CE 579: STRUCTRAL STABILITY AND DESIGN

Amit H. Varma
Assistant Professor
School of Civil Engineering
Purdue University
Ph. No. (765) 496 3419
Email: [email protected]
Office hours: M-W-F 9:00-11:30 a.m.
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Structural Stability

OUTLINE
◼ Definition of stability
◼ Types of instability
◼ Methods of stability analyses
◼ Examples – small deflection analyses
◼ Examples – large deflection analyses
◼ Examples – imperfect systems
◼ Design of steel structures
 STABILITY DEFINITION

◼ Change in geometry of a structure or structural component

under compression – resulting in loss of ability to resist loading
is defined as instability in the book.
◼ Instability can lead to catastrophic failure → must be accounted
in design. Instability is a strength-related limit state.
◼ Why did we define instability instead of stability? Seem strange!
◼ Stability is not easy to define.
◼ Every structure is in equilibrium – static or dynamic. If it is not in
equilibrium, the body will be in motion or a mechanism.
◼ A mechanism cannot resist loads and is of no use to the civil
engineer.
◼ Stability qualifies the state of equilibrium of a structure. Whether it
is in stable or unstable equilibrium.
 STABILITY DEFINITION

◼ Structure is in stable equilibrium when small perturbations do

not cause large movements like a mechanism. Structure
vibrates about it equilibrium position.
◼ Structure is in unstable equilibrium when small perturbations
produce large movements – and the structure never returns to
its original equilibrium position.
◼ Structure is in neutral equilibrium when we cant decide whether
it is in stable or unstable equilibrium. Small perturbation cause
large movements – but the structure can be brought back to its
original equilibrium position with no work.
◼ Thus, stability talks about the equilibrium state of the structure.
◼ The definition of stability had nothing to do with a change in the
geometry of the structure under compression – seems strange!
STABILITY DEFINITION
 BUCKLING Vs. STABILITY

◼ Change in geometry of structure under compression – that

results in its ability to resist loads – called instability.
◼ Not true – this is called buckling.
◼ Buckling is a phenomenon that can occur for structures under
compressive loads.
◼ The structure deforms and is in stable equilibrium in state-1.
◼ As the load increases, the structure suddenly changes to
deformation state-2 at some critical load Pcr.
◼ The structure buckles from state-1 to state-2, where state-2 is
orthogonal (has nothing to do, or independent) with state-1.
◼ What has buckling to do with stability?
◼ The question is - Is the equilibrium in state-2 stable or unstable?
◼ Usually, state-2 after buckling is either neutral or unstable
equilibrium
 BUCKLING

P<Pcr P=Pcr P>Pcr

P

P P P
d
 BUCKLING Vs. STABILITY

◼ Thus, there are two topics we will be interested in this course

◼ Buckling – Sudden change in deformation from state-1 to state-2
◼ Stability of equilibrium – As the loads acting on the structure are
increased, when does the equilibrium state become unstable?
◼ The equilibrium state becomes unstable due to:
◼ Large deformations of the structure
◼ Inelasticity of the structural materials

◼ We will look at both of these topics for

◼ Columns
◼ Beams
◼ Beam-Columns
◼ Structural Frames
 TYPES OF INSTABILITY

Structure subjected to compressive forces can undergo:

1. Buckling – bifurcation of equilibrium from deformation state-1 to
state-2.
◼ Bifurcation buckling occurs for columns, beams, and symmetric
frames under gravity loads only
2. Failure due to instability of equilibrium state-1 due to large
deformations or material inelasticity
◼ Elastic instability occurs for beam-columns, and frames subjected
to gravity and lateral loads.
◼ Inelastic instability can occur for all members and the frame.
◼ We will study all of this in this course because we don’t want
our designed structure to buckle or fail by instability – both of
which are strength limit states.
 TYPES OF INSTABILITY

BIFURCATION BUCKLING
◼ Member or structure subjected to loads. As the load is
increased, it reaches a critical value where:
◼ The deformation changes suddenly from state-1 to state-2.
◼ And, the equilibrium load-deformation path bifurcates.
◼ Critical buckling load when the load-deformation path bifurcates
◼ Primary load-deformation path before buckling
◼ Secondary load-deformation path post buckling
◼ Is the post-buckling path stable or unstable?
 SYMMETRIC BIFURCATION

◼ Post-buckling load-deform. paths are symmetric about load axis.

◼ If the load capacity increases after buckling then stable symmetric
bifurcation.
◼ If the load capacity decreases after buckling then unstable
symmetric bifurcation.
 ASYMMETRIC BIFURCATION

◼ Post-buckling behavior that is asymmetric about load axis.

 INSTABILITY FAILURE

◼ There is no bifurcation of the load-deformation path. The

deformation stays in state-1 throughout
◼ The structure stiffness decreases as the loads are increased.
The change is stiffness is due to large deformations and / or
material inelasticity.
◼ The structure stiffness decreases to zero and becomes negative.
◼ The load capacity is reached when the stiffness becomes zero.
◼ Neutral equilibrium when stiffness becomes zero and unstable
equilibrium when stiffness is negative.
◼ Structural stability failure – when stiffness becomes negative.
 INSTABILITY FAILURE

◼ FAILURE OF BEAM-COLUMNS
P M K=0
M

K<0

M
d
P
No bifurcation.
Instability due to material
and geometric nonlinearity
 INSTABILITY FAILURE

◼ Snap-through buckling
P

Snap-through

d
 INSTABILITY FAILURE

◼ Shell Buckling failure – very sensitive to imperfections

 Chapter 1. Introduction to Structural Stability

OUTLINE
◼ Definition of stability
◼ Types of instability
◼ Methods of stability analyses
◼ Examples – small deflection analyses
◼ Examples – large deflection analyses
◼ Examples – imperfect systems
◼ Design of steel structures
 METHODS OF STABILITY ANALYSES

