Journal of Archaeology and Fine Arts in Southeast Asia

Published by the SEAMEO Regional Centre for Archaeology

and Fine Arts (SPAFA)

Open Access http://www.spafajournal.org

Terracotta Votive Tablets from Catubhummika

Hngak Twin Monastery, Thaton

Khin Ma Ma Mu Received January 13, 2017

Professor (Rtd) Accepted October 18, 2017
Archaeology Department, Dagon Published [month] [00], [0000]
University DOI:
Yangon, Myanmar http://dx.doi.org/10.26721/spafajournal.v1i0.159
[email protected]

Copyright:
@2017 SEAMEO SPAFA and author.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original author and source are
credited.

Abstract
Recent excavations from Stubhummika monastery, Thaton yielded over 2000
terracotta votive tablets, among them 1350 in good condition with others fragments.
The study of these finds is based on the style of Buddha and Bodhisattava, decorative
elements (stupas, sikhara, parasol and throne). These are compared with the
contemporary tablets from Mon State, Śriksetra, Vesali and Bagan, and outside of
Myanmar from India, central and peninsular Thailand and west Java to establish a
comparative chronology. From this systematic approach, these tablets were divided
into three groups: 1) Buddha (seated or standing Buddha, flanked by stupas), 2)
Buddha Triad, and 3) Episodes of the Buddha. Their progression shows they are not
be earlier than the 8th -9th century CE and not later than the 11th century CE.

Keywords: Thaton, Buddhist art, religious culture, archaeology

Introduction
An assemblage of 1350 complete and 2000 fragmentary terracotta votive
tablets was unearthed during 2015 rescue excavations at Catubhummika Monastery,
Thaton (16° 54′N and 97° 22′E) providing a significant addition to in situ data from
SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Thaton (San Win 2015; Fig. 1). The assemblage is a significant addition to in situ data
from which to understand the Buddhism of Thaton between the 8th and 11th centuries
CE.

Fig. 1 Location of Catubhumikka Monastery, Thaton. Source: U San Win.

The votive tablets were discovered in 2015, when the abbot, Bhaddanta
Tikkhañāna of Catubhummika monastery decided to build a corridor around the tomb
of his deceased teacher Hngak-twin Sayatawkyi who passed away in 19101. The
corridor had an octagonal plan. A total of eight pits - CBK1 to CBK8 - were
excavated under the corridor between May and November 2015. Pits CBK1, CBK2,
CBK3 and CBK7 each measure 3.35 square meters while CBK2, CBK3, CBK4,
CBK6 and CBK8 are 2.15 square meters. The votive tablets used in this classification
came from pits CBK1, CBK2, CBK6 and CBK7. Within each pit, deposits were

Page 2 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

ISSN 2586-8721
 Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

found at multiple depths but further documentation was not possible as the renovation
of the tomb proceeded (Table 1; Figure 2).

Date No of Votive Grid Square Depth

Tablets
15-Jun-15 47 CBK6-CBK7 137.16 CM
15-Jun-15 46 CBK1- CBK2 152.4 CM
152.4CM – 213.36
15-Jul-15 190 CBK6
CM
152.4CM – 213.36
15-Jul-15 400 CBK2
CM
152.4CM – 213.36
8-Aug-15 290 CBK1
CM
152.4CM – 213.36
15-Sep-15 400 CBK2
CM
152.4CM – 213.36
23-Nov-15 377 CBK7
CM

Table 1 Votive Tablets per grid square and depth.

Fig. 2 Excavated finds from the Catubhummika (CBK) site in octagonal layout. Source: Bhaddanta
Tikkañāna.

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 3 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Other excavated objects and laterite pillars

Potsherds were discovered in CBK1-4, 6and 7, and iron nails and fragments in
CBK 4 and 8. Finds from other pits include potsherds, libation jar spouts from CBK 1
and 3 and iron fragments all support the proposed 9-11th century chronology. Another
significant find was three laterite pillars excavated from CBK1, CBK2 and CBK7.
The pillars which have the inner holes are associated with deposits of votive tablets.
Each pillar appears to have been made to support a pile of votive tablets as the tablets
were found heaped on top of, or placed in a cavity on average 10 cm deep made on
top of the pillar.

Fig. 3 Left: (Pillar support from CBK1, CBK2 and CBK7). Right: Heap of votive tablets on a laterite
pillar support. Source: U San Win.

Table 2. Laterite pillar supports

No of Laterite CBK 7
CBK 1 CBK 2 CBK 7
pillar Inner hole

Photograph
courtesy by
Bhaddanta
Tikkhañāna

Height 35.56cm,
Diameter
Height 34.29cm, Height Height
27.94cm, Inner
Diameter 30.48cm, Inner 36.83cm, 16.51cm,
Measurement hole depth
hole depth 11.43cm, Diameter Diameter
15.24cm,
Diameter 13.97cm 26.67cm 10.16cm
Diameter 10.16cm

Table 2 Laterite pillar supports found in CBK. Source: Bhaddanta Tikkañāna.

The pillars and libation jars indicate the previous use of this location for ritual
purposes long before the tomb construction in 1910. The largest number of votive
tablets was from CBK2 on the south with 400, CBK7 on the northeast with 377,
CBK1 on the southeast with 290, CBK6 on the north with 190. An additional 47
tablets were found at the corner of CBK6 and 7 on the north, and 46 at the corner of
CBK1 and 2 on the south. No tablets were recovered from any of the pits on the west
or east, possibly because the image of the Buddha faced in this direction.

Page 4 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

ISSN 2586-8721
Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Votive Tablet classification

The 1350 excavated votive tablets are divided into three groups:
1) Buddha Triad
2) Single Buddha and stupas
3) Episodes from the life of the Buddha

These groups are described below based on the size and shape of the tablets,
the mudrā and asana of the figures of the Buddha and bodhisattva and decorative
details including the finial, arched pediment, stupas and the narrative scenes.
Group 1: Buddha Triad
Group1, Type 1

Fig, 4 Left: Type1 Buddha Triad with five DhyāniBuddhas [13 x 7.5 x 1.5cm]. Right: Fragment of
Type1. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

Type 1 has a rectangular base and a pointed top. There are nine tablets of
Type1in good condition and eight broken ones among the excavated finds. The Type
1 tablets have two Panels depicting the five Dhyāni Buddhas on the upper part, and
the Buddhist Triad and the two disciples at the Buddha’s foot on the lower panel. All
six Buddhas bear a halo and sit on lotus throne. At the upper panel, the topmost
Buddha sits in dhyānāsana and bhūmis̩ parśamudrā flanked by a Buddha in
dharmacakramudrā (vyākhyānamudrā) and dhyānāsana on each side. Under three
seated Buddhas, there are two Buddhas in dhyānāsana and dhyānamudrā
(Samadhimudrā) at the level of the halo over the main figure.

