construction contracts for ongoing improvements
– Developer’s agreement
– Construction contract
– List of subcontracts and costs
– Job meeting notes for ongoing improvements
– Contractors’ requisitions for payment
Construction contracts and correspondence, including development
agreement for tenant spaces
Contracts for related work not included in general contract, including
infrastructure:
– Landscaping
– Telephone
– Computer
– Interiors
– Furniture
(continued)
3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review 55

Table 3.3 (continued)

Categories Documents and sources of data
– Infrastructure
Architects’ and engineers’ certifications:
– Certificate of substantial and final completion
– Structural engineers’ acceptance of work
– Structural design criteria
– Mechanical and electrical engineers’ acceptance of the work
– Release of liens from contractor for base building
– Release of liens from contractors for tenant improvement work
– Certificates by architects to owner, financial institutions, building
commissioner, or building inspector
– Certificates by engineers to owner, financial institutions, building
commissioner, or building inspector
– Daily logs from on-site field representatives
Building plans and specifications
As-built with addenda, bulletins, and change orders
Testing reports:
– Soils compaction, concrete, compression and structural steel inspections
– Freeze/thaw test procedures and results
Fire safety plan
Fire security system manual
Acceptances by insurance carriers of fire suppression system
Method and calculation of gross and net building areas
Elevator control sequence
Escalator control sequence
Emergency elevator control sequence
Emergency generator controls
Roof guarantees
Certification that building is not in flood plain and history of flooding on
the site
Survey of wetlands
Site utility plan
Building tenant standards and sample tenant agreement
Building Service contracts and warranties:
Operations and – HVAC
Maintenance
– Control systems
– Filters
– Pest control
– Alarm system testing
– Water treatment
– Radio service
(continued)
56 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.3 (continued)

Categories Documents and sources of data
– Artwork rental
– Sprinkler and standpipes
– Elevators
– Escalators
– Cleaning
– Plants
– Security
– Parking lot maintenance
– Landscape lot maintenance
– Window washing
– Roof guarantee
– Trash
– Water coolers
– Garage maintenance
– Plaza maintenance, other equipment/service
– Telephone
– Electric service
– Interior design service
– Automatic door equipment
– Towel and uniform cleaning
Contracts for work in progress
Building management contract
List of warranty expiration dates
Maintenance schedules for equipment
Inspection records
List of stored materials
Energy usage
Breakdown of operation and maintenance budget
Building/capital Operating capital and building cost since opening
cost data Capital budgets for future years
Budget of committed capital items
Chart of accounts for capitals items
Project budget and requisitions from lender
References for operating expenditures
Miscellaneous Seller’s package
Project appraisals conducted by owner
Promotional brochure for project
Brochures from architect, construction manager, and other key
professionals involved with the project
3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review 57

Table 3.4 Information and documents in operations and maintenance phase [27]
Documents from the preparatory phase
Document name Document Information
description
Technical data Manufacturer’s Manufacturer; date of manufacture;
specification of the Model/type/serial number; size; weight; capacity;
item power and service requirements; interfaces
specifications; other: referring physical nature,
assembly details and operation data
Operation manual Technical Model/type; manual date (edition); technical
instructions to reach details of the item; functional description of the
a proper item item; functional capabilities and performances;
function design, safety and operation margin; procedures
performance (commissioning/start-up, warning-up, steady
according to its operation, controlled shutdown, incidental and
technical emergency); operation limitations/precautions;
specifications and laws and regulations to be abided to
safety conditions
Maintenance manuals Technical Model/type; manual date (edition); technical
instructions details of the item; preventive maintenance
intended to preserve operations/actions (inspections,
an item in, or restore calibration/adjustment, parts replacements,
it to, a state in which lubrication); procedures (troubleshooting,
it can perform a dismantling/assembly, repair, adjustment); Cause
required function and effect diagrams; special tools required; spare
parts recommendations; Safety requirements
(signals, dressing, power source control, etc.)
Components list and Comprehensive list Equipment breakdown description; upper level
spare parts list of items which item (heading); (model/type/serial number); item
constitute part of number; item description; Item quantity
another one
Arrangements Drawing showing Drawing code and identification; date
replacement (issue/revision); dimensions; item components
components layout location and identification; necessary space for
for an item disassembly and maintenance; relevant information
about connection details; etc.
Detail Drawing with part Code identifying the item which is detailed;
list to ensure Assembly drawing showing positions of parts;
dismantling, repair Identification of each part on the drawing (part
and assembly of number, description, number of units); Any other
items relevant information for assembly and disassembly
operations
(…)
Logic diagram System control Diagram code and identification; date
diagram to clarify (issue/revision); logic functions (symbols,
the overall system internetworking and control flow); modes of
logic operation (e.g. starting, shutdown, alarm, trip
functions)
(…)
(continued)
58 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.4 (continued)

Documents from the preparatory phase
Document name Document Information
description
Location Drawing showing Drawing code and identification; date
the position of all (issue/revision); area identification (code and
field items within name); item identification and location code; items
the considered area drawings or symbols, without dimensional details
Layout Drawing showing Drawing code and identification; date
all areas of a (issue/revision); plant name (and code, when
particular plant necessary); areas (relative position, dimensions,
names and codes)
Test program report Commissioning Manufacturer; model/type/serial number; date of
report which manufacture; date of commissioning; warranty
demonstrates that an period and conditions; fulfilment of the technical
item is in details (size, weight, power and service
compliance with requirements, capacity/performance, referring
specification. physical nature, assembly details and operation
data); name and signature of the end user of the
item, accepting previous data
Certificates Specific safety and Manufacturer; model/type/serial number, date of
statutory regulations manufacture; subject to be certified; date of
certificates certificate; certification body/office and
signature/stamp
Documents from the operational phase
Assets register Item basic Location code; item name; acquisition price of the
(equipment basic data) information coming item; manufacturer; model/type/serial number; date
from either the of manufacture; date of installation; warranty
preparatory or the period; accounting number for cost charging;
operational phase. responsible maintenance department; standard
This information is estimated maintenance time(preventive and
related to technical, corrective); family (in case of comparisons among
contractual, similar items); opportunity cost/production loss
administrative, cost; basic item maintenance data (direct
spatial and maintenance cost, lost production cost, MTBF,
operational aspects MTTR, availability and use, criticality; Other:
of an item, in order cross-references to technical documentation,
to define it within spare-part list, etc.
the company
Item history record of List of work orders Item code and name; date (issue); period of time
maintenance operations of a particular item. analyzed (since/to); List of work orders
The list will be for a chronologically ordered (number, date,
given period of time complaint/cause, failing part, running hours of the
item, registration/open/closure dates, cost of job
covered by the work order)
(continued)
3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review 59

Table 3.4 (continued)

Documents from the preparatory phase
Document name Document Information
description
Work order Main document to
release, to follow
and to manage each
maintenance
operation
Spare parts cross Catalogue of spare Article code; name; description; stock location;
reference list parts and articles main supplier; lead time; price; unit of measure;
stored and/or needed unit of purchase; minimum level; order quantity;
supplier article code
Cause and effect Diagram showing, Effect description and code; analyzed item/s
diagram by order of code/population; diagram date (issue date); period
importance, the of time analyzed (since/to); List of causes in
different causes descendent order, including for each cause: cause
which produce a code, cause description, relative cause importance
given effect (failure) % (in cost, downtime, number of failures, etc.),
total importance (cost or downtime or number of
failures produced, etc.)
Parameter history record Set of values given Item code and name; parameter description and
by any item measure units; measurement point identification;
inspected/monitored date (issue); period of time analyzed (since/to)
parameter during a For each record: time, parameter value,
certain period of measurement point identification; cross-reference
time to technical procedure(when required)
MTBF-MTTR control Statistical Item code and identification; date (issue); cause of
chart information failure analyzed and code; MTTR—MTBF
document. Contains
the referred values
for items considered
of major interest
Planning sheet List of work orders Date (issue); Item code and identification; Planning
according to a given period (from/to)
priority List of work orders sorted including: number,
expected date, complaint/cause, item (lower level)
Scheduling sheet Work orders Date (issue); item code and identification; planning
planning and time period (since/to); list of work orders sorted
schedule assignment including number, start date, due time,
for a given period. It complaint/cause, item (lower level), resources
is obtained by required by the work order
assigning the
available resources
to the work orders
backlog
(continued)
60 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.4 (continued)

Documents from the preparatory phase
Document name Document Information
description
Production planning Planning of the use Annual production program; monthly production
of production program; weekly/daily production program
resources
(installations,
personnel), defining
availability window
for maintenance
operations implying
complete or partial
shutdown
Item availability and use Document which Item code identification; date(issue); period
data sheet shows how the item (since/to); scheduled time, downtime, uptime,
availability is used availability; time of item use
(…)
Maintenance cost Maintenance Date issued; period of time analyzed (since/to);
history record expenses classified cost structure element
according to the
maintenance and
business cost
structure, for a given
period of time
(…)
Maintenance contracts Set of updated According to EN 13269
and their amendments maintenance
contracts in force,
including
amendments
Procedure to review Instructions History recording of critical failures per
causes of critical regarding the machine/element (item); failure cost; causes of
failures periodic review of failure; work carried out; distribution list of results
causes for critical
failures
(…)
Maintenance Guide and Functions, operations and procedures to be
information system instructions to followed; list of system error; access level code;
manual properly operate the list of authorised operations
maintenance
information system
and authorized
access levels to the
maintenance
information system
(continued)
3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review 61

Table 3.4 (continued)

Documents from the preparatory phase
Document name Document Information
description
Acceptable maintenance List of qualified Address; ownership; size; occupancy; financial
suppliers maintenance situation; references; expertise; proximity;
suppliers appraisal
Procedure for Check list for Ownership; years established; size; turn over; staff
maintenance suppliers investigating/ strength; equipment and facilities; occupancy
evaluation evaluating degree; financial situation; contract forms;
maintenance references; expertise; appraisal; proximity;
suppliers copyright european
(…)
Procedure to control Procedure to control Purchase orders; supplier’s catalogue; machine
customer supplied items customer supplied card; maintenance instructions; catalogue of
items articles stored
(…)
Procedure for items Guidelines for item Item code format; location code format; Item—
identification. codification, plant location code format; Store/installation location;
location codification Supplier’s catalogue cross reference format
and how to link the
item code and the
plant location code
Procedure for Guidelines for Guidelines for recording the different locations of
traceability recording the an item in the plant, during the time
different locations of
an item in the plant,
during the time
Procedure to control List and form of Elements for planning maintenance activities,
maintenance activities maintenance reports among others: Priority assessment backlog,
Schedule compliance, Labour efficiency, Material
cost, Percent downtime maintenance cost,
Recommendations and action plan
(…)
Procedure for items Guidelines for Nature and sequence of sub-activities; Precautions
monitoring and testing carrying out to be taken; means; tools and resources required;
(during downtime and monitoring and objective to be met
operation) testing
(…)
Procedure for Maintenance Item number and name; location; maintenance
preventive and instructions work description; responsibility/trade; standard
corrective actions describing man-hours required
preventive and
corrective actions to
be undertaken
(…)
(continued)
62 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.4 (continued)

Documents from the preparatory phase
Document name Document Information
description
Procedure to identify Action plan with Actions to be taken on the basis of observations
training requirements periodic progress and/or audits in the field of personnel training
review
(…)
Laws and regulations Guidelines to laws Laws and/or regulation reference; relevant issues;
abiding procedures and regulations responsibility; what to do, when, where
abiding procedures

conditions of the documents. This activity allows, for instance, to draw a

description of the compliance degree, to find gaps in the authorization requirements
and to check deadlines (formalities required or documents to be renewed). Pursuing
these aims, according to the standard EN ISO 19011:2011, auditors should consider
if the information provided by the documents are complete, correct, consistent (the
document is consistent in itself and with related documents), current (the content is
up to date). Moreover, this evaluation of the state of documentation can be con-
sidered as a first step within due diligence6 processes, in which audit activities7 [9]
are developed for evaluating8 the fulfilment level of assigned criteria (set of poli-
cies, procedures or requirements used as a reference).
Thirdly, it is advisable to take advantage of the documents review by developing a
data room. The data room may be considered as a physical location (PDR for physical
data room), where information (in the form of files and documents placed in binders,
folders and boxes) are temporarily maintained and available for viewing. Data rooms
contain primarily documents such as drawings, files, letters, records, transcripts, etc.
An evolution of the physical data room is the virtual data room (VDR), where

6
According to the standard EN 15221-2:2007, “Facility Management—Part 2: Guidance on how to
prepare Facility Management agreements”, due diligence is: compilation, comprehensive appraisal
and validation of information of an organisation at the appropriate stage of the Facility
Management agreement required for assessing accuracy and integrity at the appropriate stage of
the agreement process.
7
Although due diligence processes differ significantly, each process has the same basic purpose of
assisting a buyer in determining whether to acquire a target, and if so, how much it should be paid
for the target. Through the due diligence process, a buyer is able to evaluate the risks related to the
transaction and how much to pay for a potential target. If the diligence process reveals that the
target is too risky for a buyer, the buyer will either decline to make an offer or offer to purchase the
target at a lower price than what he was initially willing to pay. Due diligence, therefore, is a tool
to assist buyers in assessing realistic values of target companies by evaluating their strengths,
weaknesses, risks, synergies and overall fit within the buyer’s strategic plan. For this reason,
during the process of due diligence a large amount of information can be collected [9].
8
See the standards: ISO/DIS 37500 “Guidance on outsourcing- Lignes directrices sur le man-
agement de sous-traitance; ASTM E 2018-08 “Standard Guide for Property Condition
Assessments: Baseline Property Condition Assessment”.
3.3 The Building Registry and the Documents Review 63

documents are presented more efficiently and effectively in digital format, in contrast
with physical documents in a PDR. Operating both through Website on the Internet
and Stand alone application, VDR9 have many advantages, such as: multiple teams
may access the same data at the same time; users can search documents for specific
words and phrases, similar to the Internet search engines; it allows document tracking;
it enhances transparency of the data room process; it allows to upload “late” docu-
ments by efficiently placing them in their appropriate position in the VDR index; it
allows to quickly reorder documents in the index and inform users through email or
SMS about changes of the index and data room contents; digital documents may be
flagged with respect to copying, printing, downloading or viewing.
The Italian standard UNI 10998:2007, “Building managerial files. Appointed
and care general criteria” suggests general criteria for the organization of building
managerial files. The standard suggests to arrange documents according to sections
(Table 3.2).
More in detail, Rowe [8] provides a wide list of documents (Table 3.3) to be
collected that contain a large amount of information developed and used throughout
the building life cycle.
Furthermore, by considering the specific field of maintenance services, the
standard EN 13460:2009, “Maintenance—Documentation for Maintenance” pro-
vides an useful guideline about the large amount of information that may be col-
lected for managing maintenance of technical items. The standard defines the whole
set of documents and information (Table 3.4) according to the various phases of the
maintenance process by listing and describing the documents and, for each one, by
stating the minimum information set to be included.10
A more extended and open taxonomy of general reference information and
information types within a project, is provided, classified and codified, by the
OmniClass Table 36.11
On the basis of these viewpoints, it is evident that building registry and docu-
ments review should be developed according to an integrated and shared approach
in order to get synergies and improve effectiveness in the processes of information
management (Fig. 3.5). So, it is advisable to acquire criteria for the classification
and application of codes to the documents coherently with those ones assumed for
the buildings and their parts. Developing a unique registry system for information
and documents allows also to easily:
– trace and map information that can be find within documents;
– outline documents useful for deepening specific information;
– make more efficient the operations of survey, searching, updating and docu-
ments storage, that will be developed over time.

9
VDRs should store files of varying formats, including PDF, Excel, PowerPoint, Word, GIF,
MPEG, JPEG, and TIFF, so eliminating the need to convert files to a specific file type [9].
10
The standard points out that in some cases, some of the information listed for a document should
not be used because of their lack of relevance or the nature of the item to which it is related.
11
For an in-depth analysis of the OmniClass Tables see the next paragraph.
64 3 The Building Registry

REGISTRY

BUILDING REGISTRY DOCUMENTS REGISTRY

SPACES TECNHICAL ELEMENTS

REGISTRY REGISTRY

Fig. 3.5 The building registry and the documents registry

3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification

and Coding Criteria

A registry system should be based on criteria of breaking down, classifying and

coding that have to be unique for the whole building process.
So, before the development of the inventory process and building registry, the
fundamental tasks to be carried out consist in identifying and acquiring criteria for
the classification and application of codes to the buildings and their construction
entity parts.
In the current practice, the prevailing logical breakdown scheme, assumed for
the description of the building, consists in the representation of the building as an
hierarchical open structure.12 It is a tree structure, starting from a level of maximum
aggregation (real estate, compound or building) that can be organized in underlying
layers, each one having a lower degree of complexity, to the simplest elements, not
further decomposable.
This hierarchical open structure is applicable both to spaces13 and technical
elements (Fig. 3.6) and it has many advantages for the cognitive tasks associated
with Facility Management services. In fact it allows to:

12
According to standard EN 15221-4:2011, “Facility Management—Part 4: Taxonomy,
Classification and Structures in Facility Management”, hierarchy is: structure of levels in which
each level includes its lower levels. Taxonomies are frequently arranged in a hierarchical structure.
Typically they are related by supertype-subtype, also called parent-child relationships.
13
Considering the subject of the building registry, appropriate definitions for space and element are
provided by the standard ISO 12006-2:2001, “ Building construction—Organization of informa-
tion about construction works. Part 2: Framework for classification of information” (at present this
standard is under revision).
Space is: three-dimensional, material construction result contained within, or otherwise asso-
ciated with, a building or other construction entity. A space may be bounded physically or
notionally (i.e. room, corridor, atrium, cleared zone (at an airport), roadway, square, working space
around a machine, swimming pool, etc.). A key property of a space is the function or user activity
it is intended to serve.
Element: construction entity part which, in itself or in combination with other such parts, fulfils
a predominating function of the construction entity (i.e. elements are: external wall, floor, roof,
foundation, column, lighting system, ventilation system, culinary furnishings, sanitary equipment)
(i.e. predominating functions are: space enclosing, supporting, servicing, furnishing).
 BUILDING REGISTRY

SPACES TECHNICAL
TECHNIC ELEMENTS
ALELEMENTS

BUILDING

00H n n x BUILDING

Classes of Classes of Classes of Interior partition

n n 3.3
00H.+001 n n x +/ n n n Floor n Floor 2 Floor 1 technical units n technical units 2 technical units 1

3.3.2 Interior horizontal

00H.+001.0001 n n x +/ n n n n n n n room Technical Technical Technical n n n
room n room 2 room11 partition
units n units 2 units 1

EXAMPLE CODES HIERARCHICALSCHEME Technical Technical Technical n n n n 3.3.2.1 Slab

elements n elements 2 elements 1

Technical Technical Technical

n n n n n n n 3.3.2.1_S02 Slab type S02
elements type n elements type 2 elements type 1

Layer/ n n n n n n n 3.3.2.1_021 Ceramic finishing

Component1

Layer/ n n n n n n n 3.3.2.1_022 Base

3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria

Component n

HIERARCHICALSCHEME CODES EXAMPLE

Fig. 3.6 Example of hierarchical open structure applied both to spaces and technical elements
65
66 3 The Building Registry

– allocate information at different hierarchical levels;

– organize and extend the hierarchy to further levels, if necessary (vertical
extension);
– add new elements at the same hierarchical level, if necessary (horizontal
extension);
– aggregate information with respect to different hierarchical levels (i.e. for classes
of technical elements, typologies of technical elements, typologies of spaces,
etc.).
On the basis of the assumed hierarchical structure, all the items14 constituting the
physical system can be identified by assigning to them a unique code for
recognition.
The code may be composed in many ways (it can be done manually or auto-
matically generated), but, in general, the code should:
– lead to the unambiguous identification of each entity (spatial, technical or
documentary);
– be as “speaking” as possible, i.e. explicit with respect to the type of entity and
level of hierarchy organization;
– be coherent with the criterion of the assumed hierarchical structure.
At the present time, it is possible to find several references for the assumption of
classification and coding criteria.
First of all, a basic reference may be found in the standard ISO15 12006-2:2001,
“Building construction—Organization of information about construction works.
Part 2: Framework for classification of information”, that defines a very general
framework and set of recommended table titles, supported by definitions, but not by
a detailed content of these tables. In fact, it is intended to be used by organizations
developing and publishing classification systems and tables on a national or
regional basis.
The standard considers the whole life cycle of the construction process by
including design, production, maintenance and demolition, in relation to both
building and civil engineering. It identifies classes for information organization and
it indicates how these classes are related one to each other, but it does not provide a

14
According to the standard EN 60300-3-14:2004, “Dependability management. Part 3–14:
Application guide -Maintenance and maintenance support” an item is: any part, component,
device, subsystem, functional unit, equipment or system that can be individually considered. In
particular an item may consist of hardware, software or both, and may also, in particular cases,
include people. Besides a number of items, i.e. a population of items or a sample, may itself be
considered as an item.
15
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national
standards bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally
carried out through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which
a technical committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee.
International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take
part in the work.
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 67

complete operational classification system. Details of these classification tables may

vary in order to satisfy local needs.
Although the standard does not give any operative instruction for classifying and
coding, anyway it may be interesting to consider the proposed general view.
The standard aims at giving a general basic model of the construction process by
linking resources (construction products/aids, agents, information) with results
(designed construction entities, produced construction entities, maintained con-
struction entities, demolished construction entities) in relation to the various phases
(inception/design, production, use and maintenance, decommissioning and demo-
lition). This model allows to establish classes that are reference categories for the
organization of information. These classes may be split up in deeper levels of detail.
The general scheme for listing classes and contents of some classification tables is
proposed below (Fig. 3.7).
The main classes of construction results are:
– construction entity16;
– construction complex17;
– space18;
– construction entity part.19
According to a hierarchical vision, the main classes related to construction entity
parts are:
– element;
– designed element;
– work result.
Each class can be divided into subclasses by a principle of specialization and
thus resulting in a classification table. The standard proposes seventeen basic tables
organized according to the schema proposed in the Table 3.5.

16
According to the standard, construction entity is: independent material construction result of
significant scale serving at least one user activity or function (i.e. building, bridge, road, dam,
tower, sewer, museum (if a single structure), sports field, sewage settlement tank, cycleway, etc.).
17
According to the standard, construction complex is two or more adjacent construction entities
collectively serving one or more user activity or function (i.e. airport, sewage treatment works,
business park, port, motorway, shopping and sports complexes, etc.).
18
See note 13.
19
According to the standard, construction entity part is: solid (as distinct from liquid or gaseous),
material part of a construction entity, having physically delineated boundaries (i.e. wall, door, door
handle, wash basin, road surface, bridge pier, pipeline valve, light switch, roof, heating system,
sluice gates, etc.).
68 3 The Building Registry

TABLE A1
Buildings
Construction complex Pavements/landscaping
Tunnels (and other underground
constructions)
Space Embankments, retainingwalls, dams
Tanks, silos, etc.
Bridges, viaducts, etc.
Construction entity Towers, masts, superstructures (other
than buildings)
Pipes, ducts, cables

CONSTRUCTION TABLE A7
RESULT Construction entity part Element Enclosing elements
Floors
Roofs
Supporting elements
Columns
Servicing elements
Work results Designed Element Ventilation systems
Furnishing, equipping
Culinary equipmen

TABLE A9 TABLE A8
CONSTRUCTION Internal walls of
Excavation and filling
PROCESS gypsum board on
Ground anchoring
Brick/block walling timber studs
Structural precast concrete Internal walls of pre-
Stone slab cladding Mastic asphalt cast concrete
roofing Road pavement of
Curtain walling rolled asphalt
Raised access floors
Ceramic wall/floor tiling
Drainage below ground
Low temperature hot water heating
Fire sprinklers
Emergency lighting
Lifts

Fig. 3.7 Part of the scheme of classes and of the general relationships between them and summary
of some classification tables [38]

Going on, a further and useful reference is surely the E 1557-09, “Standard
Classification for Building Elements and Related Site work”—UNIFORMAT II20
by ASTM.21 This standard establishes a classification of building elements and
related site works. The standard considers as elements the major components
common to most buildings, defined in relation to their given functions, regardless of
the design specification, construction method or materials used. The proposed

20
The original UNIFORMAT classification was developed jointly by the General Services
Administration (GSA) and the American Institute of Architects (AIA). UNIFORMAT II is an
elemental format similar to the original UNIFORMAT. UNIFORMAT II differs from the original
UNIFORMAT, since it takes into consideration a broader range of building types and it has been
updated to categorize building elements as they are in current building practice.
21
ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), operates in the development and delivery of international voluntary consensus standards.
Today, some 12,000 ASTM standards are used around the world to improve product quality,
enhance safety, facilitate market access and trade, and build consumer confidence. ASTM serves
diverse industries—ranging from metals to construction, petroleum to consumer products, and
many more—through 143 technical standards-writing committees.
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 69

Table 3.5 List of classes and possible ways of specializing the classes with examples of
application of the system of classification [38]
Class Principle of Examples of possible headings Table
specialization reference
Construction entity Form Buildings, A1
pavements/landscaping,
bridges, viaducts, etc.
Function or user activity Hospital buildings, health A2, A6
centre buildings, footbridges,
etc.
Construction complex Function or user activity Transport complexes, public A.3, A.6
health complexes, etc.
Space Degree of enclosure Open space (with a floor, A.4
pavement or ground surface;
not covered; no or limited
horizontal physical
boundaries), not covered,
enclosed space, etc.
Function or user activity Health, welfare spaces; A.5, A.6
administrative spaces, etc.
Construction entity part Classified by related Health, welfare facilities: A.7, A.8,
tables for elements, hospital buildings, operating A.9
designed elements and theatres, hospital wards, health
work results centre buildings, consulting
rooms, sick bays, etc.
Element Characteristic Enclosing elements (floors, A.7
predominating function roofs, supporting elements,
of the construction entity columns); servicing elements
(ventilation systems), etc.
Designed element Element by type of work Internal walls of gypsum A.8
board on timber studs; internal
walls of pre-cast concrete
Work result Type of work Excavation and filling, ground A.9
anchoring, brick/block
walling, structural precast
concrete, etc.
Management process Type of process Personnel management, A.10
Marketing/sales management,
project management, etc.
Work process Classified by related Excavation and filling, ground A.9
table for work results anchoring, brick/block
walling, structural precast
concrete, etc.
Construction entity Overall character of Origination, design, A.11
lifecycle stage processes during the production, use/maintenance,
stage etc.
Project stage Overall character of Inception/procurement, A.12
processes during the feasibility, outline proposals,
stage programme preparation,
scheme design/costing, etc.
(continued)
70 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.5 (continued)

Class Principle of Examples of possible headings Table
specialization reference
Construction product Function Ground treatments and A.13
retention, construction works,
structural and space divisions,
accesses, barriers, circulation
equipment, coverings,
claddings, linings, etc.
Construction aid Function Ground water lowering plant, A.14
contractor’s pumps, steel
reinforcement cutting and
bending plant and equipment,
formwork and scaffolding, etc.
Construction agent Discipline Clients, architects, etc. A.15
Construction information Type of medium Drawings, photographs, etc. A.16
Property/characteristic Type Composition, methods of A.17
assembly, shape, size, weight,
density, etc.

classification is related to a hierarchical structure and it allows different levels of

aggregation and summarization. The UNIFORMAT II22 classification of building
elements comprises three hierarchical levels:
– Major Group Elements for Level 1;
– Group Elements for Level 2;
– Individual Elements for Level 3.
For each level the standard proposes an alphanumeric designation for the clas-
sification: a single character letter code for Level 1 Major Group Elements, a three
character alphanumeric code for Level 2 Group Elements and a five character
alphanumeric code for Level 3 Individual Elements (Table 3.6)
Starting from the third level, it is possible to list less and less complex items. The
standard proposes open and detailed lists of specific items, defining those ones
included and excluded under each individual element listed in the Level 3 category.