◼ Bifurcation approach – consists of writing the equation of

equilibrium and solving it to determine the onset of buckling.
◼ Energy approach – consists of writing the equation expressing
the complete potential energy of the system. Analyzing this total
potential energy to establish equilibrium and examine stability of
the equilibrium state.
◼ Dynamic approach – consists of writing the equation of dynamic
equilibrium of the system. Solving the equation to determine the
natural frequency (w) of the system. Instability corresponds to
the reduction of w to zero.
 STABILITY ANALYSES
◼ Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. In fact,
you can use different methods to answer different questions
◼ The bifurcation approach is appropriate for determining the
critical buckling load for a (perfect) system subjected to loads.
◼ The deformations are usually assumed to be small.
◼ The system must not have any imperfections.
◼ It cannot provide any information regarding the post-buckling load-
deformation path.
◼ The energy approach is the best when establishing the
equilibrium equation and examining its stability
◼ The deformations can be small or large.
◼ The system can have imperfections.
◼ It provides information regarding the post-buckling path if large
deformations are assumed
◼ The major limitation is that it requires the assumption of the
deformation state, and it should include all possible degrees of
freedom.
 STABILITY ANALYSIS
◼ The dynamic method is very powerful, but we will not use it in this class
at all.
◼ Remember, it though when you take the course in dynamics or earthquake
engineering
◼ In this class, you will learn that the loads acting on a structure change its
stiffness. This is significant – you have not seen it before.
Ma
4E I 2E I
P qa Ma = qa Mb = qb
Mb
L L

◼ What happens when an axial load is acting on the beam.

◼ The stiffness will no longer remain 4EI/L and 2EI/L.
◼ Instead, it will decrease. The reduced stiffness will reduce the
natural frequency and period elongation.
◼ You will see these in your dynamics and earthquake engineering
class.
 STABILITY ANALYSIS
◼ FOR ANY KIND OF BUCKLING OR STABILITY ANALYSIS –
NEED TO DRAW THE FREE BODY DIAGRAM OF THE DEFORMED
STRUCTURE.
◼ WRITE THE EQUATION OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM IN THE
DEFORMED STATE
◼ WRITE THE ENERGY EQUATION IN THE DEFORMED STATE
TOO.
◼ THIS IS CENTRAL TO THE TOPIC OF STABILITY ANALYSIS
◼ NO STABILITY ANALYSIS CAN BE PERFORMED IF THE FREE
BODY DIAGRAM IS IN THE UNDEFORMED STATE
 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
◼ Always a small deflection analysis
◼ To determine Pcr buckling load
◼ Need to assume buckled shape (state 2) to calculate
Example 1 – Rigid bar supported by rotational spring

k P Rigid bar subjected to axial force P

L
Rotationally restrained at end

Step 1 - Assume a deformed shape that activates all possible d.o.f.

L P

kq
q

L cosq
L (1-cosq)
 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
L P

kq L sinq
q

L cosq
L (1-cosq)

◼ Write the equation of static equilibrium in the deformed state

M o =0  − kq + P L sin q = 0
kq
P =
L sin q
For small deformations sin q = q
kq k
 Pcr = =
Lq L
◼ Thus, the structure will be in static equilibrium in the deformed state
when P = Pcr = k/L
◼ When P<Pcr, the structure will not be in the deformed state. The
structure will buckle into the deformed state when P=Pcr
 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS

Example 2 - Rigid bar supported by translational spring at end

P

k
L

Assume deformed state that activates all possible d.o.f.

Draw FBD in the deformed state
P
L
L sinq
q
O
k L sinq

L cosq

L (1-cosq)
 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
Write equations of static equilibrium in deformed state
P
L
L sinq
q
O
k L sinq

L cosq

L (1-cosq)

M o =0  −(k L sin q )  L + P L sin q = 0

k L2 sin q
P =
L sin q
For small deformations sin q = q
k L2q
 Pcr = =kL
Lq

• Thus, the structure will be in static equilibrium in the deformed state

when P = Pcr = k L. When P<Pcr, the structure will not be in the deformed
state. The structure will buckle into the deformed state when P=Pcr
 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
Example 3 – Three rigid bar system with two rotational springs
P k k P
A D
B C
L L L

Assume deformed state that activates all possible d.o.f.

Draw FBD in the deformed state

P k k P
q1 q2
A L sin q2 D
L sin q1 (q1 – q2) L
L
C
B (q1 – q2)

Assume small deformations. Therefore, sinq=q

 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
Write equations of static equilibrium in deformed state
P k k P
q1 q2
A L sin q2 D
L sin q1 (q1 – q2) L
L
C
B (q1 – q2)

k P
P q2
q2−(q1 – q2) L sin q2 D
L
A q1 C
L sin q1
L k(2q2-q1)

B q1+(q1-q2)
k(2q1-q2)

M B =0  k (2q1 − q 2 ) − P L sin q1 = 0  k (2q1 − q 2 ) − P L q1 = 0

M C =0  −k (2q 2 − q1 ) + P L sin q 2 = 0  −k (2q 2 − q1 ) + P L q 2 = 0

 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
◼ Equations of Static Equilibrium
k (2q1 − q 2 ) − P L q1 = 0 2k − PL − k  q1  0
   = 
− k (2q 2 − q1 ) + P L q 2 = 0  −k 2k − PL q 2  0
◼ Therefore either q1 and q2 are equal to zero or the determinant of the
coefficient matrix is equal to zero.
◼ When q1 and q2 are not equal to zero – that is when buckling occurs –
the coefficient matrix determinant has to be equal to zero for equil.
◼ Take a look at the matrix equation. It is of the form [A] {x}={0}. It can
also be rewritten as ([K]-l[I]){x}={0}

  2k k 
 −  1 0  q  0
  L L −P 
0 1 q  = 0
1

 − k 2k     2   
 
 L L  
 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
◼ This is the classical eigenvalue problem. ([K]-l[I]){x}={0}.
◼ We are searching for the eigenvalues (l) of the stiffness matrix [K].
These eigenvalues cause the stiffness matrix to become singular
◼ Singular stiffness matrix means that it has a zero value, which means that
the determinant of the matrix is equal to zero.