The lower row is the Buddhist Triad with the Buddha (main figure) in
bhadrāsana (pralambapadāsana) with the right hand in vitarka mudrā and left hand
resting on the lap. The main figure is flanked by a pair of crownless standing

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 5 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Bodhisattva (Maitreya at the right side of Buddha and Avaokokiteśvarato the left) in
tribaṅgha pose with haloes. Their inner hands are raised in ?abhayamudrā and outer
hands are hanging down. At both sides of the Buddha’s feet there are two kneeling
figures in namaskāramudrā, probably the pre-eminent disciples Aggasāvaka Sāriputra
and Moggalāna. This tablet is exactly the same as a broken tablet found in Śriksetra
which is assigned to the date of 9th-10th century CE (U Mya 1961).

Similar tablets (three seated Buddhas and Buddha Triad) were found in Vasali
(Rakhine 8th century CE, see Nyunt Han and Kyaw Oo Lwin 2015), Kyaikkami (8th
century CE; Temple 1894), Winka (Thaton 6th-7th centuries CE, See Myint Aung
1999:40-42, 52-53, Plate VIII) and Kawgon (Mon State 6th-7th century CE; U Mya
1961), Thailand (8th century CE, Cœdès 1926) and West Java (7th-8th century CE,
see Manguin and Indrajaya 2006; Revire 2012).

This Type 1 tablet seems to be a new sub- type which was made by emulating
the previous ones mentioned above. The styles and facial appearance and the body of
Buddha in bhadrāsana post resemble those of the Pala period in India.Type 1 tablets
are probably datable to the 9th-10th century CE. The style of bhadrāsana position was
popular until 18th century CE, and many such figures can be seen on the wall of
Kawgun cave in Karan state, Myanmar.
Group 1 Type 2: Three seated Buddhas
The Type 2 votive tablet has a rectangular base and a rounded top. The Type 2
Buddha Triad tablets show three seated Buddhas. The central Buddha is in
dharmacakramudrā and dhyānāsana seated on double lotus throne flanked by a
nirmāna kaya or nimmita Buddha seated on double lotus throne on each side. They
are probably seated in dhyānāsana with dharmacakramudrā. This episode probably
represents the Episode of the Twin Miracle or the First Sermon, the latter because
some votive tablets with the Eight Episodes of Buddha’s life include this scene. Two
sub-types are shown below with the different arrangement of figures below the throne
noted in the text.
Group 1, Type 2
Under the throne there seems to be four or five persons. The middle one is a
crowned Bodhisattva seated in Rājalilāsana with the left hand raised and palm
upward, and the right hand resting on the knee. The person at the left corner of the
tablet is probably Śakti (the consort of Bodhisattva) or a Bodhisattva kneeling on one
leg and the other one is raised. The left hand is raised on the left knee with palm
upward in the same mudrā as the Bodhisattva in the middle with the right hand bent
into chest (discussion posture?). The other person is standing beside the middle
Bodhisattva and the adjoining two figures also appear to be standing and sitting.
There is a single lotus line at the base of votive tablet. The styles of these figures
alternate in their placement between left to right (Type 2A) and in the opposite
direction (Type 2B).

Page 6 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

ISSN 2586-8721
Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Fig. 5 Left: Type 2A [8.5 x6 x 1.5 cm]. Right: Type 2B. [9 x 6.3 x 1.5 cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma
Mu.

Their styles and postures are similar to the Bodhisattva figures of the tablets
from Śriksetra (U Mya 1961 and Duroiselle, Charles (1931)). U Mya suggested that
there might have been connections between Śriksetra and Nalandain Bihar, India as
well as Thailand and the Malay Peninsula due to the letter ‘Sri nalandaya’ (See U
Mya: Fig 85).They are presumed here to date to the 9th - 10th century CE based on
the same asana and mudrā of Buddha and Bodhisattva on votive tablets from
Śriksetra.
Group 1, Type 3: Crowned Sakyamuni Buddha or crowned Nirmāna Buddha

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 7 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Fig. 6 Group 1, Type 3 Three Nirmāna-kāya crowned Buddhas, 9th-10th century CE [12 x 6.7 x 1.5
cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

The Type 3 votive tablet has a rectangular base and pointed top. It can be
compared to one with a rim from Śriksetra (9th-10th century CE) (U Mya 1961: Fig
73). The tablet has a htupika (stupika) finial with an amalaka (stone disk with ridges;
Myanmar call this ‘Phayon tone’) on the apex of the śikhara. It seems that a ceti is
under the śikhara. There is a flying deity and two miniature stupas on each side of the
śikhara. Under the flying deities on both side of śikhara, the Bodhi tree is depicted.
Besides the pediment, each Byāla or lion is depicted in standing profile. At the base,
under the throne, there is a deer at the both corners. A further five persons are in
standing and sitting positions, probably Māra’s army, often seen at Catubhumikka
votive tablets with the Enlightenment of the Buddha and Buddha Triad.

A crowned Buddha sits in dharmacakramudrā and dhyanāsana between two

crowned nirmān̩ a Buddha in dharmacakramudrā and sitting with lalitāsana-one leg
raised and one hanging under the large trefoil arch (See Luce 1969-70 vol. 1:174).
These three Buddhas sit on the double lotus throne and arefront-facing. Inside the
upper śikhara are also miniature three seated Buddhassimilar to the main three figures
inside the trefoil arch. These three Buddha figures probably represent the Nirmāna-
kāya- Sakyamuni Buddha. According to the Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Tri-Kāya or
three kinds of Bodies of the Buddha are explained as follows:

…it is believed that Buddha has three kinds of body. (1) Dharma-
kāya: This is ‘Dharma Body or Body of Reality’which is formless,
unchanging and transcendental. Its synonyms are Suchness (Tathatā)
and Voidness (Suññata). (2) Sambhoga-kāya: Amitābhā Buddha etc.
who presides over the Pure Land is the ‘Celestial Body of Enjoyment’.
(3) Nirmāna-kāya: In order to benefit the world, a Buddha incarnates
Himself into the human body. Sakyamuni Buddha and so on, who had
attained Buddhahood, are the ‘Incarnated Body’ (U Nyanawara
2014:47).