22
UNIFORMAT classification has been developed in relation to several uses: structuring costs on
an elemental basis for economic evaluations early in the design process; estimating and controlling
costs during planning, design, and construction (i.e. UNIFORMAT II may support in preparing
budgets and establishing elemental cost plans before design begins); conducting value engineering
workshops (i.e. UNIFORMAT may be used as a checklist to ensure that alternatives for all
elements of significant cost in the building project are analysed in the creativity phase); developing
initial project master schedules; performing risk analyses (i.e. by developing probability distri-
butions of building costs applied on individual elements and group elements when evaluating the
economic risk in undertaking a building project); structuring cost manuals and recording con-
struction, operating and maintenance costs in a database; structuring preliminary project
descriptions during the conceptual design phase; coding and referencing standard details in
computer aided design systems.
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 71

Table 3.6 Standard classification for building elements and related site work [40]
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Major group elements Group elements Individual elements
A Substructure A10 Foundations A1010 Standard foundations
A1020 Special foundations
A1030 Slab on grade
A20 Basement A2010 Basement excavation
construction A2020 Basement walls
B Shell B10 Superstructure B1010 Floor construction
B1020 Roof construction
B20 Exterior enclosure B2010 Exterior walls
B2020 Exterior windows
B2030 Exterior doors
B30 Roofing B3010 Roof coverings
B3020 Roof openings
C Interiors C10 Interior construction C1010 Partitions
C1020 Interior doors
C1030 Fittings
C20 Stairs C2010 Stair construction
C2020 Stair finishes
C30 Interior finishes C3010 Wall finishes
C3020 Floor finishes
C3030 Ceiling finishes
D Services D10 Conveying D1010 Elevator and lift
D1020 Escalators and moving
walks
D1030 Other conveying systems
D20 Plumbing D2010 Plumbing fixtures
D2020 Domestic water distribution
D2030 Sanitary waste
D2040 Rain water drainage
D2050 Other plumbing systems
D30 HVAC D3010 Energy supply
D3020 Heat generating systems
D3030 Cooling generating systems
D3040 Distribution systems
D3050 Terminal & package units
D3060 Controls and
instrumentation
D3070 Systems testing and
balancing
D3090 Other HVAC systems and
equipments
(continued)
72 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.6 (continued)

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Major group elements Group elements Individual elements
D40 Fire protection D4010 Sprinklers
D4020 Standpipes
D4030 Fire protection specialties
D4090 Other Fire protection
systems
D50 Electrical D5010 Electrical service and
distribution
D5020 Lighting and branch wiring
D5030 Communications and
security
D5090 Other electrical systems
E Equipment and E10 Equipment E1010 Commercial equipment
furnishings E1020 Institutional equipment
E1030 Vehicular equipment
E1090 Other equipment
E20 Furnishings E2010 Fixed furnishings
E2020 Movable Furnishings
F Special construction and F10 Special construction F1010 Special structures
demolition F1020 Integrated construction
F1030 Special construction
systems
F1040 Special facilities
F1050 Special controls and
instrumentation
F20 Selective building F2010 Building elements
demolition demolition
F2020 Hazardous components
abatement

The listings of inclusions and exclusions proposed by the standard are not intended
to be exhaustive. Rather, they provide a general outline of what expecting in a
particular element. In the Table 3.7 it is proposed an example of the Level 4
Sub-Elements.
Sharing the same approach of UNIFORMAT II, the Italian UNI standard
8290-1:1981, “Residential building. Building elements. Classification and termi-
nology” proposes a classification and coding of the building elements based on a
typical breakdown scheme, organized in three hierarchical levels that may be fur-
ther split up in lower levels (Table 3.8). Each level contains items characterized by
the same degree of complexity. The three levels are:
Table 3.7 Example of the proposed Level 4 sub-elements [40]
Code Level 1 Code Level 2 Group Code Level 3 Level 4 Sub-elements
Major elements Individual Included Excluded
group elements
elements
B SHELL B10 Superstructure B1010 Floor (a) Floor structural frame (a) Exterior load
construction (b) Interior structural walls bearing walls
(c) Floor slabs and decks (b) Applied and
(d) Inclined and stepped floors suspended ceiling
(e) Expansion and contraction joints and floor finishes
(f) Balcony construction (c) Stair
(g) Suspended ramps construction
(h) Exterior stairs and fire escapes (d) Balcony walls
(i) Other floor construction (i.e. catwalks, space frames, etc.) and railings
B1020 Roof (a) Roof structural frame (a) Roof coverings
construction (b) Structural interior walls supporting roof (b) Skylights and
(c) Roof decks, slabs and sheathing roof openings
(d) Canopies (c) Stair
(e) Other roof construction construction
B20 Exterior B2010 Exterior (a) Exterior wall construction with facing materials, exterior (a) Applied finishes
enclosure walls applied finishes, back-up construction, framing, sheathing, to interior faces of
wallboard, parapets, insulation, and vapour retarders exterior walls
(b) Exterior load-bearing wall construction (b) Columns and
(c) Exterior louvers and screens beams in exterior
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria

(d) Exterior sun control devices walls

(e) Balcony walls and railings (c) Venetian blinds
(f) Exterior soffits (d) Other interior
sun control devices
(e) Roof eaves and
eaves soffits
(continued)
73
Table 3.7 (continued)
74

Code Level 1 Code Level 2 Group Code Level 3 Level 4 Sub-elements

Major elements Individual Included Excluded
group elements
elements
(f) Glazed curtain
walls
B2020 Exterior (a) Windows (a) Window
windows (b) Storefronts treatments
(c) Curtain walls
(d) Exterior painting of windows
(e) Wall opening elements such as lintels, sills, flashings, etc.
B2030 Exterior (a) Personnel doors
doors (b) Revolving doors
(c) Overhead doors
(d) Other doors (i.e. hanger doors, blast-resistant doors, etc.)
B30 Roofing B3010 Roof (a) Roofing membranes, shingles and tiles (a) Roof openings
coverings (b) Traffic coatings (b) Roof drains
(c) Waterproof membranes below paving (c) Parapets
(d) Expansion joints
(e) Vapour retarders
(f) Roof and deck insulation
(g) Roof fill
(h) Flashings and trim
(i) Gutters and downspouts
(j) Eaves and eaves soffits
B3020 Roof (a) Skylights (a) Powered and
openings (b) Area glazing ducted ventilators
(c) Roof hatches
(d) Gravity roof ventilators
(e) Smoke vents
3 The Building Registry
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 75

Table 3.8 Classification for building elements [41]

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Classes of Technological units Classes of technical elements
technological units
Loadbearing structure Foundation structure Direct foundation structure
Indirect foundation structure
Above ground structure Vertical above ground structure
Horizontal and tilted above ground
structure
Spatial above ground structure
Containment structure Vertical containment structure
Horizontal containment structure
Closing Vertical closing External vertical walls
External vertical windows/frames
Lower horizontal closing Slab on grade
Horizontal windows/frames
Horizontal closing on Slab on open areas
outdoor spaces
Upper closing Roofing
External horizontal windows/frames
Internal partition Vertical internal partition Internal vertical walls
Internal vertical frames
Protective elements
Horizontal internal partition Floor slabs
Intermediate floors
Internal horizontal frames
Tilted internal partition Internal stairs
Internal ramps
Outside partition Vertical outside partition Protecting elements
Separating elements
Horizontal outside partition Balconies and loggias
Walkways
Tilted outside partition External stairs
External ramps
Services Climate control system Feed
Thermal units
Fluids treatment plants
Distribution piping/network and
terminals
Condensate drain network
Exhaust and vents
(continued)
76 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.8 (continued)

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Classes of Technological units Classes of technical elements
technological units
Domestic water system Connections
Hydraulic machines
Storage systems
Boilers
Domestic cold water distribution and
terminals
Domestic hot water distribution and
terminals
Hot water re-circulating networks
Fixtures (plumbing fixtures)
Liquid disposal system
Gaseous disposal system
Solid disposal system
Gas distribution system
Electrical system
Telecommunication system
Fixed conveying system
Safety system Fire fighting system
Grounding system
Lighting protection system
Anti-theft and anti-intrusion
system
Internal equipment Domestic furnishing
External equipment Outdoor collective furnishing
External fittings

– classes of technological units;

– technological units;
– classes of technological elements.
The hierarchical structure proposed by the standard UNI 8290-1 may be split up,
for example, in a fourth level represented by the various types of a technical
element. This level may be further split up in a fifth level represented by the various
components/layers that may compose each type of technical element (Fig. 3.8).
Finally a recent and very interesting proposal for the classification of the built
environment is represented by the OmniClass Construction Classification System
(OCCS). OmniClass is useful for many fields of application: organizing library
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 77

BUILDING

Level 1 Partition
Classes of Classes of Classes of
technical units n technical units 2 technical units 1

Level 2 Technical Horizontal partition

Technical Technical
units n units 2 units 1

Level3 Slab
Technical Technical Technical
elements n elements 2 elements 1

Level4 Technical Technical elements1 Technical elements 1 Slab type1

elements1 Type 2 Type1
Type n.

Level 5 Layer/ Ceramic finishing

component

Layer/ Screed
component
Examples

Fig. 3.8 Example of application of the classification system [41]

materials, product literature, project information, electronic databases. OCCS23 is

intended to be the global mean for organizing, sorting and retrieving information, as
well as deriving relational computer applications considering the whole life cycle of
a facility, from its conception to its deconstruction or recycling. OmniClass is a
support tool for organizing many different forms of information (electronic and hard
copy, libraries and archives) and preparing project information, communication
exchange information, cost information, specification information and other infor-
mation that is generated during the services carried out throughout the project life
cycle. Moreover, OmniClass is compatible with information stored in computerized
databases and most existing databases can simply have a field added to accept
OmniClass codes. Therefore, the codes, that can be assigned to each item in
databases and reports produced according to OmniClass codes, allow information to
be sorted and retrieved for a variety of purposes.

23
OmniClass has been designed in order to provide a standardized basis for classifying information
created and used in the field of North American architectural, engineering and construction
(AEC) industry, throughout the facility life cycle, from conception to demolition or reuse, in
relation to all the different types of constructions making up the built environment.
78 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.9 The tables proposed by the OmniClass construction classification system
Class Table Title
Construction results 11 Construction entities by function
12 Construction entities by form
13 Spaces by function
14 Spaces by form
21 Elements (includes designed elements)
22 Work results
Construction resources 23 Products
33 Disciplines
34 Organizational roles
35 Tools
36 Information
41 Materials
Construction processes 31 Phases
32 Services
49 Properties

OmniClass derives classification and coding criteria from internationally

accepted standards developed by the ISO organization and, in particular, from the
above mentioned standard ISO 12006-2.24 Following the framework for informa-
tion classification proposed by ISO 12006-2, OmniClass accepts the basic structure
of information about construction grouped into three primary categories composing
the model of the process (construction resources, construction processes and con-
struction results). Then, these categories are further subdivided into fifteen sug-
gested “Tables” (Table 3.9) organizing construction information. Each table
represents a different aspect of construction information. Each table can be inde-
pendently used to classify a particular type of information, or it can be combined
with entries on other tables to classify more complex subjects.
OCCS incorporates other existent systems currently used as a basis for these
tables. These systems are: MasterFormat (for work results), UniFormat (for ele-
ments), EPIC (Electronic Product Information Cooperation) (for products).
In particular, in this context it may be interesting to report the framework of
contents of some tables:

24
OCCS derives its contents from the standard ISO 12006-2 as well as Uniclass (Unified
Classification for the Construction Industry). Uniclass is the UK’s equivalent of OmniClass.
The OCCS Development Committee has been in contact with the developers of Uniclass, and from
an early point in the OmniClass development effort, received permission to freely adapt and use
portions of the content and structure of Uniclass as needed in the development of OmniClass. This
cross-referencing allows the Uniclass maintenance team to, in turn, use OmniClass as a resource
for further refining their document, thereby moving both documents closer to a harmonized
international standard.
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 79

Table 3.10 Example of Table 21 [47]

OCCS number Level Level Level Level 4 Table 22
1 2 3 reference
21-02 00 00 Shell
21-02 20 Exterior vertical enclosures
21-02 20 10 Exterior walls
21-02 20 10 10 Exterior wall veneer
21-02 20 10 20 Exterior wall construction
21-02 20 10 30 Exterior wall interior skin
21-02 20 10 40 Fabricated exterior wall assemblies
21-02 20 10 50 Parapets
21-02 20 10 60 Equipment screens
21-02 20 10 80 Exterior wall supplementary components
21-02 20 10 90 Exterior wall opening supplementary components
21-02 20 20 Exterior windows
21-02 20 20 10 Exterior operating windows 22-08 50 00
21-02 20 20 20 Exterior fixed windows 22-08 50 00
21-02 20 20 30 Exterior window wall
21-02 20 20 50 Exterior special function 22-08 56 00
windows

• Table 21—Elements
It is organized by elements’ implied functions. Major elements may be com-
posed of several sub-elements. The Table proposes four levels25 of elements. For
example, a shell enclosure might be composed of superstructure, exterior closure
and roofing. Currently, elements are most frequently used during early project
phases for identifying project’s physical, operational or aesthetic characteristics.
Elements are considered without regard to a material or technical solution of the
function. For each element, there may be several technical solutions able to
accomplish the elemental function and more than one may be selected for a project.
These solutions are the designed elements. Furthermore, it is possible to describe an
element by using the three levels of the Table 21 (Table 3.10) integrated by the
reference to the Table 22 (Table 3.11).
• Table 22—Work Results26
A work result represents a complete entity existing after all the required raw
materials, human or machine efforts and processes which have been provided to
achieve a complete condition. It represents a construction result achieved in

25
The first one is composed of the seven levels proposed in UNIformat II: substructures, shell,
interiors, services, equipments and furnishings, special construction and demolition.
26
Table 22 is based almost entirely on an existing Construction Specifications
Institute/Construction Specifications Canada publication called MasterFormat.
80 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.11 Example of the Table 22 [47]

OCCS number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
22-08 00 00 Openings
22-08 50 00 Windows
22-08 51 00 Metal windows
22-08 51 13 Aluminum windows
22-08 51 16 Bronze windows
22-08 51 19 Stainless-steel windows
22-08 51 23 Steel windows
22-08 51 66 Metal window screens
22-08 51 69 Metal storm windows

production stage, maintenance or demolition processes and it is identified by var-

ious features (skill or trade involved, construction resources used, the part of the
construction entity which results, the work which results). A work result may
pertain to several manufactured products (assembly), such as exterior insulation and
finish system, or to a single product such as a framed marker board. A work result
could also involve only labor and equipment used to achieve the desired result, such
as trenching (Table 3.11).
• Table 23—Products
This Table provides a basis for identifying products categorized by number and
name in a unique location. Products are components or assemblies of components
for permanent incorporation into construction entities. A product may be a single
manufactured item, a manufactured assembly of many parts or a manufactured
operational stand-alone system. Basic materials are also considered products when
they are used in their original form as a component to achieve a construction work
result. An example is sand used as a sub-base cushion for brick paving. Sand is also
a constituent material of other products such as items made from precast concrete.
Therefore, base materials like sand occur both in this Table and in Table
41—Materials. The contents of the Table 23 may be related to the classifications
and codes of Table 41—Materials,27 such as to the ones of Table 22—Work Results
that provides multiple classifications for any given product dependent upon the
application (or work result) the product is used for. An example is a glass panel,
which can have many work result locations such as in a window, as cabinet
shelving, or in an interior door opening (Table 3.12).

27
It is possible to use codes from one other table as modifiers for the base numbers (i.e. entries
from Table 41 could be used as qualifiers where necessary, i.e. aluminium windows could be
classified as 23 − 30, 20 + 41 − 10, 20 13).
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 81

Table 3.12 Example of Table 23 [47]

OCCS number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 Definition
23-13 00 00 Structural and exterior enclosure products
23-13 33 00 Envelope enclosure products
23-13 33 27 Glazed facade and roof structures
23-13 33 27 11 Curtain walls
23-13 33 27 11 11 Curtain wall components
23-13 33 27 11 11 11 Curtain Wall Frames
23-13 33 27 11 11 13 Curtain wall sections
23-13 33 27 11 11 15 Curtain wall infill panels
23-13 33 27 11 13 Metal framed curtain wall
23-13 33 27 11 15 Translucent curtain wall assemblies
23-13 33 27 13 Structural glazing
23-13 33 27 13 11 Structural glass curtain walls

• Table 41—Materials
This table provides a classification and description of the substances from which
construction resources are made of. These substances may be raw materials or
refined compounds (i.e. metallic compounds, rocks, soils, timber, glass, plastics,
rubbers, etc.). Material means any composition that can be described without
implicitly or explicitly defining its form.28 For example, “aluminum” is a material,
since it is a chemical composition. Although aluminum products come in bars, sheets
and other forms, the term aluminum describes the “material” each of those products
is made of. Other types of materials included in this Table are raw material names,
that usually encompass both chemical composition and form, because they are found
in nature in certain forms. For example, the chemical composition “sand” is a silicon
dioxide, but, since it is a naturally occurring form of silicon dioxide and it is used as a
constituent material of other products, it is included it in this Table29 (Table 3.13).
• Table 49—Properties
Properties are the various characteristics of the construction entities. The
Table (Table 3.14) lists, classifies and codes seven main categories of properties,
that may be further split up in three lower levels:
– identification properties, that identify objects, provide or enhance metadata
about objects (i.e. indications about facility, space, occupancy, proprietary etc.);
– location properties that describe positions or points in physical space that an
object occupies on the earth surface such as geographic location;
– properties of time and money related to scheduling, durations and cost (i.e. time,
scheduling, cost properties, etc.);

Forms are characteristics like “board”, “bar”, “sheet”, “block”, etc.

28

29
Since sand is also a product used in its original form, it will also show up in Table 23—Products.
82 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.13 Example of Table 41 [47]

OCCS number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Definition
41-30 00 00 Solid compounds
41-30 50 00 Synthetic compounds
41-30 50 24 Rubbers Any type of artificial
elastomer,
invariably a polymer
41-30 50 24 11 Butyl rubber Impermeable to air
and used in many
applications
requiring an airtight
rubber
41-30 50 24 14 Neoprene Good chemical
stability and
maintains flexibility
over a wide
temperature range
41-30 50 24 17 Silicone Typically
heat-resistant, used
in sealants,
adhesives,
lubricants, medical
applications and
insulation
41-30 50 24 21 Polysulfide A class of chemical
compound
containing chains of
sulfur atoms
41-30 50 27 Petrochemical compounds Compounds
originating from
Petroleum-based
substances mixed
with other sources
41-30 50 27 11 Asphalts Compounds
consisting of a
sticky, black and
highly viscous
liquid or semi-solid
present in most
petroleum and
natural deposits
41-30 50 27 11 11 Asphalt Primarily used in
road construction
41-30 50 27 11 13 Polymer An asphalt with
modified greater elastic and
asphalt durability properties
and greater
temperature stability
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 83

– source properties dealing with the attributes, that can describe creation, distri-
bution or installation of objects, chiefly products or work results (i.e. manu-
facturer, product, warranty properties, etc.);
– physical properties (i.e. quantity, shape, dimensions, relational measurements,
sustainability properties, chemical composition properties, etc.);
– performance properties expressing the behavior of an object in reaction to
physical properties and forces (i.e. tolerance, durability, acoustic, combustion
properties, permeability and moisture resistance, etc.);
– properties of facility services (i.e. properties of fire protection, plumbing,
HVAC, lighting, energy systems, etc.).
The listed properties may be usefully related to the entities listed in Tables 21, 22
and 23 in order to describe their requirements and performances (Table 3.14).
Table 49 is useful for: describing the characteristics of objects by identifying a
classification defined in one of the other tables and modifying it using properties
identified in this Table; defining requirements for construction objects; comparing
the characteristics of similar objects; classifying information resources on subjects
relating to factors and properties.
The various classification systems show the worldwide interest for developing
breakdown structures to be used and shared as a framework for the organization of
information concerning the building in all its aspects and processes during the
whole life cycle, from conception to demolition or reuse, and encompassing all the
different types of construction, that make up the built environment.
Despite the availability of these classification and coding systems, most opera-
tors working in the FM market (both clients and suppliers) are still late in con-
sidering these references. Analysing general conditions and technical specifications
of FM contracts and agreements, it is uncommon to find precise requests about the
breakdown structure to be assumed as a base for the building registry and the
management of the services. Generally, the registry structure is defined by the client
and the supplier only during the mobilisation phase of the service, otherwise its
development is delegated to the supplier that operates more or less autonomously.
Instead, during the preliminary phase of the Facility Management agreements,
the client should perform a comprehensive analysis of the state of consistency and
characteristics of the real estate assets, as well as of his specific needs, organiza-
tional models and strategies for the services. In this way the client could outline
basic criteria or (if he has enough skills) prescribe rules for the development and
management of the building registry (also in relation to the implementation of an
information system). Nevertheless, as the standard EN 15221-2:2007 advises, these
criteria or rules should concern not only the framework of the registry system, but
also modalities and responsibilities for the information management. According to
this standard, both the parties should ensure that the responsibilities for designing,
updating and reporting information are fully understood and articulated in the
Facility Management agreement and procedures for the issue of reports and per-
formance indicators are available for each stakeholder, especially if financial
penalties or inducements must be paid.
84 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.14 Example of Table 49 [47]

OCCS Number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Definition
49-81 00 00 Performance Properties that express
properties the behaviour of an
object in reaction to
physical properties and
forces
49-81 61 00 Properties Properties between
of the inside and outside
envelope environment. refer to
other categories for
structural,
moisture/permeability,
combustion and fire
resistance, acoustics,
impact resistance
49-81 61 11 Absorbance Measurement of the
ability of an object to
absorb radiation
49-81 61 13 Air Infiltration Measurement of the
ability of air to
permeate a given area
49-81 61 15 Air Tightness Not allowing air to
pass through or
permeate
49-81 61 17 Air Leakage Measurement of the
amount of air seeping
out of a given area
49-81 61 19 Water Measurement of the
Penetration ability of water to
permeate a given area
49-81 61 21 Condensation Determined by the
resistance manufacturer and
factor (CRF) expressed in values
from 0 to 100
49-81 61 23 R-value Related to one
component, relative
but not specific to an
assembly. Ratio of the
temperature difference
across an insulator and
the heat flux (heat flow
per unit area,) through
it
49-81 61 25 R-value A measure of thermal
système resistance in SI units
international
(RSI)
(continued)
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 85

Table 3.14 (continued)

OCCS Number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Definition
49-81 61 27 U-value Overall conductance.
Thermal resistance of
entire assembly
including outside and
inside, fenestration,
and percentage of
openings. Sometimes
called U-factor
49-81 61 29 USI Metric U-value.
Inverse of RSI
49-81 61 31 Insulation Measurement of the
density substantiality of
insulation. This relates
heavily to the R-value
of the insulation
49-81 61 33 Insulation Refers to the general
profile shape of a piece of
insulation or insulation
assembly
49-81 61 33 11 Tapered Shaped in such a way
as to gradually narrow
or become smaller
49-81 61 33 13 Flat Shaped in such a way
as to provide the most
consistent R-value
across a given area
49-81 61 35 Properties of Descriptors that
openings provide information
about various access
points and holes
49-81 61 35 11 Opening Generally identifies a
Type basic opening and how
attached hardware may
interact with
surrounding elements
49-81 61 35 13 Opening Numerical identifier
Number used to refer to a
certain type of opening
49-81 61 35 15 Opening Measurement of how
Transmittance far an opening extends
in all directions
49-81 61 35 17 Opening Measurement of the
Reflectance light bouncing off of an
opening
49-81 61 35 19 Opening The ability of an
Emittance opening to reduce
absorbed heat
49-81 61 35 21 Opening Measurement of how
Conductivity well the opening
conducts electricity
(continued)
86 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.14 (continued)

OCCS Number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Definition
49-81 61 37 Solar heat Visual Transmission of
gain solar radiation (visual
coefficient light admitted vs.
(SHGC) rejected) is calculated
using SHGC
49-81 61 39 Shading The ratio of total solar
coefficient transmittance for the
specified glazing
system to the total
solar transmittance for
the standard reference
glazing (1/8″ clear)
49-81 61 41 Heat transfer Heat transfer
coefficient coefficient is the
inverse of thermal
insulation
49-81 61 43 Specific heat Percentage of higher or
lower value based on
the proportion of solid
versus openings. The
ratio of the amount of
heat required to raise
the temperature of a
unit mass of a
substance by one unit
of temperature to the
amount of heat
required to raise the
temperature of a
similar mass of a
reference material,
usually water, by the
same amount
49-81 61 45 Internal Is the part of the total
thermal internal energy of a
energy thermodynamic system
or sample of matter
that results in the
system’s temperature
49-81 61 47 Linear Relates the change in a
thermal material’s linear
expansion dimensions to a change
coefficient in temperature
49-81 61 49 Long-term Refers to the rating
thermal given to an object with
resistance regard to its R-value
(LTTR) based on a 15 year
time-weighted average
(continued)
3.4 Developing the Building Registry: Classification and Coding Criteria 87

Table 3.14 (continued)

OCCS Number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Definition
49-81 61 51 Specific heat A measured amount of
input heat energy going into
a system
49-81 61 53 Thermal break An element of low
thermal conductivity
placed in an assembly
to reduce or prevent
the flow of thermal
energy between
conductive materials
49-81 61 55 Thermal The act and
conductance measurement of
continuous heat
transfer
49-81 61 57 Thermal Refers to the capability
conductivity of a material or object
to transfer heat
49-81 61 59 Thermal Is the thermal
diffusivity conductivity divided
by density and specific
heat capacity at
constant pressure
49-81 61 61 Thermal Measure of the ability
insulation of a material to contain
and not transfer heat
49-81 61 63 Wind uplift The ability to resist a
resistance net upward force on
the roofing system

Coherently with these indications, the Italian standard UNI 11136:2004, “Global
service for maintenance of buildings—Guidelines” suggests to systematically col-
lect information related to the outcomes of the crucial preparatory phase of analysis
and assessment of needs. The standard suggests to report this information in a
special document named “Document of Preliminary Orientation” in order to support
the following phase of tender preparation and service request.30

30
The standard UNI 11136:2004 suggests that the basic subjects for the Document of Preliminary
Orientation should be:
– analysis of the state of consistency and of the characteristics of the real estate;
– orientations of the FM service in relation to the Client’s real estate management strategies;
– examination of the characteristics of the internal organizational structures;
– analysis and evaluation of the information system (if already existing);
– identification of activities to be outsourced through FM service;
– definition of the gradual process of implementation of the building registry and information
system;
– definition of the criteria for determining and monitoring performance levels of the various
services.
88 3 The Building Registry

3.5 The System of Data Sheets

As already stated (Chap. 3), besides classification and coding criteria, a further
element that composes the registry system is what could be named “system of data
sheets” (Fig. 3.2).
Setting preliminarily a system of data sheets means planning a framework of
possible information to be acquired over time in order to know and develop
management activities on real estate assets.
Considering the requirements listed in the Table 3.1, it can be stated that if
information is collected during the inventory process according to the indications
included in the data sheets, it can be traceable, consistent and unique over time.
Moreover, it can be reliable in real time if, during the process of gradual imple-
mentation of the registry, it is recorded and allocated to different spatial and
technical entities represented according to the classification and coding system.
In this way, data will be collected on the basis of the system of data sheets and,
in accordance with management strategies, carried out in relation to the size and
complexity of the building stock. In the process of gathering data, in relation to
specific contextual goals and registry systems, data become information useful to
support the various activities (Plan, Do, Check and Act) of FM services (Chap. 1)
and to implement the knowledge base.
Once they have been collected, data can implement the registry according to
various ways:
– they can be stored in a paper data sheet. Of course this is an “archaic” mode,
acceptable only in presence of one or few buildings characterized by a very low
complexity and it shall be considered as a transitional situation, waiting for more
advanced forms of data storage;
– they can be transferred in tables, managed by electronic spread sheets (for
example in the case of small real estate for which it is not considered appropriate
to invest in the acquisition and management of an information system);
– they can finally be included within an information system.
Regardless of the method used for gathering information, any collected data
must be allocated within a formalized framework and referred to a classified and
codified item.
Information regarding identification and description of space and technical
elements constitutes the basis of the building registry (Fig. 3.1). Building registry is
fundamental as it represents the basic platform of knowledge that may support
several management activities (i.e. space management, maintenance and operation,
administration, energy management, etc.).
In particular, considering FM services, maintenance and operation activities are
those ones engaged with the main amount of technical information about the
buildings. So it may be helpful to analyse maintenance [10–20] and operation
activities in order to outline an open list of technical information useful for defining
some of the main contents of the data sheets.
3.5 The System of Data Sheets 89

A significant contribution to establish the data sheets framework referring to

technical information about maintenance activities can be extracted from a large
number of standards31 (Tables 3.15, 3.16 and 3.17). A basic reference can be found
in the EN 15331:2011, “Criteria for design, management and control of mainte-
nance services for buildings”. In particular, a wide list of information can be
extracted from the Italian standards UNI 10874:2000, “Maintenance of buildings.
Criteria in order to write maintenance and use manuals”, UNI 10951:2001
“Systems of information for the maintenance management of buildings Guidelines”
and UNI 11257:2007, “Maintenance of buildings. Criteria for the drafting of plan
and programme of maintenance of buildings. Guidelines” (Table 3.17). These three
standards, in a coherent and coordinated way, set the framework of possible
information to be acquired in order to know and develop management activities on
real estate assets.

31
It is interesting to highlight the work of the Technical Committee TC 319 “Maintenance” within
the CEN “European Committee for Standardization”. TC 319 is bringing together the contribution
and the needs of the sector of the building maintenance, characterized by some peculiarities
compared the more general discipline of maintenance.
The Technical Committee TC/319, whose President and Secretary are assigned to Italy, is
divided into 13 working groups, as detailed in Table 3.15.
The working groups have developed over time a series of standards (Table 3.16) that could be
defined as “horizontal” (that is applicable to different production sectors) with the exception of a
standard specifically developed for building sector, that is the standard EN 15331:2011 “Criteria
for design, management and control of maintenance services for buildings”. Furthermore, the
groups are now working on three interesting projects that relate to the themes of “condition
assessment”, “risk based inspection” and “maintenance process”.
The Technical Committee TC/319 has also established links (“formal liaisons”) with other
committees both at European and at international level, that deal with issues related to or asso-
ciated to maintenance. In particular with regard to the issue of building maintenance the following
connections are particularly important:
– CEN TC 348 “Facility Management” is a technical committee of the CEN activated in 2006 to
offer to the FM sector a harmonized framework of reference, useful to support the great and
rapid developments in the field of services. The TC/348 has produced several standards on the
subject, but actually it has now completed its work when the topic of facility management has
been shared internationally and ISO “International Organization for Standardization” has
created a specific technical committee ISO TC/267 “Facilities management” (under the
coordination of BSI standardization). The TC/267 is currently working on three new draft
standards;
– ISO TC 251 “Asset management” is a ISO technical committee (born as PC project committee
and later formalized as TC technical committee) that deals with the general topic of asset
management, considering any asset, material or immaterial, related to organizations. TC/251
has produced three standards till now and has provided to TC/319 an opportunity to develop a
specific standard (EN 16646:2014, “Maintenance—Maintenance within physical asset
management”;
– ISO PC 259 “Outsourcing”: it is a Project Committee (under the coordination of the
Dutch NEN for standardization) that has produced the standard ISO 37500:2014 “Guidance on
outsourcing” with the aim of standardizing and proposing principles and a common vocabulary
about the subject of outsourcing.
90 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.15 List of working CEN/TC/319 Working groups

groups of the CEN/TC/319
with indication of the WG WG1 Classificationa
with Italian convenorship WG2 Maintenance documentation
WG3 Maintenance agreements (Italian convenorship)
WG4 Terminology
WG5 Qualitya
WG6 Maintenance performance and indicators (Italian
convenorship)
WG7 Maintenance of buildings (Italian convenorship)
WG8 Maintenance management
WG9 Qualification of personnel
WG10 Maintenance within physical asset management
WG11 Condition assessment methodologies
WG12 Risk Based Inspection Framework (RBIF)
WG13 Maintenance process
a
For workgroups no longer active

Table 3.16 List of technical Standard Title

standards developed by the
CEN TC/319 EN 13269:2006, “Maintenance—Guideline on preparation of
maintenance contracts (standard under review process)”
EN 13460:2009, “Maintenance—Documentation for
maintenance”
EN 13306:2010, “Maintenance—Maintenance terminology
(standard under review process)”
EN 15331:2011, “Criteria for design, management and control
of maintenance services for buildings”
EN 15431:2007, “Maintenance—Maintenance key performance
indicators (standard under review process)”
EN 15628:2014, “Maintenance—Qualification of maintenance
personnel”
EN 16646:2014, “Maintenance—Maintenance within physical
asset management”

A synoptic, extrapolated from the three standards, is shown in the Table 3.18. It
sums up the complex information that may be collected for the construction of a
building registry. The listed information is useful both for the management of
technical services and the preparation of maintenance manuals. Of course, in the
various management situations, not all this information will be necessary and/or
available. In fact, not necessarily all the information listed in the Table 3.18 for the
data sheets must be collected. Considering the principle of gradualism, information
not available have not to be necessarily searched. A criticality assessment of the
item and its layers/components, as well as the need for the missed information, will
influence the decision to seek this information. Information not relevant will never
3.5 The System of Data Sheets 91