2k − PL −k
=0
−k 2k − PL
 (2k − PL) 2 − k 2 = 0
 (2k − PL + k ) • (2k − PL − k ) = 0
 (3k − PL) • (k − PL) = 0
3k k
 Pcr = or
L L

◼ Smallest value of Pcr will govern. Therefore, Pcr=k/L

 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
◼ Each eigenvalue or critical buckling load (Pcr) corresponds to a buckling shape
that can be determined as follows
◼ Pcr=k/L. Therefore substitute in the equations to determine q1 and q2
k (2q1 − q 2 ) − P L q1 = 0 − k (2q 2 − q1 ) + P L q 2 = 0
Let P = Pcr = k Let P = Pcr = k
L L
 k (2q1 − q 2 ) − kq1 = 0  − k (2q 2 − q1 ) + kq 2 = 0
 kq1 − kq 2 = 0  kq1 − kq 2 = 0
q1 = q 2 q1 = q 2
◼ All we could find is the relationship between q1 and q2. Not their specific
values. Remember that this is a small deflection analysis. So, the values are
negligible. What we have found is the buckling shape – not its magnitude.
◼ The buckling mode is such that q1=q2 → Symmetric buckling mode
P k k P
A q1 q2=q1 D
L
L

B C
 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS
◼ Second eigenvalue was Pcr=3k/L. Therefore substitute in the equations to
determine q1 and q2
k (2q1 − q 2 ) − P L q1 = 0 − k (2q 2 − q1 ) + P L q 2 = 0
Let P = Pcr = 3k Let P = Pcr = 3k
L L
 k (2q1 − q 2 ) − 3kq1 = 0  − k (2q 2 − q1 ) + 3kq 2 = 0
 − kq1 − kq 2 = 0  kq1 + kq 2 = 0
q1 = −q 2 q1 = −q 2
◼ All we could find is the relationship between q1 and q2. Not their specific
values. Remember that this is a small deflection analysis. So, the values are
negligible. What we have found is the buckling shape – not its magnitude.
◼ The buckling mode is such that q1=-q2 → Antisymmetric
C
buckling mode
L
P k k q2=-q1 P
A q1 D
L

B
 BIFURCATION ANALYSIS

◼ Homework No. 1
◼ Problem 1.1
◼ Problem 1.3
◼ Problem 1.4
◼ All problems from the textbook on Stability by W.F. Chen
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Structural Stability

OUTLINE
◼ Definition of stability
◼ Types of instability
◼ Methods of stability analyses
◼ Bifurcation analysis examples – small deflection analyses
◼ Energy method
◼ Examples – small deflection analyses
◼ Examples – large deflection analyses
◼ Examples – imperfect systems
◼ Design of steel structures
 ENERGY METHOD

◼ We will currently look at the use of the energy method for an

elastic system subjected to conservative forces.
◼ Total potential energy of the system – P – depends on the work
done by the external forces (We) and the strain energy stored in
the system (U).
◼ P = U - We .
◼ For the system to be in equilibrium, its total potential energy P
must be stationary. That is, the first derivative of P must be
equal to zero.
◼ Investigate higher order derivatives of the total potential energy
to examine the stability of the equilibrium state, i.e., whether the
equilibrium is stable or unstable
 ENERGY METHD
◼ The energy method is the best for establishing the equilibrium
equation and examining its stability
◼ The deformations can be small or large.
◼ The system can have imperfections.
◼ It provides information regarding the post-buckling path if large
deformations are assumed
◼ The major limitation is that it requires the assumption of the
deformation state, and it should include all possible degrees of
freedom.
 ENERGY METHOD
◼ Example 1 – Rigid bar supported by rotational spring
◼ Assume small deflection theory
k P Rigid bar subjected to axial force P

L
Rotationally restrained at end

Step 1 - Assume a deformed shape that activates all possible d.o.f.

L P

kq
q

L cosq
L (1-cosq)
 ENERGY METHOD – SMALL DEFLECTIONS
L P

kq L sinq
q

L cosq
L (1-cosq)
◼ Write the equation representing the total potential energy of system
 = U − We
1
U = kq2
2
We = P L (1 − cosq )
1
 = k q 2 − P L (1 − cosq )
2
d
= k q − P L sin q
dq
d
For equilibrium; =0
dq
Therefore, k q − P L sin q = 0
For small deflections; kq − P Lq = 0
k
Therefore, Pcr =
L
 ENERGY METHOD – SMALL DEFLECTIONS
◼ The energy method predicts that buckling will occur at the same load
Pcr as the bifurcation analysis method.
◼ At Pcr, the system will be in equilibrium in the deformed.
◼ Examine the stability by considering further derivatives of the total
potential energy
◼ This is a small deflection analysis. Hence q will be → zero.
◼ In this type of analysis, the further derivatives of P examine the stability of
the initial state-1 (when q =0)

1
= k q 2 − P L (1 − cosq ) d2 
2 When P  Pcr  0 Stable equilibrium
d dq 2
= k q − P L sin q = k q − P L q d2 
dq When P  Pcr  0 Unstable equilibrium
d2  dq 2
= k − PL d2 
dq 2
When P = Pcr = 0  Not sure
dq 2
 ENERGY METHOD – SMALL DEFLECTIONS

◼ In state-1, stable when P<Pcr, unstable when P>Pcr

◼ No idea about state during buckling.
◼ No idea about post-buckling equilibrium path or its stability.
P
Unstable
Indeterminate
Pcr

Stable

q
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS
◼ Example 1 – Large deflection analysis (rigid bar with rotational spring)

 = U − We
1
U = kq2 L P
2
We = P L (1 − cosq ) kq
q L sinq
1
 = k q 2 − P L (1 − cosq )
2 L cosq
d L (1-cosq)
= k q − P L sin q
dq
d
For equilibrium; =0
dq
Therefore, k q − P L sin q = 0
kq
Therefore, P= for equilibrium
L sin q
The post − buckling P − q relationship is given above
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS
◼ Large deflection analysis
◼ See the post-buckling load-displacement path shown below
◼ The load carrying capacity increases after buckling at Pcr
◼ Pcr is where q → 0
Rigid bar with rotational spring
1.2

1 kq
P= for equilibrium
L sin q
0.8 P q
 =
Pcr sin q
Load P/Pcr

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
End rotation q
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS
◼ Large deflection analysis – Examine the stability of equilibrium using
higher order derivatives of P
1
= k q 2 − P L (1 − cosq )
2
d
= k q − P L sin q
dq
d2 
= k − P L cosq
dq 2
kq
But, P =
L sin q
d2  kq
 = k − L cosq
dq 2 L sin q
d2  q
 = k (1 − )
dq 2 tan q
d2 
  0 Always (i.e., all values of q )
dq 2
 Always STABLE
d2 
But, = 0 for q = 0
dq 2
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS
◼ At q =0, the second derivative of P=0. Therefore, inconclusive.
◼ Consider the Taylor series expansion of P at q=0

d 1 d2  1 d3  1 d4  1 dn 
 =  q =0 + q+ q +
2
q +
3
q + ..... +
4
qn
dq q =0 2! dq q =0
2
3! dq q =0
3
4! dq q =0
4
n! dq q =0
n

◼ Determine the first non-zero term of P,

1  q =0 = 0 1 d4  1
= k q 2 − P L (1 − cosq )  q 4
= kq4 0
2 d 4! dq q =0
4
24
d =0
= k q − P L sin q dq q = 0
dq d2 
d2  =0
= k − P L cosq dq 2 q = 0
dq 2
d3  d3 
= P L sin q = P L sin q = 0
dq 3 dq 3 q = 0
d4  d4 
= P L cosq = P L cosq = PL = k
dq 4 dq 4 q = 0

◼ Since the first non-zero term is > 0, the state is stable at P=Pcr and q=0
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS

Rigid bar with rotational spring

1.2

1
STABLE
STABLE
0.8
Load P/Pcr

0.6
STABLE
0.4

0.2

0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
End rotation q
q0=0
 ENERGY METHOD – IMPERFECT SYSTEMS

◼ Consider example 1 – but as a system with imperfections

◼ The initial imperfection given by the angle q0 as shown below

k q0 L P

L cos(q0)

◼ The free body diagram of the deformed system is shown below

L P

k(q−q0) L sinq
q

q0

L cosq
L (cosq0-cosq)
ENERGY METHOD – IMPERFECT SYSTEMS
L P

k(q−q0) L sinq
q

q0
 = U − We
1 L cosq
U = k (q − q 0 ) 2 L (cosq0-cosq)
2
We = P L (cosq 0 − cosq )
1
= k (q − q 0 ) 2 − P L (cosq 0 − cosq )
2
d
= k (q − q 0 ) − P L sin q
dq
d
For equilibrium; =0
dq
Therefore, k (q − q 0 ) − P L sin q = 0
k (q − q 0 )
Therefore, P= for equilibrium
L sin q
The equilibrium P − q relationship is given above
 ENERGY METHOD – IMPERFECT SYSTEMS
k (q − q 0 ) P q −q0
P=  =
L sin q Pcr sin q
P − q relationshipswith
Rigid bar for rotational springof q 0 shown below :
different values
1.2

0.8
Load P/Pcr

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
End rotation q
q0=0 q0=0.05 q0=0.1 q0=0.2 q0=0.3
 ENERGY METHODS – IMPERFECT SYSTEMS

◼ As shown in the figure, deflection starts as soon as loads are

applied. There is no bifurcation of load-deformation path for
imperfect systems. The load-deformation path remains in the
same state through-out.
◼ The smaller the imperfection magnitude, the close the load-
deformation paths to the perfect system load –deformation path
◼ The magnitude of load, is influenced significantly by the
imperfection magnitude.
◼ All real systems have imperfections. They may be very small but
will be there
◼ The magnitude of imperfection is not easy to know or guess.
Hence if a perfect system analysis is done, the results will be
close for an imperfect system with small imperfections
 ENERGY METHODS – IMPERFECT SYSTEMS

◼ Examine the stability of the imperfect system using higher order

derivatives of P 1
= k (q − q 0 ) − P L (cosq 0 − cosq )
2

2
d
= k (q − q 0 ) − P L sin q
dq
d2 
= k − P L cosq
dq 2
 Equilibrium path will be stable
d2 
if 0
dq 2

i.e., if k − P L cosq  0
k
i.e., if P 
L cosq
k (q − q 0 ) k
i.e., if 
L sin q L cosq
i.e., q − q 0  tan q
◼ Which is always true, hence always in STABLE EQUILIBRIUM
ENERGY METHOD – SMALL DEFLECTIONS

Example 2 - Rigid bar supported by translational spring at end

P

k
L

Assume deformed state that activates all possible d.o.f.

Draw FBD in the deformed state
P
L
L sinq
q
O
k L sinq

L cosq

L (1-cosq)
 ENERGY METHOD – SMALL DEFLECTIONS

Write the equation representing the total potential energy of system

 = U − We P
L
1 1
U= k ( L sin q ) 2 = k L2q 2 L sinq
2 2 q
O
We = P L (1 − cosq ) k L sinq

1
= k L2 q 2 − P L (1 − cosq )
2 L cosq
d
= k L2 q − P L sin q
dq L (1-cosq)

d
For equilibrium; =0
dq
Therefore, k L2 q − P L sin q = 0
For small deflections; k L2q − P Lq = 0
Therefore, Pcr = k L
 ENERGY METHOD – SMALL DEFLECTIONS
◼ The energy method predicts that buckling will occur at the same
load Pcr as the bifurcation analysis method.
◼ At Pcr, the system will be in equilibrium in the deformed.
Examine the stability by considering further derivatives of the
total potential energy
◼ This is a small deflection analysis. Hence q will be → zero.
◼ In this type of analysis, the further derivatives of P examine the
stability of the initial state-1 (when q =0)
1
= k L2 q 2 − P L (1 − cosq )
2
d2 
d When, P  k L  0  STABLE
= k L2 q − P L sin q dq 2
dq
d2 
d2 
= k L2 − P L cosq When, P  k L  0 UNSTABLE
dq 2 dq 2
For small deflections and q = 0 d2 
When P = kL = 0  INDETERMINATE
d2  dq 2

= k L2
−P L
dq 2
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS

Write the equation representing the total potential energy of system

P
 = U − We L

L sinq
1
U = k ( L sin q ) 2 O
q
2
We = P L (1 − cosq )
1
= k L2 sin 2 q − P L (1 − cosq ) L cosq
2
d L (1-cosq)
= k L2 sin q cosq − P L sin q
dq
d
For equilibrium; =0
dq
Therefore, k L2 sin q cosq − P L sin q = 0
Therefore, P = k L cosq for equilibrium
The post − buckling P − q relationship is given above
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS
◼ Large deflection analysis
◼ See the post-buckling load-displacement path shown below
◼ The load carrying capacity decreases after buckling at Pcr
◼ Pcr is where q → 0
Rigid bar with translational spring
1.2
P = k L cosq for equilibrium
P
 = cosq
1 Pcr

0.8
Load P/Pcr

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
End rotation q
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS
◼ Large deflection analysis – Examine the stability of equilibrium using
higher order derivatives of P
1
= k L2 sin 2 q − P L (1 − cosq )
2
d
= k L2 sin q cosq − P L sin q
dq
d2 
= k L 2
cos 2q − P L cosq
dq 2

For equilibrium P = k L cosq

d2 
 = k L2 cos 2q − k L2 cos 2 q
dq 2
d2 
 = k L2 (cos 2 q − sin 2 q ) − k L2 cos 2 q
dq 2
d2 
 = − k L2 sin 2 q
dq 2
d2 
 0 ALWAYS . HENCE UNSTABLE
dq 2
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS
◼ At q =0, the second derivative of P=0. Therefore, inconclusive.
◼ Consider the Taylor series expansion of P at q=0

d 1 d2  1 d3  1 d4  1 dn 
 =  q =0 + q+ q +
2
q +
3
q + ..... +
4
qn
dq q =0 2! dq q =0
2
3! dq q =0
3
4! dq q =0
4
n! dq q =0
n

◼ Determine the first non-zero term of P,

1
= k L2 sin 2 q − P L (1 − cosq ) = 0 d4 
2 = −4 k L 2
cos 2q + P L cosq
dq 4
d 1
= k L2 sin 2q − P L sin q = 0 d4 
dq 2  = − 4 k L2
+ k L2
= −3 k L2

dq 4
d2 
= k L2
cos 2q − P L cosq = 0 d4 
dq 2
 0
dq 4
d3 
= −2k L2 sin 2q + P L sin q = 0 UNSTABLE at q = 0 when buckling occurs
dq 3

◼ Since the first non-zero term is < 0, the state is unstable at P=Pcr and q=
 ENERGY METHOD – LARGE DEFLECTIONS

Rigid bar with translational spring

1.2

1 UNSTABLE
UNSTABLE
0.8
Load P/Pcr

0.6

UNSTABLE
0.4

0.2

0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
End rotation q
 ENERGY METHOD - IMPERFECTIONS

◼ Consider example 2 – but as a system with imperfections

◼ The initial imperfection given by the angle q0 as shown below

q0 P
L

k
L cos(q0)

◼ The free body diagram of the deformed system is shown below

P
L

L sinq
q
L sinq0
O
q0

L cosq

L (cosq0-cosq)
 ENERGY METHOD - IMPERFECTIONS
P
L

L sinq
q
L sinq0
O
q0
 = U − We
1
U= k L2 (sin q − sin q 0 ) 2
2 L cosq

We = P L (cosq 0 − cosq ) L (cosq0-cosq)