Further comparisons can be made to a triad on the upper part of the Trapold
Mon inscription of King Makuta (circa 1015 CE) found atthe Shwesayan pagoda in
Thaton and Śriksetra as well (Luce 1969-70; U Mya 1961). However, the disciples
flanking the Buddha from the Trap inscription are in namaskāramudra which are
different to those from the figures of this type. Professor Luce mentioned the mudras
of disciples in dharmacakramudrāas follows.

…similarly shows a crowned Buddha seated crosslegged in

dharmacakramudrā. On each side, in pralambapanāsana, sits
sideways but face front a nirmāna Buddha, crownless, also in
dharmacakramudrā. The scene should be the Twin Miracle, but below
the lotus seat appears the Wheel, with Deer on each side, i.e. the First
Sermon!” (Luce 1969-70)

It is supposed to be of the episode of the First Sermon due to the inclusion of

the wheel and deer. The date of the tablet as Śriksetra assigned by U Mya is 9th-10th

Page 8 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

ISSN 2586-8721
Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

century CE, before the reign of King Aniruddha, Bagan. The suggestion of Mahayana
patronage of the king during the 10th century CE is supported by these tablets.
Group 1, Type 4: Enlightenment (4A) and First Sermon(4B)

Fig. 7 Left: Type 4A [11x6 x 2.5 cm]. Right: Type 4B [8 x 4.5 x 2 cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

The Type 4 votive tablet has a rectangular base and an almost pointed top.
Type 4A shows the Enlightenment of Buddha and 4B depicts the First Sermon. Both
Type 4A and 4B depict the Mahayanist Buddha Triad. Another difference between
the two types is the depiction of the daughters of Māra under the double lotus throne
of Buddha and Bodhisattva in Type 4A and the dharmacakrā wheel under the double
lotus throne of Type 4B. The main Buddha image of both Type 4A and 4B sits in
dhyānāsana and bhūmis̩ parśamudrā inside the trefoil arch with three receding roofs
surmounted by a Bodhi śikhara and a stupa finial. Type 4A has a longer finial than
type 4B.

At each side of the Buddha is a Bodhisattva possibly, Maitreya and

Avaokokiteśvara (Lokanātha), in virāsana (one knee raised and the foot locked in the
bend of the other, see Than Tun 1978) with the right or left hand raised on the knee in
an unclear mudra with the other hand bending onto chest. On the sides of the śikhara
are the branches and leaves of the Bodhi tree. A harmika (square shaped relic
chamber of the Sri Lankan type) is surmounted by a Śikhara and a top finial. Type 4A
has a curving of floral pattern around the sides of Śikhara. According to the style of

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 9 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

the Maha Bodhi śikhara and Bodhisattvas the tablet may be dated to the 9th-10th
century CE.
Group 1, Type 5: Buddha on Khou nan: gjou: throne flanked by Bodhisattva

Fig. 8 [7.5 x 4.5 x 2 cm]. Source: U San Win.

The shape of Type 5 is a rectangular base and almost pointed top. The votive
tablet seems to have not been baked well due to the irregularity of its coloration. The
Buddha is seated in dhyānāsana and bhūmis̩ parśamudrā on a Khou nan: gjou: throne
(the projecting corners on throne). The type is unlike other thrones of votive tablets
found in Catubhummika monastery. The Buddha is inside the niche surmounted by a
śikhara and top finial. The Buddha is flanked by two standing Bodhisattva facing
inwards with outer hand in (?)mahākārunikamudrā and the inner one hanging.
Comparing the throne and śikhara to that of Bagan, this style is probably dated to the
9th-10th century CE before King Aniruddha of Bagan.
Group 2: Buddha and stupas
Group 2 is described first in relation to the Buddha image and second by the
finial and type of calac (pediment). There are three types of finial on the niche of the
Taṁkai (rear section of the throne of the Buddha): umbrella, stupa and śikhara-type.

1. Umbrella (chattravali) finial

1.1. Umbrella finial supported by a long pole, 9th-11th century CE in
Myanmar, Group 2, Type 4.1
1.2. Umbrella as the top finial, 7th-8th century CE in India, 9th-12th century CE
in Myanmar, Group2, Type 4.2
2. Stupa finial on harmika (Relic chamber type), ?9th-11th century CE, (Group 2,
Type 5)
3. Śikhara finial with amalaka
3.1. Śikhara on stupa (Group 1, Buddha Triad, Type 3; another example from
Śriksetra 9th-10th century CE, see U Mya 1961 vol. 2)

Page 10 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

3.2. Śikhara finial with amalaka; śikhara or spire on the arch pediment with
amalaka between the śikhara and top finial of Bodhi calac; 10th-11th
century CE (Group 2, Type 6.1 to 6.5)

Group2, Type1: Seated Buddha

Fig.9 [9x6.5 x 1cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

A single image of the Buddha in dhyānāsana and bhūmis̩parśamudrā sits on a

double lotus throne. The face and hair knot is unclear. It may be a local product,
indicated by the fuzziness of the image, or this may be due to weathering. This tablet
seems to be dated to the 10th –early 11th century CE.
Group 2, Type 2: Standing Crowned Buddha

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 11 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Fig. 10 [10 x 4 x 1.7cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

The Group 2, Type 2 tablets are oblong and ovoid, featuring a standing
crowned Buddha is surrounded by an halo with right hand in abhayamudrā and left
hand hanging. The depiction is probably of Buddha’s Descent from Tāvatim Hsā. The
depictions of four great occasions of the Buddha’s life: ‘The Enlightenment, Great
Miracle, The First Sermon and The Descending from Tāvatiṁsā seem to be popular
for both Mahayanist and Theravada Buddhists. The style of Buddha image is probably
dated to the 10th-early 11th century CE.
Group 2, Type 3: Seated Buddha with six stupas, banyan leaf shape

Fig.11 [7.5 x 6.5 x 1cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

Type 3 is a banyan leaf shape depicting a seated Buddha in a crossed leg

position on a (?)lotus throne. The image is in the bhūmis̩parśamudrā flanked by three
bell-shaped stupas on each side with a conical shape finial. The rim is decorated with
a line of bead-shapes. It is assigned to the 10th-early 11th century CE. It may be the
locally made due to the roughness of the motifs, or this fuzziness may be due to
weathering.
Group 2, Type 4.1: Umbrella finial type

Page 12 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Fig. 12 Umbrella finial supported by long pole without śikhara and stupas. [14.5 x 6.5 x 1.5cm].
Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

Type 4.1 is rectangular in shape with a pointed top. Buddha is depicted with
an elongated body and pointed ushnis̩ha (hair knot) seated in cross-legged position in
bhūmis̩parśamudrā on the double plain pedestal. Buddha sits inside a niche or trefoil
arch surmounted by the umbrella (with three chattravali) supported by a long pole
which rises to the top finial. From the top of the taṁkai (the back part of the seat)
appear the branches and leaves of Bodhi tree. The style is probably dated to the 10th
century before King Aniruddha of Bagan and may be a local product of Thaton.
Group 2, Type 4.2: Umbrella finial type, Buddha with twenty stupas

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 13 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Fig. 13 Umbrella finial type, Buddha with twenty stupas. [6.7cm x 4.6cm x1.7 cm]. Source: U San
Win.

The shape of type 4.2 is ovoid. The Buddha sits in a cross-legged position on
the double lotus throne with the right hand pointing downwards in the “witness”
attitude (bhūmiparśamudrā). The image is flanked by ten stupas, with umbrella on the
niche. There might have been the Buddhist formula Yedharmā inscribed under the
throne but it has disappeared now.

The tablet from Catubhumikka monastery may be compared with the tablets
from Sind province, India (now in Pakistan) dated to the 7th-8th century CE according
to the orthography of the inscription (Cousens 1909-10: Plate XXXIX, Fig. e).Other
comparisons are to a tablet (9th -10th CE) from Kyaikkatha mound No 2, in KyaikHto
Township, Mon state (Archaeology Office 1986) and a tablet from Khubua,Thailand
which came from Nalanda, India to Khubua in 956 CE (Bhumadhon and Pongpanich
2015: 395).The earliest type tablet from Sind has only two stupas at each side of
Buddha and later similar ones had more stupas up to 10.Stylistically,Type 4.2 is
probably dated to the 10th or the early 11thcentury CE before the reign of King
Aniruddha of Bagan.
Group 2, Type 4.3: Umbrella finial type, Buddha with ten stupas on each side

Fig. 14 Umbrella finial type, Buddha with ten stupas on each side. Note the Yedhamā stanza in Nagari
script at the bottom of tablet. [10.5 x 7 x 1.5 cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

The shape of Type 4.3 is a rectangular base and an almost rounded top.
Buddha sits in cross legged position with the bhūmisparśamudrā. The image is inside

Page 14 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

a trefoil arch surmounted by parasol, from which Bodhi leaves and branches emerge.
There are five stupas at the both sides of pillar and arch and two-line inscriptions in
ancient Nāgari, probably the Yedhamā verse, inscribed at the bottom.

It can be compared with the tablet of ‘Sri Ḅañano’ which has six lines
inscribed in Pyu script at the back, found from Bagan. It has theYedhammā stanza in
Nāgari script at the bottom but the languages are mixed with Sanskrit and Pali datable
to the 11th century CE (U Mya 1961:23-24). The Group 2, Type 4.3 tablet is also
similar to the tablet with four stupas from Śriksetra before Bagan period (U Mya 1961
vol. 2:19, fig. 23).

This Type 4.3 tablet also has the Yedhammā stanza in Nāgari script at the
bottom but no initial of the donor was found on the reverse of the votive tablet. It
seems to be earlier than that of the Sri Ḅañano tablet and contemporary with the tablet
found from Śriksetra mentioned above. One scholar Dr Nan Hlaing (2016) said that
the Yedhamā stanza is inscribed in Pallava script and datable between 5th-
10thcenturies CE. However, the Yedhamā verse inscribed in Nāgari script may not be
earlier than 9th -10th century CE.
Group 2, Type 5: Stupa finial, Buddha with two stupas inside niche

Fig. 15 Group 2, Type 5 [8.1 x 4.8 x 1.5cm] (seen while wet). Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

The shape of Type 5 has a rectangular base and a slightly pointed top.
Itdepicts the Buddha in bhūmisparśamudrā sitting in a cross-legged position on the
Khou nan: gjou: throne (projecting corners on throne). The Buddha has a faint smile.
Each miniature stupa flanks the Buddha inside the niche. Banyan leaves come out
behind the both sides of stupa finial. There is a flower above the shoulders of Buddha.
The ‘stupa finial’ is on the harmika or relic chamber of the Sri Lanka type and is not
the same as seen on the Maha Bodhi śikhara of Bodh Gaya. The pediment can be
called a cetiya or stupa finial(calac). The pillars of pediment are decorated with
turnery or with the thick floral motifs which may be compared with the votive tablet
found near Nan Phaya, Myinkapar, Bagan (U Mya 1961:68). It may be dated to the
10th century CE.
Group 2, Type 6.1: Bodhi śikhara with amalaka finial, without stupa

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 15 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Fig. 16 Type 6.1. Left: [15cm height x 8cm width]. Right: Fragment of votive tablet. Source: Khin
Ma Ma Mu.

Catubhumikka votive tablet Group 2, Type 6.1 has a rectangular base and a
rounded arch top. The clarity of the facial expression resembles faces depicted on
Indian sculpture suggesting it may have been imported from India. The Buddha sits in
bhūmisparśamudrā and a cross-legged position (dhyānāsana) on the lotus throne (?)
above the high plain pedestal inside the niche surmounted by a śikhara recalling the
Mahabodhi stupa of Bodh Gaya (Than Tun 1978). It is decorated with curvilinear
flower patterns which rise to the amalaka and the top finial. There are flying pennants
(tam khon) emerging from the top finial. Comparing the Fig b -upper fragment of
same tablet, the curvilinear flowers patterns are also seen clearly beside the Bodhi
śikhara.

The shape of Buddha’s face is oval with a prominent nose and open eyes
looking straight, rather than the more usual downcast expression. The top knot
(usnisa) is not high but visible and the hair curls are modelled like beads. The robe is
transparent on the body, made visible by a line on the left chest and shoulder. The
chest and arms are full and fit and the navel is visible, comparable to 9thth-10th
century CE in Pala art. This type came probably from Bengal or Bihar, the eastern
school of Benares.
Group 2, Type 6.2: Śikhara with six stupas type

Page 16 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Fig. 17 Type 6.2. [8.1cm x 6.8 cm x 1.2cm] Source: U San Win.

Votive Tablet Type 6.2 has a banyan leaf shape. It depicts the Buddha in
dhyānāsana on the double lotus throne and with bhūmisparśamudrā. He is seated in a
niche surmounted by a śikhara and amalaka finial. The arch and niche are flanked by
three stupas each with banyan leaves emerging behind the Śikhara. There may have
been a Yedhamā stanza in two lines inscribed under the throne, and there is no
evidence of Mon scripts at the back.

It is dated to the 10th century according to the bell shape style of the three
stupas with five chattravali. It may be compared with similar tablets from Bodh Gaya
with eight stupas and examples with five stupas from Śriksetra and Bagan
(Cunningham 1892: 51, fig. XXIV C and E).It is probably datable to be 10th century
CE and not later than the early 11th century CE.
Group 2, Type 6.3:Śikharafinial type with four stupas

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 17 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Fig. 18 Group 2, Type 6.3. Left: [9 x 5.6 x 1.5 cm]. Right: [12.2 x 7.5 x 3.2 cm]. Source: U San Win.

Type 6.3 has an almost rectangular base and pointed arch top. The right tablet
of Figure 18 has a thick rim. The taṁkai is with the śikhara and umbrella finial.
Buddha sits in dhyānāsana with bumisparsamudrā on the high double lotus throne
inside the triangular arch taṁkai. There are two stupas beside the pillar and a
triangular arch surmounted by a śikhara and umbrella. It seems to be locally made
due to the innovative triangular arch and may be datable to the 10th century CE.
Group 2, Type 6.4: Śikhara with trefoil arch, Buddha with twelve stupas

Page 18 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Fig. 19 Group 2, Type 6.4. Left: [12 x 8.8 x 2cm]. Right: [11.5 x 9 x 0.7 cm],Nalanda,(six stupas),
9th-10th century CE. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

Type 6.4 is banyan-leaf shaped. The Buddha is seated in dhyānāsana on the

high double lotus throne and with the bhūmisparśamudrā within a trefoil niche
surmounted by a śikhara and amalaka finial. Both sides of the throne and tam◌kai ۟ are
flanked by bell-shaped stupas, a total of six. Banyan leaves emerge from the Bodhi
Śikhara. There may be a three-line inscription under the throne. The tablet is datable
to the 10th century according to the bell-shaped stupa style. Other similar tablets with
twelve stupas (11.5 x 9 x 0.7 cm (9th-10th century CE) have been found at Nalanda, in
Bihar, east India (Krishnan 2010: 76). Therefore, it is probably datable to be the10th
century CE and not later than the early 11th century CE.
Group 2, Type 6.5: Śikhara with twenty stupas

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 19 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Fig. 20 Group 2, Type 6.5. [11 x 8.5 x 2.5 cm] Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

Votive tablet Type 6.5 is banyan-leaf shape. Buddha sits in bhadrāsana with
dhamacakrāmudrā on the double lotus throne with his feet placed on a small double
lotus pedestal. There are ten stupas at each side of the pillars and the Bodhi śikhara is
raised to the amalaka and top finial. Five lines inscribed in Nāgari script of the
yedhamma stanza are beside the feet of the Buddha and under the throne. It is
probably datable to the 10th century CE and not later than the early 11th century CE.

Comparable examples are seen from Śriksetra and Bagan (12.7 x 10.1cm),
mound no. 1 at Kyaikkatha (10x 10 cm) from 1986 excavations, and at the new
building of the State Middle School at Thaton(10.1 x 7.6cm) (Mya 1961:87-88; San
Win 2015:266).These may have been made at Bodh Gaya (Cunningham 1892: Fig
XXIV, c).Other comparable examples have been documented at Khubua, Thailand
with three lines of Yedhamā stanza in Nāgari script under the throne, dated to 1500
AB (956 CE), it was originally from Nalanda, India, and this tablet is now in
Rajbhuri National Museum1, Bangkok Fine Arts Department (Bhumadhon and
Pongpanich 2015:395).

It can also be compared with the tablet from Mirpur-Khas stupa, Sind province
which was two hundred years earlier than those of Bodh Gaya. The tablet from Sind
depicts the niche surmounted by umbrella instead of a śikhara. The cetyia (stupa)
types are however, exactly the same. The Sind example has just two stupas, referring
to Buddha’s First Sermon as is indicated by the two deer visible under the inscription.
There are three lines of the Yedhamma besides the feet are datable to the 7th or 8th
century CE. Associated finds of Arab coins are dated to 715 CE (Cousens 1914). The
origin of this type is supposed to be come from Bodh Gaya and Sind province, India
to Thaton, KyaikKhathar, Śriksetra, Bagan and Thailand in 10th -11th century CE.

Page 20 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Group 3
Group 3 Type 1 Episodes of the Buddha’s life

Fig. 21 [11.5 x 5 x 1cm] (9th-10th century CE). Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

Group 3, Type 1 has a rectangular base, arched top and is rimless. To date, this
votive tablet type has not been found elsewhere in Myanmar. It depicts the Descent
from Tavatimsā. The pillars partially remain to support the rounded arch on which a
harmika or relic chamber is placed between the lines indicating the receding roof
tiers. Above this, the śikhara and the amalaka decorated with floral motifs is
surmounted by the top vajrā finial. The leaves and branches of the Bodhi tree emerge
from the both sides of finial.

Beside the harmika is each seated lion facing outwards at the both corners of
the lower part of the receding terraces. The lion figure is used in the tablets of
Śriksetra since the Pyu period. Some Pyu tablets depict a pair of standing lions and
other mythical creatures on the either side of Buddha (U Mya 1961 vol. 2: Figs. 10-
14). That custom continues until now of placing lions or mythical creatures at the
entry of a stupa.

From top to bottom, each crowned deva or deity has the inner hand raised
holding up an indistinct object and the outer hand hanging down. Floral motifs are
below their feet. The figures on either side of the śikhara are depicted descending
from the celestial realms. A miniature stupa and three flowers are also arranged at the
space of the front face inside the tamkai.

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 21 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

The left hand of the standing Buddha is probably holding up the rim of the
robe and right hand shows the abhayamudrā on the head of monk AggaSāvakaShin
Sāriputtarā. The robe of Buddha depicts transparent and typical of the Pаla period
(9th-10th century CE). Above the head of Buddha is an umbrella, its pole held by in
the right hand of a standing crowned Indrā on the pedestal at the left side of Buddha.
AggaSāvakaShin Sāriputrā is kneeling on the two pedestals with the clasped hands
(namaskāramudrā) below the Buddha’s feet. The head of AggaSāvaka is shaven.
Brahmā is also depicted in namaskāramudrā standing on the pedestal at the right side
of Buddha.
Group 3 Type 2: Eight Episodes of Buddha’s life, trefoil niche with 3 poles supporting
umbrellas

Fig. 22 [12 x 7.5 x 1.5cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

Votive tablet Group 3, Type 2 has a rectangular base and an arched top. It
depicts the Eight Episodes of the Buddha’s Life. It may belong to the 10th – early 11th
century CE. The Catubhummika tablet shows the attack of Māra’s army under the
double lotus throne. This type has not yet been found at Śriksetra and Bagan. The
upper portion of this tablet is comparable to a fragment from Bagan (Luce 1969-1970
vol. 2: 60 and vol. 3:69). Other tablets of Bagan show three elephant-riders of Māra
attacking below the Mahāprinivāna or passing over the top of the Buddha (Luce
1969-1970 vol. 1: 53).

Page 22 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Group 3, Type 2: Eight Episodes of Buddha’s life

(1) Mahāparinirvāna
Mourner
head to the right

3 poles supporting Two kneeling figures with

Ānanda
umbrellas raised hand
Kneeling figures with raised Trefoil arch
hand
(8) Nālāgiri elephant scene ۟
(2) Descent from Tāvatim◌sa
(standing Buddha with a (5) Seated Buddha in (Buddha between Indra and
monk) dhyānāsana and Brahmā)

(7) Three Seated Buddha in bhūmisparśamudrā (3) Three Seated Buddha in

dharmacakramudrā (Enlightenment) dharmacakramudrā
(First Sermon) (Twin Miracle)

(6) Nativity (Māyādevi and her (4) Parileyyaka Retreat

sister PajāpatiGotami ) (Buddha in bhadrāsana)

Māra’s warriors attacking (circa seven figures)

Table 3 Key to episodes (1 to 8) arranged in a clockwise direction.

Group 3, Type 3A and 3B: Trefoil niche with Śikhara and Amalaka finial

Fig. 23 Left: 3A [12 x 7.2 x 1cm]. Right: 3B [12 x 7 x 1cm]. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu

There are three stupas at the top above the Parinirvāna scene, with the
Buddha’s head placed to his right (3A) and to the left hand (3B). There is same
arrangement of the eight episodes seen at Bagan and Thaton but sometimes they
change the place to right or left side for the arrangement of Nativity scene and
Parileyyaka retreat episode.

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 23 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

At the top is displayed the passing on or mahāparinirvāna with the head of

Buddha placed on his right hand. Type 3b shows the head place on his left hand. This
changing arrangement is significant. The Enlightenment scene or illumination
(sambodhi) is always placed in the centre. Buddha is looking straight ahead. He sits in
bhūmisparśamudrā and dhyānāsana on a double lotus throne under the trefoil abacus-
arch with sikhara, amalaka and lotus bud finial. At the middle lower tier is the Buddha
Triad (three seated Buddhas) which represents both the First Sermon and the Twin
Miracle.

From top to bottom, the second row left depicts the taming of the mad
elephant Nālāgiri or Ratanapāla and at the right the Descent of Buddha from the
heaven of the thirty-three gods. These two episodes are placed at the either side of
śikhara. In the third row left is the first sermon at Benares and the Miracle of Śrāvasti
scene at the right. In the centre shows the Enlightenment with the Buddha as the main
figure. There is a depiction of Māra’s army or daughters added at the bottom of
tablets at CatubhummikaThaton which has not seen at the tablets of Bagan. However,
some tablets from Bagan were inscribed in Nāgari or Mon scripts with the Yedhamā
stanza or the names of donor and wishes (Luce 1969-70 vol. 3: 70-72, 74).

In Type 3A and 3B, the bottom left shows the presentation of honey to
Buddha by the monkey at Vaiśāli and the bottom right depicts the birth. The birth
shows Māyādevi standing under the aśāla tree clasping the neck of a female to her
proper left, her sister Prajāpati Gotamī and the child; and the infant Buddha issuing
from her proper right. These two episodes were changed from the left or right
according to the artist or the donor’s wishes.

There were also changes of episodes in arrangement of type 3A and 3B with

the nativity and the retreat of honey rice placed on the left or right. Type 2 and type
3B are in the same arrangement for the nativity at the left bottom and Parileyyaka
Retreat at the right.
Group 3, Type 3A: Eight Episodes of Buddha’s life

(1) Mahāparinirvāna
Mourner
head to the right
one standing figure Ānanda śikara with amalaka
One standing figure
and ?one seated figure finial

(8) Nālāgiri elephant scene Trefoil arch ۟

(2) Descent from Tāvatim◌sa
(standing Buddha with a (Buddha between Indra and
monk) (5) Seated Buddha in Brahmā)
(7) (?Three)Seated Buddha in dhyānāsana and (3) (?Three) Seated Buddha in
dharmacakramudrā bhūmisparśamudrā dharmacakramudrā
(First Sermon) (Enlightenment) (Twin Miracle)
(4) Nativity (Māyādevi and her
(6) Parileyyaka Retreat
sister PajāpatiGotami), one figure
(Buddha in bhadrāsana)
may be Brahmā or a baby

Page 24 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

 Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Māra warriors attacking (circa seven figures)

Table 4 Key to episodes (1 to 8) is arranged in a clockwise direction.

Group 3, Type 3B: Eight Episodes of Buddha’s life

A standing figure
Three Stupas
(?Shin Mahākasapa)
(1) Mahāparinirvāna head to the
Two Mourners
left
Ānanda in standing position śikara with amalaka finial

Trefoil arch
(8) Nālāgiri elephant scene ۟
(5) Seated Buddha in dhyānāsana (2) Descent from Tāvatim◌sa
(standing Buddha with a
and (Buddha between Indra and Brahmā)
monk)
bhūmisparśamudrā
(Enlightenment)

(7) (?Three)Seated Buddha in (3) (?Three) Seated Buddha in

dharmacakramudrā dharmacakramudrā
(First Sermon) (Twin Miracle)

(6) Nativity scene, Māyādevi

and her sister Pajāpati (5) Parileyyaka Retreat (Buddha in
Gotami) and ? a child to the bhadrāsana)
left of Māyādevi

Māra’s warriors ( about seven figures )

Table 5 Serial Number 1 to 8 are arranged in a clockwise direction.

Group 3 Type 4: Ten Episodes of Buddha’s life

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 25 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Fig. 24 Left: Group 3 Type 4 [12.5 x 7.5 x 1.5cm]. Right: From Śriksetra, 9 Episodes of Buddha’s
life. Source: Khin Ma Ma Mu.

Stupa
Mourners
Ānanda and one standing (1) Mahāparinirvāna head to Two standing figures
figure the left

(10) Nālāgiri elephant scene (2) Descent from Tāvatiṁsa

(standing Buddha with a śikara with amalaka finial (between Indra and Brahmā)
monk) Trefoil arch
(9) (?Three)Seated Buddha (3) (?Three) Seated Buddha in
in dharmacakramudrā dharmacakramudrā
(First Sermon) (Twin Miracle)
(6) Seated Buddha in
(8) Parileyyaka Retreat dhyānāsana and (4) Nativity scene, Māyādevi and
(Buddha in bhadrāsana) bhūmisparśamudrā her sister Pajāpati Gotami) and a
(Enlightenment) child? to the left of Māyādevi

(7) Sujata’s offering milk (5) scene of the Dukracrirā

rice
Māra’ daughters (about seven
figures)

? Māra’s army or Māra’s

attacking (about seven
figures)

Page 26 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Table 6 Key to scenes (1 to 10) arranged in a clockwise direction.

Group 3, Type 4 is the Ten Episodes of the Buddha’s Life. It has a rectangular
base and an arched top. From top to bottom, at the peak, there is a stupa-like relic
casket above the reclining Buddha (Mahāparinirvāna) with unclear figures behind the
reclining Buddha. The head of Buddha in the Mahāparinirvāna episode is placed on
his left hand. There are two standing figures at the side of Buddha’s head, and other
mourners are also standing at the feet of Buddha, one of which may be Shin Ānandā.
The main Buddha figure presents the episode of Enlightment.

At the first tier, the right side is very clear: the kneeling Shin Sāriputra in
namaskāramudrā, is from the episode of Descent from Tāvatiṁsa. The left side
presents the episode of the Nālāgiri elephant. At the second tier, the Buddha Triad is
indistinct, possibly the First Sermon at left side and the Twin Miracle at the right side.
At the third tier, right side, the Nativity scene is unclear while the left side shows
Parileyyaka Retreat.

At the fourth tier, two extra episodes are added: probably an episode of
‘Sujata’s offering milk rice’ is on the left (? an unclear figure of Sujata on the left side
of Buddha), and the scene of the Dukracrirā on the right while the ten scenes Andagu
steles of Arakan (Rakhine state) represents the episode of the Naga Mucalinda
sheltering the Buddha at that place (San ThaAung2016: 95, plate 78).

Under the throne of main Buddha figure show Māra’s daughters at the upper
line and Māra’s assault in the lower. Below it at the base is an unclear but a two-line
inscription can be guessed. Nine episodes depicted on the tablets have been
discovered at Śriksetra and Bagan which show only one extra episode - ‘the offering
of Milk-Rice by Sujātā (Luce 1969-70 vol. 3: Plate 70a-d). The depiction of ten
episodes of Buddha’s life on votive tablet has been only discovered at Thaton,
Catubhummika monastery except the Andagu stele found at Rakhine. Beside these it
is probably datable to the 10th or early 11th century CE.

Conclusion
The excavated votive tablets of Catubhummika, Thaton provide valuable
evidence to support the distinctive Buddhist art and iconography of Thaton from the
9th century -10th century CE. The assemblage generally speaking is not earlier than the
8th century CE and not later than the early 11th century CE.

The iconography of some tablets is similar to that seen on votive tablets

associated with Mahayana sects from Nalanda, Bodh Gaya and Bengal in Pala period.
There are similar tablets seen at Śriksetra and Bagan in Myanmar, on the other hand
Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam as well, dated between the 8th -11thcenturies CE.
The smallest size of votive tablets is 6.7 x 4.6 x 1.7 cm and the biggest one is 15 x 8 x
2cm. The shapes of tablets are rectangular base and pointed top, rectangular base and
rounded top, oval and Banyan leaf (oval with pointed top).

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 27 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

The Mudrās of Buddha are bhūmisparśamudrā, dharmacakramudrā,

dhyanamudrā (Samadhimudrā ), vitarkamudrā, abhayamudrā and
mahākarunikamudrā. The Asanas of Buddha are dhyānāsana, Lalitāsana
andbhadrāsana. The most popular of mudrā and asana of Buddha are the
bhūmisparśamudrā and dhyānāsana. The mudrā and asana of Bodhisattva are
abhayamudrā, karunamudrā(unclear), MahaRazalilāsana and Lalitāsana (asana of
Nimāna Budddha) and virāsana.

The arrangement of the eight episodes is same to those of the tablets of Bagan.
However, sometimes the scenes switch to the right or left, notably the Nativity scene
and the Parileyyaka retreat episode. The head of the Buddha is alternately inclined to
his right or left hand. There is a depiction of Māra’s army or daughters added at the
bottom of tablets at Catubhummika Thaton which has not seen at Bagan.

Ten episodes of Buddha’s life expressed on votive tablets highlight the

creativity of donors or artists at Thaton although similar scenes have found at the
Andagu steles at Bengal, Rakhine and Bagan. Two more episodes – Dukracariya and
offering of Sujata’s milk rice – were added to Thaton votive tablets.

The Buddha triad was always placed at the middle lower tier and the episode
of Enlightenment always was placed in the centre. The making practise of Buddha
Triad is seen at not only eight episodes of the Buddha’s life but also just one.
Depictions of Māra’s army and (or) daughters were often added at the bottom of
tablets at Thaton, but have not been found in Śriksetra and Bagan yet.

Most tablets have the Yedhamā stanza in ancient Nāgari scripts and some
distinctive figures which are pointed to the date of 9th-10th century CE. There is no
evidence of Mon or Pyu inscribed on the base or back of the tablets though some
tablets included Pyu or Mon letters have been found at Bagan in the reign of King
Anirudha. Therefore, these Catubhummika tablets are seemed to be earlier than that
of King Anirudha or the early Bagan period.

These 1350 votive tablets and fragments of the spouts of libation jars indicate
that this place was the sacred Buddhist site because it is very close to the ancient
Thaton palace site and famous ShweSaryan pagoda. As a tomb of monk was placed at
the centre of all pits from CBK 1 to 8, we had no chance to know what was buried
under the tomb. Although we could not excavate under the tomb, I assumed that
under the present tomb there would be a chamber and/or a Buddha image placed for
worship. All tablets and laterite pillars are now displayed in situ. As a group, they
give significant new evidence on the prevalence of Mahayana practices at Thaton
from circa the 8thto early 11th century CE.

Acknowledgements
I owe many thanks to Sayartaw Bhaddanta Tikkhañāna, abbot from
Catubhummika monastery who assisted when taking measurements and finding
information on the votive tablets. Others whom I would like to thank include Prof.
Elizabeth H Moore (SOAS, London; ISEAS Singapore) for her encouragement and
suggestions for this paper; U San Win (Member, Historical Research, Ministry of

Page 28 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721

Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018)

Religious and Cultural Affairs) for textual assistance and translation from Thai; Dr
Toe Hla (Member, Historical Research, Ministry of Religious and Cultural Affairs)
for suggestions and encouragements; Nan Kyi Kyi Khaing (Phd Candidate, Kanazawa
University, Japan) and Dr NawYuzana Win (Independent Scholar) who encouraged
me to go to Thaton for the study of the votive tablets excavated from Catubhummika
monastery, Thaton; and Ngwe Ngwe Soe (Independent Scholar; Department of
Archaeology, retired) for her help with word corrections.

References
Archaeology Office (1986) Negative No 1. Yangon: Department of Archaeology and
Museum, Ministry of Religious and Cultural Affairs.
Bhumadhon, P and Pongpanich, B (2015). The Revitalization of U Thoung and Mae
Klong-Ta Chin river basin through beads and early Buddhist evidences.
Bangkok: DASTA & BIA.
Cœdès, G (1926) Siamese Votive tablets. Trans. WA Graham. Journal of the Siam
Society 20(1): 1-24.
Cousens, H (1909-10) Buddhist Stupa at Mirpur-khas in Sind. Archaeological Survey
of India Annual Report 1909-1910: 80-92.
Cunningham, A (1892) Mahabodhi or the Great Buddhist Temple under the Bodhi
Tree at Buddha-Gaya. Varanasi: Indological Book House.
Duroiselle, Charles (1931) Archaeological Survey of India; Annual Report; 1927-28,
Calcutta, Central Publication Branch.
Krishnan, GP (2010) On the Nalanda Trail: Buddhism in India, China & Southeast
Asia. Singapore: Asian Civilizations Museum.
Luce, GH (1969-70) Old Burma- Early Bagan. 3 vols. Locust Valley, New York: J.J.
Augustin.
Manguin P-Y and Indrajaya A (2006) The Archaeology of Batujaya (West Java,
Indonesia): An Interim Report. In: E Bacus, I Glover, & V Pigott (eds.)
Uncovering Southeast Asia's Past. Singapore: NUS Press, 245-257.
Moore, EH (2007). Early Landscapes of Myanmar. Bangkok: River Books.
Chirapravati, P (1997) Votive Tablets in Thailand. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University
Press.
Myint Aung (1999). The Excavations of Ayethama and Winka (?Suvannabhumi) in
Essays given to Than Tun on his 75th birthday (Studies in Myanma history).
Yangon: Innwa Publishing House, 17-64.
Nan Hlaing (2016) The First Millennium Artefacts of Suvannabhumi, Terracotta
Votive Tablets of Thaton. Mawlamying: Bhadradevi Books.
Negative No 320/15062 (1969-70), Archaeology department, Ministry of Religious
and Culture Affairs.
Nyunt Han and Kyaw Oo Lwin (2015) Archaeological Findings and Researches at
Early Rakhine: Ancient Cities in Myanmar. In NH Tan (ed.) Advancing
Southeast Asian Archaeology 2013: Selected Papers from the First SEAMEO
SPAFA International Conference on Southeast Asian Archaeology, Chonburi,
Thailand 2013. Bangkok: SEAMEO SPAFA, 153-161, 189-198.
Piriya krairiksh, Art in peninsular Thailand Prior to the Fourteenth Century CE,
Bangkok, The Fine Arts department, P 123, plate 23.
Temple, RC (1894). Notes on Antiquities in Ramannadesa (The Talaing country of
Burma). Bombay: Education Society’s Steam Press.

ISSN 2586-8721 Page 29 of 30

SPAFA Journal Vol 1, No 1 (2018) Terracotta Votive Tablets, Thaton

Revire,N (2012)A Comprehensive Study of Bhadrasana Buddha Images from First –

Millennium Thailand. Rian Thai, International Journal of Thai Studies 5: 95-
152.
San Tha Aung (2016) The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan, an Eastern Border State
beyond Ancient India, east of Vanga and Samatata. 2nd ed. Yangon: Unity
Publishing House.
San Win (2015). Research on Suvan̩ n̟ abhūmi.Yangon:Susumi Press.
Than Tun(1978) History of Buddhism in Burma AD1000-1300. Rangoon: Burma
Research Society.
U Mya (1961) Votive tablets of Burma. 2 vols. Yangon: Yangon University Press.
U Nyanawara (2014) Myanmar-English Encyclopedic Dictionary of Mahāyāna
Buddhist Terms. Yangon: ThuKhi Press.

Page 30 of 30 ISSN 2586-8721