Table 3.17 The Italian standards UNI in the field of maintenance

UNI Standard Goals
UNI 10604:1997 Outline the overall framework of the
(replaced by the standard EN 15331:2011 references necessary for the development of
Criteria for design, management and control of the maintenance service, establish the basic
maintenance services for buildings) criteria, identify key issues and relationships
Maintenance between them
Criteria for design, management and control of
the maintenance
Services of building
UNI 10831-1:1999 Definition of project documentation for the
Documentation and basic information for proper setting of the maintenance service
maintenance services of projects approved and
executed
Structure, contents and levels of documentation
UNI 10831-2:2001
Maintenance of buildings
Documentation and basic information for
maintenance services of projects approved and
executed
Details of content of technical documentation
and lay-out models
UNI 10874:2000 Definition of the information to be collected
Maintenance of buildings in order to develop maintenance manuals
Criteria in order to write maintenance and use
manuals
UNI 10951:2001 Provide methodological and operational
Systems of information for the maintenance guidelines for the design, construction,
management of buildings operation and upgrading of information
Guidelines systems for maintenance management of
real estate assets and for the relative
computerization
UNI 11136:2004 Guidelines for some basic steps in the
Global service for maintenance of buildings— process of developing a Global Service
Guidelines contract, namely:
– setting the stage preliminary on the
customer’s side
– setting the stage of request of offer on the
customer’s side
– setting the stage of draft offer on the
supplier’s side
UNI 11257:2007 Provide the criteria for drawing up plans and
Maintenance of buildings programs of maintenance applicable to
Criteria for the drafting of plan and programme existing buildings and buildings under
of maintenance of buildings. Guidelines construction
UNI 11447:2012 Provide guidelines to customers for setting
Urban facility management services and programming procurement processes of
Guidelines to set and program contracts Facility Management Urban services
(FMU), in order to standardize the approach
based on common methodological
references and to classify urban assets and
services
92 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.18 Data sheets and synopsis of the information that can be acquired for the
implementation of the building registry
Data sheet Goals Information contents Allocation level of the
information
Identification To collect • Localization data: territorial Building
card of the built information coordinates and location
asset useful to (i.e. address, number of
describe the real floors, number of building
estate property units, address, etc.)
in its general • Dimensional data (i.e. gross
characteristics volume above ground and
basement, gross areas, total
net and gross floor areas,
etc.)
• Cadastral data
• Functional data: intended
use of the real estate
property
• Dimensional data (gross Floor
and net floor area)
• Dimensional data (gross Room
and net floor areas for the
rooms)
• Functional data: intended
use of the real estate
property and its parts
• Main activities and
instructions for use,
requirements of use, etc.
Administrative To collect • Data relating to lease Building
data sheet information contracts (i.e. contracting Floor
useful to party, type, contract Room
describe the number, date of execution,
legal and duration, expiry, base fees,
administrative etc.)
status of the real • Information relating to
estate asset documentation (i.e.
document type, location
code documents, code
recognition, etc.)
• Information relating to sale
and purchase agreements
(i.e. contracting party,
contract type, contract
number, date of signing,
amount, etc.)
• Data relating to the legal
status purchase agreements
(i.e. owner, etc.)
• Data for constraints and
servitude (i.e. type,
(continued)
3.5 The System of Data Sheets 93

Table 3.18 (continued)

Data sheet Goals Information contents Allocation level of the
information
stakeholders, possible
duration, reference
(normative/contractual),
etc.)
• Data for supply contracts:
information relating to
contracts for the supply of
products, works and
services (i.e. contractor,
date, amount, subject of the
contract, method of
delivery, contract number,
duration, date of signing,
amount basis, subsequent
revisions, etc.)
Technical data To collect • Definition of materials and Technical element
sheet technical data constituting elements
and • Identification of
identification manufacturers and
data regarding installers
the various • Identification of the
classes of commercial name/brand of
technical the product and/or
elements and reference to the specific
components descriptions contained in
counted in the the design specifications
building (when available)
The data sheets • Characteristics and
may include performances (i.e. fire
information as resistance, colour, thermal
drawings and resistance, etc.).
diagrams • Dimensional characteristics
(i.e. linear measures,
surface measurements,
volume, weight, etc.).
• Functional characteristics,
mode of operation,
operation values (i.e.
power, efficiency, power
consumption, limits and
constraints of use, etc.)
• Reference Requirements
indicating, wherever is
possible to express it, the
minimum level of required
quality: (i.e. safety,
well-being, usability,
appearance, integrability,
etc.)
(continued)
94 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.18 (continued)

Data sheet Goals Information contents Allocation level of the
information
• Costs: cost of
construction/acquisition
Due to the specific features
or criticality of the technical
element it is also possible to
collect information on:
• Method of
installation/erection
• Methods of
assembly/disassembly
• Operating schemes
• Ability to be inspected, that
is how to access the item,
and possible devices to be
used in order to improve
the accessibility
• Requirements for
compliance audits
• Specifications for checks
and inspections required by
law
• Requirements for
monitoring safety risks
associated to operation of
the unit, activities related to
its maintenance and finally
its disposal
• Information on possible
emissions of toxic-noxious
substances arising from
problems or failures that
may occur during and at
the end of the life cycle of
the technical element
Diagnostic data Section A • Typology of degradation Technical element
sheet Describes the processes
degradation • Typology of the more
phenomena and likely detectable faults
list the types of • For each listed fault, where
more likely it is considered appropriate
failures that can to provide a greater level of
be identified in detail: a description of the
the counted failure modes, methods of
technical investigation and
applicable diagnostics
(continued)
3.5 The System of Data Sheets 95

Table 3.18 (continued)

Data sheet Goals Information contents Allocation level of the
information
elements and (visual and
components non-destructive/destructive
The data sheets tests), visible signs (when
may include present) of the failure state,
information as possible causes,
drawings, hypothetical times of
diagrams, and occurrence
photographs • As integration, wherever
possible, information
about: the criticality degree
of each failure identified in
relation to the involved
function, the risk of fault
propagation, the
probability of occurrence,
the frequency of
occurrence, the probability
of identifying the failure
and the involved
direct/indirect costs
Section B • Description of the detected Technical element
Describes the degradation phenomena
degradation (typology, location, extent,
phenomena and causes, effects)
list the types of • Description of the detected
faults found, as a faults (typology, location,
result of extent, causes, effects)
inspection, • Information on the degree
affecting the of criticality of the
surveyed degradations and faults
technical detected in relation to: the
elements and function involved, the risk
components of fault propagation, the
The data sheets probability of occurrence,
may include the frequency of
information occurrence, the probability
including of identifying the failure
drawings, and the direct and indirect
diagrams, and costs involved
photographs
Intervention In relation to the • Description of the Technical element
data sheet degradation interventions for each
phenomena and degradation or identified
to the possible failure
counted failures • For each identified
to report a intervention: operational
description of guidance on how to carry
the more out the activities of site
(continued)
96 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.18 (continued)

Data sheet Goals Information contents Allocation level of the
information
appropriate visit, monitoring and
corrective and inspection with description
preventive of operations, methods,
actions with tools, the item to be
indications inspected, evaluation
regarding the criteria and control
methods of parameters, frequency
intervention, the • Information on operating
resources and procedures for work to be
the frequencies carried out with description
of tasks and frequency
• Information on
environmentally acceptable
limit for execution
• Indications on the produced
disturbances (i.e. noise,
dust, etc.)
• Description of the
intervention area (i.e. area
occupied by equipment and
operations, procedures for
reporting and requirements
for the eventual fencing
and protection of the
intervention, etc.)
• Indication of the average
time of active maintenance,
(i.e. the time during which
maintenance is carried out,
both manually and
automatically, on an entity,
with the exception of the
logistics delays)
• Expected costs. The
reference to the costs may
refer to an overall “lump
sum” cost (including or not
administrative costs), an
average cost for example
reported per square meter,
or an analytical cost,
articulated in the different
cost items (breakdown
elements: labour, means,
materials replacement,
energy)
• Indication of the risks
associated with the
(continued)
3.5 The System of Data Sheets 97

Table 3.18 (continued)

Data sheet Goals Information contents Allocation level of the
information
activities (if any, reference
to the risk assessment
document)
• Requirements for the safe
execution of activities (if
present, reference to the file
of the construction work
requested by the Directive
CEE/92/57 “Minimum
safety and health
requirements at temporary
or mobile constructions
sites”
• Information about:
specialization required to
contractors, minimum
number of workers and
their appropriate
qualification; means of
work; materials; energy
sources, expected average
duration for the
intervention
• Information on possible
assistance centres,
specialized operators,
suppliers of materials for
replacements
• Listing factors (check-list),
ways, criteria and
parameters for monitoring
the activities
Regulation data To give • Normative reference Building/room/technical
sheet references for • Responsible for carrying element
voluntary and out activities envisaged by
mandatory provision of the law
standards • If applicable: certifications,
licenses, concessions, tests
relating to the building and
its appurtenances
• Certifications by law to be
periodically updated about
the building and the
activities that take place
there
• Declarations of conformity
• Periodical permits related to
functional units or technical
(continued)
98 3 The Building Registry

Table 3.18 (continued)

Data sheet Goals Information contents Allocation level of the
information
elements (i.e. lifts, etc.),
including the logging of
any verification visits of the
authority inspection body
Feedback data To allow the • Data on maintenance works Building/room/technical
sheet accurate undergone by the technical element
registration of element (repair works,
“feedback planned preventive works):
information” on type, date of execution,
alerts, execution mode, tasks
inspections, • Reference to the cause
maintenance Maintenance strategy
works (planned adopted (on call,
and unplanned, emergency, preventive
performed) scheduled, condition based,
Registration of of opportunity)
work orders • Time (planned and used,
opening and closing date)
• Operational resources
• Costs (expected and
sustained)

be included. Other information with a little relevance may be included in a second

time, when available. Gradually over time, thanks to feedback information or
development of new experiences, new data can be implemented.

3.6 The Registry and the Information System

The structure of the registry and the methods of storing and managing information
should be consistent and in close relation one to each other, whatever are the
strategies adopted for managing FM services. To sum up, it is possible to trace back
all the cases to four paradigmatic situations:
• low consistency and complexity of the managed assets do not lead to the
acquisition of a proper information system. In this case, in order to realize and
update in an appropriate way the building registry, acquired data should be
collected and maintained within the data sheets, each one traceable and man-
ageable because connected with spatial and technical entities;
• management takes place without an information system, but it is planned to
acquire it in the future. In this case, it is very important, in order not to loose
important feedback information from management activities, to design, imple-
ment and update a registry to be later transferred to the information system.
3.6 The Registry and the Information System 99

If the information system will be part of a new service contract, the structure of
the registry and the methods of acquisition and transfer of information, already
available, should be properly defined, described and required in Technical
Specifications;
• the objective is to develop an “in house” information system in order to realize a
platform fully consistent with the enterprise management procedures. In this
case, the analysis of the operational needs and the consequent definition of the
structure and tools of the building registry assume the basic role of starting point
steering the implementation of the information system;
• it is required a technical management service and, within it, it is prescribed the
acquisition and implementation of an information system. In this case, the
analysis of the management needs and the consequent definition of the structure
and tools of the building registry are essential to manage the selection of the
information system and indicate, in the tender, the implementation modalities.
Regarding this situation, it is common to find two different positions within
Technical Specifications. In some situations the client, basing on an analysis of
his modus operandi, describes the elements to be counted and, in some cases—
not so uncommon today—even details the minimum information to be acquired
as a basic start up and that one to be implemented over time (applying the
principle of gradualism). Other situations, instead, are characterized by the
request to the contractor—in order to take advantage of its expertise and
experience—of a proposal for the organization of the building registry and its
levels of detail, in relation to the services covered by the contract and client’s
specific needs. In this case, if on one hand contractor’s knowledge and skills
about information management are rightly used; on the other hand, there is a risk
of loss of control for the client. This risk is generated if it is not adopted a logic
of effective partnership and if the client does not use—if necessary including the
use of external consultants—a good ability to interact and express his needs and
guidelines. In this case, the risk is that the registry is not set up in accordance
with the specificity of the real estate, as well as present and future management
needs, and that vice versa it fundamentally conditioned by the contractor’s
modus operandi. This last possibility determines, at the end of the period of
services delivery taken over by a new contractor, the risk of not being able to
fully use all the collected information, or even worse, having to review the
setting of the building registry.
In all the described cases, it must be clear the importance of establishing a
building registry, which must have within its structure adequate levels of flexibility
in order to grow gradually. Such a building registry should remain valid over time
and belong to the building property. This means that the owner will transfer the
knowledge base to service suppliers, who will change over time, in order to learn
about characteristics of the managed assets and, at the same time, expanding and
updating the registry.
100 3 The Building Registry

3.7 The Role of the Building Registry from the Design

Phase

The building registry may play an important role in the improvement of the whole
building process. Design deliverables (i.e. drawings, specifications, cost estimates,
bill of quantities, etc.) can be issued according to a scheme for the identification of
spatial and technical elements that is also valid for the operational phase. This
scheme may directly represent the starting point for the construction of the basic
knowledge for maintenance services.
Given these considerations, it is possible to identify two possible strategies, both
underlining, in terms of information, the uniqueness of the building process and its
outcomes.
1. Design documents, consisting of drawings and technical reports, are arranged
keeping in mind cognitive needs related to maintenance processes. This is an
important condition to start management processes since:
– it allows, during the activities of design verification and validation, to carry
out a set of compliance controls about maintenance and management
requirements that should be made explicit within the brief document issued
by the client;
– it represents, appropriately updated and possibly supplemented at the end of
the construction stage, an important and unambiguous basis to identify risks
for health and safety of the operators who will carry out maintenance
activities; at the same time it represents a source of unambiguous and con-
tinuously updated information;
– it is the baseline according to documents needed for management (i.e.
maintenance plan, emergency management plan for the safety or the envi-
ronment, records of checks for firefighting, operating manuals, etc.) should
be drawn;
– it is the basic information that the operator assumes at the beginning of the
building life cycle. It is important to emphasize that this basic information
should be developed during the design and construction phases. In fact, in
these phases, designers and operators involved in the construction process
can integrate (in a coherent and comprehensive way) the design deliverables
(drawings and technical documentation) with information useful for opera-
tions and maintenance activities. It is much more difficult and uncertain to
find the same information at the end of the construction process and,
moreover, consistency with already processed documents is not guaranteed.
2. The development of a unique building registry during the entire building pro-
cess. This involves the setting, at the design stage, of a classification and coding
system for space and technical elements according to assets, documents and
information to be classified.
3.7 The Role of the Building Registry from the Design Phase 101

To develop a registry with these features it is necessary that all the actors
involved in the design, construction and operation phases define together an ade-
quate way to break down and classify the building, as well as assign a correct
coding system to its components.
This means that, once the classification and coding system has been assumed, all
the design deliverables (i.e. drawings at different scales, bill of quantities, special
conditions, technical reports, etc.) shall contain spaces and technical elements
uniquely identified and coded. This procedure allows:
– to perform checks for comprehensiveness and consistency about the contents of
the design documents;
– to organize, from the beginning of the process, an archive of documents with
appropriate categorizations and possibly to trace the reference to the parts of the
building that are concerned;
– to start data collection about building space and technical elements from the first
stages of the process;
– to set up a series of standardized documents (i.e. maintenance manual and plan,
safety plan, building data book, etc.) that are consistent one to each other;
– to manage, during the construction stage, the update of the design documents
with the production of as-built drawings and documents;
– to control the cataloguing and referencing of external documents (i.e. suppliers
documentation, technical reports, inspection reports, tests, etc.).
The information traceability obtained through these strategies32 allow to build,
since the first stages of the process and almost in an automatic way, a first base
registry that can be directly acquired by the operator and then updated over time.

References

1. Atkin B, Brooks A (2009) Total facilities management, 3rd edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford
2. Booty F (ed) (2009) Facilities management handbook, 4th edn. Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
3. Cotts DG, Roper KO, Payant RP (2010) The facility management handbook, 3rd edn.
American Management Association—AMACOM, New York
4. Molinari C, Paganin G, Talamo C (2005) Real estate inventory and decision support systems:
a knowledge management methodology for maintenance planning in large properties. In: La
Sapienza (ed) Proceedings of the first international conference on maintenance management—
MM2005, Venice, 2015

32
Both of these strategies have been assumed and tested by ATE (Technical Area) of Politecnico di
Milano in the project for the construction of university residences. The aim is to regulate the
information produced/used in the different stages of the building process relating to public works:
planning, design, construction, verification and validation, inspection during construction, design
of maintenance services, monitoring during the operation and maintenance. This experience is
based on setting up a unique system of breakdown, classification and coding of the buildings,
standardized for all the stages and operators of the process [21].
102 3 The Building Registry

5. Jylhä T, Suvanto M (2014) Impacts of poor quality of information in the facility management
field. Facilities 33(5/6):302–319
6. Herrala M (2007) The value of transport information. Edita Prima Oy, Helsinki
7. Herrala M, Leviäkangas P, Haapasalo H (2009) Information value attributes and assessment
methods–a construct from a traffic and traveller information perspective. Value World 32
(1):34–45
8. Rowe WH (1996) The building pro forma. In: Means RS (ed) Cost planning & Estimating for
Facilities Maintenance. Wiley & Sons, Hoboken
9. Kummer C, Sliskovic V (2007) Do virtual data rooms add value to the mergers and
acquisitions process? Institute of Mergers, Acquisitions and Alliances—MANDA, Zurich &
Vienna
10. Armstrong JH (1987) Maintaining building services: a guide for managers. Mitchell, London
11. Chanter B, Shallow P (1996) Building maintenance management. Blackwell Science, Oxford
12. Chartered Institute of Building (1984) Managing building maintenance. CIOB, Ascot
13. Chartered Institute of Building (1990) Maintenance management. CIOB, Ascot
14. Langston C, Lauge-Kristensen R (2002) Strategic management of built facilities.
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
15. Paganin G, Talamo C (2006) Procedures and tools for maintenance services planning and
monitoring. In: Haugen T, Moum, Bröchner J (eds) Proceedings of the CIB W70 international
symposium—changing user demands on buildings. Needs for user-cycle planning and
management, Trondheim, 2006
16. Cipriano V, Paganin G, Parente S, Talamo C (2010) Real estate inventory, information
management, strategies for energy rehabilitation: proposal of a tool supporting knowledge and
decisions. In: Villegas L, Ural O, Abrantes V, Lombillo I, Liaño C (eds) Proceedings of the
37th IAHS World Congress on Housing—design, technology, refurbishment and management
of buildings, Santander, 2010
17. Molinari C, Paganin G, Talamo C (2002) Information systems for real estate management. In:
Hinks J, Shiem-Shin Then D, Buchanan S (eds) Proceedings of the CIB W70 global
symposium—applying and extending the global knowledge base, Glasgow, 2002
18. Hinks J, Shiem D, Buchanan S (eds) (2002) Applying and extending the global knowledge
base. CABER. Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow
19. Miles D, Syagga P (1987) Building maintenance. Wheaton & Co., Ltd., London
20. Lee R (1976) Building maintenance management. Collins, London
21. Paganin G, Talamo C, Vitola F (2012) Information and life cycle of public works (SgIOP). In:
ISTeA (ed) The missing brick: towards a 21st century built environment industry. Maggioli,
Santarcangelo di Romagna

Standards and Laws

22. ISO 15489-1:2004, “Information and documentation—Records management—Part 1:

General”
23. ISO 5963:1985, “Documentation—Methods for examining documents, determining their
subjects, and selecting indexing terms”
24. UNI 10951:2001, “Systems of information for the maintenance management of buildings.
Guidelines”
25. UNI 11447:2012, “Urban Facility Management Services Guidelines to set and program
contracts”
26. ISO 15489-1:2004, “Information and documentation—Records management—Part 1:
General”
27. EN 13460:2009, “Maintenance. Documentation for maintenance”
28. EN ISO 19011:2011, “Guidelines for auditing management systems”
Standards and Laws 103

29. UNI EN 15221-2:2007, “Facility Management—Part 2: Guidance on how to prepare Facility

Management agreements”
30. UNI 10951:2001, “Systems of information for the maintenance management of buildings.
Guidelines”
31. UNI 11447:2012, “Urban Facility Management Services. Guidelines to set and program
contracts”
32. EN ISO 19011:2011, “Guidelines for auditing management systems”
33. UNI 10998:2007, “Building managerial files. Appointed and care general criteria”
34. EN 15221-2:2007, “Facility Management—Part 2: Guidance on how to prepare Facility
Management agreements”
35. ISO/DIS 37500:2013, “Guidance on outsourcing-Lignes directrices sur le management de
sous-traitance”
36. ASTM E 2018–08, “Standard guide for property condition assessments: baseline property
condition assessment”
37. EN 15221-4:2011, “Facility Management— Part 4: Taxonomy, classification and structures in
Facility Management”
38. ISO 12006-2:2001, “Building construction—Organization of information about construction
works. Part 2: Framework for classification of information”
39. EN 60300-3-14:2004, “Dependability management. Part 3–14: Application guide—Maintenance
and maintenance support”
40. ASTM E 1557–09, “Standard Classification for Building Elements and Related Sitework—
UNIFORMAT II”
41. UNI 8290-1:1981, “Residential building. Building elements. Classification and terminology”
42. UNI 11136:2004, “Global service for maintenance of buildings—Guidelines”
43. ISO 37500:2014 “Guidance on outsourcing”
44. UNI 10874:2000, “Maintenance of buildings. Criteria in order to write maintenance and use
manuals”
45. UNI 10951:2001, “Systems of information for the maintenance management of buildings.
Guidelines”
46. UNI 11257:2007, “Maintenance of buildings. Criteria for the drafting of plan and programme
of maintenance of buildings. Guidelines”

Websites

47. http://www.omniclass.org
Chapter 4
Information Systems for the Information
Management

Abstract The aim of the chapter is to highlight the main functions and specific
requirements that should characterize an information system for real estate man-
agement. Given the consideration that the common practice is still late in maturing a
full awareness of the close relationship existing between the specificity of the context
(organizational model of FM services, characteristics of the real estate, client’s
requirements) and the structure and modes of use of the information system, the aim
of the chapter is to propose some key concepts useful for the development of
technical specifications within the service tender documents. By acquiring and
developing the guidelines proposed by some standards, the chapter deals with some
connected subjects: relation between the information system, the inventory and the
building registry; modalities of use of data processed in the information system, in
relation to the various activities constituting the FM service (aggregate data and
single data); structure of the database, constituting the core of the information system
(registries and archives); modular structure of the information system; key functions
of an information system in relation to the supply of a FM service (building registry;
monitoring; collection and processing of feedback information); role and functions
of an information system in the services of maintenance management.

Keywords Information system Data processing Information tools Work orders

4.1 The Diffusion of Information Systems

The process of collecting and organizing information, developed through the

inventory activities and the construction of the building registry, finds its com-
pletion in the implementation of an information system (Fig. 4.1).
Information systems for real estate management—after several years of an
almost complete indifference—are now becoming fundamental tools for the

This chapter is authored by Cinzia Talamo.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 105

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0_4
106 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

INFORMATION
INVENTORY REGISTRY SYSTEM

Fig. 4.1 From the inventory to the information system

organization, implementation and monitoring of facility management services.

Several factors are at the basis of this acceleration.
A first factor is surely due to the fact that until few years ago, before the spread
of Facility Management services, systematic ways of organizing knowledge were
essentially absent in the practices of traditional managers of real estate assets. Data
relating to technical characteristics of building elements and installations, operating
status of assets, works executed or even only to consistency, were extremely
incomplete and fragmented, if not completely absent, in both small and large real
estate.
A second leverage factor for the spread of information systems is certainly due to
the rapid and considerable growth of various forms of contracting the building
management services [1, 2], from different models of multi-service agreement to
forms of highly integrated FM services (Fig. 1.3). All these forms of contracting are
anyway united by an overriding need for having available adequate information
frameworks [3] shared both by clients and service suppliers [4], in order to work for
the setting, planning and control of management activities [5].
A third factor of growth for information systems—but others may still be
mentioned—is finally attributable to the spread of the culture and practice of
planned maintenance [6], which, by its nature, has the need of reliable basis of
knowledge to enable the development of proactive strategies and the rationalization
of operations over time [7, 8].
It may be stated that today the various parties involved in the use of information
systems for real estate management are sharing basic logics and common refer-
ences. Such references could be summarized and linked to specific requirements
that should characterize an information system for real estate management,1
namely:
– ability to perform a breakdown of the real estate assets into individual com-
ponents (spaces and technical elements). This breakdown must be achieved
through a hierarchical process of splitting up the building into more and more
detailed levels;

1
See the Italian standards: UNI 10951:2001, “Systems of information for the maintenance man-
agement of buildings. Guidelines” and UNI 10584:1997, “Maintenance Systems of information of
maintenance”.
4.1 The Diffusion of Information Systems 107

– ability to define elementary tasks, identifying for each of them the necessary
resources, in terms of labour, materials, equipment and related costs;
– ability to manage and relate different forms of information (i.e. drawings, data in
alphanumeric form, scanned documents, tables, charts, etc.);
– ability to regroup information in relation to various reading keys;
– ability to ensure feedback information in order to build historical series and
statistics, necessary for the analysis of results (i.e. reliability analysis, failure
modes, intervention time and costs, etc.);
– possibility to develop a database in a way that it is appropriate to the specific
operational context by collecting and organizing only the necessary and suffi-
cient data (by type and quantity) for appropriately describing the asset and its
operating status. The definition of the information level to be reached is
important because of the risk—normally involved in the set up of an information
system—to accumulate, with a very high cost, large amounts of unuseful data.
Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish limits and benefits resulting from type
and quantity of data to be collected by identifying the most appropriate level of
detail for the specific case (Chap. 3);
– the adequacy of the system to the methods of transmission and dissemination of
information within the managerial structures.
These requirements should be valid in the same way for both the two main
alternative strategies that can be implemented for developing an information
system:
– the first one is the case of an information system specifically developed for a
single user, in relation to the specificity of the context of use. This situation
concerns basically two different types of user. On one hand, small management
companies/clients that, due to the limited size of assets and resources that can be
used, have few needs and thus they may choose for the most widespread
platforms available on the market (for acquisition and operational costs).
Therefore, the choice is to move towards the development of information sys-
tems focusing only on few simple functions. These systems are usually focused
on the function of building registry management. On the other hand, there are
large structures (both owners and integrated service providers) that, due to the
size and/or specific nature of assets and investment capability, prefer to develop
ad hoc systems, strictly adhering both to their organizational model and man-
agement procedures;
– the second one is the case of an information system purchased on the market.
Currently, the market is characterized by a limited number of products, rather
consolidated and suitable, constantly evolving and generally equipped with a
plurality of functions. Therefore, they can be adopted, customized and integrated
within a large variety of management situations.
108 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

4.2 Information System as a Decisional and Operational

Support

An extremely useful and shared reference for setting up the logical structure of an
information system is certainly the Italian standard UNI 10951:2001, “Information
systems for maintenance management of real estate assets. Guidelines” (Table 3.17).
The standard has the goal to compare experiences and tests developed in the con-
struction industry with specific standards and more mature experiences coming from
the industrial sector. The aim is to provide business operators with guiding criteria,
guidelines and basic principles to define requirements of information systems
adapted to the specificity of the building management and to orient clients and
service suppliers’ behaviours.
This standard has been often mentioned in technical specifications of services as
a reference for tender documents. This fact demonstrates that, in the Italian context,
the standard has probably contributed greatly to the spread first, and then to the
consolidation, of a general and shared vision of information systems. This shared
vision is confirmed by the fact that today the majority of the most significant
information systems, both those ones developed within specific management cases
and those ones dedicated to the commercialization and subsequent implementation,
are referable to some features and operating modes as defined by the standard
(Table 4.1).
First of all, it should be considered that the standard UNI 10951:2001 defines the
information system as a “decisional and operational support tool, consisting of
databases, procedures and functions to collect, store, process, use and update the
information necessary for the setting, the implementation and management of the
maintenance service”.
The definition does not only list all the characteristic activities of an information
system, but it also contains a number of keywords referring to some key concepts,
namely:
– decisional and operational support;
– databases;
– functions.
The concepts related to the key words “decisional and operational support” are
very important.
The reference to the two “extremes” of management activities (decisions and
operations) emphasizes a fundamental characteristic of information systems: they
should be a support tool for all the different operators involved in the context of a
service [10].
Specifically, the emphasis on decision-making and operational roles indicates
that the same information set included within an information system (the data base)
must be able, through the activation of different functions and procedures, to
provide two different categories of data, as the result of different processing modes:
aggregated data and single data.
4.2 Information System as a Decisional and Operational Support 109

Table 4.1 Main functions of an information system [19]

Functions Activities
Management of archive and registries Gathering, storage, connection, extraction
and control of basic and feedback data
Resource planning and drafting of the Preparation and management of the
maintenance plan maintenance programme and calendars of
works
Statistical processing Statistical analysis related to: performances
and failures of technical elements and
subsystems, logistics of the interventions,
costs
Probabilistic evaluations Construction, starting from the statistical
data, of: forecasts of the behaviour over time
of the elements and systems through indices
of reliability, maintainability, durability,
availability, cost, efficiency of logistics, risk,
etc.
Management of the procedures for: On-going verification of the performances of
inspections/monitoring, progress monitoring, technical elements and systems and the trend
quality control of maintenance activities compared to the
programming, cost estimates and requests for
intervention
Financial management of the contracts, Programming, management and economic
expense reports and financial control through: management of
budget and management control, supplier
management, budget analysis
Management of work orders, contracts and Contract management for the supply of
warehouse stock products, works and services; issuing of work
orders
Interaction with other systems Finding, connecting, checking the data
processed by other systems (i.e. tenancy
management, general accounting, remote
databases, etc.) and provision of information
for processing performed by other systems
Communication management Acquisition, recording, storage, management
and control of reports and requests for
intervention; generation and management of
information through multiple channels
Production of documents Production on different media (i.e. paper,
electronic, etc.) and in different forms (i.e.
sheets, tables, graphs, etc.), of documents
relevant to the presentation and reading of the
information
Generation and updating of manuals Generation, update and distribution of user
manuals, technical operation manuals and
maintenance manuals
110 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

• Aggregated data
Aggregated data can be interpretated as a plurality of data, selected on the basis
of searching keys, and then processed. In the management process, different types
of decision makers define strategies and action lines also by reading and interpre-
tating summary data, which enable trend analyses, comparison between phenomena
and situations, monitoring through indexes, etc.
In this sense, there is a large number of possible situations.
For example, in decisions about financial strategies, the measure of profitability
per unit area of a certain amount of real estate assets—characterized by being
composed of buildings similar for age and conditions—can lead, once an assumed
threshold (benchmark) has been exceeded, to start disposal actions, value
improvements or even renegotiations of rent.
The analysis of aggregated data is also essential for typical strategies of space
management and space planning, where it is often used for reading the aggregate
amount of homogeneous spaces by functions and types of users. In this case, for
example, the reading of indexes of space occupancy in a commercial building may
lead to start redesign projects of spaces.
Considering a different context, in the case of taking decisions about energy
strategies, it is essential a correct consumption monitoring. This kind of monitoring is
especially useful when carried out through performance indicators such as, for instance,
energy consumption per unit of volume related to functions accommodated in build-
ings, typologies or portions of the building sharing the same construction techniques.
Furthermore, in planning maintenance for medium and long term periods, a great
advantage comes from data processing which, through the collection of information
from inspections and operations, allows the development of time series useful both
to describe, in probabilistic terms, the behaviour over time of technically homo-
geneous elements and to determine maintenance cost indexes (Table 1.8). An
example may be the processing in order to know the size, within a building stock, of
a given family of technical elements (i.e. wood frames, aged between 15 and
20 years, which have never undergone maintenance work). Combining quantitative
data with maintenance cost indexes and some databases concerning frequency and
methods of intervention, it is possible to develop two different actions. First, it is
possible to get a set of approximate technical and economic forecasting about the
maximum residual service life, useful for deciding about rehabilitation and repair
activities to be performed in the following years. Secondly, it is possible to define
overall maintenance strategies by making comparisons with other categories of
aggregated objects that need interventions.
In summary, with reference to the reading of aggregate data, it is possible to
identify, in the management practice, some common and recurring requirements to
which an information system is expected to give answers both in terms of data
processing and standardized reporting. These requirements are related to:
– knowledge of all the real estate in terms of surfaces and rooms. This reading
clearly represents the highest level of aggregation which must always be
available to the property manager since it is the basis according to it is possible
4.2 Information System as a Decisional and Operational Support 111

to carry out more sophisticated readings about quantitative and qualitative

characteristics of all the real estate;
– description of the building stock in relation to the different intended uses. For
this type of analysis it can be useful to get some statistical processing about the
areas and their different uses for person, business unit or tenant;
– description of the building stock in relation to its technical and typological
features. Readings of quantitative data with regard to age or building con-
struction techniques can be important reference bases. These bases may be
combined with assessments, for instance about the service life, characteristics of
the interventions in relation to the age of the buildings age and the maintenance
costs. These assessments can support the definition of financial requirements for
the management of the building and the decisions about the maintenance
strategies to be undertaken;
– analysis through indicators (Chap. 1). This activity is extremely useful since it
allows the decision maker to have synthetic views about a plurality of issues
regarding the managed assets and to quickly identify critical areas and magni-
tude of the problems.
Within the processing of aggregated data, the issue of managing indicators
deserves attention.2
As already stated (Chap. 1), a system of indicators (KPIs—Key Performance
Indicators) may be used in order to [9]:
– measure the state of an item or process;
– compare performance and/or services levels (i.e. develop internal or external
benchmarking processes);
– perform diagnosis;
– define objectives and targets;
– plan improvement actions;
– perform continuous monitoring.
Indicators can be used in different time dimensions:
– continuously, in the monitoring activities;
– periodically, for instance in performance assessments;
– only once (una tantum), for instance within an audit or specific studies or in
benchmarking activities.
Within an information system, the management of a system of indicators can be
successfully carried out through the implementation of a tableau de bord. By
tableau de bord it can be meant a set of indicators, possibly linked together through
a series of cause-effect relationships.
The tableau de bord is an application that, even through means of immediate
interpretation such as bar graphs or pie charts, can provide different organizational
levels of support information for process monitoring and achievement of company

See the standard EN 15341:2007, “Maintenance—Maintenance Key Performance Indicators”.

2
112 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

objectives. The tableau de bord operates by selecting and processing, according to

defined procedures, information included in the database and it can be used in
various ways by the different decision-making levels, depending on the position
occupied in the hierarchy. At the highest levels (strategic decision makers), control
is achieved through synthetic measures and is generally based on overall economic
and financial indicators. Vice versa, at lower levels (technical decision makers),
economic and financial measurements are not so important and thus the tableau de
bord provides more usefully other indicators (i.e. concerning process, market,
technical issues, etc.). Indicators may provide an overall view of general func-
tioning (i.e. annual profitability of managed assets) or they may concern only
individual aspects (i.e. average annual energy costs per unit area). The tableau de
bord has various functions, such as:
– to support the various decision-making levels;
– to create a common information base useful for setting up a dialogue between
managers at different levels;
– to empower managers for the achievement of specific objectives;
– to define the basis according to the reporting system has to be built.

• Single data
As already stated, information systems must be able to provide not only
aggregated but also single data.
Single data are individual data that are selected, isolated and extracted according
to specific search keywords. This reading level allows an accurate consultation of
information and it can provide data for the creation of various documents, reports,
programmes of the activities and operating procedures. For instance, the specific
information relating to location, configuration and manufacturer of a component
part, once extracted, can be used for compiling work orders, operations data sheets
and schedules of activities. In the same way, it must be possible to extract infor-
mation, from archived drawings (plans, sections, elevations), in a graphical form
which is useful, for instance, to locate a specific building area in which the oper-
ating team must work.
In summary, it can be said that an information system should allow to retrieve
any stored data in a simple and rapid way.
The methods of searching, extracting and using data may be various, depending
on several management practices; for example, it should be possible to:
– obtain all available information, or only some specific one, about any object
stored in the database; for instance to know, with respect to a specific room,
user, size, frequency and cost of maintenance operations performed in a given
time frame;
– select objects according to various searching criteria: for instance to obtain the
list and the location of all the spaces in a building that are available for the same
user or all the spaces, within a building stock, that have a same function;
4.2 Information System as a Decisional and Operational Support 113

– connect alphanumerical and graphical information, for instance, to obtain

drawings (floor plans) from the selection of an object or vice versa to get the
selection of an object, and the information related to it, from a plan concerning it
or containing it;
– extract information in both graphical and alphanumerical form for the prepa-
ration of different documents, such as work orders, operating instructions,
synthetic building files;
– select and connect different forms of graphical representation (drawings, pic-
tures, videos) of a same object.

4.3 The Core of the Information System: the Database

The definition of information system, given by the standard UNI 10951:2001,

highlights the fact that the core of an information system is the database.
In most cases, the database [11] of an information system is made by a set of
tables, integrated and connectable, which allow to manage data relating to different
areas of the management service. These tables represent different informative
themes (i.e. localization and identification information, administrative information,
functional and consistency information, etc.) and information is organized in rows
and columns. Columns (fields) define the informative category (i.e. building name,
space code, net surface of a room, etc.). Rows (records) contain information about
individual objects (i.e. about a specific building, room, equipment, etc.).
From a logical point of view, the database, according to the indications proposed
by the standard, must be considered as articulated in registry and archives (Fig. 4.2)
that are two areas of information collection characterized by different tasks.
The building registry (Chap. 3), according to a hierarchical breakdown structure,
contains and makes available data concerning space and technical elements, which
constitute the building, in relation to their identity, location, features, consistency,
configuration and technical characteristics. The main function of the building
registry, within an information system, is to collect and make available only those
data which are necessary to describe identity of the building or built asset.
The registry represents a database, permanently linked to the buildings and
constantly growing through the implementation of feedback information coming
from management activities. The standard defines four interconnected registry
levels (Fig. 4.3):

DATA BASE

REGISTRY ARCHIVE

Fig. 4.2 The basic structure of the database

114 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

Identification
registry
Registries area

Administrative Technical Functional

registry registry registry
Information system data base

Internal Archives

Operations Planned
Fault reports in progress Operations

Maintenance Safety operation

Price list manuals manuals
Archives area

Supplier list Contracts Procedures

Questionnaries Work orders Surveys

External Archives

Administrative Land
archives registry Tax registry Price list

Fig. 4.3 Structure of the data base in an information system

– the identification registry, which collects and organizes basic data related, for
instance, to nominal identification, location coordinates, state of consistency of
the assets (i.e. net and gross surfaces, volumes, etc.);
– the functional registry, which collects and organizes data related, for instance, to
intended uses, users of spaces, rights of use, ways of use, user’s requirements,
reference standards, etc.;
– the technical registry, which collects data about technical characteristics of
building systems and plants (i.e. technical and commercial identification,
physical characteristics, functions, expected requirements, metrics and reference
values, performance indicators, description of installation or construction
method, etc.);
– the administrative registry, which collects data about rentals and purchase
contracts, contracts for the supply of products, works and services related to the
building, legal status of the buildings, obligations and constraints.
4.3 The Core of the Information System: the Database 115

On the other hand, archives can be considered as data containers collecting

various types of information from multiple sources and they can be used for dif-
ferent purposes. Archives can include:
– accurate information extracted from various types of documents, as, for
instance, information about frequencies and intervention methods derived from
databases, fault reports from call centres, operations in progress or planned;
– full documents such as contracts, complete maintenance manuals or parts of
them, price lists, supplier lists, intervention procedures, safety operation man-
uals, etc.;
– information coming from external archives such as: administrative information
systems, accounting, land register, tax register, price lists, etc.
To clarify the relationship between registries and archives, it can be considered
an example concerning the processing of information about a possible environ-
mental assessment, including the measurement of temperature and humidity con-
ditions within the various building spaces (Fig. 4.4). The archive can contain, and
refer to the codes of the specific rooms, all the data related to the survey (i.e. air
temperatures and mean radiant temperatures measured at different observation
points, as well as procedures for implementing the survey, running conditions, etc.).
It means storing all the information useful to keep records of the survey and
support actions, such as comparative quality assessment of space in connection with
identification of places in which corrective actions should be implemented. In the

Identification
registry
Registries area

Administrative Technical Functional

registry registry registry
Information system area

Internal Survey Archive

Archives area

Survey sheets Survey sheets Survey sheets Survey sheets

Faults and
Functions degradations Risk Enviromental
survey survey survey
survey

Fig. 4.4 Example of relationship between registries and archives

116 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

registry building, spaces (rooms) are stored, coded and monitored through the
survey, which records for each of them, data about location, surface and intended
use. Through the key of a room code, it is possible to associate to a specific space
(or group of spaces associated, for instance, since they have a similar destination)
information collected in the registry regarding, for instance, room dimensions and
information, collected in the archive, related to the survey. This association allows
multiple elaborations, as, for instance, the calculation of the total floor area of
spaces in the building characterized by thermo-hygrometric conditions that are
below predetermined thresholds.
As regards treatment and characteristics of data contained in the registry and
archives, two further clarifications should be made.
The first clarification regards the modular structure of information systems. In
general, information systems for real estate management are platforms structured
according to an architecture organized in a database and a set of specialized
modules (Fig. 4.9), generally related to the different application areas of Facility
Management (Table 1.3). Information contained in the database can be extracted
and processed in the different specialized modules integrated within the information
system. The modules can be activated in various ways and according to the specific
needs related to the FM service. In the same way, information can be extracted and
transferred for further processing to external processing environments (i.e.
spreadsheets, specialized programs, other information systems).
The second clarification regards the coexistence of information in alphanumeric
and graphical form. In many information systems, available on the market, it is
possible, according to different methods, to connect CAD (Computer Aided
Design) drawings and alphanumeric data concerning the building. This feature
allows to manage information both in alphanumeric and graphics form through the
connection of a record, contained in the tables of the database, to a drawing element
(i.e. floor plan, specific space, single component, etc.). This is possible because
floor plans, drawing of specific objects contained in the rooms (i.e. building
components, furnishing elements, etc.), can be associated to every information level
of the hierarchy representing the breakdown of the buildings and their parts.
Therefore, it is possible to carry out some fundamental activities in the building
management, such as:
– obtaining graphic printouts from queries on data tables (i.e. selecting all the
rooms occupied by a specific department within an organization or with the
same intended use or characterized by a too high space occupancy index or
internal comfort conditions below predetermined parameters, etc.);
– obtaining various information from the drawings (i.e. gross and net floor area,
number of reported faults, etc.);
– obtaining thematic plans in which, for instance, different uses, user’s categories,
types of space (i.e. space that can be equipped, service space, horizontal cir-
culation, etc.) are distinguished, for example, with diverse colours. Then, these
thematic plans can be associated to the automatic calculation of surfaces.
4.4 Key Functions of the Information Systems 117

4.4 Key Functions of the Information Systems

Information systems should ensure a variety of functions in relation to building

management and planning and operation of maintenance activities (Fig. 4.5).
Although the complex framework of these functions (Fig. 4.5), it is possible to
recognize three main key functions characterizing an information system:
– the building registry;
– the monitoring;
– the collection and processing of feedback information.

• The building registry function

The building registry function is basic and fundamental. The basic need for
knowing, whatever the level of detail may be, the characteristics of the real estate is
fulfilled by the presence of a registry function (Chap. 3), whose objective is the
collection, storage and immediate retrieval of all information necessary to unam-
biguously describe the identity of the buildings (Table 3.2).
The building registry function concerns the information storage about both the
quantitative, functional and localization aspects of the buildings, and the basic
information describing technical configurations of the different parts of the building.
The data contained in the register, once extracted, can be used for the two levels
previously described, namely the level of aggregated data and the level of single
data (this chapter).
Besides the basic collection and organization of data about localization and
descriptive characteristics of the buildings, the registry function can be extended—
with coding criteria similar to those ones described for the building registry
(Chap. 3)—to other categories of data, such as data related to contract or companies
providing goods and services, whether they are individuals or organizations.
In technical and administrative management, it is important to be able to link
together different categories of data (i.e. specific service providers with their
identity and contract data to the spaces they manage). Similarly, in space man-
agement, it is important to match data about specific areas (i.e. location, size, level
of equipment, etc.) with those ones related to the staff hosted in the corresponding
areas (i.e. identification data, department membership, qualifications, equipments,
etc.).

• The monitoring function

The monitoring function represents the second basic key function. In fact, an
information system should provide a constantly updated vision of different situa-
tions concerning the real estate: i.e. the state of consistency, the operating status of
the building components and plants, the status of regulatory compliance, the pro-
gress of the planned management activities, the invoicing of the executed main-
tenance activities, the situation of the assets to be leased, etc. Therefore, an
118 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

SUPPORTS AND TOOLS FUNCTIONS OF THE USES

INFORMATION SYSTEM

Management of Collection and

Registry system registries and use of data
archives

Planning of the
Maintenance Resources planning tasks
Manuals
Optimization of
logisticsactivities

Tasks scheduling
Reports
Statistical
processing
Set of procedures Monitoring and
control

Benchmarking
processes
Reports Monitoring the
Forecasts of
operating status of
behavior
Maintenance the building, the
Manuals status of regulatory
compliance, the Monitoring and
progress of the control
Set of procedures planned activities

Starting the
Set of procedures interventions and tasks
Generation and
management of Optimization of
Maintenance WO
Manuals logisticsactivities

Inventory planning Optimization of

Set of procedures on stock logisticsactivities

Interaction with other Data capture and

Set of procedures information systems transfer

Reports Call center

Comunications
Set of procedures management
Information
transfer

Reports Production and/or Reportistica

management of
Set of procedures documents Production and
management of
Documents archives

Fig. 4.5 Framework of the main functions of an information system

4.4 Key Functions of the Information Systems 119

information system should manage the information flow in relation to at least two
primary categories of knowledge.
The first category is the state of consistency. It is the knowledge concerning
quantities of the real estate in terms of surfaces, volumes, numbers of technical
elements and equipments. In particular, the analysis of the spaces should be carried
out in relation to various categories of areas, such the ones (Table 4.2) proposed by
the standard EN 15221-6:2011, “Facility Management—Part 6: Area and Space
Measurement in Facility Management”.
Monitoring the state of consistency should be considered as a sort of supervi-
sion, that presupposes the existence of appropriate procedures, since information
and documents must be constantly updated according to standardized protocols and
any change concerning the buildings should be immediately transmitted and
received by the information system.

Table 4.2 Hierarchy of floor areas [21]

Non-functional level area (NLA) Level
Exterior construction area (ECA) Gross area
floor (LA)
Interior construction area (ICA) Internal
floor area area
Partition wall area (PWA) Net
(IFA) (GFA)
Unrestricted Technical NET floor
technical area area (TA) room area
(UTA) area (NFA)
Restricted (NRA)
technical area
(RTA)
Unrestricted Circulation
circulation area (CA)
area (UCA)
Restricted
circulation
area (RCA)
Unrestricted Amenity
amenity area area (AA)
(UAA)
Restricted
amenity area
(RAA)
Unrestricted Primary
primary area area (PA)
(UPA)
Restricted
primary area
(RPA)
120 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

The second category concerns the monitoring of the state of the operations. It is
important that an information system is able to receive, store, process and return
data coming from all those investigations, inspection and controls that aim at
constantly checking conditions and compliance degree of the buildings in relation
to assumed quality levels.

• The collection and processing of feedback information

Finally, the third key function of an information system concerns the possibility
of a progressive growth of knowledge throughout the lifecycle of assets by con-
tinuously collecting feedback information from maintenance activities.
If we consider the scope of maintenance management, the “historicizing”
function allows to increase over time a forecasting ability about three main aspects.
The first aspect concerns the behaviour over time of materials and components.
The collection, chronologically ordered, of information about features, location and
frequency of anomalies, degradations, failures and pathologies observed in the
building, allows to obtain all the data necessary for a gradual improvement of
knowledge about behaviour of the building components and plants [12, 13]. For the
most critical elements, these data may allow to develop forecasts of the behaviours,
based on statistical processing. Such processes may allow to estimate failure rate,
reliability and durability of building systems and plants.
The second aspect concerns operational activities. The collection of data relating
to operational and organizational aspects—such as execution modes, means of work,
materials, human resources, competencies, time spent on a task activity—allows to
define an operational planning of the activities thanks to a gradually growing and
consolidated knowledge base. Such knowledge can support some activities, for
instance: monitoring the efficiency of operating procedures; identifying resource
needs; setting inventory planning on the real estate; task scheduling, etc.
The third aspect concerns the costs of actions. Collecting data about costs [14] of
the performed actions allows, over time, to gradually increase the ability to forecast
maintenance costs on medium-long time scales, in relation to different strategies
[15, 16]. The more detailed is the detection of the cost components (i.e. labour,
materials, equipment, etc.), the more sophisticated are the investigations that can be
carried out to assess the impacts of expenditures and their evolution over time in
relation to different aspects (i.e. organizational models, age of buildings, types of
contract, etc.). In any case the most significant aspect for the development of
programming policies is the ability of aggregating and statistically processing data
about costs in order to define tools such as profiles of maintenance costs, mainte-
nance cost indexes, etc. [17].
4.5 Information Systems and Maintenance Management Process 121

4.5 Information Systems and Maintenance Management

Process

With specific reference to the scope of technical management services, it should be

underlined that planned maintenance requires information supports for its imple-
mentation. These supports can be identified in the maintenance manual and infor-
mation system (Fig. 4.6) and they are developed to collect different types of
building information.
As stated by the standard UNI 11257:2007—“Maintenance of buildings. Criteria
for the drafting of plan and programme of maintenance of buildings. Guidelines”,
(Table 3.17), maintenance manual and information system have to be considered
essential elements for the development and implementation of a maintenance plan,
since:
– when drafting a maintenance plan, information tools gather information (i.e.
descriptions, localization, administrative, technical, and operational information,
etc.) related to the building and its parts. This information represents the
knowledge base needed to define strategies, organize the maintenance service
and define the operational planning of the tasks to be carried out over time;
– during the implementation of the activities planned in the maintenance plan,
there must be a continuous and progressive collection of feedback information
(Fig. 4.6), which must be collected in the information system and thus
increasing knowledge included in the manuals. This collection is an essential
condition for a gradual improvement of knowledge about behaviour over time of
technical elements, reliability of the forecasts, effectiveness and efficiency of
maintenance.
Furthermore, during the development of a maintenance process, it is also
important the continuous monitoring of the state of implementation of the planned
activities. In fact, during the implementation phase, based on the results of moni-
toring and contents of feedback information, the maintenance plan and programme

INFORMATION FROM REGISTRIES AND ARCHIVES

INFORMATION TOOLS STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONAL TOOLS

Information Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance

system manual Plan programme

FEEDBACK INFORMATION

Fig. 4.6 Information tools for maintenance services

122 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

should be able to be subjected to revisions and updates. Therefore, it is evident the

importance of implementing procedures for collecting feedback information con-
cerning performed operations, both the planned and unplanned ones.
About the relationship between maintenance manuals and information system,
some clarifications should be made.
First of all, the standard UNI 10874:2000, “Maintenance of buildings Criteria in
order to write maintenance and use manuals” (Table 3.16) defines maintenance
manuals for maintenance technicians, as a comprehensive and systematic infor-
mation collection concerning the building and related to three main characteristics:
first, information that identifies and describes the different technical elements
constituting the building; secondly, information concerning all the methods of
maintenance, inspection and checking that are necessary to maintain those elements
under operating conditions; thirdly, feedback information concerning the various
types of performed activities (inspections, monitoring, corrective actions due to
failures, planned scheduled activities, replacements).
In this logic, an information system should be the collector of information
gathered in the maintenance manuals for the different buildings of the real estate
that are managed. In fact, talking about maintenance management within a service
approach, the presence of an information system is a condition which is almost
unavoidable. The absence of an information system is an event that should exist
only when management activities are applied at one or few buildings characterized
by low levels of technical complexity.
In presence of an information system, which manages the knowledge base of real
estate assets, some situations are possible:
– maintenance manuals relating to different buildings and their parts can be
considered as part of the information system. Therefore, all the information
regarding the managed buildings is resident within the information system,
where it is collected, updated and processed. In this case, the manuals for each
building are derived from a selection of various categories of information res-
ident in the information system;
– the maintenance manual is a stand-alone document for collecting information
about each building and it exchanges information with the information system.
The manual sends to the information system only some information, for instance
useful for the general inventory of real estate or for statistical processing. At the
same time, it receives from the information system some data coming from
processing (i.e. failure rate of a particular category of technical elements,
average maintenance cost index linked to a certain type of intervention or class
of technical elements, etc.).
In both cases, it is clear that between the instruments of maintenance planning
and scheduling (maintenance plan and maintenance programme) and the informa-
tion tools (maintenance manuals and information systems) there must be an inter-
active relationship. Information flows can cover different aspects:
4.5 Information Systems and Maintenance Management Process 123

– technical (i.e. number and types of most frequent faults, conditions detected
during inspections or interventions on request, etc.);
– organizational (i.e. intervention times, times of non-availability, operational and
overall durations of interventions, etc.) (Table 1.8);
– operational (i.e. competences involved in carrying out activities, etc.);
– economical (i.e. actual costs of maintenance).
The considerations, arising from the analysis of feedback information during the
phase of plan implementation, can lead to a revision of the maintenance pro-
gramme, searching for an operational optimization, or to a revision of the inter-
vention strategies and frequencies.
The goal of this process is the constant management of the information flow and
the review of the forecasts in order to continuously improve the overall mainte-
nance management process towards a progressive reduction of faults and organi-
zational optimization of the activities.
It should be added that information systems are fundamental support tools for
maintenance plans, not only for the management of information flows but also for
operational activities.
In fact, in order to enable an efficient maintenance management in the execution
phase of the maintenance plan, an information system must allow two actions:
– managing and optimizing the schedule of planned maintenance activities
(Fig. 4.7);
– managing the issuing of work orders3 (WO) and their subsequent return after
fulfilling and processing (Fig. 4.8; Table 4.3).
Regarding the management of the interventions, it should be noted that the
provisions contained in the maintenance plan (splitted over a period of years) can be
implemented only through the creation of a yearly program.
The programme includes a time schedule, which contains a list of tasks ordered
according to a timetable. In each of these tasks included in the timetable, the
information system must allow to combine a range of information, some from time
schedule, others found in maintenance manuals or other informative sources (i.e.
lists of operating procedures, standards and regulations, contract requirements, etc.).
This information collection converges in the work order (WO), which can be
considered as an instruction activating maintenance tasks through a document
(paper or electronic) or verbal request (Table 4.3).
Therefore, an information system for building management should support the
generation and management of work orders.
The work order (Table 4.3; Fig. 4.8) is a very important document, since it has
different meanings:
– it represents the interface between the forecasting phase of the maintenance
tasks and their execution;

See the standard EN 13460:2009, “Maintenance—Documentation for maintenance”.

3
 124

Element Activity Intervention Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec N. Int. Quantity Duration Cost Total
code code (sqm) (h\man\sqm) ( h)
3.1.1.11 3.1.1.ISP.1 Visual 1 1 84,75 0,01 22 18,64
inspection
of the wall
4

(indoor and
outdoor)
3.1.1.ISP.3 Examination
of the
superficial
alterations
3.1.1.PUL.1 Cleaning 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 84,75 0,01 12,50 31,78
of the
superficial
surface
of the wall
year 1 Total 50,42

Fig. 4.7 Example of a schedule of planned maintenance activities

Information Systems for the Information Management
4.5 Information Systems and Maintenance Management Process 125

WORK ORDER

Work order code : 22_p_34 Description : Weekly Fire test

Asset code : POMP_345 Asset: pumping fire station

Description:……

Priority: 1 Product:
Status: Technical manual:
Model: Reference document:
Approved by: Series: Localization:
Produced by:
Time scheduling: Responsible :

Step 1 Description Task category Quantity Expected Instructions

Duration
…….. …… … …. …….
……….
Part n. Description Materials Tools Safety instructions
………. …………… ………. ………. ……….

Step n. Description Task category Quantity Expected Instructions

Duration
…….. …… … …. ……….

Part n. Description Materials Tools Safety instructions

………. …………… ………. ………. ……….

Close order: Closed by: Supervised by:

Detected Defects: Detected faults : Start date:

Date of completion:

COMMENTS: Deviation from the program:

Fig. 4.8 Example of a work order (WO)

– it defines the conditions according to operate in accordance with the guidelines

developed in the system plan-programme;
– it provides unified and unambiguous information, that makes the activities to be
performed consistent with the programme and verifiable in their technical and
economic outcomes;
– it allows to trace the whole development process of a maintenance activity.
In particular, it should be noted the central role, in terms of information, of the
work order with respect to two purposes:
– to manage operations by sending information to operators in order to start
maintenance interventions;
– to manage feedback information coming from maintenance activities by
receiving information from the completed maintenance tasks (Fig. 4.6).
126 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

Table 4.3 Work order information items [24]

Information Information description
B.1 Number Code assigned to a W.O. This code is unique for each W.O.
B.2 Petitioner Name of the authorized person requesting the maintenance
service
B.3 Registration date Date when the W.O. is issued
B.4 Open date Date when the W.O. is activated
B.5 Close date Date when the W.O. is completed. The corresponding work is
finished
B.6 Item code Code assigned to the item within the physical structure of the
plant. This code is unique for each piece of equipment
B.7 Item location Code corresponding to the geographical location of the item
within the plant. It is normally attached to or is included in the
item code
B.8 Item running hours Parameter by means of which, the utilization of the item can be
recorded. The parameter can be different, such as number of
operations, pieces, natural calendar
B.9 Type of maintenance Code referring to the nature of the maintenance activity (i.e.
preventive, electrical, new installation, etc.). Usually, it is
linked to the cost structure
B.10 Priority Code to give information about the necessary precedence
among the W.O.s for its activation. Priority has in some cases
to do with criticality
B.11 Safety and Link to the possible safety and environmental requirements to
environmental regulations perform the maintenance work, either mandatory or
recommendations
B.12 Retention justification The reason why an open W.O. is not running at the moment.
Downtime for each retention should also be included
B.13 Frequency Time between maintenance services within cyclic operations
B.14 Last operation time Last date when a particular cyclic maintenance operation was
performed
B.15 Resources estimation Amount of the different resources intended to be used to
accomplish the W.O. in a cyclic operation
B.16 Check list Relation of points to inspect within a cyclic maintenance
operation. Normally these should be first line maintenance
activities
B.17 Complaint Reason why a W.O. is issued. Symptom of the failure,
normally detected by the user of the item
B.18 Failing part Malfunctioned component of the item. The repair or
substitution of this part in addition to the description of the
actuation is the solution of the problem
B.19 Cause of failure Reason which determined the failure of the part, according to
the maintenance technician criteria
B.20 Technical procedure Link to the technical documentation which holds the
code information about the right actuation way. Tools required
should be also included in that documentation
B.21 Actuation description Explanation of the carried out operations
(continued)
4.5 Information Systems and Maintenance Management Process 127

Table 4.3 (continued)

Information Information description
B.22 Labour amount Working hours spent in carrying out the W.O; the sort of hours:
normal, shift, night, extra, etc. should be specified
B.23 Labour type Personnel category or skills of those who carried out the W.O.
B.24 Personnel List of all maintenance workers, who participated in carrying
out the W.O.
B.25 Spare-parts reference Code list of all spare-parts used within the W.O.
B.26 Spare-parts amount Number of each spare-part type used within the W.O.
B.27 External labour In the case of a contract with an external supplier of service for
the W.O., list of all external workers, who participated in
carrying out the W.O.
B.28 External spare-parts In the case of a contract with an external supplier of service for
the W.O., code list of all spare-parts used within the W.O.
B.29 Other external Services description, in the case of a contract with an external
services supplier of service for the W.O.
B.30 Acceptance Maintenance work reception

The information system should generate the WO through the selection of infor-
mation coming from the maintenance programme and the information developed to
support it (i.e. instructions and operating procedures, maintenance manuals, etc.).
The WO should be automatically produced by the information system, according
to the expected schedule and then directly transmitted, if necessary through web
portals, to operators. The responsible operators, after the fulfilment of the activities
carried out in accordance with the instructions contained in the work order, must send
to the information system the filled work order through several possible procedures
(i.e. via tablet, smartphone and web, completing and returning WO on paper, etc.).
Regarding the management of feedback information, it must be underlined that
the WO, besides containing information to be transmitted to operators about when
and how to carry out the maintenance activity, should include also a part, to be
filled out by executors and/or their supervisors, in which is reported information,
important for the control of execution and possible revision of the programme, such
as: start date of the activity, duration of the activity, end date of the activity, used
resources, unexpected events during execution, etc.
The information set gathered through the completion of the WO, and its sub-
sequent integration and processing by the information system, allows to use feed-
back information for important goals, such as:
– modification of time schedule in case of deviations;
– revision of operational guidelines;
– revision of expenditure forecasts;
– monitoring of operational teams’ skills, organization of activities, efficiency of
logistic support, accuracy of the adopted estimates (i.e. durations of interven-
tions, resources, etc.);
– updating of the maintenance manuals.
128 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

In summary, it can be stated that processing feedback information within the

information system involves a gradual growth of knowledge about behaviour of
materials and systems, methods of intervention and costs. Consequently, collecting
feedback information is fundamental to the gradual improvement of the forecasting
and planning abilities of the organization responsible for the building management.
The WO concerns activities planned in the maintenance plan, but it must be kept
in mind that, in building management, it constantly occurs the need to perform non
planned interventions due to many causes, such as: occurrence of not foreseen
faults, specific user’s requirements, outcomes of inspections and monitoring
activities carried out according to the programme, etc.
Therefore, an information system must be able to handle even the WO related to
unplanned tasks.

4.6 Information Systems Within Management Services

Within FM services an important issue, which still deserves investigation and

testing in current practice, is the role of information systems in relation to the
so-called “command centre” [18] (Chap. 5). The command centre is the entity,
within a service, that oversees a number of organizational activities in relation to:
management of building registry and information flows, coordination and opti-
mization of logistics activities both planned and on request, control of the activities,
measurement and monitoring of the degree of achievement of the quality levels of
the service established through KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) and SLA
(Service Level Agreement) (Chap. 1), collection of feedback information.
The command centre can refer to different organizational models (Chap. 5), but,
in any case, the presence of an information system is crucial to implement the
different functions necessary for steering the service.
An information system represents a fundamental support tool since, due to the
presence of different integrated modules (Fig. 4.9) and functions (Fig. 4.4), it allows
the development of a large number of management activities.
A typical model of an information system for real estate management may be
represented (Fig. 4.9) as a “constellation” of possible modules, mutually indepen-
dent, which may be present or not, depending on the specific management
requirements, and they can be progressively acquired over time in relation to the
evolution of the organization (criterion of gradualism). These modules are all fed by
the database, according to specific procedures for data extraction and processing.
With reference to typical activities concerning real estate technical management,
an information system, considering its modular configuration, offers multiple uses,
such as:
– management of the registry data. The information system allows the identifi-
cation of technical (building and plant parts) and spatial (rooms) components of
buildings and the storage of feedback information coming from maintenance
activities;
4.6 Information Systems Within Management Services 129

Project
j
Management
Space
Management Inventory
Management

Property Data Energy

Management base Management

Asset Call Center

Management
Operations &
Maintenance
Management

External information External software

systems

Fig. 4.9 Some of the integrated modules that can constitute an information system

– management of the “on call interventions”. The management module of the Call
Center represents a fundamental support since, it allows: as a first step, the
immediate locationing of site and involved technical objects; the retrieval of
data sheets and maintenance manuals useful for the definition of the intervention
to be carried out; the activation of operational procedures. In addition, the
recording of all the reports received by the Call Center, allows the creation of an
“historic knowledge”, useful for statistical analysis about the most common
faults and their frequency. At the same time, it plays an important role in order
to monitor activities in relation to the time spent for the problem resolution
(Table 1.8);
– management of planned maintenance. The information system can support,
through the module of Maintenance Management, the preparation of manuals
and maintenance plans. It can also support the preparation of the maintenance
program and the management of its time schedule, optimizing the calendars of
activities, assigning operating skills and possibly their costs. The module can
support the automatic issuance of the work orders needed to start the inter-
ventions (this chapter).
130 4 Information Systems for the Information Management

– logistic management of the tasks. It also allows, in addition to the WO man-

agement, a number of features aimed at optimizing operations, such as control of
any overlap of activities, availability of spaces and equipments, activation of
procedures (i.e. security, permits, etc.);
– management of the inventory about available stock and equipment;
– monitoring and quality control of the integrated services. The information
system plays a key role when, through the implementation of feedback infor-
mation coming from the various activities, it is able to develop various pro-
cessing, that can go from the simplest standardized and periodic reporting to
statistic processing of various nature (i.e. number of failures, response times,
number of operations performed and not scheduled, non-compliance detected,
etc.) (Table 1.8) to modalities of automatic alarms when thresholds defined by
quality indicators are overcome.
Although these important functions, from the reading and comparison of several
tender documents (both public and private) it arise that the common practice is still
late in maturing a full awareness of the close relationship existing between orga-
nizational methods of the command centre and structure and modes of use of
information systems. In fact:
– in many tenders, it is totally absent a systematic listing of the activities of the
command centre and thus there is a lack of an accurate definition of the func-
tions of the information system which should support such activities;
– in other cases, there are not indications about the characteristics of the information
system and its mode of use, merely including a generic demand for supply.
Vice versa, it is very important to consider the guidelines of the standard
UNI 11136:2004, “Global service for maintenance of buildings—Guidelines”
(Table 3.17), that suggests to the client engaged in the acquisition of a FM service,
to start an investigation stage, preliminary to the setting of the service and the
subsequent drafting of the tender. This investigation phase is crucial in order to
clarify some key points that can make clearer the requirements to be provided to the
information system, intended as a support to the steering activities of the service.
In particular:
– selection of the activities that can be outsourced and careful and articulated
analysis of the characteristics of such activities, as well as of information used
and produced, involved roles and needed supports. The analysis of all these
subjects allows to bring out the “minimum” information required for the
functioning and use of the information system;
– definition of the gradual implementation of the service over time (also
depending on the initial information about the state of quantitative consistence
of the real estate assets) allows to trace different steps of implementation of the
information system, so that functions offered by the service and supported
information may grow together, thereby avoiding situations of misalignment
and relative inefficiency (i.e. activities that are not supported by the information
4.6 Information Systems Within Management Services 131

system or functions of the information system unused because they do not

support any activity);
– description of results to be achieved by the service—qualitative and, when it is
possible, quantitative (Tables 1.8 and 1.9)—and of the modality to carry out
checks, so that it is possible to define key aspects of the information system such
as: storage and data processing modes, procedures for the collection of feedback
information, characteristics and forms of the reporting, management and pro-
cessing of questionnaires (“cold and hot”), automatic alarms when exceeding
service quality thresholds (i.e. exceeding the maximum waiting time for the
resolution of a failure, delays in the execution of planned interventions,
exceeding the number of faults over a predetermined threshold, etc.).

References

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ISS White Papers. Available via DIALOG. http://www.publications.issworld.com/ISS/
External/issworld/White_papers/Perspectives_on_the_FM_market_development
2. Meng X (2015) Facilities management: tracingitsdevelopmenttrajectory. Property Manag 33
(3):212–223
3. Sawyer S, Yi F (2008) The computerization of service: evidence of information and
communication technologies. In: Barrett M, Davidson E et al (eds) Information technology in
the service economy: challenges and possibilities for the 21st century, vol 267. Springer,
Heidelberg, p 200
4. Sillanpää E, Sillanpää I (2015) Developing the elements of information integration in the real
estate and user services. Facilities 33(7/8):485–501
5. Cotts DG, Roper KO, Payant RP (2010) The facility management handbook, 3rd edn.
American Management Association—AMACOM, New York
6. Chanter B, Shallow P (1996) Building maintenance management. Blackwell Science, Oxford
7. Von Felten D, Coenen C et al (2009) FM dashboard: a facility management monitoring tool
for planning, design and construction to optimize function and cost in operations. J Corp Real
Estate 11(2):115–127
8. Talamo C (2010) Procedimenti e metodi della manutenzione edilizia, vol 2. Esselibri, Napoli
9. Lavy S, Garcia JA, Dixit MK (2014) KPIs for facility’s performance assessment, Part I:
identification and categorization of core indicators. Facilities 32(5/6):256–274
10. Barrett P, Baldry D (2003) Facilities management: towards best practice. Blackwell Science,
Oxford
11. Sun Y (2013) Real estate management information system. In: Zhong Z (ed) Proceedings of
the international conference on information engineering and applications, vol 3. Springer,
Heidelberg
12. Anderson RT, Neri L (1990) Reliability-centered maintenance: management and engineering
methods. Elsevier Applied Science, New York
13. Villemeur A (1992) Reability, availability, maintainability and safety assessment. Wiley, New
York
14. Kirk SJ, Dell’Isola AJ (1995) Life cycle costing for design professionals. McGraw-Hill, New
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15. File WT (1991) Cost effective maintenance: design and implementation. Butter-worth-
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17. Lee R (1976) Building maintenance management. Collins, London

18. Talamo C (2011) L’organizzazione delle informazioni nei servizi di gestione immobiliare.
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Standards and Laws

19. UNI 10951:2001, “Information systems for maintenance management of real estate assets.
Guidelines”
20. EN 15341:2007, “Maintenance—Maintenance key performance indicators”
21. EN 15221-6:2011, “Facility management—Part 6: Area and space measurement in facility
management”
22. UNI 11257:2007, “Maintenance of buildings. Criteria for the drafting of plan and programme
of maintenance of buildings. Guidelines”
23. UNI 10874:2000, “Maintenance of buildings criteria in order to write maintenance and use
manuals”
24. EN 13460:2009, “Maintenance—Documentation for maintenance”
25. UNI 11136:2004, “Global service for maintenance of buildings—Guidelines”
26. UNI 10584:1997, “Maintenance—Systems of information of maintenance”
Chapter 5
The Command Centre

Abstract The aim of the chapter is to investigate and highlight characteristics and
key functions of the core structure of a FM service, here named “command centre”
(CC), which is the structure responsible for the planning and coordination of
interventions, the monitoring of the outcomes and the management of information
flows. Starting from a framework of the key functions, the main activities of the CC
have been analyzed in order to point out information needs and supporting tools.
This analysis has been developed in relation to four theoretical models of CC,
proposed as representative of some various approach that nowadays are observable
in the field of FM services: command centre internal to the client of the service;
command centre internal to the service supplier; command centre managed by a
third party; control command centre jointly managed by client and supplier.

Keywords Command centre

Planning and coordination
Monitoring



Information flow Information system

5.1 The Control of the Integrated Services

The high complexity and the competences involved in the organization of the
activities in a FM service require the presence of a structure responsible for the
planning and coordination of interventions, the monitoring of the outcomes and the
management of information flows. This structure, crucial for the process efficiency
and effectiveness, may be defined as “command centre” (CC).
The command centre represents a key condition in order to pursue simultane-
ously at least two basic objectives of the management services: firstly, the client
monitoring and control of the compliance with the contract requirements; secondly,
the effective integration of the different services included in the contract.

This chapter is authored by Cinzia Talamo.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 133

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0_5
134 5 The Command Centre

Table 5.1 Framework of the possible main tasks of the command centre developed through the
analysis of several case studies of FM agreements
Areas Main activities
Information system Design of the information system for the control of services
Implementation of the information system for the control of
services
Operation and management of the information system
Registry Setting up and management of technical registry
Population and updating of the database
Information management
Planning and scheduling Planning and scheduling of the tasks
Budgeting and management of the work orders
Coordination and supervision of the operations
Operation centre Management of the call centre
Management of the corrective tasks
Management of the operational unit
Management of third Management of the building files
parties Management of the construction documents
Management of the previous contracts
Management of the utilities supply
Insurances
Administration
Communication Support to the internal information
Communication plan
Training plan
Monitoring and checks Coordination of the general monitoring activities
Management of the inspections and technical checks
Management of the set of indicators

Although all the operators in the FM industry now agree on these objectives, it
should be emphasized that the characteristics of this “centre” have not been
explicitly and unambiguously defined yet.
Taking into account different case studies, it is fair to assert that neither in the
literature, nor in regulations or contract practices, it can be found a univocal, shared
and consolidated interpretation of the command centre, despite numerous reminders
to its different typical functions (Table 5.1).
Summarizing the results of a long term analysis1 on case studies in the field of
maintenance management services, it is possible to assert that the client, in defining
the request for FM services, should consider a series of coordinated and integrated

1
In Politecnico di Milano, the authors of this book have been developing studies for several years,
analyzing the contract specifications of public and private clients. The aim is to describe models of
the command centre through the analysis of the requests elaborated in the contract documents [1–5].
5.1 The Control of the Integrated Services 135

key activities referred to the CC, such as: registry, information systems, call centers,
planning and management of the operations, administration, checking (Table 5.1).
These categories draw a framework of functions that should be taken in charge
by a command centre, but, at the same time, they allow some reflections. The
supply of integrated services requires the presence of a unique and centralized
structure characterized by a multiplicity of support activities. Considering growing
demands expressed by clients (Chap. 1), management services are now more and
more gradually expanding their scope of work and expertise towards different
directions (Fig. 1.3). This process involves certainly the improvement of compe-
tences for supporting coordination activities and operations planning. In response to
this request, today it is not still present a widespread awareness about what may be
the model of CC for a best integration and control of the various areas of the
services which, in some cases, are still considered autonomous.
In the analysis of specifications and contract documents, the CC activities are
often not explicitly mentioned. So, it cannot be easily understood if these activities
have to be carried out by the client or by another structure external to the service
contract or, vice versa, if demands are not expressed because these activities are
implicitly considered as natural supports to other services listed in the contract, or,
lastly, if they are not considered due to inattention about these issues.

5.2 Key Functions and Role of the Command Centre

Given these considerations, a possible designation of the command centre may be the
one that identifies it as a set of activities supporting the delivery of operational services
with a particular reference to planning and coordination functions, management of
information flows, monitoring and checking. The objective of these activities is to
pursue efficiency and full achievement of performance and service levels predeter-
mined by the client, as well as sharing information between the client and supplier.
According to this definition, it is possible to identify, for the specific scope of
technical services, some basic functions of the command centre (Fig. 5.1). These
functions can then assume different variations depending on the adopted organi-
zational model2 (Fig. 5.2) [6, 7].

2
The model of CC may be considered in relation to the various organizational models of FM [6].
IFMA Italy (International Facility Management Association) [8] proposes a possible classification
based on the activities integration level and the facilities management outsourcing level, defining
three macro cases. The first one is characterized by the absence of a unique subject or facility
department independent from the other company functions and the service management is divided
into different structures. The second model is characterized by the presence of a facility manager,
that heads the FM department, and the services are internally managed and provided through
internal and/or external employees. In the third model, there is a FM department that is operated by
external resources. Beside these models, many other criteria of classification have been proposed,
such as the one presented by Cotts [9] and based on the type of location and sites of the FM
structure. Ancarania and Capaldo [10] propose a model based on the progression of services to be
136 5 The Command Centre

Command centre

Management of the Planning and Monitoring and

information flow coordination control

General
Management of Planning of the monitoring
the registry interventions

Management of Reporting
the information
system Activation of the
interventions Application of
penalities
Management of
feedback
information Plan of Management of
comunication and indicators
training

Benchmarking
Coordination of the
call centre
Management of
controls

Questionnaires Inspections Audits

Fig. 5.1 Main key functions of a command centre

• Planning and coordination

First of all, a command centre should carry out planning and coordinating
activities in different areas (Fig. 5.1).
Concerning the strategic scope of the integrated service, an important activity is
the development of a masterplan of the service. It should be developed a general
strategy, depending on the specific nature of the management contract, able both to

(Footnote 2 continued)
outsourced, starting from a situation of one service, evolving in contracts collecting together
groups of operational separate services, up to forms of integrated services provided by only one
supplier [10]. An overview of the progression of outsourcing in facilities management is proposed
by Kurdia et al. [11].
5.2 Key Functions and Role of the Command Centre 137

Supplier Client Client Client

Command Command Command Command

centre centre centre centre
Client Supplier Third party

Supplier Supplier

Command Command centre Command centre

internal to the service operated by a third Command
centre internal centre in joint
to the client supplier part management

Fig. 5.2 The main models of command centre

direct and standardize the entire value chain of the different services up to the
operating terminals (supply chain management) [5, 12–14] and to direct the defi-
nition of common management support tools.3
Concerning the logistic tasks, it is possible to identify many typical activities of
the command centre, such as the management of: call centre, warehouse stocks, set
of equipment, execution of activities, etc.
Concerning the administrative scope, the coordination supported by the CC may
be developed towards different directions aimed at improving efficiency and pur-
suing scale economies, such as: the realization of a single central procurement
office, the realization of procedures for automatic chargeback of costs for different
utilities, the rationalization of insurance policies, etc.
Within the operating area, the coordination supported by the CC may concern
the collection of intervention plans of the various service providers in order to

3
Several authors underline [5, 12–14] the importance of information sharing in supply chain
management. In particular, the study developed by Kembro and Selviaridis [14] empirically
explores demand-related information sharing in the extended supply chain [14]. The study sug-
gests different approaches to information sharing depending on the type and intensity of inter-
dependence between supply chain partners and it identifies key barriers to extend information
sharing: demand information disaggregation; risk of demand information misinterpretation; and
risk of making production and distribution decisions based on incomplete information. The study
proposed by Molinari et al. [5] analyzes three main strategies that represent different behaviors in
supply chain management and that, at the same time, can be considered the steps of a progressive
maturation of buildings services organizations, from a “simple addition” of services towards the
creation of an organized system: aggregation, integration, homogenizing. For each of these
strategies, the study proposes possible models concerning relationships between the components of
the supply chain and the ways for information sharing [5].
138 5 The Command Centre

achieve only a unique optimized schedule, based on at least two aspects. One aspect
concerns compatibility checks in the case of overlap (i.e. between the calendars of
core activities and those ones of maintenance activities, or in the case of assessment
of the effects of the concurrence of different maintenance activities). The other
aspect concerns the search for possible synergies (i.e. sharing of working equip-
ments, concentration of shutdown of the activities in the same period, optimization
of functions of logistic support and monitoring, etc.).
This coordination is useful not only in order to rationalize planned tasks, but also
to deploy unplanned tasks in the most appropriate time frame.
Based on the time schedule, the coordination can then be implemented through
centralized activities of preparation and issue of the work orders (WO) (Chap. 4).
Therefore, the coordination carried out by the command centre can be based on a
single plan (i.e. general plan of services, maintenance plan, cleaning service plan,
etc.) developed at the central level. Starting from this plan, the work program can be
developed and transmitted to the various operating entities.
At more advanced levels, the coordination activity may involve other aspects,
which could also have been omitted from the contract specifications, but whose
presence can be an important contribution to improve quality and efficiency of the
services. These issues may include:
– preparation of standardized reference schemes to draft manuals and maintenance
plans to be developed at sectorial level (i.e. at the level of the building envelope
system, heating system, etc.);
– preparation of standardized procedures to be shared between different service
providers (i.e. procedures related to: safety, preparation of working areas, tasks
in critical condition and emergency, communication mode between different
operators, etc.);
– development of general rules for the approval of intervention requests;
– realization of supporting activities able to improve the interaction between
different service providers and to make more homogeneous their operating
modes (i.e. specific actions of training and communication) [5, 13].
• Monitoring and checking
The monitoring and checking process (Fig. 5.1), as well known, represents a
central node in the management of services.
In this sense, there are basic actions that a CC can perform in a unified way, such as:
– collection and processing of data relating to: progress of the planned activities,
compliance with the pre-established parameters (i.e. schedule requirements for
the operations), quality of the tasks carried out;
– monitoring of the response time to the requests for intervention;
– setup, integration and improvement of the system of indicators for the moni-
toring of the service quality (if absent or inadequate at the level of contract
specification) (Table 1.8);
– management of the system of indicators (i.e. collection and processing of data
with the purpose of processing and distributing summary indexes to stakeholders,
5.2 Key Functions and Role of the Command Centre 139

producing reports, constant monitoring with reports of non-conformities, real-

ization of tableau de bord/dashboards, etc.) (Chap. 4);
– analysis of non-conformities and suggestions for improvement;
– identification of problems arising from interference between services;
– identification and management of benchmarks to be used as references for the
internal monitoring of services and suppliers (Chap. 1);
– implementation of “report cards” for different suppliers.
• Management of the information flows
The key functions of coordination and control (Fig. 5.1) are made possible by
the basic function of management of information flows.
The function of centralized management of information requires different tasks,
which can be performed by the CC:
– defining standardized rules and procedures to gather and store information in
both graphical and alphanumerical form (i.e. inventory procedures, cards,
classification system registry, etc.) (Chaps. 2–4);
– developing appropriate support tools to collect and store information
(Chaps. 3 and 4);
– creating and managing the building registry (Chap. 3);
– coordinating the collection and storage of information coming from different
sources (i.e. census, audit records, surveys, diagnostic investigations, due dili-
gence, etc.) (Chap. 3);
– defining different modes of using information and setting up appropriate sup-
ports for output (i.e. reports, indices, charts, tables, etc.);
– processing the stored information and distributing them both in direct form (i.e.
simply through search and selection of data) and in the form of elaboration (i.e.
as an index);
– collecting and storing information concerning the performed tasks.
Benefits of a centralized management of information flows are many and include
the possibility of:
– having a single knowledge base, able to grow gradually and consistently over
time;
– acquiring and storing feedback information from the executed tasks; as already
stated, this kind of information is useful both for the checking and the growth of
knowledge about the behavior of the building systems and the operational
modes. This knowledge growth, as recurrently stated, is a key factor for the
gradual improvement of the forecasting and planning capacities of the whole
management system;
– knowing, at any time, and comparing over time, with respect to unique and
standardized parameters, the status of the assets, service levels and activities
performed by the different service providers;
140 5 The Command Centre

– providing a single support tool, updated and reliable, to the people working with
different roles in the management of the buildings, avoiding duplication and
overlap in gathering and producing information.

5.3 Models of Command Centre

From the analysis, carried out through case studies (Table 5.1), of the activities that
may be attributed to the CC it clearly emerges—at least above a certain level related
both to the size of the real estate and the complexity of the services—that an
information system (Chap. 4) represents an essential support for the activation,
coordination and integration of the various FM services (Fig. 5.3).
The activities of the command centre, within individual cases, may be carried out
in various ways by the different parties involved in the service contract. For this
reason, in the construction of a service contract, the CC should be preliminarily
outlined by defining:
– the overall system of the functions, activities and tools that are required for
making the services as much efficient and integrated as possible;
– the role of the information system as support to all the planned activities;

COMMAND CENTRE

Design and Planned

development of the Registry Call Center Interventions Monitoring and
maintenance checking
information system management management management
management
Management of time schedule
Maintenance and use manuals
Definition of the structure of

• Definition of KPI and SLA

Emission of work orders
Emission of work orders

Interventions recording

Statistical elaborations
Activation of intervention
requests of interventios

Optimized schedule
Updating the registry

Reporting faults and

Logistic supports

• Questionnaires
procedures
the registry

Reports

INFORMATION SYSTEM

Fig. 5.3 Information system supporting the functions of the command centre
5.3 Models of Command Centre 141

Fig. 5.4 Model of command - Collecting feed back

centre managed by the client information
- Elaborating feed back
information
- Distribution of information
- Elaboration of indexes
- Planning and
scheduling tasks - Application of penalties if
necessary
- Issuing Work order
- Distribution of
information

1 5
6 2

Command Client
Supplier centre
3

- Execution of the 4
operations
- Filling of the Work
orders

– the organizational model of the CC, according to it is possible to establish tasks

and tools, which may be focused on a single subject or variously distributed
between different players (i.e. customer, the sole supplier of the service, con-
tractors of individual services, consultants, etc.).
Whatever the organizational model is, it is essential, through a proper description
of the tender requirements, to maintain a uniform vision of the CC.
The models, according to it is possible to implement the CC, can be arranged
assuming some different basic structures.
Some possible models are (Fig. 5.2):
– command centre internal to the client of the service;
– command centre internal to the service supplier;
– command centre managed by a third party;
– command centre jointly managed by client and supplier.
• Command centre managed by the client
The client, working with its structures, keeps the functions of planning, coor-
dination and control with the support of an information system (Fig. 5.4).
Supplier of works and services, according to established procedures, shall
transmit to the CC the information (i.e. maintenance manuals, operating instruc-
tions, plans of the operations, etc.) necessary for the growth of the common
knowledge base and for the optimization, at a central level, of planning and
scheduling activities. The CC implements the centralized program of the service by
issuing work orders (WO) to be sent to the suppliers of works and services. The
filled WO will then be transmitted to the CC. Feedback information, appropriately
archived, allows to increase the knowledge base and, at the same time, implement a
series of checks at the service levels. From these checks, indications for corrective
actions and/or application of penalties may be derived.
142 5 The Command Centre

This model can be indicated in the presence of one or more characteristics of the
client:
– ownership of an operating information system;
– gradual process of partial outsourcing (i.e. “mixed” situations, with contracts of
Facility Management only for mechanical and safety systems and in-house
management of the remaining areas);
– presence of an internal managerial know-how that the client does not want to
loose;
– peculiar characteristics related to the specific type of building stock and/or
hosted functions;
It is clear that this model safeguards the client, especially about the control of
activities and protection and growth of the information; however, it should not be
ignored that the client is burdened by several functions that often require the
strengthening of his management structures.
• Command centre managed by the service supplier
This solution is now quite common, even if sometimes it is adopted by clients
with a little attention for all those efforts and requirements that could guarantee
them an actual control over the management process, the outcomes and the infor-
mation flows.
In this case (Fig. 5.5), the client entrusts the management of the assets to the
supplier of the FM services, which is often also involved both in the inventory
activities and the coordination and management of information flows.
The client, for the purpose of monitoring and controlling, can obtain periodic
reports (i.e. on the state of execution of the activities, the state of conservation of
buildings, etc.) from the supplier. The client may eventually integrate these reports
with his monitoring activities, such as audits or management of questionnaires

Fig. 5.5 Model of command

- Analysis of reports
centre managed by the - Application of penalties if
supplier necessary
4
3

Command
Supplier
centre Client

1 2

- Collecting feed back information

- Elaborating feed back information
- Distribution of information
- Elaboration of indexes
- Reporting
5.3 Models of Command Centre 143

distributed both to supervisors during the execution of the activities (hot ques-
tionnaires) and to users of the buildings immediately after the service delivery or
after a longer period (cold questionnaires).
This model is generally practiced in those conditions in which the client:
– is not in possession of an adequate starting knowledge base and tools for
information management;
– does not have a management experience carried out according to advanced
forms;
– is not willing to strengthen or streamline his internal management structures;
– is willing to take advantage from the specialized know-how, organizational
skills and proactive approach of the service providers.
It is evident that, for a client, the benefits coming from the adoption of this model
are represented mainly by the opportunity to concentrate efforts just on his core
business by outsourcing most of the management functions; however, these benefits
should be compared with various possible risks, such as:
– obtaining an organization of the knowledge that is not perfectly appropriate to
the client’s specific needs;
– loosing part of the knowledge gained during the service if the feedback infor-
mation are not properly and correctly stored and managed. It must be considered
the risk that, at the end of the contract, the knowledge base may not result
structured in the form and content useful for the client or the development of
new tenders for the following services;
– partial ineffectiveness in monitoring the state of the services.
It is clear that these risks are partially avoidable by acting in different directions:
primarily, with a correct information management in the different phases of the
service. During the procurement of the service, by defining the logic and methods
of acquiring information (criteria for the development of registry). During the
service delivery, through management of the feedback information. At the end of
the service, with the delivery of the information database correctly implemented
and improved; secondly in the preparation of tender documents and requirements,
paying close attention to the arrangement of several conditions that are able to
adequately support the monitoring actions, such as: the content of reports, set of
indicators, KPIs, object and methods of inspections and audits, etc.
• Command centre managed by a third party
A possible alternative to the two models previously described is to entrust to a
third party the complete operation and management of the command centre
(Fig. 5.6).
In this case, it is possible to appoint a specialist (as the supplier) for setting up
the overall apparatus of the CC with activities that may include:
– inventory;
– development of the registry;
144 5 The Command Centre

Fig. 5.6 Model of command 4

centre managed by a third part Command Third part 5
centre supplier
1

- Planning and scheduling tasks - Collecting feedback

- Issuing Work orders information
- Distribution of information - Elaborating feed back
information
2 - Distribution of information
- Elaboration of indexes
- Analysis of reports
Supplier
3 7 6

- Execution of the
operations Application Client
- Filling of the Work 8 of penalties if
orders necessary 7

– study/supply and implementation of the information system;

– realization (or undertaking) of the general planning of the service;
– realization and optimization of the general time schedule starting from the plans
of the various service providers;
– issue and transmission of the WO and their storing, once compiled at the tasks
completion;
– storage and processing of the feedback information;
– information processing and delivery of reports to the client for its monitoring
activities;
– information distribution;
– identification and reporting of critical issues to nominated supervisors;
– logistic support (i.e. information management of warehouse stocks);
– administrative support activities;
– other support activities (i.e. training, preparation of procedures, etc.).
This type of model can be adequate for a client:
– without a knowledge base about the assets that have to be operated and
maintained;
– that does not have an information system already structured or that has an
information system already working, that he intends to implement but without
the charge of a direct management;
– owner of a real estate that is very complex in terms of technical and accounting
aspects;
– willing to initiate an integrated management supported as much as possible by
an information system;
– willing to take advantage from the specialized know-how, organizational skills
and proactive approach of service providers particularly expert about organi-
zational and informative subjects;
– willing to rely on an external and independent structure able to support him in
control and monitoring activities.
5.3 Models of Command Centre 145

The expected benefits of this kind of model are actually effective as much as a
client is able to adequately establish roles and tasks of the supplier of the CC and to
define his own needs concerning the information management.
It should not be forgotten, in assessing this model, that:
– a third party involves a significant cost and thus, during the identification of the
services to be delivered by the suppliers of technical services, the client should
carefully identify and separate all those activities that are under the responsi-
bility of the supplier of the CC;
– a third party represents an additional subject that is involved in the overall
management of the service. The terms of its integration should be carefully
assessed;
– even the controller (the third party) must be controlled.
• Command centre in joint management
Finally, it is possible to highlight an additional model that is more and more
widespread. It can be described as a joint management and it consists in setting a
CC shared between the client and service supplier (Fig. 5.7).
It is a model that can present different configurations, essentially related to:
– a common platform, consisting of a single registry and information system and a
set of shared procedures;
– a variable framework of activities, carried out by the service suppliers and client,
all referring to the same information system. The client and the supplier jointly
manage the information system, each one with his own predetermined and
arranged roles and responsibilities.
The successful application of this model depends on the client’s ability to:
– carefully analyze his own skills and abilities in order to understand which
functions of the CC can be outsourced;

Supplier Command Client

centre

- Planning, coordination and - Management of the registry

scheduling of the tasks - Distribution of information
- Issuing of Work order - Monitoring and control
- Execution of the operations - Elaboration of indexes
- Filling and recording the work - Application of penalties if
order necessary

Fig. 5.7 Model of command centre managed jointly by the client and service supplier
146 5 The Command Centre

– exhaustively determine the systemic framework of the CC and then list and
deploy the different functions and, for each of them, define activities, tasks and
operators;
– develop an accurate framework of the procedures for managing information
flows.
An hypothesis of evolution of this model of command centre could be outlined
by considering the innovative model of FM services named Open Facility
Management (OFM) proposed by De Toni et al. [15]. This model is based on three
principles and it can be implemented through operative tools. The basic principles
are: organizational coordination among players; sharing the performance mea-
surement systems; contract flexibility. OFM model is based on openness of the
parties to the changes potentially coming, during the lifetime of a FM contract, from
various factors (i.e. new needs, new end-user, new technical improvements, etc.)
and on involving both traditional (client, contractors, sub-suppliers, end-users) and
new subjects (consultants, university researches, etc.), considering their needs and
contributes. Considering the CC in relation to the innovative proposed OFM model
means to introduce and manage within its functions at least three operative tools:
– the Partnership Table (PT), that can be considered as a place where information
on services, SLA and technical, managerial and organizational contract aspects
are discussed and shared;
– the Shared Performance Measurement System (PMS) that collects the indicators
the parties consider necessary in order to evaluate the contract;
– the flexible contract with SLA, where the parties are allowed to modify the
contract conditions using SLA. Standard levels and services quality are defined
through indications shared by the parties.

References

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servizi integrati. FMI Facility Manag Ital 7:14–24
2. Talamo C, Vitola F (2010) Politecnico di Milano: il sistema di regia e di governo dell’appalto
di Global Service. FMI Facility Manag Ital 9:40–56
3. Cigolini R, Paganin G, Talamo C, Villa A (2007) The management of services for buildings:
an interdisciplinary research approach and experimentations. In: Proceedings of the 3rd
international conference of maintenance and facility management, Roma
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monitoring. In: Haugen T, Moum, Bröchner J (eds) Proceedings of the CIB W70 international
symposium—changing user demands on buildings. needs for user-cycle planning and
management, Trondheim, 2006
5. Molinari C, Paganin G, Talamo C (2005) Innovation and transfer processes in buildings
management services. Organizational models, methodologies, procedures, and tools. In: VTT
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Chapter 6
Building Information Modeling
(BIM) and Facility Management (FM)

Abstract The aim of this chapter is to introduce the main aspects and needs of the
relation between the Building Information Modeling (BIM) methodology and the
Facility Management (FM) sector. In fact FM activities, which nowadays are
negatively influenced by the fragmentation within the construction industry and the
inadequate information exchange between Project Lifecycle Phases (PLPs), can be
improved and addressed by the synchronized and collaborative nature of BIM
which works as a lifecycle and interdisciplinary 3D data store. Although benefits of
an efficient knowledge and process management by using BIM to support FM
activities, the adoption of this new methodology for asset management and facility
maintenance has been overlooked for a while. Nevertheless, recently the BIM
potentiality to overcome the traditional uncertainty in the information management
of the built environment and to improve deficient documentation prevalent in
existing buildings has boosted the research focus towards this direction. In par-
ticular many research groups are working at defining the information requirement of
BIM objects as useful for FM activities.

Keywords Building Information Modeling (BIM) Facility Management (FM)



Information Lifecycle Management (ILM) Process management Information

requirement

6.1 Need for an Information Lifecycle Management

Economic crisis and its impact on the construction sector [1], stricter decrees for
resource and process efficiency,1 more and more complex design information [2]
motivate the Architecture, Engineering, Construction, Facility Management
(AEC/FM) sector to boost innovation towards a more efficient and collaborative

This chapter is authored by Marcella Bonanomi.

1
See the European Regulation No 305/2011 and the European Directive No 24/2014.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 149

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0_6
150 6 Building Information Modeling …

construction industry. Due to long building life cycles and considering that the rate
of new construction is more and more shifting to renovation and maintenance
(R&M) of existing buildings (Fig. 6.1), Facility Management (FM) and asset
management are likewise major levers to improve productivity and efficiency in the
AEC/FM domain [3].
The FM market in fact has experienced significant growth during the last ten
years since the construction sector has become more and more aware of the strategic
benefits of an Asset Information Management, particularly in terms of cost savings,
time efficiency and quality of information exchange between the different life-cycle
stages of the construction process.
Several studies and researches also highlight that FM has been able to react in a
positive way to the global financial crisis by absorbing the negative impact on
growth of the construction sector. It has been forecasted that this growing trend will
stabilize in the next future (Chap. 1).
Although this positive trend, reciprocal interdependencies between different
stakeholders, such as real estate investors, contractors, suppliers, architects, facility
managers etc. are still a major problem in the FM sector, as in the whole con-
struction process [4]. Considering that each stakeholder possesses different set of
skills, standards and tools, the communication and the information exchange are
characterized by an high level of complexity. Therefore, the knowledge and process
management are often time-consuming [5].

Fig. 6.1 Index market value 2000–2017. New building work versus renovation [1]
6.1 Need for an Information Lifecycle Management 151

Table 6.1 Costs of inadequate interoperability by stakeholder groups and life-cycle phases [6]
Stakeholder Planning, design, Construction Operations and Total
group and engineering, phase maintenance
phase phase
Architects and 1007.2 147.0 15.7 1169.8
engineers
General 485.9 1265.3 50.4 1801.6
contractors
Specialty 442.4 1762.2 – 2204.6
fabricators and
suppliers
Owners and 722.8 898.0 9027.2 10648.0
operators
Total 2658.3 4072.4 9093.3 15824.0

The lack of communication between the actors and the lack of interoperability
between the tools are the most important reasons behind common problems arising
during a building lifecycle such as information asymmetry and data fragmentation.
The inadequate interoperability which characterizes the AEC/FM sector
increases the cost burden of all the stakeholders involved in the construction pro-
cess. Moreover, if we consider that most of the information, which is necessary
during the building use phase, has been produced in the previous lifecycle stages
(i.e. design, construction etc.) and comes from different stakeholders (i.e. designers,
manufacturers, etc.), it is clear the importance of an Information Lifecycle
Management (ILM), above all for the FM industry.
It has been estimated that the cost of inadequate interoperability in the U.S.
market is equal to $15.8 billion per year. Specifically, owners and operators bore
approximately $10.6 billion, or about two-thirds of the total estimated costs
(Table 6.1) [6].
As a response to this increasing complex environment, Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) has been developing at a very fast pace. Many
actors involved in the FM sector, such as facility managers and building owners,
have begun to use Computer Aided Facility Management (CAFM) software and
Facilities Information Systems (i.e. Archibus2) to support operation and mainte-
nance activities of building assets (Chap. 1).
Recently, a major shift in ICT for the FM industry has been a growing interest in
Building Information Modeling (BIM) due to many benefits and resource savings
coming from an ILM with impacts to the all lifecycle phases of the construction
process [7].

2
Archibus is an Information System which is a worldwide market leader in the field of CAFM
software. It is divided in 9 modules, each of them focused on a specific FM activity: Real Estate
Portfolio Management, Capital Project Management, Space Planning and Management, Move
Management, Asset Management, Environmental and Risk Management, Building Operations,
Workplace Services, Technology Extensions.
152 6 Building Information Modeling …

6.2 BIM Definition(s) and Methodology

The concept of BIM was first proposed by Professor Chuck Eastman at the Georgia
Institute of Technology around 30 years ago. Since then 3D modeling has been
slowly developing as integrated analysis and object-oriented tools until 2000s when
Building Information Modeling started to be adopted in pilot projects to support
designers’ activities.
Initial research focus was just concerned with the earlier lifecycle phases of the
construction process: design (D) and construction (C). Instead, operations (O) has
been overlooked for a while. Therefore, for a certain period of time, the use of BIM
has been concentrated just on D + C sub-activities and tasks, such as programming
and cost planning, architectural and structural design, construction planning and
detailing (Table 6.2).
Recently there has been a shift from this approach, which was taking in con-
sideration just earlier lifecycle phases, to a vision including also the building use
phase. So, the BIM environment has started to be referred to the whole lifecycle
process [7].
In fact, just by assuming the interdisciplinary and lifecycle approach of BIM, it is
possible to really boost knowledge and process management by building up a
unique and coherent working environment which facilitates stakeholders’ collab-
oration and information exchange, in order to reduce waste of time and effort, as
well as mistakes and delays [8].
Since the 70s, when the BIM concept has been proposed for the first time, many
different definitions and interpretations have been developed.
By conducting a literature review, two different perspectives can be found:
– BIM as a tool. It represents the so called “little bim” approach which refers to
the BIM acronym just as Building Information Model, and thus considering
only the 3D model;

Table 6.2 Project life-cycle phases and sub-phases [27]

Design phase (D) Construction phase (C) Operations phase (O)
D1: conceptualization, C1: construction planning O1: occupancy and
programming and cost and construction detailing operations
planning
D2: architectural, structural C2: construction, O2: asset management and
and systems design manufacturing and facility maintenance
procurement
D3: analysis, detailing, C3: commissioning, as-built O3: decommissioning and
coordination and specification and handover major re-programming
6.2 BIM Definition(s) and Methodology 153

– BIM as a process. It is related instead to the “BIG BIM” approach which defines
the BIM acronym as Building Information Modeling, and thus referring not just
to the physical model but also to the methodology which has been adopted to
develop it [9].
Therefore, the most interesting definitions underline the holistic perspective of
BIM by describing it as an integration between the “little bim” and the “BIG BIM”
approach. In fact BIM is both an innovative process and methodology concerning
information management (BIG BIM) and a digital representation which contains
and provides data coming from different sources and phases (little bim). It includes
not only spatial data models but also project management (PM) related tools and
processes [9].
In accordance with this holistic vision, the National Institute of Building
Sciences [21] defines BIM as “an improved planning, design, construction, oper-
ation, and maintenance process using a standardized machine readable information
model for each facility, new or old, which contains all appropriate information,
created or gathered about that facility in a format useable by all throughout its
lifecycle”. Jernigan [9] provides another interesting definition by describing BIM as
a “a set of interacting policies, processes and technologies generating a method-
ology to manage the essential building design and project data in digital format
throughout the building’s life-cycle”.
BIM can provide data-enriched 3D models detailed according to the different
Project Lifecycle Phases (PLPs) and focused on the different working areas of the
construction process. For example, a BIM model can be realized with a level of
information suitable for a preliminary studio of a building structure, or being
detailed as a digital as-built model to support operation and maintenance activities.
Therefore, a BIM model provides not only the geometrical configuration of the
building elements, but also the information set which is associated to them. For
example, informational attributes which can be associated to BIM objects, as useful
for the FM activities are: model, manufacturer, product page URL, etc. (Fig. 6.2).
As Smith [10] underlines “a building information model is a digital represen-
tation of the physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as
a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable
basis for decisions during its life-cycle from inception onward”.
As already underlined, the “I” of BIM can be managed according to the different
PLPs and fields of the construction process. For example, informational attributes
associated to building elements in the case of a BIM model developed for an energy
simulation will be surely different from the parameters included in the case of a
structural analysis. Then, BIM process modeling and data implementation are both
related to:
– space. In which working area am I using BIM? (i.e. Facility Management,
structural analysis, energy simulation, etc.);
– time. In which lifecycle phase am I using BIM? (i.e. use phase, design phase,
construction phase, etc.).
154 6 Building Information Modeling …

Fig. 6.2 Example of geometric and non-geometric information included in a BIM object and
useful for FM activities

According to these two parameters, different datasets with different data quality
and level of detail can be associated to BIM objects [11].
Focusing on the building use phase, which is characterized by a wide infor-
mation requirement (Tables 3.4 and 3.18) due to the multidisciplinary nature of the
FM activities, the BIM potentiality to capture and preserve data along the whole
building lifecycle can reduce the traditional information loss and asymmetry
characterizing data exchange between different stakeholders and phases of the
construction process. For example the exchange from the design/construction stages
to the use-phase is often characterized by an high level of information loss and data
asymmetry [12].
Current FM activities, which nowadays are negatively influenced by the frag-
mentation within the AEC/FM industry and the inadequate information exchange
between PLPs, can be improved and addressed by the synchronized and collabo-
rative nature of BIM which works as a lifecycle and interdisciplinary 3D data store.
Although promising benefits of an efficient knowledge and process management
by using BIM in FM, the adoption of this new methodology for asset management
and facility maintenance is lagging behind other sectors of the construction process
(i.e. building design, structural analysis, construction management etc.). Until now
Building Information Modeling has been developing at a very fast pace for new
buildings, but the implementation of BIM in the FM field is just now going one step
further.
Recently the BIM potentiality to overcome the traditional uncertainty in the
information management of the built environment and to improve deficient
6.2 BIM Definition(s) and Methodology 155

documentation prevalent in existing buildings has boosted the research focus

towards this direction [13].
Although there is agreement about the benefits deriving from an ILM, which is
made possible through a BIM implementation in the FM stage, it is still unclear
which should be the information requirement to support FM activities in a BIM
environment.

6.3 BIM-based Knowledge and Process Management

Given the tridimensional data repository nature of BIM, it is clear the importance of
standardizing information requirement, as well as developing data interoperability.
By considering this new methodology in its broader perspective,3 BIM data
models are developed according not only to technical issues, but also to a func-
tional, informational and organizational/legal structure.
The functional structure, which can be considered as both the focus and the
output according to a BIM model is made, depends on:
– the stakeholders involved in the process, and thus on their specific information
requirement. For example, a BIM model which has been developed by an
energy engineers’ team to perform an energy simulation will surely include
different information (i.e. U-values, radiation data etc.) in comparison to a BIM
model used to support a facility manager in the FM activities of a building (i.e.
replacement costs, warranty starting dates, etc.);
– the lifecycle phases which the model refers to, and thus on the different levels of
detail of information. For example, a BIM model which has been developed for
a preliminary design-phase will not provide all the specific product information
which a BIM model at a construction phase includes (as-built digital model). In
fact, the informational structure of a BIM model becomes more and more
detailed throughout the lifecycle stages of the construction process.
Then, the “functionality” of a BIM model determines its informational and
organizational structure with respect to both knowledge and process management [7].
The specific questions “what kind of information”, “when in the LC process”
and “from who has to be provided”, referring to the dataset associated to model
elements, have to be answered according to the different focus/output of the BIM
model.
For example, by considering a model developed to support FM activities,
answers to the previous questions will be:
– what information has to be included in BIM objects? Model Number, manu-
facturer, replacement cost, Reference Service Life (RSL), etc.;

3
The so called “BIG BIM” approach proposed by Jernigan [9] which refers to BIM both as the
data-enriched 3D model and the methodological framework which has been adopted to develop it.
156 6 Building Information Modeling …

– from who among all the involved stakeholders has to be provided? Designers
and products manufacturers;
– in which lifecycle stage of the construction process has to be captured? Design
and Construction phase.
Therefore, in order to avoid information loss throughout the building lifecycle
and, at the same time, reducing costs and improving efficiency, these answers have
to be agreed by all the stakeholders involved before starting the BIM process.
Given these considerations, the design of a standardized BIM environment in
which all the actors involved may work in a well-defined framework, referring both
to data standardization and software/tools interoperability, is one of the main
research topic.
Focusing on information standardization, it has to be first underlined that model
elements are enriched both with:
– geometrical data, which are for the most part dimensions (i.e. length, width,
height, thickness, etc.) and are automatically given by the BIM software
(Fig. 6.3);
– non-geometrical data, which are not automatically provided by the BIM envi-
ronment and then they can be implemented according to the diverse function-
alities of the BIM model (i.e. Facility Management, structural analysis, etc.).
For example, focusing on the FM information needs, non-geometrical data may
refer to the spatial relation of assets (i.e. connected/aggregated/intersected etc.), as
well as to more specific information such as date of installation, warranty
description, replacement cost, etc.

Fig. 6.3 Example of geometrical information automatically provided by a BIM object

6.3 BIM-based Knowledge … 157

Since these data are not automatically included in the model elements, there
could be two different paths in order to implement this knowledge in a BIM
environment:
– it can be built a specific information structure through the implementation of
data standards in the BIM software. For example, the COBie4 standard has been
developed as a data schema able to collect and store all the information which is
necessary to the use-phase of a building;
– it can be developed an information exchange through plug-in and/or interop-
erable tools. For example, focusing on the FM sector, the BIM software can be
directly linked to the CAFM (Computer-Aided Facilities Management) system5
in order to have bidirectional information exchange.
Besides the informational issue, also organizational and legal structures have to
be clearly defined in order to identify:
– roles of all the stakeholders involved in the BIM process;
– responsibilities for data input and data output;
– level of access and authorizations to the different information and tools which
constitutes the Common Data Environment (CDE) of a BIM process.

6.4 Standardized Content and Organization

Requirements Along a BIM Process: LoDs (Levels
of Development)

Since the informational issue of a BIM model determines not only the specific
content requirement, but also its organizational structure, it is clear the importance
of a standardization process regarding content and organization requirements.
Answering this standardization need, the American Institute of Architects
(AIA) has developed the Building Information Modeling Protocol Exhibit, a doc-
ument template defining the informational, organizational and legal structure of a
BIM process. It identifies protocols, expected levels of development (LoDs) of each
model element according to the different lifecycle phases and specific
responsibilities/authorized uses of the BIM model(s).

4
The Construction Operations Building information exchange (COBie) was devised by the United
States Army Corps of Engineers in 2007 as a data standard able to store and deliver building
information in a usable format for everyone throughout all the PLPs. COBie is being widely
promoted as a highly effective data schema enabling integration between BIM platforms and
CAFM systems. In fact, this schema allows the team to document their knowledge about a
building asset in both its spatial and physical aspects.
5
The Facilities Information System Archibus has recently developed a plug-in in collaboration
with the software house Autodesk to make possible bidirectional data exchange with the BIM
software Revit.
158 6 Building Information Modeling …

As well explained in the AIA definition [13], the concept of LoD, which is the
acronym of Level of Development, describes “the level of completeness to which a
Model Element is developed”.
This term is generally used to describe geometric and non-geometric information
provided by a BIM model element. Moreover, the LoD does not provide only the
content requirement required to a model element but it also describes its relative
space and time frame. In fact, it specifies what information, in which lifecycle stage
and from who among all the stakeholders involved in the construction process has
to be provided.
LoDs increase more and more along the stages of the construction process. From
the first activities of the design phase, such as conceptualization, programming and
cost planning to the last ones regarding the operations phase (i.e. asset management
and facility maintenance) data levels of detail change a lot.
Therefore, considering that information requirement and level of detail charac-
terizing a BIM process may considerably vary, a standardized BIM environment
has to be defined as proposed by the AIA classification [13]:

• “LOD 100. It is the overall building massing indicative of area, height,

volume, location, and orientation.
The authorized uses of the model are:
– analysis based on volume, area and orientation by application of gener-
alized performance criteria assigned to the model elements;
– cost estimating based on current area, volume or similar conceptual esti-
mating techniques (i.e. square feet of floor area, condominium unit, etc.);
– schedule for project phasing and overall duration.
• LOD 200. Model elements are modeled as generalized systems or
assemblies with approximate quantities, size, shape, location and orien-
tation. Non-geometric information may also be attached to model
elements.
The authorized uses of the model are:
– analysis for performance of selected systems by application of generalized
performance criteria assigned to the model elements;
– cost estimating based on the approximate data provided and conceptual
estimating techniques (i.e. volume and quantity of elements or type of
system selected);
– schedule to show ordered, time-scaled appearance of major elements and
systems.
• LOD 300. Model elements are modeled as specific assemblies that are
accurate in terms of quantity, size, shape, location and orientation.
Non-geometric information may also be attached to model elements.
6.4 Standardized Content and Organization … 159

The authorized uses of the model are:

– construction for the generation of traditional construction documents and
shop drawings;
– analysis for performance of selected systems by application of generalized
performance criteria assigned to the model elements;
– cost estimating based on the specific data provided and conceptual esti-
mating techniques;
– schedule to show ordered, time-scaled appearance of detailed elements
and systems.
• LOD 400. Model elements are modeled as specific assemblies that are
accurate in terms of quantity, size, shape, location and orientation with
complete fabrication, assembly and detailing information. Non-geometric
information may also be attached to model elements.
The authorized uses of the model are:
– construction model elements are virtual representations of the proposed
element and are suitable for construction;
– analysis for performance of approved selected systems based on specific
model elements;
– cost estimating based on the actual cost of specific elements at buyout;
– schedule to show ordered, time-scaled appearance of detailed specific
elements and systems including construction means and methods.
• LOD 500. It represents the level of development in which the model can
be used for supporting FM activities. Building components/systems are
modeled as constructed assemblies actual and accurate in terms of size,
shape, location, quantity and orientation. Non-geometric information may
also be attached (i.e. installation data, warranty description, Reference
Service Life, etc.) to model elements.
The authorized uses of the model are:
– general usage for maintaining, altering and adding to the project.”

In conclusion, LoDs define content and process requirements at five progressive

levels of completeness. “Each subsequent LoD builds on the previous level and
includes all the characteristics of previous levels” [13].
Therefore, in a BIM-based process, the Level of Development has to be estab-
lished for each model element, as well as the author responsible for modeling that
particular building element according to the identified LoD. This informational and
organizational structure has to be agreed and defined by all the actors involved in
the BIM process by filling out the Model Element Table (Table 6.3).
160 6 Building Information Modeling …

Table 6.3 Example of a model element table to be filled-out by all the stakeholders involved in a
BIM process [13]
Model elements utilizing CSI LOD MEA LOD MEA LOD MEA
UniformatTM
A substructure
A1010 standard foundations
A1020 special foundations
A1030 slab on grade
A2010 basement excavation
A2020 basement walls
Model Element Table: Identify (1) the LOD required for each Model Element at the end of each
phase, and (2) the Model Element Author (MEA) responsible for developing the Model Element to
the LOD identified

6.5 Information Requirements for the Building

Operational Phase: the COBie Standard

As it has already been underlined in the previous paragraph, LoDs codify the
informational and organizational structure to be used in a BIM environment along a
construction process (from the first preliminary design stage to the building
use-phase). Nevertheless, the five progressive levels of development defined by the
AIA do not declare what non-geometric information have to be included in the
model elements. The AIA just declares that “non-geometric information may also
be attached to model elements”, but it does not specify what kind of information is
needed. Then, it leaves open the possibility of defining the so called
“non-geometric” information according to the different focus/output according
which the BIM model has been developed.
The COBie (Construction-Operations Building information exchange) data
standard proceeds in this direction by defining a specific information schema
focused on the FM information needs.
COBie is a data standard which has been developed by iden-tifying and codi-
fying all the information which are necessary to the use phase of a building (i.e.
Installation Data, Warranty Description, Reference Service Life, etc.). In fact data
collection necessary to FM activities is most of the time a costly and
time-consuming procedure, since the use-phase of a building needs all the infor-
mation which has been elaborated in the previous stages of the construction pro-
cess. Moreover, in the AEC/FM sector the information exchange has traditionally
been done on paper and then the percentage of information loss, once the building
is completed, is very high.
For all these reasons, COBie was devised by the United States Army Corps of
Engineers in 2007 as a data standard able to store and deliver building information
in a usable format for everyone throughout all the PLPs.
6.5 Information Requirements for the Building … 161

COBie is being widely promoted6 as a highly effective data schema enabling

integration between BIM platforms and CAFM systems. In fact, its schema allows
the team to document their knowledge about a building asset in both its spatial and
physical aspects. Spatially, it can document the spaces and their grouping into
floors/sectors and other zones. Physically it documents the components and their
grouping into product types and other systems.
One of the primary benefits of COBie is that it enables a structured information
exchange and collection from the design phase to the use phase, by allowing data to
be gradually added during the whole construction process. At the end, the com-
pleted spreadsheet is available to be delivered to the facility manager.
Therefore, by using COBie as a data schema in a BIM environment, it is possible
to get a unique, coherent and complete database in which all the information which
is necessary to the FM activities is stored and can be anytime exchanged with other
stakeholders (i.e. engineers, architects, etc.).
The COBie information can be either be kept as delivered, or held in ordinary databases, or
it can be loaded into existing Facility Management and Operations applications, either
automatically or using simple copy-and-pasting. The owner should be explicit about the
purposes for which the information is required and about the timing and content of any
interim deliveries [14].

The COBie schema is structured according to five progressive delivery phases,

the so called Data Drops (Fig. 6.4) [14].

• “DATA DROP 1: the model describes requirements and constraints (i.e.

required functionality and environmental conditions for the space,
required performances for finishes, etc.).
The rationale for the data drop is to approve the “Outline Business Case”
by checking if the emergent design and specifications are consistent with the
client brief in terms of function, cost and carbon. It will be made up as a
massing model indicating space allocation and overall site location;
• DATA DROP 2: the model represents the outline solution (i.e. functionality
of the space, environmental conditions of the space, actual finishes, list of
furniture and equipment for each room) and it allows to produce schedules
(i.e. doors, windows, furniture, etc.) to inform the cost model.
The rationale for the data drop is to select the “Main Contractor” and so
checking first if the interpreted design and specifications are consistent with
the client brief in terms of function, cost and carbon and then if the potential
suppliers can demonstrate capability and integrity through the competitive
process and be selected to deliver the asset.

6
COBie has been adopted by the UK Government as the official data format enabling information
exchange between different LC stages. It is the information base for the United Kingdom’s
Building Information Modeling (BIM) implementation.
162 6 Building Information Modeling …

COBie delivery
Tables Information delivered
phases

Facility Project requirements and constraints:

DATA DROP 1 - functional
Floor
Requirements
Zone - environmental
and Constraints
Space Localization (floor, zone, space)

Composition (layers and components)

Type Dimension properties (height, width,
Component lenght)
DATA DROP 2
Outline Solution System Visual properties (colour, shape, size,
Connection finish)
Coordinate Physical and chemical properties
(material, components)

Updated information from Data Drop 2

DATA DROP 3
Construction Type Specific attributes according to the
Attribute element (i.e. for a door: FireRating,
Information
AcoustingRating, SecurityRating, etc.)

Maintenance job
DATA DROP 4
Job (description, status, installation date,
Operations and
Resource frequency, expected life, resource names)
Maintenance
Information Spare Resource (category, description)
Spare (suppliers, element, description)

DATA DROP 5 Post occupancy validation information

post occupancy Job
For example it provides feedback information
Resource
validation from the BMS (Building Management
Spare
information System) and estates management team.

Fig. 6.4 Informational structure of the COBie data drops [14]

• DATA DROP 3: the model represents construction information and it

represents a fully coordinated technical solution. Therefore, fully coor-
dinated technical drawings can be generated for construction, as well as
various schedules (i.e. doors, windows, furniture, etc.) for orders.
The rationale for the data drop is to approve the “Agreed Maximum Price”
by checking if the developed design and specifications are consistent with the
client brief in terms of function, cost and carbon performance.
• DATA DROP 4: the model represents operations and maintenance
information. Operational and detailed functional information supplied by
the product manufacturers are being collected. Therefore, the model
represents the building as built and it contains all the information
regarding systems and equipments as actually installed and provided by
the various contractors to maintain them. Information necessary to FM
activities can then be extracted from the model.
The rationale for the data drop is to take position of the “Operations and
Management” Information.
6.5 Information Requirements for the Building … 163

• DATA DROP 5: the model represents post occupancy validation infor-

mation and ongoing O&M, and thus the building in use. For example it
provides feedback information from the BMS (Building Management
System) and estates management team.”

Therefore, COBie works as an informational spreadsheet, organized in tables,7 to

be gradually filled out along the construction process according to the five pro-
gressive data drops. Different tables, with diverse content requirements, are asso-
ciated to each data drop. These tables are classified into three categories:
– design. The specific tables of this category are: facility, floor, space, zones, type,
component, systems;
– build. The tables concerning the building category are: job, resource, spare;
– common. The tables which are included in this category are: instruction, con-
tacts, documents, issues, coordinates, attributes, connections.
The tables which include the information necessary to the FM activities, and thus
to be completed in the Data Drop 4, are named “Job”, “Resource”, “Spare”.

6.6 Information Management for the Building

Operational Phase: PAS 1192-3:2014

Given the importance of an information management process referring to the building

use phase, the BSI (British Standards Institution) has published a document which is
named BSI PAS 1192-3:2014, “Specification for information Management for the
operational phase of assets using building information modeling”.
By focusing on a BIM implementation focused on the FM sector, this specifi-
cation aims at underlining the need for an Information Management Process (IMP),
and thus for an Asset Information Model (AIM), as a unique and coherent data store
concerning building assets (Fig. 6.5).
According to this BSI specification, the AIM should include the following
information:
– data and geometry describing the assets and the spaces/items associated with
them;
– performance data;

7
COBie Tables: Instruction, Contact, Facility, Floor, Space, Zone, Type, Component, System,
Assembly, Connection, Spare, Resource, Job, Impact, Document, Attribute, Coordinate, Issue,
Picklists.
164 6 Building Information Modeling …

Asset Management Policv/ Strategy

Other
BS ISO 55000 organizational
policies,
strategies and
plans
Asset Management Plan

Organizational Information Requirements(OIR)

Project
Asset Information Requiremets (AIR)

Information
Models
(PIMs)
PAS 1192-2
Asset
Linked
And Information
Enterprise
Model
systems
Asset (AIM)
Information
(external
contracts
In-house
works

Fig. 6.5 The information management process as proposed by the BSI PAS 1192-3:2014

– supporting information (i.e. specifications, operation and maintenance manuals,

health and safety information etc.).
Most of these information come from previous lifecycle phases (i.e.
capital/delivery phase of the construction projects). Therefore, in order to manage
building assets at optimal whole life cost, the relationship between
design/construction phases and operation and maintenance phase is really important.
Data transfer processes between lifecycle stages are necessary to:
– create a unique, complete and rich AIM able to exchange information with a
Project Information Model (PIM);
– revise the Asset Information Model each time the assets are modified.
The AIM has to be first enriched with data coming from the PIM, but then it has
to be continuously updated during the whole operational lifecycle of the assets. It
6.6 Information Management for the Building … 165

should include not only handover from design and construction phases, but also
daily O&M activities.
The Asset Information Model in fact has to work as a data repository, but also as
a means of accessing and receiving information. In a first phase, it should collect
data from all the other parties involved throughout the project stages. Then, during
the building use phase, the organization is responsible of the continuous update of
the AIM which can be managed in two different ways:
– totally within the data model (all the information concerning building assets are
included in the BIM objects);
– accessed via links and cross-references to existing enterprise information sys-
tems.8 Information exchange between existing enterprise systems and the AIM
has to be defined by the organization according to their information require-
ments and relationship management systems with the other stakeholders
involved in the FM activities. For example, it has to be clearly defined what kind
of information is available to external contractors or in-house working teams as
useful for their contracts or works.
Therefore, Asset Information Requirement (AIR) shall define the structure,
process and content of information to be contained in, exchanged with or linked to
the Asset Information Model according to the Organization Information
Requirement (OIR).
Moreover, the informational structure concerning each building asset has to be
defined according to the activities it supports and it has to be useful for its main-
tenance and management. Then, the type of information required at each infor-
mation exchange will be different depending on the nature and practices of the
organization but the method shall be unique and coherent to avoid information loss
and data asymmetry. For example, COBie is the schema for information exchange
to be used in the UK Government mandated projects.
Focusing on the content requirement, the AIM shall generally contain:
– “information concerning the original brief, specification, design intent and
analysis relating to the original installation of the asset and any subsequent
changes;
– 3D object-based model(s) of the environment and location of the asset;
– information, or links to information, concerning the ownership of the asset and
any rights or covenants associated with the asset;
– information, or links to information, and data obtained from the maintenance,
survey or other work carried out on the asset during its lifetime” [17].
Going into detail, the informational structure of an asset shall specifically
include:

8
Archibus has recently developed a plug-in in collaboration with Autodesk to make possible
bidirectional information exchange with the BIM software Revit.
166 6 Building Information Modeling …

– legal information (i.e. ownership, and then contractual information, property

boundaries in case of an asset is networked and/or interfaced with an another
one by making a unique system, work instructions, legal obligations such as
health and safety file information, etc.);
– commercial information (i.e. asset description and function, vendor data, KPIs,
condition and performance targets/standards, spares description/quantity/
location, etc.);
– financial information (i.e. original purchase/leasing cost, current replacement
cost, etc.);
– technical information (i.e. design parameters, asset dependencies and interde-
pendencies, commissioning dates and data, performance characteristics, etc.);
– managerial information (i.e. identification number, asset location, spatial data as
room size/pavement area, warranties description and duration, work schedules
and details of the tasks to be carried out, list of the maintenance activities
already performed, any hazardous content/waste, asset end of life, etc.).

6.7 BIM-Objects Information Requirements and Data

Standards

Given the importance of defining the information requirement of a data model,

many research groups are working on this topic. In fact, standardizing the
knowledge and process management in a BIM environment guarantees to overcome
information loss and data asymmetry determining negative effects in terms of cost
and time efficiency, above all on the FM sector.
By taking a step forward LoDs, which define progressive levels of development
without specifying the so called “non-geometric” information to be associated to
model elements, research groups are now focusing also on the specific content
requirement to be included in BIM objects.
Recently they have developed some data standards aiming at identifying which
information has to be included in BIM objects in order to ensure an Information
Lifecycle Management. In particular:
• the BSI PAS 1192-3:2014 defines the information management process
(Fig. 6.5) for the building operational phase of assets. It specifies relations and
information flows between stakeholders, as well as the content requirement of
BIM objects. It declares that an Asset Information Model shall include:
– legal information;
– commercial information;
– financial information;
– technical information;
– managerial information concerning building assets.
6.7 BIM-Objects Information Requirements … 167

Fig. 6.6 Parameters included in a door downloaded from the NBS BIM Library. Focus on
parameters useful for FM activities

• the NBS BIM Object Standard9 has standardized the dataset to be included in
BIM objects (Fig. 6.6) in order to support the development of a shared use of
individually authored models in a CDE. It declares that a model element shall be
characterized by:
– general requirements;
– information requirements;
– geometry requirements;
– functional requirements;
– metadata requirements.
• the Specifiers’ Properties information exchange (SPie) project aims at defining
the minimum standard set of information (Table 6.4) to be included in a BIM
object in order to create a set of product templates to be first completed by
manufacturers and then used by all the actors of the construction process. It
includes all the COBie parameters.
• the Product Data Templates (PDTs) (Fig. 6.7), being elaborated by the
Chartered Institution of Building Service Engineers (CIBSE), are standardized
datasets, following a master template, aiming at identifying all the information
required by each party involved in the construction process. They provide data
about the following categories:

9
The NBS BIM Object Standard has been assumed by the NBS BIM Library as the official data
standard according which all the BIM objects downloadable from the library are implemented.
168 6 Building Information Modeling …

Table 6.4 Some parameters useful to FM activities extracted from the SPie datasheet template of
a generic door [26]
Door style Door_DOOR_Flush Flush wood doors
Wood Doors_US template
Manufacturer n/a not defined The organization that manufactured and/or
assembled the item
Model label Not defined The model number and/or unit designator assigned
by the manufacturer of the manufactured item
Asset Fixed Identifies the predefined types of asset from which
accounting the type required may be set
type
Warranty n/a The name of the warranty
name
Warranty n/a Description of the warranty
description
Warranty n/a Organization acting as guarantor of parts warranty
guarantor
parts
Warranty n/a Duration of parts warranty (years)
duration
parts
Warranty n/a Organization acting as guarantor of labor warranty
guarantor
labor
Warranty n/a Duration of labor warranty (years)
duration
labor

– manufacture;
– construction;
– geometry;
– sustainability;
– operations and maintenance.
• the INNOVance database, aiming at creating an Italian BIM database in which
building objects and construction products, besides being 3D modeled, will also
include a set of standardized parameters useful for the whole construction ser-
vice life. The standard datasheet according to each building elements will be
described provides information about:
– general parameters such as shape, color, geometry, etc.;
– composition;
– performance;
– economic aspects;
– operational activities.
6.7 BIM-Objects Information Requirements … 169

Fig. 6.7 Product Data Template (PDT). Focus on the operations and maintenance parameters [23]

Since the large number of research groups working on data standards, it is clear
the growing need of the construction sector to define BIM-Objects information
requirements.
For example, if we consider the Construction Strategy developed by the UK
Government [15], it becomes clearer the growing need for standardizing BIM
objects information contents. In fact, in the BIM Maturity Level 2,10 construction

10
The UK Government has defined a “Construction Strategy” asking for the use of Building
Information Modeling with a Maturity BIM Level 2 for public sector projects by 2016. The UK
Government has recognized that the process of moving the construction industry to a full col-
laborative environment will be progressive, with distinct and recognizable milestones being
defined within that process, in the form of three levels. Collaboration at BIM Level 2 is file-based
as opposed to paper-based (BIM Level 0) or through integrated web services (Level 3).
170 6 Building Information Modeling …

products and building elements are not just described by geometric information, but
also by a series of metadata included in the model elements.
Given the mandatory nature of this strategy, a lot of actors of the construction
process are willing to start working according to BIM Level 2. The problem is that
few manufacturers have already modeled their products as intelligent objects
containing also non-geometric information. In fact, there is still confusion about the
BIM-Objects information requirements. A main question is then arising: “What
data are needed in product models to satisfy the public sector client and other
players using Level 2 BIM?” and, above all, “What information shall be included in
BIM objects to support FM activities?”
Standardizing datasets in order to handle an information management process
focusing also on the building use phase is useful not only to define what infor-
mation must be included in BIM-Objects to support FM activities, but also to
enable the development of interoperable overlays between BIM software and
information systems. In fact, as the BSI PAS 1192-3:2014 underlines, an
Information Lifecycle Management can be managed in two different ways: totally
within the BIM model (all the information useful for FM activities is included in
BIM objects) or accessed through interoperable overlays between BIM software
and information systems (i.e. between Revit and Archibus) (Chap. 7). Therefore,
many actors involved in the FM industry have begun to investigate the possibility to
use BIM as a lifecycle and interdisciplinary data-store from which extract useful
information for Facilities Information Systems and then support operation and
maintenance activities in a BIM environment.

6.7.1 NBS BIM Object Standard

The NBS BIM Object Standard, which has been set by the NBS (National Building
Specification),11 is an industry standard aiming at meeting the need of information
standardization coming from the AEC/FM sector [25].
In fact by standardizing the information included in model elements, it is pos-
sible to develop an object-based approach where the BIM methodology really
works as a lifecycle data store. Standardizing property sets to be associated to BIM
objects is one of the main goals to be achieved in order to support the development
of a shared use of individually authored models in a Common Data Environment.12
A BIM object in fact is generally able to provide:

11
The National Building Specification is part of RIBA Enterprises Ltd, which is wholly owned by
the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). It is committed to define specification products
and information solutions which cover building construction, engineering services and landscape
design.
12
According to the PAS 1192-2:2013, a common data environment is a single source of infor-
mation for any given project used to collect, manage and disseminate all relevant approved project
documents for multi-disciplinary teams in a managed process.
6.7 BIM-Objects Information Requirements … 171

– visualization data giving the object a recognizable appearance;

– model geometry representing the physical characteristics of the construction
products/building elements;
– information content, to be defined according to the different lifecycle stages and
outputs of the BIM model. For example, as already underlined, the information
requirement of a data model developed in the construction phase to support FM
activities will surely have a different information content in comparison to a
model used for a structural analysis developed in a preliminary design phase;
– behavioral data such as detection, maintenance and clearance zones.
Considering the huge potentiality of BIM objects, it is clear the importance to
develop a standardized approach for BIM objects, as creating digital libraries (i.e.
the National BIM Library) where these digital building elements can be down-
loaded and then used by all the actors of the construction process according to a
data quality standard.
The NBS National BIM Library is working towards achieving this goal. In fact
each object which can be downloaded from the BIM library has been developed
according to the NBS BIM Object Standard (Fig. 6.6). This is a standardized
property set that:
– is aligned with the COBie data schema;
– adopts a consistent approach regarding classification of building elements;
– applies a standard naming convention;
– standardizes levels of detail, content requirements and tridimensional presen-
tation of BIM objects.
Moreover, all the BIM objects which have been developed according to this
standard, and thus downloadable from the NBS National BIM Library, are created
in the Industry Foundation Class (IFC) format. In this way, it is ensured the con-
sistent and straightforward use of these intelligent objects in the various BIM
platforms, as well as achieving stakeholders’ collaboration and interoperability of
tools.
Focusing on the specific property set defined by the NBS BIM Object Standard,
it can be seen the following classification according to all the parameters have been
grouped:
• general requirements, such as the appropriate ‘IfcTypeObject’ and ‘IFC pre-
defined type’ from the BuildingSMART International IFC schema13;
• information requirements which includes the whole COBie property set and the
so called “NBS_General” properties (i.e. Manufacturer URL, Product
Information, etc.);

13
The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) schema, which has been developed by the International
Alliance for Interoperability (IAI), now BuildingSMART International, represents a data model
structure for sharing construction and facility management data across various applications (tools
and software) used in the building domain. It is a neutral and open specification that is not
controlled by a singular vendor or group of vendors [28].
172 6 Building Information Modeling …

• geometry requirements which are further classified into general data, shape data,
symbolic data, space data, surface and material data.
• functional requirements describing behavioral characteristics, constraints and
connectivity;
• metadata requirements which include naming convention for files, objects,
properties, materials, values and images.

Focusing on the information which may be useful for the building use-phase,
besides the geometric information and the COBie parameters (i.e. NominalWidth,
NominalLength, WarrantyGuarantorParts, WarrantyDescription, etc.) (Fig. 6.6),
also the data within the ‘geometry requirements’ category concerning the space
description are particularly relevant for the FM activities. In particular:
– minimum operation space;
– access space;
– placement and transportation space;
– installation space;
– detection zone space.
The functional requirements describing constraints and connectivity of the
building assets may be useful for the FM activities in order to understand
physical configurations/interrelations between building elements.

6.7.2 SPie: Specifiers’ Properties Information Exchange

As the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), also the buildingSMART

alliance is working at defining the minimum standard set of information to be
included in a BIM object by developing the Specifiers’ Properties information
exchange (SPie) project [26].
The SPie project has been undertaken in 2007 by the members of the
buildingSMART alliance in collaboration with the Specifications Consultants in
Independent Practice (SCIP) and the help of the Construction Specifications
Institute (CSI), some software companies, as well as public and private sector
representatives. The objective of the SPie project is to create a set of product
templates to export products data into an open-standard format to be first completed
by manufacturers and then used by all the actors of the construction process (i.e.
designers, builders, operators, owners, etc.).
The key point about Building Information Modeling, in fact, is that a model
should provide not only the geometry of a building element, but also a set of
non-geometrical information.
6.7 BIM-Objects Information Requirements … 173

There are many different attributes concerning building assets that have to be
captured during the design and construction phases and then maintained during the
use phase. Moreover, different types of building elements/components are charac-
terized by different information requirements. “For example, it may not be mean-
ingful to specify the color of a pump, however, the color may be the most important
characteristic of an assembly such as a kitchen wall. Other properties pertain to both
products and assemblies. For example a fire rated wall will itself be composed of
products such as drywall and doors that have their own fire rating as well” [26].
In this sense, product manufacturers and replacement parts suppliers play a key
role in providing specific information about building assets. This is the main reason
why the buildingSMART alliance is developing this set of product templates to be
completed with products information directly by manufacturers.

Focusing on the parameters defined by these product data templates which

can be useful for the FM activities, it is possible to underline all the COBie
parameters, since these standardized datasheets are totally aligned with the
COBie data schema. Then, in this data standard there can be found useful
parameters (Table 6.4) such as:
– Manufacturer;
– Model Label;
– Warranty Name;
– Warranty Description, etc.

6.7.3 PDTs: Product Data Template(s)

Aiming at answering the same question, which is the minimum set of information to
be included in a model element to support an ILM in a BIM environment, the
CIBSE14 is working on a project developing the so called Product Data Templates
(PDTs) [23].
PDTs are standardized dataset, following a master template, aiming at identi-
fying all the information required by every party involved in the construction
process (Fig. 6.7). They are written in Excel format and then usable in all BIM
platforms.

14
The Chartered Institution of Building Service Engineers is an International professional engi-
neering association based in London representing building services engineers. It is a full member
of the Construction Industry Council (CIC) and it is consulted by the government on matters
concerning construction, engineering and sustainability.
174 6 Building Information Modeling …

A completed PDT15 become a PDS (Product Data Sheet)16 which is a sort of

product-specific description answering the information needs of the construction
process. Moreover, the standard template according to all the PDSs have been
developed enables end-users to automatically extract data according to the diverse
needs of the different lifecycle stages.
The informational structure of a PDS allows much of an output data schema (i.e.
COBie) to be automatically populated. Nevertheless, it has to be said that PDTs
provide only general product information. Therefore, they do not include specific
parameters such as replacement cost, reference service life, etc. As the CIBSE itself
declares on its website “Obtaining such data remains a normal project process of
enquiry and quotation. Application-specific fields of ‘output’ data-formats are not
answered by the PDS” [23].
PDTs just provide a qualitative/quantitative description of the following three
information categories (Fig. 6.7):
• specification, which includes manufacturer data, construction data, dimensional
data, performance data, electrical data, controls;
• sustainability;
• operations and maintenance.

Focusing on the FM informational needs, and then on the “Operations and

maintenance” category, the PDTs provide the following parameters (Fig. 6.7):
– URL to O&M manual;
– classification of the O&M activities according to their relative frequency
(daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, 6 monthly, annually, bespoke
timeframe);
– classification by hours of the maintenance required (0–300, 301–600,
601–1000, 1001–2000, 2001–4000, 4001–8000, 8001–12,000 h);
– expected life;
– warranty ID.

6.7.4 INNOVance: the Italian BIM Database

The INNOVance project [24] has been funded by the Italian Ministry of Economic
Development and developed by a consortium made of universities (Milan, Turin,
Naples and other national research centers), builders’ associations (Consorzio

15
The filling out of the PDTs from products manufacturers is the final goal strongly promoted by
the CIBSE.
16
The manufacturer owns the PDS and is free to use it on its website and in any library it chooses.
The manufacturer remains responsible for the accuracy and completeness of its data on the PDS.
6.7 BIM-Objects Information Requirements … 175

Ancenergia), trade associations, national energy associations (ENEA) and IT

companies (SAP, Autodesk) [16].
The research project aims at creating an Italian BIM database, similar to the
English NBS BIM Library. Building objects and construction products available on
this BIM platform, besides being 3D modeled, will also include a set of stan-
dardized parameters useful for the whole construction service life. In this way, the
efficiency, in terms of costs and time, in using and maintaining objects information
will be consistently improved throughout the entire lifecycle by linking continually
updated, extensible life-cycle objects data to independent software using Building
Information Models.
The fundamental steps which have been made to develop this BIM database can
be summed up as it follows:
– standardizing a naming system for each entity (product and/or process) part of
the construction process;
– defining the informational structure and content associated to each named entity;
– pairing each entity in the database with a BIM object.
Considering the heterogeneity of the Italian construction sector, the codification
process has been a necessary step to overcome difficulties and errors in data
exchange. Therefore, one of the main goal of the INNOVance project has been both
to codify and standardize a naming system.
After having univocally codified the names of construction products, building
objects, etc., the INNOVance team has developed a datasheet with a set of stan-
dardized parameters for each one of these entities.
All these datasheets will be open and free since they will be uploaded on the
INNOVance web-platform. Moreover, the project aims also at developing specific
plug-ins for existing BIM software, so that it will be possible to upload these
data-enriched BIM objects developed by INNOVance directly in the BIM software.
It is also planned to guarantee the interoperability of this BIM database with the IFC
standard, due to the collaboration with Building Smart Italy [16].
Going into detail about the parameters which has been selected by the
INNOVance project as useful for the whole construction process, and then included
in the developed datasheets, they have been classified into the four following
categories:
• descriptive information which includes: geometry, shape and visual and/or
construction appearance (i.e. finish, geometry, color, etc.);
• composition data describing elements/substances from which is made of the
analyzed entity;
• performance characteristics including mechanical resistance, fire reaction,
health and safety, acoustic and thermal performance (i.e. U-values), environ-
mental impact data (i.e. GWP, EP, AP, etc.);
• economic and operational parameters such as cost, construction technology,
etc.
176 6 Building Information Modeling …

Focusing on the informational needs of the FM activities, the most useful

parameters included in these datasheets are those ones included in the cate-
gory “economic and operational parameters”. For example, it is possible to
extract information about the scheduled maintenance activities for the specific
building object/construction product analyzed. In particular, the datasheet
includes: description of the maintenance activity, frequency, indication about
the possibility for the user to directly carry out by himself the maintenance
activity, the estimated cost and the ID.

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Standards and Laws

17. British Standards Institution (BSI) PAS 1192-3:2014, “Specification for Information
management for the operational phase of assets using building information modelling”,
March 2014
18. British Standards Institution (BSI) PAS 1192-2, “Specification for information management
for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects using Building Information Modelling”,
February 2013
19. EU Parliament and the Council, Regulation (EU) No 305/2011 of the European Parliament
and of the Council of 9 March 2011 laying down harmonised conditions for the marketing of
construction products and repealing Council Directive 89/106/EEC
20. EU Parliament and the Council, Directive (EU) No 24/2014 of the European Parliament and of
the Council of 26 February 2014 European Union Public Procurement Directive, EUPPD and
Repealing Directive 2004/18/EC
21. National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), “National Building Information Modeling
Standard™ Version 1—Part 1: Overview, Principles, and Methodologies”, December 2007

Websites

22. http://www.bimtaskgroup.org/cobie-uk-2012/
23. http://www.cibse.org/knowledge/bim-building-information-modelling/product-data-templates
24. http://www.innovance.it/it/
25. http://www.nationalbimlibrary.com/nbs-bim-object-standard/standardising-bim-objects
26. http://www.nibs.org/?page=bsa_spie
27. http://www.bimthinkspace.com/2008/11/effects-of-bim-on-project-lifecycle-phases.html
28. http://www.buildingsmart-tech.org/specifications/ifc-overview
Chapter 7
Methodological Experimentation:
Proposal of a Datasheet Template for FM
Activities in the BIM Environment

Abstract The aim of this chapter is to investigate a possible implementation of the

existing BIM-Objects Information Requirements and data standards in relation to
information need of FM processes. In order to address this topic, it is presented the
output of a methodological experimentation carried out at Politecnico di Milano
with the aim of defining a datasheet template enabling information exchange to
support FM activities in a BIM environment. The proposed data schema together
with its protocol compilation shall support FM activities by defining a dataset to be
included in model elements as necessary to multiple activities which characterizes
facility management phase (i.e. maintenance scheduling, space management, spare
parts management, etc.). Ongoing research is showing some areas of possible
integration of the protocol/data format with FM activities, such as the development
of a maintenance manual starting from the design and construction information as
provided by the BIM model. The developed datasheet template is also allowing
some experimentation concerning the implementation of existing interoperable
overlays between BIM software and Facilities Information Systems.

Keywords BIM-Objects information requirements Data standards
FM-based



implementation Interoperability Facilities information systems

7.1 Need for an Implementation of Existing Data

Standards in Relation to Information Needs
of FM Processes

Building Operations and Maintenance (O&M) often represent one of the most
expensive building-related activities, since the lack of stakeholders’ communication
and data interoperability throughout the whole construction process.

This chapter is authored by Marcella Bonanomi.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 179

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0_7
180 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

Fig. 7.1 BIM lifecycle workflow [1]

This means that, in order to overcome ineffective and partial information

exchanges from the design and construction stages to the use phase, building-
related information shall be properly captured, used and stored through the whole
asset’s life cycle by making them standard and interoperable (Fig. 7.1).
Building Information Modeling represents both the tool and the methodology
which can make the AEC/FM stakeholders able to achieve this goal. BIM is able to
manage asset-related information along the building lifecycle by providing both the
physical and functional characteristics of a facility (Chap. 6).
BIM can both enhance efficient and effective O&M planning, monitoring and
control and increase the quality of data, as well as decrease risk and costs. There is
significantly growing evidence linking BIM benefits to FM activities, as demon-
strated by the current research trend focused on defining BIM standards for the
handover of facilities management data (Chap. 6).
Although many research groups, as governments,1 are working on this strategic
topic, facility managers and asset owners are still skeptical about the value of
implementing the BIM methodology into their existing processes and activities [1].
Given these considerations, a research group from Politecnico di Milano is
focusing on the topic of BIM implementation in the field of FM activities [2].

1
The United Kingdom (UK) Government is driving to define BIM standards for the handover of
facilities management data in the form of Construction Operations Building Information Exchange
(COBie) and the Facilities Management (FM) Handover Model View Definition (MVD).
7.1 Need for an Implementation of Existing Data Standards … 181

The main goal of the research project2 is to standardize a datasheet template

referring to operations and maintenance phase to enable information exchange in a
BIM environment. This data schema should define for each building element a
minimum dataset as necessary to multiple activities which characterizes facility
management phase (i.e. maintenance scheduling, space management, spare parts
management, etc.). In particular, research objectives can be described as it follows:
– definition of a data schema together with its compilation protocol (information
taxonomy) for exchanging data related to FM activities in a BIM environment;
– elaboration of a datasheet template for each construction product/building ele-
ment in order to enhance the information lifecycle management of data con-
cerning FM activities;
– validation of the developed datasheet template in a BIM environment.
In order to address these goals, the research activity has faced the following
steps:
– defining the reference scenario by analyzing existing BIM-Objects Information
Requirements and data standards (Chap. 6);
– adopting a building registry and a maintenance plan prototype3 as a primary
source of information to define which are the attributes useful to FM activities
and processes;
– defining which are the informational attributes to be included in the datasets as
useful for FM activities by analyzing the adopted maintenance plan prototype;
– codifying the information previously identified in the maintenance plan proto-
type in datasets compatibly organized with the analyzed BIM-Objects
Information Requirements and data standards;
– selecting and adopting a BIM software;
– defining the information taxonomy by identifying which information included in
the developed datasets can be automatically provided by the BIM software as
element properties (i.e. geometric information) and by existing BIM-Objects
Information Requirements and data standards (i.e. material, manufacturer,
model, product page URL, etc.);
– identifying possible sources (i.e. bill of quantities, abacus building components,
manufacturer documentation, etc.), referring to different phases of the building
process, for each informative attribute of the dataset which is not automatically
provided neither by BIM software nor existing data standards;

2
The research project is an in-depth study inside the PRIN (Progetto di Ricerca di Interesse
Nazionale) research “Built Heritage Information Modelling/Management—BHIMM”.
3
The maintenance plan prototype has been developed within the context of a research project
commissioned by ATE (the technical office in Politecnico di Milano for buildings management,
valorization and development) aiming at developing a model of an information registry, unique for
the entire building process and oriented to the needs of knowledge connected with operations and
maintenance management.
182 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

– transferring and representing the building case study4 in a BIM environment to

test and validate the developed datasheet template.
The definition of this data schema is now allowing experimentations about:
– development of a maintenance manual starting from design and construction
information as provided by BIM model;
– definition of possible datasets to integrate existing BIM-Objects Information
Requirements and data standards;
– definition of possible datasets to implement interoperable overlay between BIM
software and management information system (in particular Archibus) [2].

7.2 Critical Review of the Reference Scenario.

Analysis of Existing Data Standards

The first step of the research project has been analyzing the existing data standards
and information requirements in relation to the informational needs of building use
and maintenance.
Specifically, it has been understood which are the informational attributes
included in existing data standards as useful for FM activities. In this sense, a
critical review has been done, aiming at defining strengths and weaknesses of the
standardized information requirements which are already been developed by many
research groups.
The existing BIM-Objects Information Requirements and data standards
(Chap. 6) which have been taken as the reference scenario for the research project,
and thus critically analyzed, are:
– the COBie schema [4] devised by the United States Army Corps of Engineers as
a data standard able to store and deliver building information in a usable format
for everyone throughout all the PLPs. Now it has been adopted by the UK
Government as the official data format enabling information exchange between
different lifecycle stages through the progressive filling out of the five data drops
(Fig. 6.4);
– the NBS BIM Object Standard [7] which has been developed by the National
Building Specifications (NBS) as the data standard to be included in all the BIM
objects freely available to download from the NBS National BIM Library5
(Fig. 6.6);

4
The building case-study used to validate the developed datasheet template has been assigned by
ATE (the technical office in Politecnico di Milano for buildings management, valorization and
development). It is a students’ residence which is currently under construction in Milan.
5
The NBS National BIM Library is the fastest growing BIM library in the UK. It is an open and
free web platform where it is possible to download a comprehensive collection of BIM objects
ranging from building fabric systems to mechanical and electrical objects.
7.2 Critical Review of the Reference Scenario … 183

– the SPie project [8], still under development by the buildingSMART alliance,
which aims at creating standardized datasets to be first completed by manu-
facturers with the specific products information and then used by all the actors of
the construction process (Table 6.4);
– the Product Data Templates (PDTs) [5] developed by the Chartered Institution
of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) as datasets, following a master tem-
plate, aiming at identifying all the information required by each party involved
in the construction process, and thus providing a qualitative and quantitative
description of building elements (Fig. 6.7);
– the INNOVance project [6] developed by a consortium of universities, builders
and trade associations, as well as IT companies, with the aim of creating an
Italian BIM database from which it will be possible to freely download BIM
objects of construction products and building elements enriched with a set of
standardized parameters.
All these data standards provide some attributes which are useful to support FM
activities and processes (Chap. 6). To briefly recap:
– the COBie schema has been specifically developed to satisfy the information
needs of the building operational phase and thus it includes useful parameters
such as Installation Data, Warranty Description, Reference Service Life;
– the NBS BIM Object Standard, besides including all the COBie parameters, also
provides some useful parameters concerning assets space management which
are: minimum operation space, access space, placement and transportation
space, installation space and detection zone space;
– the SPie project includes all the COBie parameters;
– the PDTs, developed by the CISBE, take into consideration the building
use-phase by defining a specific category of parameters named “Operations and
Maintenance”;
– the INNOVance project includes a specific category of attributes named “eco-
nomic and operational parameters” in the technical datasheets provided for all
the construction products and building elements freely available to download
from the developed BIM database;
In order to understand which parameters have been included in the analyzed data
standards and information requirements as useful or not for FM activities, the
research project has developed a comparing table (Fig. 7.2).
By comparing the informational structure of these data standards with the
content requirement defined by the PAS 1192-3:2014, “Specification for informa-
tion Management for the operational phase of assets using building information
modeling” (Chap. 6), which has been adopted by the research project as the most
recent and complete specification for the Information Lifecycle Management con-
cerning the operational phase of assets, it is clear that each of the analyzed data
standards shows some strengths and weaknesses.
According to this PAS, in fact, the Asset Information Model, and thus the
information requirement adopted as data standard for the BIM-Objects included in
184 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

Fig. 7.2 Comparison table in which existing data standards are analyzed in relation to information
useful for FM activities

the model, shall generally contain a set of specific information concerning building
assets (Chap. 6). In particular:
– legal information (i.e. ownership, and then contractual information, property
boundaries in case of an asset is networked and/or interfaced with an another
one by making a unique system, work instructions, legal obligations such as
health and safety file information, etc.);
– commercial information (i.e. asset description and function, vendor data, KPIs,
condition and performance targets/standards, criteria of non-conformance,
spares description/quantity/location, etc.);
7.2 Critical Review of the Reference Scenario … 185

– financial information (i.e. original purchase/leasing cost, current replacement

cost, etc.);
– technical information (i.e. design parameters, asset dependencies and interde-
pendencies, commissioning dates and data, performance characteristics, etc.);
– managerial information (i.e. identification number, asset location, spatial data as
room size/pavement area, warranties description and duration, work schedules
and details of the tasks to be carried out, list of the maintenance activities
already performed, any hazardous content/waste, asset end of life, etc.).
Considering this informational structure as the most recent and complete spec-
ification for the Information Lifecycle Management, it is clear that the COBie
schema is surely the most complete among all the reviewed data standards, since it
provides parameters according all the categories mentioned above. Nevertheless, it
shows some lacks concerning the “commercial information” category, because it
does not provide any information about condition and duty of assets, key perfor-
mance indicators, condition and performance targets or standards, criteria of
non-conformance. Moreover it does not include any details of historical asset
failures, causes and consequences, nor asset-related spatial data (i.e. minimum
operation space, access space, etc.).
The NBS BIM Object Standard, as well as the SPie project, since they adopt all
the COBie parameters in their informational structures, show the same weaknesses
of the COBie schema. Nevertheless, the NBS BIM Object Standard, on the contrary
to the COBie schema, provides some asset-related spatial data (minimum operation
space, access space, placement and transportation space, installation space, detec-
tion zone space).
As the NBS BIM Object Standard, also the Product Data Template developed
by the CISBE provides asset-related spatial data. Although, this datasheet is
more specific concerning the “minimum operation space” attribute, since in the
“dimensional data” category it describes the access clearance from different point of
views (bottom, top, left, right, front, rear) (Fig. 7.3).
Nevertheless, the PDT, as the technical datasheets developed by the INNOVance
project, shows again some weaknesses about the “commercial information” of
assets. As for the COBie schema, there is no information about condition and duty of
assets, key performance indicators, condition and performance targets or standards,
criteria of non-conformance, as well as any data about historical asset failures.

7.3 Adoption of a Maintenance Plan Prototype

as an Information Source for Developing a FM-Based
Datasheet Template

The research project has adopted a maintenance plan prototype to understand the
information which is useful to FM activities and processes, after having critically
reviewed the existing BIM-Objects Information Requirements and data standards
186 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

Fig. 7.3 PDT Product Data Template. Focus on the dimensional parameters (CIBSE—Chartered
Institution of Building Service Engineers)

by comparing their informational structure with the content requirement defined by

the PAS 1192-3:2014.
In this way it has been possible to understand the informational needs of a
maintenance manual (Fig. 7.4). In particular, the parameters included in the general
schema of a maintenance manual are:
– element code;
– intervention;
– activity;
– cost;
– activity code;
– description;
– frequency;
– operator;
– duration;
7.3 Adoption of a Maintenance Plan Prototype … 187

Fig. 7.4 Example of a maintenance manual [2]

– failures code;
– failure.

Given this informational schema, it is clear that all the existing data standards
show some lacks about at least one of the parameters necessary to develop a
maintenance manual. For example, if we suppose to adopt the COBie schema as
data standard to manage information in a BIM environment and then to develop the
maintenance manual starting from the design and construction information as
provided by the BIM model, we will lack data to fill out the “Failures” column of
the maintenance manual (Fig. 7.4). Or again, by considering the technical data-
sheets developed by the INNOVance project as the BIM data format able to handle
the ILM in a common data environment, we will face some difficulties in filling out
the “Operator” and “Duration” columns (Fig. 7.4).
Given these considerations, the research project has developed a datasheet
template (Fig. 7.5) aiming at satisfying the information needs of the FM activities
and processes, focusing in particular on the information needed to develop a
maintenance manual.
The proposed datasheet template has been developed by bringing together
parameters taken from the different BIM-Objects Information Requirements and
data standards which have been taken as the reference scenario for the research
project (Chap. 6). Moreover, to develop the datasheet, it has also been considered
the informational structure proposed by the PAS 1192-3:2014 (Fig. 6.5).
Through the adoption of this datasheet template, it would be possible:
– an integration of the COBie schema focused on the content requirement of a
maintenance plan (Fig. 7.6).
In this way, it would be possible to develop maintenance manuals starting from
the data included in BIM objects. This procedure is not possible yet, since the
188 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

Fig. 7.5 Example of the datasheet template developed by the research project for a generic door.
It is an integration of parameters taken from the COBie schema and the PDT with new ones
identified by the research as useful for FM activities
7.3 Adoption of a Maintenance Plan Prototype … 189

COBie delivery
Tables Information delivered
phases

DATA DROP 1 Facility Project requirements and constraints:

Requirements Floor - functional
and Constraints Zone - environmental
Space Localization (floor, zone, space)

Composition (layers and components)

Type Dimension properties (height, width,
DATA DROP 2 Component lenght)
Outline Solution System Visual properties (colour, shape, size,
Connection finish)
Coordinate Physical and chemical properties
(material, components)

DATA DROP 3 Updated information from Data Drop 2

Construction Type Specific attributes according to the
Information Attribute element (for example , a Door: FireRating,
AcoustingRating, SecurityRating etc.)

Maintenance job
DATA DROP 4 Job (description, status, installation date,
Operations and Resource frequency, expected life, resource names)
Maintenance Spare Resource (category, description)
Information Spare (suppliers, element, description)

DATA DROP 5 Job Post occupancy validation information

post occupancy Resource For example it provides feedback information
validation Spare from the BMS (Building Management
information System) and estates management team.

MAINTENANCE DATASHEET
PLAN TEMPLATE

DATA PROTOCOL
Maintenance Maintenance
Handbook Program

Fig. 7.6 Possible integration of the COBie schema with the developed datasheet template focused
on the content requirement of a maintenance plan

COBie data format does not provide any information about assets breakdown
modalities/decay, nor it has working resources’ coding system to link each
maintenance activity to its worker (correspondence among breakdown modali-
ties—maintenance activity—worker);
– an implementation of current BIM-Objects Information Requirements and data
standards which are adopted by the existing BIM libraries. For example, the
NBS BIM Object Standard [7], which is the data schema adopted by the BIM
library “NBS National BIM Library” (Fig. 6.6) may be implemented with the
190 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

Fig. 7.7 Possible implementation of the NBS BIM-object standard with the developed datasheet
template in order to develop maintenance manuals starting from the datasets included in BIM
objects

parameters defined as useful for FM activities by the developed datasheet

template (Fig. 7.7);
– a simulation of Building Operating conditions at the very early stage of the
building design. In this way, the developed data template may be used by all the
actors of the construction process as a decision support tool concerning the
facility management phase of a building;
– a definition of possible datasets to implement interoperable overlay between
existing BIM software and Facilities Information Systems.
7.4 BIM Software and Information Systems … 191

7.4 BIM Software and Information Systems. Existing

Overlay and Possible Implementation

Nowadays many software companies working in the field of CAFM (Computer

Aided Facility Management) applications and Facilities Information systems are
focusing on developing overlays with BIM software. It has been understood the
potential of a two-way data exchange between BIM applications which capture,
manage and store data throughout the building lifecycle and information systems
supporting FM activities and processes.
In fact, BIM software, as for example Autodesk Revit, are able to manage just
some functions useful for the primary knowledge of a building property, such as
spaces and facilities inventories. BIM applications are not yet able to manage all the
information which are necessary to perform FM activities.
Moreover, as already underlined, existing BIM-Objects Information
Requirements and data standards do not include all the parameters which are useful,
for example, to develop a maintenance manual.
Since the potential of the BIM methodology to manage information throughout
building lifecycle, the Facilities Information System Archibus has developed an
overlay with the BIM software Revit [3] in order to have a two way communication
between the two applications. In the grey box proposed below, it is described how it
works the existing overlay. In particular they are described the procedures to
activate the overlay (“Starting procedures”), number and codify rooms (“Space
Planning and Management”), number and codify assets (“Asset Management”).
In fact, the research project has identified weaknesses and strengths of the
existing overlay after having analyzed its current functioning. In particular:
– it works well to extract spaces and facilities inventories from the BIM model;
– it is not yet able to manage all the other information needed by FM activities and
processes due to the lack of the useful parameters in the BIM environment.
Given these considerations, the research project has first understood how it
works the existing overlay and then tested it in order to individuate possible areas of
implementation.
In fact, as proposed by the BSI PAS 1192-3:2014, an Asset Information Model
(Chap. 6) can be managed in two different ways:
– totally within the BIM model (all the information concerning building assets and
useful for FM activities are included in the BIM objects) (Fig. 7.7);
– accessed via links and cross-references to existing enterprise information
systems.
In the first case, the path to follow is the implementation of existing
BIM-Objects Information Requirements in relation to the FM information needs;
for example, by bringing together the developed datasheet template with the current
data standards. In this way all the necessary information to develop, for example, a
maintenance manual may be directly extracted from the BIM model (Fig. 7.7).
192 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

In the second scenario, the BIM model is used just to extract information about
spaces and facilities inventories and then all the other data are directly managed
within the Information System.
The research project is now working for understanding strengths and weaknesses
of both the scenarios. Therefore, focusing on the second scenario, the first step has
been the analysis and understanding of the existing overlay between Revit and
Archibus (see the grey box below).

The Overlay Between Revit and Archibus

How to activate it, manage spaces and assets
• Starting procedures to activate the overlay
0# Activating the overlay between Revit and Archibus
0.1 start the Archibus Smart Client
0.2 from the Archibus ribbon, select the command “Preferences”
0.3 select “Autodesk Revit” in the field “CAD application” and select “Yes”
in the field “Public Enterprise Graphics on Save”
0.4 start Autodesk Revit
0.5 all of the Archibus commands are now on the Archibus tab of the Revit
Ribbon menu
1# Creating the building registry in Archibus
1.1 select the module “Space Planning and Management”
1.2 select “Space Inventory and Performance”
1.3 select “Background Data”
1.4 select “Define Geographical Locations” (Fig. 7.8)
1.4.1 select the command “Add New” and define:
– Geographic Region
– Country
– Region
– State
– City
– Site
1.5 select “Define Locations”
1.5.1 select the command “Add New” and define:
– Site
– Building
– Floor
2# Linking the Revit model to the Archibus database
2.1 from the Revit Project Browser select the view to be linked to the
Archibus database
2.2 from the Archibus tab select the command “Properties”
7.4 BIM Software and Information Systems … 193

Fig. 7.8 Screenshot describing the procedure to create the building registry in Archibus

Fig. 7.9 Screenshot describing the procedure to link the Revit model to the Archibus database

2.3 in the window “Model—Level Properties” (Fig. 7.9)

2.3.1 fill out the fields “Building” and “Floor” by clicking on the com-
mand “Browse” which recall to the Archibus tables
2.3.2 select the unit of measurement (m)
2.4 repeat the procedure for all the views to be linked to the Archibus
database

• Space planning and management

3# Managing the assets—rooms

3.1 from the Revit Project Browser select the view in which there are the
rooms to be linked to the Archibus database
3.2 from the Revit “Start” tab select the command “Room” and click on each
room to be linked to the Archibus database
194 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

Fig. 7.10 Screenshot representing the procedure to manage “room” assets

3.3 select one of the room and from the “Archibus” tab select the command
“Edit Data”
3.4 in the window “Edit Data” there are automatically associated (Fig. 7.10):
– Building Code
– Floor Code
– Room Code
– Room Area
3.5 fill out the remaining fields by clicking on the “Browse” command which
recall to the Archibus Tables (Fig. 7.10):
– Room Standard
– Division Code
– Department Code
– Room Category
– Room Type
3.6 from the “Archibus” tab select the command “Catalog” and:
3.6.1 select the field “Rooms” from the menu “Asset Type”
3.6.2 from the menu “Select assets by” choose among the options:
– Select Multiple
– Select Multiple by Rectangle
– Current View
– Entire Model
3.7 after having carried out the numbering and export procedures, the filling
out of the fields “Room Standard”, “Division Code”, “Department
Code”, “Room Category” and “Room Type” can be done also with
Archibus;
7.4 BIM Software and Information Systems … 195

Fig. 7.11 Screenshot describing the procedure to manage “furniture” assets

3.8 then, to export in the Revit model all the data filled out in Archibus,
select the command “Synchronization” and then “Read Database Fields”
3.9 in the window “Read Database Field”
3.9.1 select the field “Rooms” from the menu “Asset Type”
3.9.2 from the menu “Select Assets by” choose the options:
– Select Multiple
– Select Multiple by Rectangle
– Current View
– Entire Model

• Asset management
4# Managing the assets—furniture
4.1 from the Revit Project Browser select the view in which there are the
assets to be linked to the Archibus database
4.2 click on each asset to be linked to the Archibus database
4.3 from the “Archibus” tab select the command “Number”
4.4 in the window “Number” it is possible to define:
– Furniture Code
– Furniture Number
– Room Type
4.5 from the “Archibus” tab select the command “Edit Data” and select the
assets to be linked to the Archibus Database (Fig. 7.11):
196 7 Methodological Experimentation: Proposal …

4.5.1 they are automatically provided:

– Furniture Code
– Building Code
– Floor Code
– Room Code
4.6 fill out the remaining fields by clicking on the “Browse” command which
recall to the Archibus Tables (Fig. 7.11):
– Furniture Standard
– Division Code
– Department Code
4.7 from the “Archibus” tab select the command “Catalog” and:
4.7.1 select the field “Tagged Furniture” from the menu “Asset Type”
4.7.2 from the menu “Select assets by” choose among the options:
– Select Multiple
– Select Multiple by Rectangle
– Current View
– Entire Model
4.8 after having carried out the numbering and export procedures, the filling
out of the fields “Furniture Standard”, “Division Code”, “Department
Code” can be done also with Archibus;
4.9 to export in the Revit model the data filled out in Archibus select the
command “Synchronization” from the panel “Utilities” and select from
the menu the field “Read Database Fields”
4.10 in the window “Read Database Field”
4.10.1 select the field “Rooms” from the menu “Asset Type”
4.10.2 from the menu “Select Assets by” choose among the options:
– Select Multiple
– Select Multiple by Rectangle
– Current View
– Entire Model

References

1. Love PED, Matthews J, Simpson I, Hill A, Olatunji OA (2014) A benefits realization

management building information modeling framework for asset owners. Autom Constr 37:1–10
2. Talamo C (2014) Integrated management of information inside maintenance processes. From
the building registry to BIM systems. Techne 8:228–240
Websites 197

Websites

3. http://www.archibus.com/overlay
4. http://www.bimtaskgroup.org/cobie-uk-2012
5. http://www.cibse.org/knowledge/bim-building-information-modelling/product-data-templates
6. http://www.innovance.it/it/
7. http://www.nationalbimlibrary.com/nbs-bim-object-standard/standardising-bim-objects
8. http://www.nibs.org/?page=bsa_spie
Chapter 8
Conclusions

This book proposes a thorough analysis of information management within FM

services. The aim of the book is to highlight some key concepts that should be well
known and applied by the various operators of FM services, both in the problem
setting and problem solving: in other words, both in the investigation activities to be
carried out in a stage preliminary to the setting of the service and the subsequent
drafting of the tender, and in those ones of drafting, negotiation and application of
Facility Management agreements.
Although the influence of a well-organized information management on quality,
efficiency and effectiveness of FM services, in current practice field-operators do
not reveal to be fully aware of the risks associated with poor information.
The topic of information seems to be implicit within the supply of the service; in
technical specifications of FM tenders, orientations and requests regarding infor-
mation management are often extremely general or even absent. Instead, the needs
related to information management depend importantly on the specific context, that
is, at least: characteristics of the real estate; organizational models of the service and
level of integration; client’s goals and organization; users’ expectations. Being
aware of the needs coming from the specific context means to be able to express
requirements about many important subjects, such as: modalities of data collection
and processing, priority in data capture, information traceability, organization of the
knowledge base, characteristics of the system of tools, management of feedback
information, process of control, reporting, and so on.
Furthermore, field operators should keep in mind that nowadays a helpful set of
international standards is available (i.e. guidelines, criteria, framework of tools,
examples, etc.) regarding most of the basic subjects involved in information
management, such as criteria for classification and coding, organization of docu-
ments, profiling of information systems, rules for interoperability, and so on.
Being aware of these issues means for FM operators to acquire criteria, methods
and tools for an enhancement both in the culture and practices, a process improvement
(both at strategic and tactical level) and an innovation proposal that, starting from the

Conclusions authored by Cinzia Talamo and Marcella Bonanomi.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 199

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0_8
200 8 Conclusions

topic of information, can interest the whole field of services for the built environment,
as, for example, the current experimentations regarding BIM applications.
So, in conclusion, some key words and related statements could summarize basic
criteria to be considered for an approach to an “information oriented” FM service:
– Knowledge base. Knowledge is the core and the value of FM services.
Information management means to act in order to create the necessary condi-
tions for collecting data and referring them to specific contexts and goals, and
thus creating knowledge. Efficiency and effectiveness of the decisions and the
operations, that take place during the whole lifecycle of a service, depend sig-
nificantly on the quality of the knowledge base and the supports for data pro-
cessing; the more the knowledge base expands and the more the abilities of
planning and acting proactively increase. The knowledge base may concern
many subjects, such as characteristics and behaviours of the technical elements,
features and uses of space, operators’ behaviours, costs, and so on.
– Gradualism. All the aspects connected to information must be considered
according to the criterion of gradualism. The knowledge base can grow over
time only through a continuous process of data collection. This continuous
process has to be well managed and planned by constantly doing inventory
activities, collecting data coming from various processes (i.e. from energy
assessment, diagnostic surveys, etc.) and gathering feedback information from
various sources. The knowledge base must follow the building throughout its
whole lifecycle, being entrusted its implementation to the various suppliers, that
will alternate over time.
– Classification and coding. The condition for constantly collecting and processing
data is to represent the building according to a breakdown structure, as well as
classify and codify all its constituting parts, that is assuming a unique framework
for the identification of spatial components and building elements. Many inter-
national standards—most of them assuming the hierarchical open structure as
logical scheme—may be assumed as a reference in order to organize this frame-
work. This framework allows a gradual information allocation at various levels
over time, and thus avoiding unwanted redundancy and ambiguity.
– Decisional and operational support tools. The knowledge base is the core of
information flow. The information system can be considered as the “engine” able
to manage this flow, process data, direct and make available information for its use,
both for decision making and operational tasks. Whatever is the strategy (buy or
develop “in house”), an information system must be defined preliminarily through
a framework of requirements, that have to be carefully referred to the specific
context of application. Furthermore, the implementation process of an information
system must follow the criterion of gradualism, growing over time in accordance
with client’s needs and resources and evolution of the services.
– Uniqueness of the building. Information is produced and used at different stages
of the construction process (planning, design, construction, commissioning,
monitoring, operation). Even if many operators process and produce informa-
tion, different for scope and structure, this is always related to the uniqueness of
8 Conclusions 201

the building and the processes affecting it during its whole life cycle. Despite
these considerations, it is uncommon to see an effective design of an information
structure contemporary to, and consistent with, the different lifecycle stages of
the construction work. The result is a chain of diseconomies of the process in all
its phases, with phenomena, at the same time, of information redundancy,
inconsistency, lack of communication and loss of information. An efficient
organization should be able to connect, combine and aggregate into a single
information management process multiple and heterogeneous information,
coming from the different stages of the construction process. This means to be
able to provide coordinated services for design, construction and operation, as
well as combine appropriately knowledge management and project management
methods and tools.
– Building Information Modelling. In response to the needs of the FM field for
handling heterogeneous information by developing a unique and coherent
information management process, Building Information Modelling
(BIM) represents both an innovative methodology and efficient tool to reach this
goal. Due to long building life cycles, process diseconomies, phenomena of
information loss, data asymmetry and so on, there is a growing need for an
Information Lifecycle Management (ILM). This means to address an informa-
tion management process in a common data environment by using innovative
methodologies and tools such as BIM. Since BIM is both a methodology
concerning information management and a digital representation containing and
providing data coming from different sources and phases, it needs standards
relating both to information requirements and process management.
– BIM-Object Information Requirements and data standards. In order to handle
an effective ILM in a BIM environment, information requirements and data
standards need to be developed also in relation to the multidisciplinary nature
and wide information requirements characterizing FM activities. Although many
benefits and resource savings for FM processes coming from an ILM in a BIM
environment, existing BIM-Objects Information Requirements show some lacks
in relation to the building use phase. Therefore, current BIM data standards must
be implemented considering also the information needs of FM activities.
– BIM software and information systems. The implementation of existing data
standards pave the way to two different methods of accessing and receiving
information useful for FM activities: totally within the BIM model (all the
information for FM activities are included in BIM Objects) or accessed via links
and cross-references to information systems. Therefore, the development of a
dataset focused on the information needs of FM activities may enable the
integration of current BIM-Objects Information Requirements (information to
be included in model elements) and the implementation of existing interoperable
overlays between BIM software and facilities information systems.
Given these key-words, “conclusions” is not the right term but rather, in the field of
knowledge management and information tools for Building Maintenance and Facility
Management, it is so much better to talk about experimentation and innovation.
Glossary

Asset (physical) Item formally accountable (EN 13306:2010, “Maintenance

terminology”)
Asset Information Management Discipline of managing asset-related organiza-
tional data and information to a sufficient quality to support organizational
objectives and outcomes (PAS 1192-3:2014, “Specification for information
management for the operational phase of assets using building information
modelling”)
Asset Information Model (AIM) Maintained information model used to manage,
maintain and operate the asset (PAS 1192-2:2013, “Specification for information
management for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects using
building information modelling”). Data and information that relates to assets to a
level required to support an organization’s asset management system (PAS
1192-3:2014, “Specification for information management for the operational
phase of assets using building information modelling”)
Asset Information Requirement (AIR) Data and information requirements of the
organization in relation to the asset(s) it is responsible for. (PAS 1192-3:2014,
“Specification for information management for the operational phase of assets
using building information modelling”)
Audit Systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining audit evi-
dence and evaluating it objectively to determine the extent to which the audit
criteria are fulfilled (EN ISO 19011:2011, “Guidelines for auditing management
systems”)
Audit criteria Set of policies, procedures or requirements used as a reference
against which audit evidence. If the audit criteria are legal (including statutory or
regulatory) requirements, the terms “compliant” or “non-compliant” are often
used in an audit finding (EN ISO 19011:2011, “Guidelines for auditing man-
agement systems”)

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 203

C. Talamo and M. Bonanomi, Knowledge Management and Information
Tools for Building Maintenance and Facility Management,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23959-0
204 Glossary

Audit evidence Records, statements of fact or other information, which are rele-
vant to the audit criteria and verifiable. Audit evidence can be qualitative or
quantitative (EN ISO 19011:2011, “Guidelines for auditing management
systems”)
Benchmark Reference point or metric against which a strategy, process, perfor-
mance and/or other entity can be measured (EN 15221-7:2012, “Facility
Management—Part 7: Guidelines for Performance”)
Benchmarking Process of comparing strategies, processes, performances and/or
other entities against practices of the same nature, under the same circumstances
and with similar measures (EN 15221-7:2012, “Facility Management—Part 7:
Guidelines for Performance”)
Building Information Modeling (BIM) Process of designing, constructing or
operating a building or infrastructure asset using electronic object-oriented
information (PAS 1192-2:2013, “Specification for information management for
the capital/delivery phase of construction projects using building information
modelling”)
Classification Systematic identification and arrangement of business activities
and/or records into categories according to logically structured conventions,
methods, and procedural rules represented in a classification system (ISO
15489-1:2004, “Information and documentation—Records management—Part
1: General”)
CIC Scope of Services Multi-disciplinary scope of services published by the
Construction Industry Council (CIC) for use by members of the project team on
major projects (PAS 1192-2:2013, “Specification for information management
for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects using building information
modelling”)
COBie (Construction Operation Building information exchange) Structured
facility information for the commissioning, operation and maintenance of a
project often in a neutral spreadsheet format that will be used to supply data to
the employer or operator to populate decision-making tools, facilities manage-
ment and asset management systems (PAS 1192-2:2013, “Specification for
information management for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects
using building information modelling”)
Command centre The entity which, within a service, oversees a number of
organizational activities relating to: support the delivery of operational services
with particular reference to the functions of planning and coordination, man-
agement of information flows, monitoring and checking. The objective of these
activities is to pursue efficiency and the full achievement of performance and
service levels predetermined by the client and the sharing of information
between the client and supplier
Glossary 205

Common Data Environment (CDE) Single source of information for any given
project, used to collect, manage and disseminate all relevant approved project
documents for multi-disciplinary teams in a managed process (PAS
1192-2:2013, “Specification for information management for the capital/delivery
phase of construction projects using building information modelling”)
Data Information stored but not yet interpreted or analyzed (PAS 1192-2:2013,
“Specification for information management for the capital/delivery phase of
construction projects using building information modelling”)
Data room A physical location (PDR for physical data room), where information
(in the form of files and documents placed in binders, folders and boxes) are
temporarily maintained and available for viewing. We have a virtual data room
(VDR) when documents are presented in digital format
Degradation Detrimental change in physical condition, with time, use or external
cause. Degradation may lead to a failure. In a system context, degradation may
also be caused by failures within the system (EN 13306:2010, “Maintenance
terminology”)
Document The physical support of the information in a specific form. This may
take the form of a paper sheet, the screen of a video monitor of a computer
system, an electronic board, a blackboard, etc. and the figures, type, size and
distribution on the available surface may vary without affecting the main purpose
of the information system. A document is permanent. Program results displayed
on a screen do not make any document unless it is stored. Document can be
information stored in a database which can be shown on a screen or printed out
(EN 13460:2009, “Maintenance. Documentation for maintenance”)
Documents review Activity aiming at searching, selecting, analysing, gathering
and organizing the various and heterogeneous documents coming from design,
construction, operations and maintenance phases
Due diligence The process of conducting a walkthrough survey and appropriate
inquiries into the physical condition of a commercial real estate’s improvements,
usually in connection with a commercial real estate transaction. The degree and
type of such survey and inquiry may vary for different properties, different user
purposes, and time allotted (ASTM E 2018—08, “Standard Guide for Property
Condition Assessments: Baseline Property Condition Assessment”)
Element Construction entity part which, in itself or in combination with other such
parts, fulfils a predominating function of the construction entity (i.e. elements
are: external wall, floor, roof, etc.) (e.g. predominating functions are: space
enclosing, supporting, servicing, furnishing). (ISO 12006-2:20015, “Building
construction—Organization of information about construction works—Part 2:
Framework for classification of information”)
206 Glossary

Facility Management (FM) Integration of processes within an organisation to

maintain and develop the agreed services which support and improve the
effectiveness of its primary activities (UNI EN 15221-1:2011, “Facility
Management—Part 1: Terms and definitions”)
Facility management agreement Written or oral agreement stating the terms and
conditions for provision of facility services between a client and an internal or
external service provider (UNI EN 15221-1:2011, “Facility Management—Part
1: Terms and definitions”)
Framework Documented set on the rationale of how to create a common under-
standing of the way of work (ISO/DIS 37500:2007, “Guidance on outsourcing”)
Full Time Equivalent (FTE) Full Time Equivalent that can be determined by
dividing the total number of hours worked by the number of regular working
hours in a working week (e.g. working 32 h when a regular working week
consists of 40 h equals 0.8 FTE) (EN 15221-7:2012, “Facility Management—
Part 7: Guidelines for Performance”)
Global service for maintenance Integrated activities of maintenance with full
responsibility by supplier of the results in terms of achieving and/or maintaining
of performance levels established by the client (UNI 11336:2004, “Global ser-
vice for maintenance of buildings—Guidelines”)
Hierarchy Structure of levels in which each level includes its lower levels.
Taxonomies are frequently arranged in a hierarchical structure. Typically they
are related by supertype-subtype, also called parent-child relationships (EN
15221-4:2011, “Facility Management—Part 4: Taxonomy, Classification and
Structures in Facility Management”)
Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) IFC is an open international standard for
BIM data that is exchanged and shared among software applications used by the
various participants in a building construction or facility management project. It
specifies a conceptual data schema and an exchange file format for Building
Information Model (BIM) data (ISO 16739:2013, “Industry Foundation Classes
(IFC) for data sharing in the construction and facility management industries”)
Information Representation of data in a formal manner suitable for communica-
tion, interpretation or processing by human beings or computer applications
(PAS 1192-2:2013, “Specification for information management for the
capital/delivery phase of construction projects using building information
modelling”)
Information exchange Structured collection of information at one of a number of
pre-defined stages of a project with defined format and fidelity (PAS
1192-2:2013, “Specification for information management for the capital/delivery
phase of construction projects using building information modelling”)
Glossary 207

Information Lifecycle Management (ILM) Process of managing the entire life-

cycle of information
Information Management Task and procedures applied to inputting, processing
and generation activities to ensure accuracy and integrity of information (PAS
1192-2:2013, “Specification for information management for the capital/delivery
phase of construction projects using building information modelling”)
Information Management Process (IMP) Process to manage information related
to the operational phase of an asset (PAS 1192-3:2014, “Specification for
information management for operational phase of assets using building infor-
mation modelling”)
Information model Model comprising: documentation, non-graphical information
and graphical information. NOTE The model is conveyed using PDF, COBie
and native model files (PAS 1192-2:2013, “Specification for information man-
agement for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects using building
information modelling”)
Information Requirement (IR) Data and information required to achieve the
objectives for which the model has been made
Index A ratio between two quantitative entities
Indexing Process of establishing access points to facilitate retrieval of records
and/or information. (ISO 15489-1:2004, “Information and documentation—
Records management—Part 1: General”)
Indicator Measured characteristic (or a set of characteristics) of a phenomenon,
according to a given formula, which assess the, evolution. Indicators are related
to objectives. The indicators can be used to: measure a status; compare (internal
and external benchmarks); diagnose (analysis of strengths and weaknesses);
identify objectives and define targets to be reached; plan improvement actions;
continuously measure changes over time (EN 15341:2007, “Maintenance Key
Performance Indicators”)
Information Data processed according to specific goals, referred to a context and
managed to be used, shared and combined
Information integration The sharing of essential data or information between the
parties involved in a process
Information system Decisional and operational support tool consisting of dat-
abases, procedures and functions to collect, store, process, use and update the
information necessary for the setting, the implementation and management of the
maintenance service (UNI 10951:2001, “Systems of information for the main-
tenance management of buildings. Guidelines”)
208 Glossary

Integrated services Set of functions performed by an organization for client or

user according to a logic of integration of the different management aspects
(asset, technical, administrative, etc.) with the objective to operate according to a
systemic vision, to achieve maximum efficiency in the coordination and
searching for synergies
Inventory A system of activities and procedures aiming to provide the knowledge
of the dimensional and physical characteristics of a Real Estate. The goal of a
Real Estate inventory is to gather the information useful for planning, managing
and checking the provision of facility services. This goal is achievable through a
plurality of integrated activities, such as analysis, audits, surveys, collection and
selection of technical, administrative and legal data and documents
Item Part, component, device, subsystem, functional unit, equipment or system
that can be individually described and considered (EN 13306:2010,
“Maintenance terminology”)
Key Performance Indicator (KPI) Measure that provides essential information
about the performance of facility services delivery (UNI EN 15221-1:2011,
“Facility Management—Part 1: Terms and definitions”)
Knowledge The result of application, processing, relating, combining of infor-
mation in specific contexts
Knowledge acquisition Process of locating, collecting, and refining knowledge
and converting it into a form that can be further processed by a knowledge-based
system (ISO/DIS 37500:2007, “Guidance on outsourcing”)
Knowledge base A collection of facts, assumptions, beliefs, and heuristics that are
used in combination with a database to achieve desired results, such as a
diagnosis, an interpretation, or a solution to a problem (McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.)
Knowledge transfer Structured process of imparting pre-existing or acquired
information to a team or a person, to help them attain a required level of
proficiency in skill (ISO/DIS 37500:2007, “Guidance on outsourcing”)
Level of Definition (LoD) Collective term used for and including “level of model
detail” and the “level of information detail”. The “level of model detail” is the
description of graphical content of models at each of the stages defined for
example in the CIC Scope of Services. The “level of model information” is the
description of non-graphical content of model at each of the stages defined, for
example, in the CIC Scope of Services. (PAS 1192-2:2013, “Specification for
information management for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects
using building information modelling”)
Glossary 209

Maintenance manuals for maintenance technicians A comprehensive and sys-

tematic collection of information concerning the building and related to three
characteristics: firstly, information that identifies and describes the different
technical elements constituting the building; secondly, information concerning
all the methods of maintenance; inspection and checking necessary to maintain
those elements under operating conditions; thirdly, the so-called “feedback
information” concerning the various types of performed activities (inspections,
monitoring, corrective actions due to failure, planned scheduled activities,
replacements) (UNI 10874:2000—“Maintenance of buildings. Criteria in order
to write maintenance and use manuals”)
Maintenance plan Structured and documented set of tasks that include the
activities, procedures, resources and the time scale required to carry out main-
tenance (EN 13306:2010, “Maintenance terminology”)
Maintenance schedule Plan produced in advance detailing when a specific
maintenance task should be carried out (EN 13306:2010, “Maintenance
terminology”)
Net Floor Area (NFA) Net Floor Area that is the calculated area of Internal Floor
Area (IFA) excluding the Interior Construction Area (EN 15221-6:2011,
“Facility Management—Part 6: Area and Space Measurement in Facility
Management”)
Operation Combination of all technical, administrative and managerial actions,
other than maintenance actions, that results in the item being in use (EN
13306:2010, “Maintenance terminology”)
Organization Information Requirement (OIR) The organization shall deter-
mine, catalogue and maintain its requirements for information to meet the needs
of its asset management system and other organizational functions (PAS
1192-3:2014, “Specification for information management for operational phase
of assets using building information modelling”)
Process Set of interrelated or interacting activities which transforms inputs into
outputs (EN ISO 9000:2005, “Quality management systems—Fundamentals and
vocabulary”)
Product Data Sheet (PDS) A PDS is a digital description of a specific product.
When a manufacturer completes a Product Data Template (PDT) it becomes a
Product Data Sheet. The standard format of the PDS enables its users to auto-
mate their data operations (CISBE—Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers)
Product Data Template (PDT) A PDT is standard ‘questionnaire’ for each
equipment type. Each PDT aims to anticipate the information sought by every
party—from specification through operations to decommissioning and replace-
ment. PDTs are written in Excel format and are usable with all BIM platforms
(CISBE—Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers)
210 Glossary

Project Information Model (PIM) Information model developed during the

design and construction phase of a project (PAS 1192-2:2013, “Specification for
information management for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects
using building information modelling”)
Project Lifecycle Phases (PLPs) The highest-level, time-based subdivisions of a
project across several Organizational Scales. At the highest ‘scale’, Project
Lifecycle Phases (PLPs) include Design Phase (D), Construction Phase (C) and
Operation Phase (O). Phases are subdivided into Sub-phases, which are in return
subdivided into smaller parts (BIM Excellence, Copyright © 2015 by
ChangeAgents AEC Pty Ltd)
Real estate Encompasses land along with anything affixed to the land, such as
buildings. Real estate, immovable property, real property, realty are used syn-
onymously (EN 15221-4:2011, “Facility Management—Part 4: Taxonomy,
Classification and Structures in Facility Management”)
Registry A data base—supported by appropriate methods for classification of the
buildings and their technical components and spaces—containing the informa-
tion necessary to describe the consistency, the functional and the technical
characteristics of the built assets
Registry system A framework of criteria useful for the classification and coding of
spatial and technical elements and of an apparatus of sheets, useful for collecting
information, over time according to the same formalized scheme
Service Result of activities performed by the provider according to the agreed
scope, service levels and client demands (ISO/DIS 37500:2007, “Guidance on
outsourcing”)
Service level agreement (SLA) Agreement between the client or customer and the
service provider on performance, measurement and conditions of services
delivery. A Facility Management agreement consists of general clauses, appli-
cable to the whole agreement, and SLA specific clauses, only applicable to a
facility service. In a Facility Management agreement, several SLAs are included
(UNI EN 15221-1:2011, “Facility Management—Part 1: Terms and definitions”)
System Set of interrelated or interacting elements (EN ISO 9000:2005, “Quality
management systems—Fundamentals and vocabulary”)
Space Three-dimensional, material construction result contained within, or other-
wise associated with, a building or other construction entity. A space may be
bounded physically or notionally (i.e. room, corridor, atrium, cleared zone (at an
airport), roadway, square, working space around a machine, swimming pool,
etc.). A key property of a space is the function or user activity it is intended to
serve (ISO 12006-2:2001, “Building construction—Organization of information
about construction works—Part 2: Framework for classification of information”)
Glossary 211

Taxonomy Practice and science of classification. A knowledge map of a topic

typically realised as a controlled vocabulary of terms and or phrases. An orderly
classification of information according to presumed natural relationships.
A classification system for improved information management, which should
contribute to improving the capability of users to sustain and improve the
operations of their business, into a series of hierarchical groups to make them
easier to identify, study, or locate (EN 15221-4:2011, “Facility Management—
Part 4: Taxonomy, Classification and Structures in Facility Management”)
Work order (W.O.) Document containing all the information related to a main-
tenance operation and the reference links to other documents necessary to carry
out the maintenance work standard (EN 13460:2009, “Maintenance—
Documentation for maintenance”)