1
= k L2 (sin q − sin q 0 ) 2 − P L (cosq 0 − cosq )
2
d
= k L2 (sin q − sin q 0 ) cosq − P L sin q
dq
d
For equilibrium; =0
dq
Therefore, k L2 (sin q − sin q 0 ) cosq − P L sin q = 0
sin q 0
Therefore, P = k L cosq (1 − ) for equilibrium
sin q
The equilibrium P − q relationship is given above
 ENERGY METHOD - IMPERFECTIONS
sin q 0 P sin q 0
P = k L cosq (1 − )  = cosq (1 − )
sin q Pcr sin q
dP sin q
Pmax  =Rigid
0 bar q + 2 0 ) spring
(− sintranslational
k Lwith = 0  sin q 0 = sin 3 q
1.2
dq sin q
 Pmax = k L cos3 q Envelope of peak
1 loads Pmax

0.8
Load P/Pcr

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
End rotation q
q0=0 q0=0.05 q0=0.1 q0=0.2 q0=0.3
 ENERGY METHOD - IMPERFECTIONS
◼ As shown in the figure, deflection starts as soon as loads are
applied. There is no bifurcation of load-deformation path for
imperfect systems. The load-deformation path remains in the
same state through-out.
◼ The smaller the imperfection magnitude, the close the load-
deformation paths to the perfect system load –deformation path.
◼ The magnitude of load, is influenced significantly by the
imperfection magnitude.
◼ All real systems have imperfections. They may be very small but
will be there
◼ The magnitude of imperfection is not easy to know or guess.
Hence if a perfect system analysis is done, the results will be
close for an imperfect system with small imperfections.
◼ However, for an unstable system – the effects of imperfections
may be too large.
 ENERGY METHODS – IMPERFECT SYSTEMS
◼ Examine the stability of the imperfect system using higher order
derivatives of P  = 1 k L (sin q − sin q ) − P L (cosq − cosq )
2 2
0 0
2
d
= k L2 (sin q − sin q 0 ) cosq − P L sin q
dq
d2 
= k L2 (cos 2q + sin q 0 sin q ) − P L cosq
dq 2

 sin q 0 
For equilibrium P = k L 1 − 
 sin q 
d2  2  sin q 0 
 = k L2
(cos 2q + sin q sin q ) − k L  1 −  cos 2 q
dq 2 sin q
0
 
d2  2  sin q 0 cos 2 q 
 = k L cos q − sin q + sin q 0 sin q − cos q +
2 2 2

dq 2  sin q 
d2  2  sin q 0 cos 2 q 
 = k L − sin q + sin q 0 sin q +
2

dq 2  sin q 
d2  2  − sin q + sin q 0 (sin q + cos q ) 
3 2 2
 =kL  
dq 2  sin q 
d2  2  − sin q + sin q 0 
3
 =kL  
dq 2  sin q 
 ENERGY METHOD – IMPERFECT SYSTEMS
d2  2  − sin q + sin q 0 
3 sin q 0
=kL   P = k L cosq (1 − ) and Pmax = k L cos 3 q
dq 2 sin q sin q
 
When P  Pmax
d2 
 0 when P  Pmax  Stable sin q 0
dq 2 k L cosq (1 − )  k L cos 3 q
sin q
d2 
 0 when P  Pmax Unstable sin q 0
dq 2 1 −  cos 2 q
sin q
sin q 0
1 −  1 − sin 2 q
sin q
d2  2  sin q 0 − sin q 
3
 sin q 0  sin q3
and =k L  0
dq 2  sin q 
When P  Pmax
sin q 0
k L cosq (1 − )  k L cos 3 q
sin q
sin q 0
1 −  cos 2 q
sin q
sin q 0
1 −  1 − sin 2 q
sin q
d2  2  sin q 0 − sin q 
3
 sin q 0  sin q3
and =k L  0
dq 2  sin q 
 Chapter 2. – Second-Order Differential Equations

◼ This chapter focuses on deriving second-order differential

equations governing the behavior of elastic members
◼ 2.1 – First order differential equations
◼ 2.2 – Second-order differential equations
 2.1 First-Order Differential Equations

◼ Governing the behavior of structural members

◼ Elastic, Homogenous, and Isotropic
◼ Strains and deformations are really small – small deflection theory
◼ Equations of equilibrium in undeformed state
◼ Consider the behavior of a beam subjected to bending and axial
forces
 2.1 First-Order Differential Equations
◼ Assume tensile forces are positive and moments are positive
according to the right-hand rule
◼ Longitudinal stress due to bending
P Mx My
My = + y− x
P Mx
= + y−
A Ix Iy
x
A Ix Iy

◼ This is true when the x-y axis system is

a centroidal and principal axis system.
 y dA =  x dA =  x y dA = 0
A A A
 Centroidal axis

 dA = A;  dA = I y ;  dA = I x
2 2
x y
A A A

I x and I y are principal moment of inertia

 2.1 First-Order Differential Equations
P Mx My
◼ The corresponding strain is  = + y− x
A E E Ix E Iy
Mx
◼ If P=My=0, then  = y
E Ix
◼ Plane-sections remain plane and perpendicular
to centroidal axis before and after bending
◼ The measure of bending is curvature f which
denotes the change in the slope of the
centroidal axis between two point dz apart

tan f y =
y
For small deformations tan f y  f y

f y =
y
Mx
f y =
E Ix
 M x = E I x fy and similarly M y = E I y f x
 2.1 First-Order Differential Equations
◼ Shear Stresses due to bending

s
Vy
 t=−
Ix  y t ds
O

Vx s
 t = −  x t ds
Iy O
 2.1 First-Order Differential Equations
◼ Differential equations of bending
◼ Assume principle of superposition
◼ Treat forces and deformations in y-z and x-z
plane seperately
◼ Both the end shears and qy act in a plane
parallel to the y-z plane through the shear
center S
dV y
= −q y
dz
dM x
= Vy
dz
d 2M x
 = −q y
dz 2
d 2 (E I x f y )
 = −q y
dz 2
 E I x f y = − q y
 2.1 First-Order Differential Equations
◼ Differential equations of bending

E I x f y = −q y
v 
fy = −
1 + (v)  2 3/ 2

For small deflections

f y = −v 
 E I x v iv = q y
Similarly E I y u iv = q x
u → deflection in positive x direction
v → deflection in positive y direction

◼ Fourth-order differential equations using first-

order force-deformation theory
 Torsion behavior – Pure and Warping Torsion

◼ Torsion behavior – uncoupled from bending behavior

◼ Thin walled open cross-section subjected to torsional moment
◼ This moment will cause twisting and warping of the cross-section.
◼ The cross-section will undergo pure and warping torsion behavior.
◼ Pure torsion will produce only shear stresses in the section
◼ Warping torsion will produce both longitudinal and shear stresses
◼ The internal moment produced by the pure torsion response will be
equal to Msv and the internal moment produced by the warping
torsion response will be equal to Mw.
◼ The external moment will be equilibriated by the produced internal
moments
◼ MZ=MSV + MW
 Pure and Warping Torsion

MZ=MSV + MW
Where,
◼ MSV = G KT f′ and MW = - E Iw f"‘
◼ MSV = Pure or Saint Venant’s torsion moment
◼ KT = J = Torsional constant =
◼ f is the angle of twist of the cross-section. It is a function of z.
◼ IW is the warping moment of inertia of the cross-section. This is
a new cross-sectional property you may not have seen before.
MZ = G KT f′ - E Iw f"‘ ……… (3), differential equation of torsion
 Pure Torsion Differential Equation
◼ Lets look closely at pure or Saint Venant’s torsion. This occurs when
the warping of the cross-section is unrestrained or absent

 dz = r df
df
 = r = r f
dz
 = G r f 

 M SV =   r dA = G f   r 2 dA
A A

 M SV = G K T f 
where, K T = J =  r 2 dA
A

◼ For a circular cross-section – warping is absent. For thin-walled open

cross-sections, warping will occur.
◼ The out of plane warping deformation w can be calculated using an
equation I will not show.
 Pure Torsion Stresses
The torsional shear stresses vary linearly about the center of the thin plate

 SV = G r f 
( SV )max = G t f 
sv
 Warping deformations

◼ The warping produced by pure torsion can be restrained by the:

(a) end conditions, or (b) variation in the applied torsional
moment (non-uniform moment)
◼ The restraint to out-of-plane warping deformations will produce
longitudinal stresses (w) , and their variation along the length
will produce warping shear stresses (w) .
 Warping Torsion Differential Equation

◼ Lets take a look at an approximate derivation of the warping

torsion differential equation.
◼ This is valid only for I and C shaped sections.
h
uf =f
2
where u f = flange lateral displacement
M f = moment in the flange
V f = Shear force in the flange
E I f u f = − M f  borrowing d .e. of bending
E I f u f = −V f
MW = Vf h
 M W = − E I f u f h
h2
 MW = −E I f f 
2
 MW = − E I W f 
where I W is warping moment of inertia → new sec tion property
 Torsion Differential Equation Solution

◼ Torsion differential equation MZ=MSV+MW = G KT f’- E IW f’’’

◼ This differential equation is for the case of concentrated torque
G K T f  − E I w f  = M Z
G KT M
 f  − f = − Z
E IW E IW
Mz z
 f  − l f  = −
2 MZ f = C1 + C 2 cosh lz + C3 sinh lz +
E IW l2 E I W
◼ Torsion differential equation for the case of distributed torque

dM Z
mZ = −
dz
G K T f  − E I w f iv = −m Z
G KT m mz z 2
 f iv − f  = Z f = C 4 + C5 z + C6 cosh lz + C7 sinh lz −
E IW E IW 2 G KT
mZ
 f iv − l2 f  =
E IW
◼ The coefficients C1 .... C6 can be obtained using end conditions
 Torsion Differential Equation Solution
◼ Torsionally fixed end conditions are given by f = f = 0
◼ These imply that twisting and warping at the fixed end are fully
restrained. Therefore, equal to zero.
◼ Torsionally pinned or simply-supported end conditions given by:
f = f  = 0
◼ These imply that at the pinned end twisting is fully restrained (f=0) and
warping is unrestrained or free. Therefore, W=0 →f’’=0
◼ Torsionally free end conditions given by f’=f’’ = f’’’= 0
◼ These imply that at the free end, the section is free to warp and there
are no warping normal or shear stresses.
◼ Results for various torsional loading conditions given in the AISC
Design Guide 9 – can be obtained from my private site
 Warping Torsion Stresses
◼ Restraint to warping produces longitudinal and shear stresses
 W = E Wn f 
 W t = − E SW f 
where,
Wn = Normalized Unit Warping − Section Pr operty
SW = Warping Statical Moment − Section Pr operty

◼ The variation of these stresses over the section is defined by the

section property Wn and Sw
◼ The variation of these stresses along the length of the beam is defined
by the derivatives of f.
◼ Note that a major difference between bending and torsional behavior is
◼ The stress variation along length for torsion is defined by derivatives of f,
which cannot be obtained using force equilibrium.
◼ The stress variation along length for bending is defined by derivatives of v,
which can be obtained using force equilibrium (M, V diagrams).
Torsional Stresses
Torsional Stresses
Torsional Section Properties for I and C Shapes
f and derivatives for concentrated torque at midspan
 Summary of first order differential equations

− E I x v  = M x  (1)
E I y u  = M y  (2)
G K T f  − E I W f  = M z  (3)

NOTES:
(1) Three uncoupled differential equations
(2) Elastic material – first order force-deformation theory
(3) Small deflections only
(4) Assumes – no influence of one force on other deformations
(5) Equations of equilibrium in the undeformed state.
 HOMEWORK # 3
◼ Consider the 22 ft. long simply-supported W18x65 wide flange beam
shown in Figure 1 below. It is subjected to a uniformly distributed load
of 1k/ft that is placed with an eccentricity of 3 in. with respect to the
centroid (and shear center).
◼ At the mid-span and the end support cross-sections, calculate the
magnitude and distribution of:
◼ Normal and shear stresses due to bending
◼ Shear stresses due to pure torsion
◼ Warping normal and shear stresses over the cross-section.
◼ Provide sketches and tables of the individual normal and shear stress
distributions for each case.
◼ Superimpose the bending and torsional stress-states to determine the
magnitude and location of maximum stresses.
HOMEWORK # 2

22 ft.
Span 3in.

W18x65

Cross-section
 Chapter 2. – Second-Order Differential Equations

◼ This chapter focuses on deriving second-order differential

equations governing the behavior of elastic members
◼ 2.1 – First order differential equations
◼ 2.2 – Second-order differential equations
 2.2 Second-Order Differential Equations

◼ Governing the behavior of structural members

◼ Elastic, Homogenous, and Isotropic
◼ Strains and deformations are really small – small deflection theory
◼ Equations of equilibrium in deformed state
◼ The deformations and internal forces are no longer independent.
They must be combined to consider effects.
◼ Consider the behavior of a member subjected to combined axial
forces and bending moments at the ends. No torsional forces
are applied explicitly – because that is very rare for CE
structures.
Member model and loading conditions

◼ Member is initially straight and prismatic.

It has a thin-walled open cross-section
◼ Member ends are pinned and prevented
from translation.
◼ The forces are applied only at the
member ends
◼ These consist only of axial and bending
moment forces P, MTX, MTY, MBX, MBY
◼ Assume elastic behavior with small
deflections
◼ Right-hand rule for positive moments and
reactions and P assumed positive.
 Member displacements (cross-sectional)

◼ Consider the middle line of thin-

walled cross-section
◼ x and y are principal coordinates
through centroid C
◼ Q is any point on the middle line.
It has coordinates (x, y).
◼ Shear center S coordinates are
(xo, y0)
◼ Shear center S displacements
are u, v, and f
 Member displacements (cross-sectional)

◼ Displacements of Q are:
uQ = u + a f sin a
vQ = v – a f cos a
where a is the distance from Q to S
◼ But, sin a = (y0-y) / a
cos a = (x0-x) / a
◼ Therefore, displacements of Q are:
uQ = u + f (y0-y)
vQ = v – f (x0 – x)
◼ Displacements of centroid C are:
uc = u + f (y0)
vc = v - f (x0)
 Internal forces – second-order effects
◼ Consider the free body diagrams of
the member in the deformed state.
◼ Look at the deformed state in the x-z
and y-z planes in this Figure.
◼ The internal resisting moment at a
distance z from the lower end are:
Mx = - MBX + Ry z + P vc
My = - MBY + Rx z - P uc
◼ The end reactions Rx and Ry are:
Rx = (MTY + MBY) / L
Ry = (MTX + MBX) / L
 Internal forces – second-order effects
◼ Therefore,

M x = − M BX +
z
(M TX + M BX ) + P(v − f x0 )
L
+ (M TY + M BY ) − P(u + f y0 )
z
M y = − M BY
L
 Internal forces in the deformed state
◼ In the deformed state, the cross-section is such that the principal
coordinate systems are changed from x-y-z to the x−h−z system

uc
vc
x

x h

y
 MBx P
Rx
Ry

MBY

x uc
vc
x
z z

y
h
 Mς Mξ σ+d
σ
a
Mη
σ

z
Mx
Rx
My Ry P
 Internal forces in the deformed state
◼ The internal forces Mx and My must be transformed to these new x−h−
z axes
◼ Since the angle f is small
◼ Mx = Mx + f My
◼ Mh = My – f Mx

M x = − M BX +
z
(M TX + M BX ) + P(v − f x0 )
L
+ (M TY + M BY ) − P(u + f y0 )
z
M y = − M BY
L

 M x = − M BX +
z
(M TX + M BX ) + P v − f  P x0 + M BY − z (M TY + M BY )
L  L 

 M h = − M BY +
z
(M TY + M BY ) + P u + f  − P y0 + M BX − z (M TX + M BX )
L  L 
 Twisting component of internal forces

◼ Twisting moments Mz are produced by the internal and external

forces
◼ There are four components contributing to the total Mz
(1) Contribution from Mx and My – Mz1
(2) Contribution from axial force P – Mz2
(3) Contribution from normal stress  – Mz3
(4) Contribution from end reactions Rx and Ry – Mz4

◼ The total twisting moment Mz = Mz1 + Mz2 + Mz3 + Mz4

 Twisting component – 1 of 4

v
u

◼ Twisting moment due to Mx & My

◼ Mz1 = Mx sin (du/dz) + Mysin (dv/dz)
◼ Therefore, due to small angles, Mz1 = Mx du/dz + My dv/dz
◼ Mz1 = Mx u’ + My v’
 Twisting component – 2 of 4

u v

◼ The axial load P acts along the original vertical direction

◼ In the deformed state of the member, the longitudinal axis z is not
vertical. Hence P will have components producing shears.
◼ These components will act at the centroid where P acts and will have
values as shown above – assuming small angles
 Twisting component – 2 of 4

◼ These shears will act at the centroid C, which is eccentric with

respect to the shear center S. