Electromagnetic Testing

Magnetic flux leakage / Eddy current/ Microwave

Chapter 1 to Chapter 4
2015-January-1st
My ASNT Level III Pre-Exam Preparatory
Self Study Notes

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 Chapter One:
Introduction to Electromagnetic Testing

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 1.0 General
1.1 The Sub-Methods.
Electromagnetic tests are an important and widely used method within the
broad field of nondestructive materials testing.
The electromagnetic test method includes several subsidiary methods,
sometimes called sub-methods or techniques:
■ eddy current testing,
■ remote field testing,
■ flux leakage testing,
■ alternating current field measurement testing and
■ microwave testing.
Of these several sub-methods, conventional eddy current testing is the most
widely used.
Magnetic particle testing MPI is an electromagnetic test that industry
administers as a separate method.

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 TABLE 1. Nondestructive testing method categories.
Categories Objectives: Basic Categories
1. Mechanical and optical color,
cracks, dimensions, film thickness, gauging, reflectivity, strain distribution and
magnitude, surface finish, surface flaws, through-cracks

2. Penetrating radiation
cracks; density and chemistry variations; elemental distribution; foreign
objects; inclusions; micro-porosity; misalignment; missing parts; segregation;
service degradation; shrinkage; thickness; voids

3. Electromagnetic and electronic

alloy content; anisotropy; cavities; cold work; local strain, hardness;
composition; contamination; corrosion; cracks; crack depth; crystal structure;
electrical conductivities; flakes; heat treatment; hot tears; inclusions; ion
concentrations; laps; lattice strain; layer thickness; moisture content;
polarization; seams; segregation; shrinkage; state of cure; tensile strength;
thickness; disbonds; voids.

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 4. Sonic and ultrasonic:
crack initiation and propagation; cracks, voids; damping factor; degree of cure;
degree of impregnation; degree of sintering; delaminations; density;
dimensions; elastic moduli; grain size; inclusions; mechanical degradation;
misalignment; porosity; radiation degradation; structure of composites;
surface stress; tensile, shear and compressive strength; disbonds; wear

5. Infrared and thermal:

anisotropy, bonding; composition; emissivity; heat contours; plating thickness;
porosity; reflectivity; stress; thermal conductivity; thickness; voids; cracks;
delaminations; heat treatment; state of cure; moisture; corrosion

6. Chemical and analytical:

alloy identification; composition; cracks; elemental analysis and distribution;
grain size; inclusions; macrostructure; porosity; segregation; surface
anomalies

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 Auxiliary Categories
1. Image generation.
dimensional variations; dynamic performance; anomaly characterization
and definition; anomaly distribution; anomaly propagation; magnetic field
configurations

2. Signal image analysis.

data selection; processing and display; anomaly mapping, correlation and
identification; image enhancement; separation of multiple variables;
signature analysis

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 Discussion
Topic: The Electromagnetic and electronics' testing objectives -
alloy content; anisotropy; cavities; cold work; local strain, hardness;
composition; contamination; corrosion; cracks; crack depth; crystal structure;
electrical conductivities; flakes; heat treatment; hot tears; inclusions; ion
concentrations; laps; lattice strain; layer thickness; moisture content;
polarization; seams; segregation; shrinkage; state of cure; tensile strength;
thickness; disbonds; voids.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 1.2 Applications of eddy current tests
Applications of eddy current tests in industry are numerous and widespread.
The total number of test measurements made annually by this nondestructive
test method may exceed that of all other methods combined.
Eddy current testing is used for the following:
1. non-contacting measurement of the thickness of metallic foils, sheets,
plates, tube walls and machined parts from one side only;
2. measurement of the thickness of coatings over base materials where the
coating and base material have significantly different electrical or magnetic
properties;
3. identifying or separating materials by composition or structure;

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 4. detecting material discontinuities that lie in planes transverse to the eddy
currents, such as cracks, seams, laps, score marks or plug cuts, drilled and
other holes and laminations at cut edges of sheet or plate;
5. identifying and controlling heat treatment conditions and evaluation
of fire damage to metallic structures;
6. determining depths of case hardening of steels and some ferrous alloys;

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 7. locating hidden metallic objects such as underground pipes, buried bombs
or ore bodies, or metallic objects accidentally packaged in foodstuffs;
8. timing or locating the motions of hidden parts of mechanisms, counting
metallic objects on conveyor lines or detecting metallic missiles in flight;
9. precise dimensional measurement of symmetric, machined or ground and
polished metallic parts, such as bearings and bearing races, small
mechanism components and others.

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 Lots of food and a missing key-chain.

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 Discussion
Topic: How to detect a key chain that is unintentionally packed into a food
can?

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 Eddy Current Testing In Actions

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 In Actions

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 Missing in Actions MIA

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 aqee

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 1.3 Test Procedures for Electromagnetic Testing
The conduct of facility operations (in-house or contracted) should be
performed in accordance with specific instructions from an expert. This is
typically accomplished using written instructions in the form of a technical
procedure. In many cases, codes and specifications will require a technical
procedure to perform required tests. The procedure process can take many
forms, including general instructions that address only major aspects of test
techniques. Or a procedure may be written as a step-by-step process
requiring a supervisor’s initial or signature after each step. The following is a
typical format for an industrial procedure.

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 1. The purpose identifies the intent of the procedure.
2. The scope establishes the latitude of items, tests and techniques covered
and not covered by the procedure.
3. References are specific documents from which criteria are extracted or
documents satisfied by implementation of the procedure.
4. Definitions are needed for terms and abbreviations that are not common
knowledge to people who will read the procedure.
5. Statements about personnel requirements address specific requirements
to perform tasks in accordance with the procedure- issues such as
personnel qualification, certification, access clearance and others.

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 6. Equipment characteristics, calibration requirements and model numbers of
qualified equipment must be specified.
7. The test procedure provides a sequential process to be used to conduct
test activities.
8. Acceptance criteria establish component characteristics that will identify
the items suitable for service.
9. Reports (records) provide the means to document specific test techniques,
equipment used, personnel performing activity, date performed and test
results.
10.Attachments may include (if required) items such as report forms,
instrument calibration forms, qualified equipment matrix, schedules and
others.

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 Once the procedure is completed, typically an expert in the subject matter
evaluates it. If the procedure is judged to meet identified requirements, the
expert will approve it for use. Some codes and standards also require the
procedure to be qualified — that is, demonstrated to the satisfaction of a
representative of a regulatory body or jurisdictional authority.

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 1.4 Ensuring Reliability of Test Results
When a test is performed, there are four possible outcomes:

(1) a rejectable discontinuity can be found when one is present;

(2) a rejectable discontinuity can be missed even when one is present;
(3) a rejectable discontinuity can be indicated when none is present and
(4) no rejectable discontinuity is found when none is present.

A reliable testing process and a qualified inspector should find all

discontinuities of concern with no discontinuities missed (no errors as in
case 2 above) and no false calls (case 3 above). To achieve this goal, the
probability of finding a rejectable discontinuity must be high and the
inspector must be both proficient in the testing process and motivated to
perform with maximum efficiency. A reckless inspector may accept parts
that contain discontinuities, with the result of possible inservice part failure.
A conservative inspector may reject parts that contain rejectable
discontinuities but the inspector also may reject parts that do not contain
rejectable discontinuities, with the result of unnecessary scrap and repair.
Neither scenario is desirable.

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 1.5 Electromagnetic Testing Standards
Traditionally, the purpose of specifications and standards has been to define
the requirements that goods or services must meet. As such, they are
intended to be incorporated into contracts so that both the buyer and provider
have a well defined description of what one will receive and the other will
provide. Standards have undergone a process of peer review in industry and
can be invoked with the force of law by contract or by government regulation.
In contrast, a specification represents an employer’s instructions to
employees and is specific to a contract or work place. Specifications may
form the basis of standards through a review process. Standards and
specifications exist in three basic areas: equipment, processes and personnel.

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 1. Standards for equipment include criteria that address probes, artificial
discontinuities and test results. Reference standards are work pieces that
contain artificial discontinuities for instrument calibration and test
procedure verification.
2. ASTM International and other organizations publish standards for test
techniques. Some other standards are for quality assurance procedures
and are not specific to a test method or even to testing in general. Tables 3
and 4 list some standards used in electromagnetic testing. The United
States Department of Defense has replaced most military specifications
and standards with industry consensus specifications and standards. A
source for nondestructive testing standards is the Annual Book of ASTM
Standards.5
3. Qualification and certification of test personnel are discussed below with
specific reference to recommendations of ASNT Recommended Practice
No. SNT-TC-1A.6

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 The United States Department of Defense has replaced most military
specifications and standards with industry consensus specifications and
standards.

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 MIL Std.

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 MIL Std.

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 TABLE 3.
Electromagnetic testing standards published by ASTM International.
Miscellaneous
• E 543, Standard Practice for Agencies Performing Nondestructive Testing
• E 1004, Standard Practice for Determining Electrical Conductivity Using the Electromagnetic
(Eddy-Current) Method
• E 1312, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination of Ferromagnetic
Cylindrical Bar Product above the Curie Temperature
• E 1316, Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations: Section C, Electromagnetic
Testing
• E 1571, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic Examination of Ferromagnetic Steel Wire
Rope
• E 1606, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination of Copper
Redraw Rod for Electrical Purposes
• E 1629, Standard Practice for Determining the Impedance of Absolute Eddy Current Probes
• F 673, Standard Test Methods for Measuring Resistivity of Semiconductor Slices or Sheet
Resistance of Semiconductor Films with a Noncontact Eddy-Current Gage

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 Coating Thickness
• B 244, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Thickness of Anodic Coatings on
Aluminum and of Other Nonconductive Coatings on Nonmagnetic Basis Metals with Eddy-
Current Instruments
• B 499, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Coating Thicknesses by the Magnetic
Method: Nonmagnetic Coatings on Magnetic Basis Metals
• B 659, Standard Guide for Measuring Thickness of Metallic and Inorganic Coatings
• E 376, Standard Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness by Magnetic-Field or Eddy-
Current (Electromagnetic) Test Methods

Geophysical Measurements
• D 4748, Standard Test Method for Determining the Thickness of Bound Pavement Layers
Using Short-Pulse Radar
• D 6429, Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods
• D 6432, Standard Guide for Using the Surface Ground Penetrating Radar Method for
Subsurface Investigation
• D 6565, Standard Test Method for Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil by the
Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR) Method
• D 6639, Standard Guide for Using the Frequency Domain Electromagnetic Method for
Subsurface Investigations
• D 6726, Standard Guide for Conducting Borehole Geophysical Logging — Electromagnetic
Induction

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 Material Identification
• E 566, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Sorting of Ferrous Metals
• E 703, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Sorting of Non-Ferrous Metals
• E 1476, Standard Guide for Metals Identification, Grade Verification, and Sorting

Tubular Products
• A 135, Standard Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe
• E 215, Standard Practice for Standardizing Equipment for Electromagnetic Examination of
Seamless Aluminum-Alloy Tube
• E 243, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination of Copper-Alloy
Tubes
• E 309, Standard Practice for Eddy-Current Examination of Steel Tubular Products Using
Magnetic Saturation
• E 426, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination of Seamless and
Welded Tubular Products, Austenitic Stainless Steel and Similar Alloys
• E 570, Standard Practice for Flux Leakage Examination of Ferromagnetic Steel Tubular
Products
• E 571, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination of Nickel and
Nickel-Alloy Tubular Products
• E 690, Standard Practice for In Situ Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination of
Nonmagnetic Heat Exchanger Tubes
• E 1033, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination of Type F —
Continuously Welded (CW) Ferromagnetic Pipe and Tubing above the Curie temperature
• E 2096, Standard Practice for In Situ Examination of Ferromagnetic Heat-Exchanger Tubes
Using Remote Field Testing

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 TABLE 4. Some standards for electromagnetic testing.
Issuing Organization/ Representative Standards and Related Documents

American National Standards Institute ANSI

ANSI B3.1, Rolling Element Bearings — Aircraft Engine, Engine Gearbox, and Accessory
Applications — Eddy Current Inspection.

American Petroleum Institute API

API 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: Maintenance Inspection, Rating, Repair and
Alteration, API 570, Piping Inspection Code: Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of In-
Service Piping Systems, API 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, API 1104, Welding,
Pipelines and Related Facilities.

American Society for Nondestructive Testing ASNT

ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, ANSI/ASNT CP-189, ASNT Standard for
Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME

ANSI/ASME B31.1, Power Piping, ANSI/ASME B31.3, Process Piping, ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code: Section V — Power Boilers: Article 8, Eddy Current Examination of
Tubular Products, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section XI — Inservice Inspection of
Nuclear Vessels. N-553-1, Eddy Current Surface Examination Section XI, Division 1, ASME PTC
19-1, Performance Test Codes, Supplement on Instruction and Apparatus.

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 American Welding Society
AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code — Steel

Canadian General Standards Board CAN

CAN/CGSB-48.9712, Non-Destructive Testing — Qualification and Certification of Personnel
48.14-M86-CAN/CGSB, Advanced Manual for: Eddy Current Test Method Amendment No. 1
May 1997 R(1997)

Chinese National Standards GB

Z8005100, General Rules for Eddy Current Testing

Deutsche Institut für Normung DIN

DIN 54141-3, Non-Destructive Testing; Eddy Current Testing of Pipes and Tubes; Procedure

European Association of Aerospace Industries

AECMA PREN 2002-20, Aerospace Series Test Methods for Metallic Materials: Part 20: Eddy
Current Testing of Circular Cross-Section Tubes, Edition P 1

European Committee for Standardization EN

EN 12084, Non-Destructive Testing — Eddy Current Testing — General Principles and
Guidelines

International Organization for Standardization ISO

ISO 9712, Nondestructive Testing – Qualification and Certification of Personnel

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 Japanese Standards Association JIS
JIS Z 2314, Test Methods for Performance Characteristics of Eddy Current Testing Instruments

Society of Automotive Engineers SAE

SAE ARP 891A, Determination of Aluminum Alloy Tempers through Electrical Conductivity
Measurement (Eddy Current) (R 1988)
SAE ARP 1926, Cure Monitor, Electrical Methods
SAE ARP 4402, Eddy Current Inspection of Open Fastener Holes in Aluminum Aircraft Structure
SAE ARP 4462, Barkhausen Noise Inspection for Detecting Grinding Burns
SAE AS 4787, Eddy Current Inspection of Circular Holes in Nonferrous Metallic Aircraft Engine
Hardware
SAE DFT K-89AW, Eddy Current Inspection of Circular Holes in Nonferrous Metallic
SAE J 425, Electromagnetic Testing by Eddy Current Methods, Information Report; March 1991

United States Department of Defense MIL

MIL-P-85585, Probes, Eddy Current, Unshielded, Single Coil, Absolute
MIL-STD-1537B, Electrical Conductivity Test for Verification of Heat Treatment of Aluminum
Alloys, Eddy Current Method
MIL-STD-2032, Eddy Current Inspection of Heat Exchanger Tubing on Ships of the United States
Navy
MIL-STD-2195, Inspection Procedure for Detection and Measurement of Dealloying Corrosion on
Aluminum Bronze and Nickel-Aluminum Bronze Components

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 1.6 Personnel Qualification and Certification
1.6.1 ASNT Certifications
One of the most critical aspects of the test process is the qualification of test
personnel. Nondestructive testing is sometimes referred to as a special
process. The term simply means that it is very difficult to determine the
adequacy of a test by merely observing the process or the documentation
generated at its conclusion. The quality of the test is largely dependent on the
skills and knowledge of the inspector. The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) has been a world leader in the qualification
and certification of nondestructive testing personnel for many years. By 1999,
the American Society for Nondestructive Testing had instituted three major
programs for the qualification and certification of nondestructive testing
personnel.

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 Expert at Works

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 1. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A provides guidelines for personnel
qualification and certification in nondestructive testing. This recommended
practice identifies the specific attributes that should be considered when
qualifying nondestructive testing personnel. It requires the employer to
develop and implement a written practice (procedure) that details the specific
process and any limitation in the qualification and certification of
nondestructive testing personnel.

2. ANSI/ASNT CP-189, Standard for Qualification and Certification of

Nondestructive Testing Personnel resembles SNT-TC-1A but also
establishes specific attributes for the qualification and certification of
nondestructive testing personnel. However, CP-189 is a consensus
standard as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). It
is recognized as the American standard for nondestructive testing. It is not
considered a recommended practice; it is a national standard.

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 3. The ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP), unlike SNT-TC-1A and
CP-189, is a third party certification process that identifies qualification and
certification attributes for Level II and Level III nondestructive testing
personnel. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing certifies that
the individual has the skills and knowledge for many nondestructive
test method applications. It does not remove the responsibility for the final
determination of personnel qualifications from the employer. The employer
evaluates an individual’s skills and knowledge for application of company
procedures using designated techniques and equipment identified for specific
tests.

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 1.6.1.1 Selections from Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A
To give a general idea of the contents of these documents, the following
items are specified in the 2001 edition of Recommended Practice No. SNT-
TC-1A. (The following text has been excerpted and adapted. The original text
is arranged in outline format and includes recommendations that are not
specific to electromagnetic testing.)
Scope. This recommended practice has been prepared to establish
guidelines for the qualification and certification of nondestructive test
personnel whose specific jobs require appropriate knowledge of the technical
principles underlying the nondestructive tests they perform, witness, monitor
or evaluate. This document provides guidelines for the establishment of a
qualification and certification program.

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 Written Practice. The employer shall establish a written practice for the
control and administration of nondestructive testing personnel training,
examination and certification. The employer’s written practice should describe
the responsibility of each level of certification for determining the acceptability
of materials or components in accordance with the applicable codes,
standards, specifications and procedures.

Education, Training, Experience Requirements for Initial Qualification.

Candidates for certification in nondestructive testing should have sufficient
education, training and experience to ensure qualification in those
nondestructive testing methods for which they are being considered for
certification. Table 6.3.1A [Table 5 in this volume, for electromagnetic testing]
lists the recommended training and experience factors to be considered by
the employer in establishing written practices for initial qualification of Level I
and II individuals.

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 TABLE 5. Recommended training and experience for electromagnetic
testing personnel according to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-
1A.6

Level I Level II

High school graduate a 40 h 40 h

Two years of college b 24 h 40 h
Work experience c 210 h 630 h

a. Or equivalent.
b. Completion with a passing grade of at least two years of engineering or science study in a
university, college or technical school.
c. Minimum work experience per level. Note: for Level II certification, the experience shall
consist of time as Level I or equivalent. If a person is being qualified directly to Level II with
no time at Level I, the required experience shall consist of the sum of the times required for
Level I and Level II and the required training shall consist of the sum of the hours required for
Level I and Level II.

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 Training Programs. Personnel being considered for initial certification should
complete sufficient organized training to become thoroughly familiar with the
principles and practices of the specified nondestructive test method related to
the level of certification desired and applicable to the processes to be used
and the products to be tested.
Examinations. For Level I and II personnel, a composite grade should be
determined by simple averaging of the results of the general, specific and
practical examinations described below. Examinations administered for
qualification should result in a passing composite grade of at least 80 percent,
with no individual examination having a passing grade less than 70 percent.
The examination for near vision acuity should ensure natural or corrected
near distance acuity in at least one eye such that the applicant can read a
minimum of jaeger size 2 or equivalent type and size letter at a distance of
not less than 305 mm (12 in.) on a standard jaeger test chart. This test should
be administered annually.

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 Practical Examination for NDT Level I and II.
The candidate should demonstrate ability to operate the necessary
nondestructive test equipment and to record and analyze the
resultant information to the degree required. At least one selected specimen
should be tested and the results of the nondestructive test analyzed by the
candidate.
Certification. Certification of all levels of nondestructive test personnel is the
responsibility of the employer. Certification of nondestructive test personnel
shall be based on demonstration of satisfactory qualification [in accordance
with sections on education, training, experience and examinations] as
described in the employer’s written practice. Personnel certification records
shall be maintained on file by the employer.

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 Recertification. All levels of nondestructive testing personnel shall be
recertified periodically in accordance with the following: evidence of
continuing satisfactory performance; and reexamination in those portions of
the examination deemed necessary by the employer’s NDT Level III.
Recommended maximum recertification intervals are three years for
Level I and II and five years for Level III. The minimum number of questions
that should be administered in the written examination for eddy current test
personnel is as follows: 40 questions in the general examination and 20
questions in the specific examination. The number of questions is the same
for Level I and Level II personnel. These recommendations from
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A are cited only to provide a general
idea of the specific items that must be considered in the development of an
in-house nondestructive testing program. Because the items are paraphrased,
those developing a personnel qualification program should consult the
complete text of SNT-TC-1A and other applicable procedures and practices. If
an outside agency is contracted for electromagnetic test services, then the
contractor must have a qualification and certification program to satisfy most
codes and standards.

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 1.6.2 ISO Central Certification
Another standard that may be a source for compliance is contained in the
requirements of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The
work of preparing international standards is normally carried out through
technical committees of the International Organization for Standardization, a
worldwide federation of national standards bodies. Each ISO member body
interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established
has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations,
governmental and nongovernmental, in liaison with the International
Organization for Standardization, also take part in the work. Technical
Committee ISO/TC 135, Non-Destructive Testing Subcommittee SC 7,
Personnel Qualification, prepared international standard ISO 9712,
Nondestructive Testing – Qualification and Certification of Personnel.9 In its
statement f scope, ISO 9712 states that it “establishes a system for the
qualification and certification, by a certification body, of personnel to perform
industrial nondestructive testing (NDT) using any of the following methods: (a)
eddy current testing; (b) liquid penetrant testing; (c) magnetic particle testing;

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 (d) radiographic testing; (e) ultrasonic testing” and that the “system described
in this International Standard may also apply to visual testing (VT), leak
testing (LT), neutron radiography (NR), acoustic emission (AE) and other
nondestructive test methods where independent certification programs exist.”
The applicability of ISO 9712 to electromagnetic testing therefore depends
on activity of the national certifying body.

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 aqee

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 EN 473 (sold in the official English language edition as BS EN 473), “Non-destructive testing.
Qualification and certification of NDT personnel. General principles,” has been withdrawn in favor
of the new EN ISO 9712. The new BS EN ISO 9712:2012, “Non-destructive testing.

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 aqee

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 1.7 Safety in Electromagnetic Testing
To manage an electromagnetic testing program, as with any testing program,
the first obligation is to ensure safe working conditions. The following are
components of a safety program that may be required or at least deserve
serious consideration.
1. Before work is to begin, identify the safety and operational rules and codes
applicable to the areas, equipment and systems to be tested.
2. Provide proper safety equipment (protective barriers, hard hat, safety
harnesses, steel toed shoes, hearing protection and others).
3. Before the test, perform a thorough visual survey to determine all the
hazards and to identify necessary safeguards to protect test personnel and
equipment.

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 4. Notify operative personnel to identify the location and specific material,
equipment or systems to be tested. In addition, it must be determined
whether signs or locks restrict access by personnel. Be aware of
equipment that may be operated remotely or may be started by time delay.
5. Be aware of any potentially explosive atmosphere. Determine whether it is
safe to take test equipment into the area.
6. Do not enter any roped off or no entry areas without permission and
approval.
7. When working on or around moving or electrical equipment, the inspector
should remove pens, watches, rings or objects in pockets that may touch
(or fall into) energized equipment.
8. Know interplant communication and evacuation systems.
9. Never let unqualified personnel operate equipment independently from
qualified supervision.

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 8. Keep a safe distance between the inspector and any energized
equipment. In the United States, these distances can be found in
documents from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, the
National Fire Prevention Association (National Electric Code), the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (National Electrical
Safety Code) and other organizations.
9. Be aware of the personnel responsibilities before entering a confined
space. All such areas must be tested satisfactorily for gas and oxygen
levels before entry and periodically thereafter. If odors are noticed or if
unusual sensations such as ear aches, dizziness or difficulty in breathing
are experienced, leave the area immediately.
Most facilities in the United States are required by law to follow the
requirements in the applicable standard. Two Occupational Safety and Health
Standards in the United States that should be reviewed are Occupational
Safety and Health Standards for general industry and the Occupational Safety
and Health Standards for the Construction Industry. Personnel safety is
always the first consideration for every job.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Chapter Two:
The History……

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Maxwell’s Equations
James Clerk Maxwell conceived
and published the
comprehensive group of relations
for the electromagnetic field
known as Maxwell’s equations,
which mathematically represent
almost the entire present
knowledge of this subject.
Maxwell’s remarkable
achievement of integrating the
available knowledge concerning
electromagnetic circuits and
fields provides the basis for
analysis of all basic eddy current
and electromagnetic induction
problems- and for most of
modern electromagnetic theory.

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 These simple equations in both integral and differential form were derived by
the methods of Lagrange, using relationships from the calculus of variations.
Solutions for alternating fields are also available for many configurations of
the fields. It is of interest that simpler techniques using an operational map
have been devised for presenting these types of equations and their
derivations in simple form for use by second-year engineering students. The
equations are available in nearly all basic textbooks on the electromagnetic
field. Kelvin devised the solutions of Bessel’s equation for the cases of probe
coils and provided the Kelvin functions from which simple cases can be
readily calculated by hand or with computer.
Since 1900, physicists and researchers in electricity and magnetism have
occupied themselves with applications of Maxwell’s theory. However, no one
has conceived any significant new law to be added to Maxwell’s principles,
with the possible exception of Einstein’s theory of relativity, which extends the
theory of the three-dimensional electromagnetic field to a four-dimensional
framework, including time.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Chapter Three:
Principles of Electromagnetic Testing

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 3.1 PART 1. Introduction to Principles of Electromagnetic Testing
3.1.0 Introduction
The electromagnetic test method of nondestructive testing, like other
nondestructive test methods, involves the application of electromagnetic
energy to evaluate the condition of test objects. The energy interacts with the
material and a snapshot of the interaction process is analyzed to ascertain the
condition of the material. Although electromagnetic methods, in principle,
cover a wide range of techniques, the term electromagnetic testing is
generally used to denote several techniques, including magnetic flux leakage
testing, eddy current testing and microwave testing.
Radiation methods such as infrared and thermal testing and radiographic
testing are often not thought of as electromagnetic methods even though they
are governed by the same physical laws.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Although all electromagnetic methods are governed by Maxwell’s equations,
the distinctive nature of each method stems from differences in excitation
frequencies, the nature of the transducers used and the signal analysis
techniques for characterizing the state of the test object.

As an example:
• Magnetic flux leakage techniques typically use excitation frequencies near
0 Hz whereas
• Eddy current techniques use excitation frequencies from about 100 Hz to
about 10 MHz.
• Microwave testing uses excitation sources usually in excess of 100 MHz.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 As the excitation frequency increases from zero, the underlying physical
process gradually changes. Below about 10 MHz, the field is said to be
quasistatic, which means that displacement current is negligible. As the
frequency finally increases beyond quasistatic values, the energy propagates
in the form of waves into the tested material. Differences in the underlying
processes associated with each frequency make it possible for
electromagnetic techniques to test a wide range of materials. The principles
underlying three techniques correspond to the three frequency ranges
discussed below:

(1) magnetic flux leakage testing (low frequency),

(2) eddy current testing (middle frequency) and
(3) microwave testing (high frequency).

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Quasistatic

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 3.2 PART 2. Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing
3.2.1 Introduction
Magnetic flux leakage testing is used extensively in industry for testing
ferromagnetic parts and components. The magnetic flux leakage technique
involves magnetization of the test object by a permanent magnet or by
passing an excitation current directly through an electromagnet. The
presence of a discontinuity on or near the surface of the sample disturbs the
magnetic flux lines and results in a local leakage field around the discontinuity.
The magnetic flux leakage field can be detected using a variety of techniques.
In magnetic particle testing, the leakage field is imaged by dusting the surface
of the test object with magnetic particles coated with fluorescent dye. Force
exerted by the magnetic leakage field around a crack attracts the particles to
line up along surface cracks. The magnetic flux leakage field can also be
detected using non contact sensors such as a hall effect probe or a simple
induction coil. A hall probe using an element oriented parallel to the sample
surface is sensitive to the normal component of the magnetic flux leakage
field and generates a typical signal, as shown in Fig. 1 for a rectangular notch.

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 Keywords:
Ferromagnetic material

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 FIGURE 1. Typical leakage field signal

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 Hall Effect
If an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the
magnetic field exerts a transverse force on the moving charge carriers which
tends to push them to one side of the conductor. This is most evident in a thin
flat conductor as illustrated. A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors
will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage
between the two sides of the conductor VH. The presence of this measurable
transverse voltage VH is called the Hall effect after E. H. Hall who discovered
it in 1879.
Note that the direction of the current I in the diagram is that of conventional
current, so that the motion of electrons is in the opposite direction.

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 Hall voltage

The Hall voltage is given by

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 Hall’s Effect

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 Hall’s Effect Sensor

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Hall’s Effect Sensor

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 To understand the operation of magnetic flux leakage, it is useful to consider
the physics of permanent magnets. A permanent magnet can be considered
an agglomeration of domains that can be thought of as elementary magnets
obtained as a result of the fact that the dipole moments of uncompensated
electron spins contained within the domain are held parallel. In the
demagnetized state, the domains orient themselves randomly (Fig. 2a) so
that closed paths for the magnetic flux exist in the material.
The magnetostatic energy under this condition is a minimum. This state is
indicated by point 0 on the characteristic curve of magnetic flux density B
versus magnetic field intensity H (Fig. 3). When an external magnetic field is
applied, the domains tend to align with the direction of the applied field,
thereby increasing B. The operating point now moves into region 0A in Fig. 3.
The size and orientation of the domains are affected by the potential energy
(1) arising out of the interaction between neighboring atoms, (2) associated
with the anisotropy energy and (3) associated with the external field energy.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The Magnetostatic Energy
Magnetic field H is a vector quantity

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The Magnetostatic Energy
Magnetic field H is a vector quantity

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 The Magnetostatic Energy- Electron Spin

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 Dipole Moment

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 2. Physics of permanent magnets: (a) random orientation of domains
in unmagnetized state; (b) domains aligned in direction of applied field; (c)
relaxation of parallel alignment of domains when magnetic field is removed;
(d) self-demagnetization of material after magnetic field is removed; (e)
reversion of domains to random orientation when gap is removed. See Fig. 3
for characteristic curve.

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 (a) random orientation of domains in unmagnetized state;

Legend
B = magnetic flux density (relative scale)
H = magnetic field intensity (relative scale)

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 (b) domains aligned in direction of applied field;

Legend
B = magnetic flux density (relative scale)
H = magnetic field intensity (relative scale)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 (c) relaxation of parallel alignment of domains when magnetic field is removed;

Legend
B = magnetic flux density (relative scale)
H = magnetic field intensity (relative scale)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 (d) self-demagnetization of material after magnetic field is removed;

Legend
B = magnetic flux density (relative scale)
H = magnetic field intensity (relative scale)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 (e) reversion of domains to random orientation when gap is removed.

Legend
B = magnetic flux density (relative scale)
H = magnetic field intensity (relative scale)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 3. Typical characteristic curve of magnetic flux density
B versus magnetic field intensity H.

Legend
B = magnetic flux density (relative scale)
H = magnetic field intensity (relative scale)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 As the external magnetic field is increased, the operating point moves into
region AB of Fig. 3. The domain walls start shifting and ultimately reach a
state when each crystal represents a single domain. Further increases in the
magnetic field intensity result in magnetic saturation, a state in which the
domains rotate against the forces of anisotropy until all the domains get
aligned in the direction of the applied field (Fig. 2b). This state is represented
by the region BC on the curve of B versus H (Fig. 3). If the applied magnetic
field is then withdrawn, the domains relax. As a result, the parallel alignment
of the domains is disturbed (Fig. 2c). The residual flux Br represents a new
minimum energy, at point D where magnetization H = 0. If a gap is then
introduced as shown in Fig. 2d, the material self-demagnetizes. The
imbalance created by the gap results in a realignment of the domains closest
to the gap.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 These domains take up orientations
that are 180° from the original
orientation. The mechanical energy
injected into the system to introduce
the gaps is used to transfer the
operating point from D to E. If the
air gap is then reduced to zero as
shown in Fig. 2e, the operating
point moves along the minor or
recoil loop to F and the domains
revert back very nearly to the same
orientation as before. If the gap is
once again restored, the operating
point then moves toward point E
along the recoil loop FGE.
Repeated cycles of opening and
closing the gap cause the minor
recoil loop to be traced.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Puzzling:

If the air gap is then reduced to zero

as shown in Fig. 2e, the operating
point moves along the minor or
recoil loop to F and the domains
revert back very nearly to the same
orientation as before. If the gap is
once again restored, the operating
point then moves toward point E
along the recoil loop FGE.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 3.2.2 Surface Discontinuity
The presence of a discontinuity causes a reduction in the cross sectional area
of the test object, thereby resulting in a local increase in the magnetic flux
density. A reduction in the permeability together with an increase in the
magnetic flux density would cause the flux to leak into the surrounding
medium. Magnetic leakage fields can be subdivided further into active or
residual leakage fields. To understand the origin of the leakage fields and
choice of initial magnetization for the active leakage field technique, consider
an un-magnetized steel billet with a surface discontinuity, as shown in Fig. 4a.
Let A represent the cross sectional area of the billet and let a represent the
cross sectional area of the discontinuity. The cross sectional area of the
sound portion of the billet in the vicinity of the discontinuity is reduced to (A –
a) units (Fig. 4b).

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 4. Billet with discontinuity: (a) view of billet; (b) cross section through
discontinuity; (c) magnetic characteristics of billet material; (d) billet in
magnetic field, showing discontinuity leakage field.

(a)

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 (b)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 (c)

Legend
B = magnetic flux density (relative scale)
H = magnetic field intensity (relative scale)
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 (d)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Magnetic field H is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and
direction. In the characteristic curve of Figs. 2 and 3, for isotropic materials, H
is the magnitude component and so is a scalar quantity.

Then, place the billet in a uniform magnetic field H and represent the induced
flux density in the sound portion of the billet by B1 (weber per square meter).
This magnetic flux density corresponds to a point P to the right of μmax on the
permeability curve of the material, as illustrated in Fig. 4c. The corresponding
point on the initial magnetization curve in Fig. 4c is point Q. The magnetic flux
density passing through the sound part of the billet is B1 (tesla). Now, if it is
assumed that this same magnetic flux is to pass through the reduced billet
area in the vicinity of the discontinuity, then the flux density present in this
section is greater than B1 and is equal to B1A·(A - a) –1, namely B2.

Keywords:
Magnetic field H is a vector quantity

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 This local increase of magnetic flux density results in a change of the
operating point on the magnetization curve from Q to Q´ and a corresponding
decrease of local permeability from P to P’. However, this results in
conflicting demands in the vicinity of the discontinuity. The magnetic flux
density must increase with a reduction of cross sectional area but this change
drives the permeability in the restricted region of the billet to a value less than
that present in the sound regions. Consequently, some of the flux leaks into
the surrounding medium near the discontinuity and is called a leakage field
(Fig. 4d). The detection of this leakage field is the basis of magnetic flux
leakage testing.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 3.2.3 Subsurface Discontinuities
If a discontinuity is farther below the surface, the difficulty of detecting these
magnetic leakage fields is much greater. The reason for this difficulty is that
the surrounding material tends to smooth out the field distortion due to the
subsurface discontinuity, thus resulting in a small field disturbance on the
surface of the billet.4 Because most detectors used to monitor the magnetic
leakage fields rely on a sharp change of field gradient to record the presence
of the field, it is naturally difficult to sense the location of subsurface
discontinuities, as illustrated in Fig. 5.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 5. Billet with subsurface discontinuity, showing resultant leakage
field.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 3.2.4 Degree of Initial Magnetization
The initial operating point on the permeability characteristic of the material
is very important. For example, if this point should lie to the left of μmax, as
illustrated by the point T in Fig. 4c, an increase of magnetic flux density with
an area reduction due to a discontinuity would drive the local permeability
higher than the permeability of a material free of discontinuities. Thus, there is
a possibility that the discontinuity may go undetected in these circumstances.
Moreover, if the initial magnetization of the material should locate the
operating point near saturation, then the difference between the magnetic flux
density in the material and the leakage magnetic field in the surrounding
medium decreases with increasing discontinuity cross sectional area.
Therefore, the problem of quantitatively detecting the discontinuities is
magnified because it becomes increasingly more difficult to discriminate
between the severity of the various heterogeneities. Also, because the degree
of magnetization is so great, the surface roughness is easily mistaken for
actual discontinuities and results in unwarranted rejection of test objects.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Therefore, there exists an upper and lower limit of magnetization to which a
test object should be subjected if the magnetic leakage field technique of
nondestructive testing is to be most successful. Magnetization of the test
object lies on the linear part of the magnetization curve in such a way that
the material permeability is maximum. Magnetization should not approach
saturation but should have a value of flux density that locates the initial
operating point of the material on the steepest part of the initial induction
curve. If the degree of magnetization is too low, discontinuities may go
unnoticed and, if the magnetization level is too high, a lack of discontinuity
discrimination may result in false indications.

Keywords:
■ If the degree of magnetization is too low, discontinuities may go
unnoticed and,
■ if the magnetization level is too high, a lack of discontinuity discrimination
may result in false indications.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Magnetic Flux Density “B” Field
The magnetic field can be defined in several equivalent ways based on the
effects it has on its environment.
Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged
particle. It is known from experiments in electrostatic that a particle of charge
q in an electric field E experiences a force F = qE. However, in other
situations, such as when a charged particle moves in the vicinity of a current-
carrying wire, the force also depends on the velocity of that particle.
Fortunately, the velocity dependent portion can be separated out such that
the force on the particle satisfies the Lorentz force law,

F = q (E+v x B)

Here v is the particle's velocity and x denotes the cross product. The vector B
is termed the magnetic field, and it is defined as the vector field necessary to
make the Lorentz force law correctly describe the motion of a charged particle.
This definition allows the determination of B in the following way

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 This definition allows the determination of B in the following way:
The command, "Measure the direction and magnitude of the vector B at such
and such a place," calls for the following operations: Take a particle of known
charge q. Measure the force on q at rest, to determine E. Then measure the
force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v in some other
direction. Now find a B that makes [the Lorentz force law] fit all these results -
that is the magnetic field at the place in question.

Alternatively, the magnetic field can be defined in terms of the torque it

produces on a magnetic dipole.

In SI units, B is measured in teslas (symbol: T) and correspondingly ΦB

(magnetic flux) is measured in webers (symbol: Wb) so that a flux density of
1 Wb/m2 is 1 tesla. The SI unit of tesla is equivalent to
(newton·second)/(coulomb·metre). In Gaussian-cgs units, B is measured in
gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Magnetic Field Intensity “H” Field
In addition to B, there is a quantity H, which is also sometimes called the
magnetic field. In a vacuum, B and H are proportional to each other, with the
multiplicative constant depending on the physical units. Inside a material they
are different (see H and B inside and outside of magnetic materials). The term
"magnetic field" is historically reserved for H while using other terms for B.
Informally, though, and formally for some recent textbooks mostly in physics,
the term 'magnetic field' is used to describe B as well as or in place of
H.There are many alternative names for both (see sidebar).

The H-field is measured in amperes per metre (A/m) in SI units, and in

oersteds (Oe) in cgs units.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 3.3 PART 3. Eddy Current Testing
3.3.1 Introduction
Eddy current techniques of nondestructive testing rely on the principles of
magnetic induction to interrogate the materials under test. A complete
understanding of the underlying physical process can only be gained
through Maxwell’s equations. However, the physical basis of the technique
can also be understood qualitatively. Eddy current testing is based on the fact
that, when a coil excited by an alternating current is brought close to a
material, the terminal impedance of the coil changes. The change is
associated with the fact that the primary field set up by the eddy current coil
induces eddy currents within the electrically conducting specimen.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 In conformity with Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced eddy currents and
consequently the secondary field generated by these currents oppose the
change in the primary field (Fig. 6). If the test object is non-ferromagnetic, the
magnetic flux leakage associated with the coil decreases because of the
opposing nature of the primary and secondary fields. Because the self-
inductance of the coil is defined as flux linkages per ampere, the inductance
of the coil decreases. Accompanying the decrease in inductance is an
increase in resistance, owing to the fact that the eddy current losses incurred
within the specimen have to be met by the source of primary excitation. This
loss manifests itself as a change in coil resistance.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 6. Alternating current coil over conducting test object, showing
opposite direction of primary and induced currents.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The presence of a discontinuity or heterogeneity in the test object causes a
reduction as well as a redistribution of the eddy currents. Consequently, the
changes in the inductance and resistance of the excitation coil are
correspondingly less.
Figure 7a shows how the impedance of a coil changes as it comes in contact
with non-ferromagnetic conducting specimens with and without discontinuities.
It should be noted that Fig. 7 greatly exaggerates these changes.
The underlying process is more complicated when the test object is
ferromagnetic. Counteracting the decrease in inductance (due to the influence
of eddy currents induced in the test object) is an increase in inductance
attributable to the higher permeability of the material. The latter effect
generally predominates, so the inductance of the coil increases when the coil
comes in contact with a ferromagnetic specimen (Fig. 7). The change in
inductance is also accompanied by an increase in resistance attributable to
the eddy current and hysteresis losses.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 7. Impedance plane trajectories of coil over specimens: (a) over
nonferromagnetic specimen; (b) over ferromagnetic specimen. Changes are
exaggerated for clarity

(a)

Legend
1. Coil in air.
2. Coil over specimen with discontinuity.
3. Coil over specimen without discontinuity.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 (b)

2?

Increase of reactance and resistance

due to flux leakage?

Legend
1. Coil in air.
2. Coil over specimen with discontinuity.
3. Coil over specimen without discontinuity.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 Keywords: when the coil comes in contact with the specimen,
• For non-magnetic material: an decrease in inductance attributed to the
opposing nature of the primary and secondary fields.
• For ferromagnetic material: an increase in inductance attributable to the
higher permeability of the material, this over-shadow the opposing
secondary field.
• In both cases, increase in resistance attributable to the loss in coil current
manifested as resistance.
• At defect: eddy current losses incurred within the specimen reduce the
opposing effects.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The variations in coil impedance caused by discontinuities in the test object
are often very small in comparison with the quiescent value of the coil
impedance. Detection and measurement of these small changes is often
accomplished using bridge circuits. In this regard, there is a useful distinction
between two kinds of probe coils: (1) absolute coils and (2) differential coils.
An absolute coil responds to the electromagnetic properties of the test object
in the magnetic field of the coil without comparison to the response of a
second coil. Differential coils are two or more coils connected in such a way
that electromagnetic differences in the regions beneath the coils will cause an
imbalance between them to be signaled.
A problem of the absolute eddy current probe is the difficulty of detecting
small changes in impedance, which are superimposed over the value in air. In
addition, changes in the coil parameters because of environmental factors
and liftoff can often mask changes due to discontinuities, making signal
interpretation very difficult.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 An alternative to the absolute eddy current probe is the differential eddy
current probe. Figure 8 shows a differential eddy current probe designed
for testing tubes. The probe consists of two identical coils mounted on the
same axis as the tube but spaced apart by a small distance. The two coils
form two arms of a bridge circuit as illustrated in Fig. 9. The bridge imbalance
signal is the voltage difference across the impedance of two coils. When the
probe is moved past a discontinuity, the change in impedance of the leading
coil when it scans a discontinuity results in an imbalance voltage. The
differential impedance traces a trajectory 0A0 in the impedance plane shown
in Fig. 10.8 Similarly, when the trailing coil scans the discontinuity, the
differential impedance traces the trajectory 0B0 in the opposite direction. The
shape of the impedance plane trajectory is a function of the nature of the
discontinuity. This information is used in inverting the measured eddy current
probe signal to determine the shape and size of the discontinuity.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 8. Differential eddy current probe for inspecting tubes from the inside.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 9. Alternating current bridge for measuring changes in impedance.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 10. Narrow axi-symmetric outside diameter groove having width less
than spacing of differential coil: (a) diagram; (b) impedance plane trajectory
obtained for groove.

(a) (b)

Impedance-phase
Legend diagram
R = resistance (relative scale)
X = reactance (relative scale)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 3.3.2 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity
In eddy current testing, instead of describing conductivity in absolute terms,
an arbitrary unit has been widely adopted. Because the relative conductivities
of metals and alloys vary over a wide range, a conductivity benchmark has
been widely used. In 1913, the International Electrochemical Commission
established that a specified grade of high purity copper, fully annealed -
measuring 1 m long, having a uniform section of 1 mm2 and having a
resistance of 17.241 mΩ at 20°C (1.7241x10-8 ohm-meter at 20°C) - would be
arbitrarily considered 100 percent conductive. The symbol for conductivity is
σ and the unit is Siemens per meter. Conductivity is also often expressed as
a percentage of the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS).

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Keywords:
 100% IACS – (high purity copper,
fully annealed - measuring 1 m
long, having a uniform section of 1
mm2 and having a resistance of
1.7241x10-8 ohm-meter at 20°C.
Absolute terms:
 Resistivity
ρ : 1.7241x10-8 ohm-meter at 20°C.
 Conductivity
1/ρ : (1.7241x10-8)-1 /ohm-meter or
5.8001 x 107 Siemens/m at 20°C

 Siemens = mho? Or (ohm)-1

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 The International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) establishes a standard for
the conductivity of commercially pure annealed copper. The standard was
established in 1913 by the International Electro technical Commission. The
Commission established that, at 20°C,commercially pure, annealed copper has
a resistivity ρ of 1.7241x10-8 ohm-meter or 1/ρ, 5.8001x107 Siemens/meter
when expressed in terms of conductivity.

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 The impedance of a test coil varies with the conductivity of a nearby material.
Figure 11 shows how the magnitude of impedance decreases with increasing
conductivity. The coil’s inductive reactance is plotted on the Y axis; coil
resistance is plotted on the X axis. The 0 percent conductivity point, or air
point, is when the coil’s empty reactance is maximum. Conductivity is
influenced by many factors. Figure 11 represents a measured conductivity
locus. Table 1 lists conductivities of materials with different chemical
compositions

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 FIGURE 11. Measured conductivity locus, with conductivity expressed in
Siemens per meter (percentages of International Annealed Copper Standard).

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 FIGURE 11M – with lift-Off line

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 Impedance diagrams and the conductivity curve at three different
frequencies
showing that, as frequency increases, the operating point moves down the conductivity curve. It
can also be seen that the angle θ between the conductivity and lift-off curve is quite small for
operating points near the top of the conductivity curve, but greater in the middle and lower parts
of the curve. The increased sensitivity to variations in conductivity towards the centre of the
conductivity curve can also be seen.

20KHz 100KHz 1000KHz

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 3.3.3 Impedance
The vector sum of the reactive and resistive components is impedance.
Impedance is a quantity with magnitude and direction directly proportional to
frequency. To construct a universal impedance diagram valid for all
frequencies, the impedance must be normalized.
XL = ωL = 2πf L
XC = 1/(ωC) = 1/ (2πf C)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Figure 12 shows a typical normalized impedance diagram. Primary
impedance ZP is affected by changes in frequency (ω = 2πf).

 Figure 12a represents primary impedance without a secondary circuit or

test object.
 Figure 12b illustrates the effect of frequency on primary impedance with a
secondary circuit or test object present.

The primary resistance R1 shown in Fig. 12a has been omitted from Fig. 12b
because resistance has a relatively small effect on frequency. The term ω
LSG in Fig. 12b represents a reference quantity for the secondary impedance,
where G is secondary conductance (Siemens) and ω LS is secondary
reactance (ohm).

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 12. Effect of frequency change: (a) primary impedance without
secondary circuit; (b) primary impedance with secondary circuit.

Legend
B, C, D, E, F = loci for selected
values of ZP
G = secondary conductance
ZP = primary impedance
ω = angular frequency = 2πf
f = frequency (Hz)
ωLS = secondary reactance

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Further normalization is accomplished by dividing the reactive and resistive
components by the primary inductive reactance ω L0 without a secondary
circuit present. In Fig. 13, the terms ω L·(ω L0)-1 and R·(ω L0)-1 represent the
relative impedance of the test coil as affected by the test object.

Signals generated by changes in ωL or R caused by test object conditions

such as surface and subsurface discontinuities (as well as variations in liftoff,
material thickness and conductivity) may be noted by Δ(ω L) or ΔR to indicate
a change in the impedance.

Keywords:
Normalization of signals:
Primary Induction Reactance XL = ωL0 .
Normalization: R’ = R/ ωL0 , X’L= ω L/(ω L0)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 13. Normalized impedance diagram for long coil encircling solid
cylindrical non-ferromagnetic bar and for thin wall tube. Coil fill factor = 1.0.

Legend
k = √(ωμσ) = electromagnetic wave
propagation constant for conducting material
r = radius of conducting cylinder (m)
μ = magnetic permeability of bar
(4 πx10–7 H·m–1 if bar is nonmagnetic)
σ= electrical conductivity of bar (S·m–1)
ω = angular frequency = 2πf
where f = frequency (Hz)

√(ω L0G) = equivalent of √(ωμσ) for

simplified electrical circuits,
where G = conductance (S) and
L0 = inductance in air (H)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Legend
k = √(ωμσ) = electromagnetic wave propagation constant for
conducting material
r = radius of conducting cylinder (m)
μ = magnetic permeability of bar (4 πx10–7 H·m–1 if bar is nonmagnetic)
σ= electrical conductivity of bar (S·m–1)
ω = angular frequency = 2πf where f = frequency (Hz)
√(ω L0G) = equivalent of √(ωμσ) for simplified electrical circuits,
where G = conductance (S) and L0 = inductance in air (H)

Deducing: ?
δ = √(2/ωμσ) = 1/√(ωμσ) = 1/k = 1/(πf μσ)½

For √(ω L0G) = √(ωμσ) , L0G = μσ

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 3.4 PART 4. Microwave Testing
3.4.1 Microwave Radiation
The term microwave is used to denote all electromagnetic radiation waves
whose frequencies lie between 0.3 and 300 GHz. These frequencies
correspond to a range of free space wavelengths in vacuum from about 1 m
(39 in.) to 1 mm (0.04 in.). In vacuum or air, microwaves travel at the velocity
of light, about 2.998x108 m·s-1 (671 million mi·h-1).

Microwaves in the frequency range above about 40 GHz are generally

referred to as millimeter waves because their wavelengths in free space are
conveniently measured in millimeters.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 As seen in Fig. 14, microwaves occupy that portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum between radio waves and infrared radiation. Microwaves are
common in daily life. The public first became familiar with them as the form of
energy used for radar. Microwave ovens are commonly used both to cook
and to dry foods. Telephone and communication circuits use microwave relay
stations to transmit signals over distances of many miles. Television signals
are often transmitted by means of microwaves and are sent and received by
dish antennas, which are used in larger sizes for space communications and
for radio astronomy. Guidance, tracking and control of spacecraft are made
possible by microwaves. Microwaves are also used for nondestructive testing
and spectroscopy.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 14. Electromagnetic spectrum wavelengths and frequencies.
Microwaves are between infrared and radio waves.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Radar

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 Military Radar- Blimp airborne

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 Military Radar- Blimp airborne

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://globalaviationreport.com/2014/12/29/first-u-s-army-missile-fighting-radar-blimp-airborne-on-east-coast/

 3.4.2 Basic Experimental Approach
Microwaves propagate readily through most nonmetallic materials. In contrast,
microwaves reflect almost completely from metal surfaces, penetrating only
microscopic distances below the surface. Figure 15 illustrates a typical
experimental setup for the microwave transmission technique. The basic idea
is that a nonmetallic (dielectric) test object is irradiated by microwave energy
from a transmitting horn antenna; the signal then travels through the sample
and is received by a receiving horn antenna. The phase difference between
the incident and the received signals is directly related to the slab thickness
and its relative permittivity εr , which in general is a complex parameter:

εr = εr’- jεr” (2)

Relative dielectric permittivity εr” is related to the attenuation experienced by
the signal while traveling through the slab. (Absolute permittivity is measured
in farad per meter; relative permittivity is a ratio, non-dimensional.)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 15. Measurement apparatus for transmission technique of
microwave testing.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 A microwave sweep oscillator is used to generate a swept frequency signal,
which is passed through an isolator and is then split into a test signal and a
reference signal. The reference signal becomes the input signal to the
reference channel of a microwave network analyzer. The test signal is fed
through another isolator, which prevents reflections from corrupting the
reference signal. After passing through a frequency meter, the signal
irradiates the sample under test through a small transmitting horn antenna.
The signal that propagates through the sample is then picked up by a small
receiving horn antenna and is subsequently directed to the test channel of the
network analyzer.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The network analyzer compares the amplitude and the phase of the test
signal with those of the reference signal. A lossless dielectric material (εr” = 0)
has a relative permittivity εr that is real and greater than 1. The wavelength λ
(meter) and the phase constant β (radian per meter) for an electromagnetic
wave propagating in such a dielectric are:

(3)

(4)

(5)

and where c is the speed of light (about 2.998 . 108 m·s-1) and f is frequency
(hertz). It is evident that the wavelength λ in a dielectric material is shorter
than wavelength λ0 in free space. Hence, a dielectric slab has a longer
electrical length than a column of air of equal thickness.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The electrical length is defined as the number of wavelengths between two
points. This reduction in wavelength causes a greater phase shift per unit
length for a wave propagating in the dielectric, which is used to determine
both the relative permittivity and the thickness of dielectric slabs.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Figure 16 shows the side and axial section views of an open ended coaxial
aperture for the microwave reflection technique. This technique is used for
evaluation of surface cracks in metals. The dominant mode of operation for
coaxial lines is the transverse electromagnetic mode. The word transverse
refers to the fact that the directions of the electric (radial) lines and magnetic
field (concentric) lines are orthogonal to each other and both are orthogonal
to the direction of energy propagation (along the coaxial line), as shown in Fig.
17.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 16. Open ended coaxial aperture for microwave reflection technique
for evaluation of surface cracks in metals: (a) side view; (b) axial view.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 FIGURE 17. Field distributions and relative crack geometry at coaxial probe
aperture, illustrating arrangement of transverse electromagnetic mode.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 When a coaxial line is cut at one end and is terminated by a metal plate, it is
said to be short circuited. As a result, the electric field at the plate (the short
circuit) is totally reflected with a phase shift of 180 degrees. When a crack is
introduced in the metal plate, nearly all of the incident signal is reflected.
However, the phase of the reflected signal depends on the frequency of
operation, coaxial aperture dimensions, the dimensions of the crack and its
location in the open ended coaxial aperture. The length of the crack exposed
to the probing aperture changes as a function of the scanning distance, as
can be seen in Fig. 17. One may use a vector network analyzer and measure
the change in the magnitude and phase of the reflection coefficient. However,
a relatively small, simple and inexpensive reflectometer or phase detector
may be designed and constructed using discrete microwave components. In
this way, a direct current voltage proportional to the magnitude or phase of
the reflection coefficient can be measured and recorded to indicate the
presence and the properties of a crack.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 ASNT EMT-BOK is Microwave Testing Included?

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://asnt.org/MajorSiteSections/Certification/ASNT%20NDT%20Level%20III%20Program/NDT%20Level%20III%20Examinations

 About Electromagnetic Testing (ET)
Electromagnetic testing is a general test category that includes eddy current testing, alternating
current field measurement (acfm), and remote field testing. While magnetic particle testing is
also an electromagnetic test, due to its widespread use it is considered a stand-alone test
method rather as than an electromagnetic testing technique. All of these techniques use the
induction of an electric current or magnetic field into a conductive part, then the resulting
effects are recorded and evaluated.

Topical Outline
This examination is 4 hours in length, having 135 questions of equal value.
1. Principles/Theory
2. Equipment Materials
1. Probes
2. Factors affecting choice of sensing elements
3. Read out selection
4. Instrument design considerations
3. Techniques/Calibrations
1. Factors which affect coil impedance
2. Selection of test frequency
3. Coupling
4. Field strength
4. Interpretation/Evaluation
5. Procedures

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://asnt.org/MajorSiteSections/Certification/ASNT_NDT_Level_III_Program/Electromagnetic_Testing_Outline.aspx

 References
The number in parentheses following each reference is the ASNT catalog
number.

 Level III Study Guide: Eddy Current Testing (2257)

 NDT Handbook: Volume 5, Electromagnetic Testing (145)
 Fundamentals of Eddy Current Testing (470)
 Supplement to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (Q&A Book) - Eddy Current/Flux
Leakage Testing Method (2030)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Level III
ML - Magnetic Flux Leakage
Topical Outline
This examination is 2 hours in length, having 90 questions of equal value.
 Principles/Theory Flux leakage theory
 Förster and other theories
 Finite element methods
 DC flux leakage/AC flux leakage

 Equipment/Materials Detectors
 Coils
 Factors affecting choice of sensing elements
 Read out selection
 Instrument design considerations

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://asnt.org/MajorSiteSections/Certification/ASNT_NDT_Level_III_Program/Magnetic_Flux_Leakage_Outline.aspx

  Techniques/Standardization Consideration affecting choice of test
 Coupling
 Field strength
 Comparison of techniques
 Standardization
 Techniques – general
 Interpretation/Evaluation Flaw detection
 Process control
 General interpretations
 Defect characterization
 Standards
 Procedures

References
The number in parentheses following each reference is the ASNT catalog number.
 The MFL Compendium: Articles on Magnetic Flux Leakage (212)
 NDT Handbook: Third Edition, Volume 5, Electromagnetic Testing (145)
 NDT Handbook: Third Edition, Volume 8, Magnetic Testing (148)
 Supplement to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (Q&A Book) - Electromagnetic
Testing Method (2030)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Chapter Four:
Modeling of Electromagnetic Testing

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 4.1 PART 1. Modeling of Phenomena for Electromagnetic Testing

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 4.2 PART 2. Modeling of Homogeneous Conducting Media

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 4.3 PART 3. Analytical and Integral Models for Simulating Cracks
4.3.1 Introduction
Eddy current nondestructive testing uses inductive probes to excite currents
in electrical conductors. The simple fact that the coil carrying an alternating
current can sense a discontinuity in a metal is intuitively easy to understand
but evaluating the signal for a given configuration of coil and discontinuity is
not always easy. The present discussion describes calculations of probe
signals from cracks, starting with a review of the basic theoretical concepts
and moving on to a number of related techniques for evaluating probe
response. Early investigators applied concepts from other fields of
electromagnetism to problems in eddy current testing. The researcher in
relatively unexplored areas of electromagnetic theory inevitably brings
concepts from the parent discipline and adapts them for the new field of
investigation.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 As advances in the new area begin to mature, the new discipline adopts
distinct themes and approaches that are successful and rewarding. At the end
of the twentieth century, eddy current nondestructive testing was at a point of
early maturity. Basic problems had been solved satisfactorily yet many
problems remained open and relatively underdeveloped. This discussion of
crack theory briefly reviews a few significant early developments relevant to
the treatment of crack problems in eddy current testing, including the analysis
of the spherical inclusion and the penny shaped crack.
Recent advanced developments in the evaluation of crack signals are then
briefly outlined. Two approaches are described:
(1) integral techniques that represent the effect of a discontinuity in terms of
dipole distribution and
(2) approaches valid at high frequencies that use small approximations of
standard depth of penetration.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The rest are………

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 You don’t need to be a Scientist to qualify as a Level III

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The Rests are…………..

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 4.4 PART 4. Computer Modeling of Eddy Current Fields

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Good Luck!

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Good Luck!

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang