UNIT 1

What does Computer Architecture mean?

Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and hardware technology standards interact
to form a computer system or platform. In short, computer architecture refers to how a computer system is designed
and what technologies it is compatible with.
As with other contexts and meanings of the word architecture, computer architecture is likened to the art of
determining the needs of the user/system/technology, and creating a logical design and standards based on those
requirements.

Computer Architecture
A very good example of computer architecture is von Neumannn architecture, which is still used by most types of
computers today. This was proposed by the mathematician John von Neumannn in 1945. It describes the design of
an electronic computer with its CPU, which includes the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, memory for
data and instructions, an input/output interface and external storage functions.
There are three categories of computer architecture:

 System Design: This includes all hardware components in the system, including data processors aside from
the CPU, such as the graphics processing unit and direct memory access. It also includes memory controllers, data
paths and miscellaneous things like multiprocessing and virtualization.
 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): This is the embedded programming language of the central processing
unit. It defines the CPU's functions and capabilities based on what programming it can perform or process. This
includes the word size, processor register types, memory addressing modes, data formats and the instruction set that
programmers use.
 Microarchitecture: Otherwise known as computer organization, this type of architecture defines the data
paths, data processing and storage elements, as well as how they should be implemented in the ISA.

Architecture of Computer System

Computer is an electronic machine that makes performing any task very easy. In computer, the CPU executes each
instruction provided to it, in a series of steps, this series of steps is called Machine Cycle, and is repeated for each
instruction. One machine cycle involves fetching of instruction, decoding the instruction, transferring the
data, executing the instruction.
Computer system has five basic units that help the computer to perform operations, which are given below:
1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Storage Unit
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit
5. Control Unit
Input Unit
Input unit connects the external environment with internal computer system. It provides data and instructions to the
computer system. Commonly used input devices are keyboard, mouse, magnetic tape etc.
Input unit performs following tasks:

 Accept the data and instructions from the outside environment.

 Convert it into machine language.
 Supply the converted data to computer system.

Output Unit
It connects the internal system of a computer to the external environment. It provides the results of any computation,
or instructions to the outside world. Some output devices are printers, monitor etc.
Storage Unit
This unit holds the data and instructions. It also stores the intermediate results before these are sent to the output
devices. It also stores the data for later use.
The storage unit of a computer system can be divided into two categories:

 Primary Storage

This memory is used to store the data which is being currently executed. It is used for temporary storage of data.
The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. RAM is used as primary storage memory.

 Secondary Storage

The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than primary memory. It is used for permanent storage of data.
Commonly used secondary memory devices are hard disk, CD etc.
Arithmetic Logical Unit
All the calculations are performed in ALU of the computer system. The ALU can perform basic operations such as
addition, subtraction, division, multiplication etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the
data from storage unit to ALU. When the operations are done, the result is transferred back to the storage unit.
Control Unit
It controls all other units of the computer. It controls the flow of data and instructions to and from the storage unit to
ALU. Thus it is also known as central nervous system of the computer.
CPU
It is Central Processing Unit of the computer. The control unit and ALU are together known as CPU. CPU is the
brain of computer system. It performs following tasks:
 It performs all operations.
 It takes all decisions.
 It controls all the units of computer.

What is the Difference Between Von Neumannn and Harvard Architecture?

Differences between Von Neumann Architecture and Harvard Architecture

In present days, the audio & video is totally digitized. When the audio signal is out of any audio source or
microphone, then the analog will be sampled, coded, modulated, compressed & processed into the digital form like
zero’s and one’s, so it is named as DSP (Digital Signal Processing). The remaking of digital signal into audio signal
is done by the digital signal processing. The architecture of traditional X86 is called “Von Neumannn”, and it is not
suitable for handling several algorithms to route this type of digital data. The most popular “Harvard Architecture”
is used to handle complex DSP algorithms, and this algorithm is used in most popular and advanced RISC machine
processors.

Von Neumann Architecture

A Von Neumann architecture is nothing but it is an art that how an electronic computer can be stored. This is not a
new concept at all and for a long time it has been there and we are following the principle of this Von Neumann
architecture. If we will go back in history, it is quite evident that the Von Neumann architecture was first published
in John von Neumannn’s report in June 30, 1945 and since then the same principle is being implemented for the
storing of electronic computers.

Von Neumann Architecture

Application and Features of the Von Neumann Architecture

The Von Neumann architecture has got extensive application in everyday life. Keeping in mind the extensive
application the Von Neumann architecture has been introduced as a subject in the engendering degree. From the
third semester engineering students will have the subject as their curriculum. The Von Neumann architecture
consists of some important features.

Memory: We all know that the Von Neumann is nothing but a computer having the feature of data storage. In the
architecture of the Von Neumann the memory plays a vital role and it is considered as one of the important feature.
Mainly this is responsible for both holding and starting of data and programming data. In modern days this has been
replaced by the RAM and now we are using RAM for this purpose.

Control Unit: This unit is mainly responsible for the controlling aspect. All the data stored in the memory and
during the processing of data the control unit plays the role and it manages the data flow. In fact, to be more
typically it is “One At A Time”. The control unit follows the principle of the One At A Time and accordingly it
process all the data.
Input– output: Like all electronics devices the Von Neumann architecture also has an input/output architecture. It
is the basic function is same and nothing specially has been designed for the input and output architecture. With the
Input and output device on a person can communicate with the device.

ALU: ALU or the Arithmetic Logic Unit has a great importance in the Von Neumann architecture. Any sort of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of the data will be carried out by this ALU. In addition to that any
other kind of algorithmic function and activities will be carried out by the ALU. These are the basic aspect of the
Von Neumann architecture which you must aware of.

Features of the Von Neumann Architecture

Harvard Architecture

The Harvard architecture is nothing but a kind of storage of data. When it comes to the physical storage of the data
the Harvard architecture always stood first. Though the concept is a not a new one still the Harvard architecture has
got huge appreciation from all. The Harvard Mark I relay-based computer is the term from where the concept of the
Harvard architecture first arises and then onwards there has been a significant development with this architecture.
The main function of this architecture is to separate and physical storage of the data and giving the signal pathways
for instruction and data.

Harvard Architecture
Application and Features of the Harvard Architecture

It has got an extensive application in the audio and video processing products and with every audio and video
processing instrument you will notice the presence of Harvard architecture. Blackfin processors by Analog Devices,
Inc. is the particular device where it has got a premier use. In other electronic chip based product the Harvard
architecture is also widely used.
Memory Status

In the previous architecture, we have witnessed the presence of two memories. However, in case of the Harvard
architecture you will not find two memory and there will be one memory. The existing memory will be able to
perform all the functions. Yes, there will be only read only memory and this memory will be used for the purpose of
reading, coding, decoding and storing of data.

The speed aspect

A lot has been discussed about the Harvard architecture, but without the speed any architecture can’t be accepted.
But in case of the Harvard architecture the manufacturers have designed the architecture in such a way that it will be
able to process the data with a much higher speed. Yes, all care has been taken so that the architecture can process
data with a high speed.

By implementing the same formula the modern days CPU are being manufactured so that the new CPU can run with
a much faster sped and can also process the data effectively. The concept of the CPU cache is also being
implemented while designing the Harvard architecture.

Why Harvard Architecture is Effective?

After coming across all, the fact definitely one question will strike to your mind that why Harvard architecture is so
effective. The answer is quite clear and simple that the architecture is able to read an instruction and it can also
perform data memory access simultaneously at a fast speed. Hence the Harvard architecture is being widely
accepted.

Features of the Harvard Architecture

Difference between Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture

The features and the specifications of both the architectures are discussed and the basic function of both
architectures is to design the computer architecture. However, in certain aspects, both the architectures differ from
one another and here we will elaborate the basic difference between the Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture.

Whenever you are watching a video it is synchronized between the audio and the video. If the audio microphone or
chip goes out of control you can’t enjoy the video and vice versa, and the same concept is applicable here also.

The Von Neumann is a kind of architecture which is more prominently seen in the case of the conventional
processor and in today also the same principle is being implemented. PCs and Servers, and embedded systems are
coming under the conventional and the traditional processors which run only with control function and here you will
notice the Van Neumann architecture.

On the contrast the Harvard architecture is seen in the case of the modern and the latest processors like DSPs and
other processors. In addition to the above Mobile communication systems, audio, speech and image processing
systems are the place where you will find the application of the Harvard architecture.
In Von Neumann both the data and the programs are ignored in same memory, but in the later case separate memory
is used for the above purpose. Hence, in the storing the data aspect both differs from each other.

Von Neumann and Harvard Architectures for Memory

Coding also differ in both the architecture. The Von Neumann is a kind of architecture where you will find that the
codes are executed serially and takes more clock cycles, whereas in case of the later the same does not happen. The
Harvard architecture follows a parallel level of coding.

You will not find excessive number of multiplier in the case of the Von Neumann architecture, but in case of the
Harvard architecture you will find a large number of the multiplier. In addition to that, both architectures differ from
each other in various aspects like presence of barrel shifter, optimization of programming, processing speed and lot
more.

Parallel Processing
The simultaneous use of more than one CPU to execute a program. Ideally, parallel processing makes a
program run faster because there are more engines (CPUs) running it. In practice, it is often difficult to divide a
program in such a way that separate CPUs can execute different portions without interfering with each other.
Most computers have just one CPU, but some models have several. There are even computers with thousands of
CPUs. With single-CPU computers, it is possible to perform parallel processing by connecting the computers in
a network. However, this type of parallel processing requires very sophisticated software called distributed
processing software.
Note that parallel processing differs from multitasking, in which a single CPU executes several programs at once.

Parallel Processing and Data Transfer Modes in a Computer System

Instead of processing each instruction sequentially, a parallel processing system provides concurrent data
processing to increase the execution time.
In this the system may have two or more ALU's and should be able to execute two or more instructions at the same
time. The purpose of parallel processing is to speed up the computer processing capability and increase its
throughput.
NOTE: Throughput is the number of instructions that can be executed in a unit of time.
Parallel processing can be viewed from various levels of complexity. At the lowest level, we distinguish between
parallel and serial operations by the type of registers used. At the higher level of complexity, parallel processing can
be achieved by using multiple functional units that perform many operations simultaneously.
Data Transfer Modes of a Computer System ( these are the four classification of parallel processing system
by Flynn)
According to the data transfer mode, computer can be divided into 4 major groups:

1. SISD
2. SIMD
3. MISD
4. MIMD

SISD (Single Instruction Stream, Single Data Stream)

It represents the organization of a single computer containing a control unit, processor unit and a memory unit.
Instructions are executed sequentially. It can be achieved by pipelining or multiple functional units.
SIMD (Single Instruction Stream, Multiple Data Stream)
It represents an organization that includes multiple processing units under the control of a common control unit. All
processors receive the same instruction from control unit but operate on different parts of the data.
They are highly specialized computers. They are basically used for numerical problems that are expressed in the
form of vector or matrix. But they are not suitable for other types of computations
MISD (Multiple Instruction Stream, Single Data Stream)
It consists of a single computer containing multiple processors connected with multiple control units and a common
memory unit. It is capable of processing several instructions over single data stream simultaneously. MISD structure
is only of theoretical interest since no practical system has been constructed using this organization.
MIMD (Multiple Instruction Stream, Multiple Data Stream
It represents the organization which is capable of processing several programs at same time. It is the organization of
a single computer containing multiple processors connected with multiple control units and a shared memory unit.
The shared memory unit contains multiple modules to communicate with all processors simultaneously.
Multiprocessors and multicomputer are the examples of MIMD. It fulfills the demand of large scale computations.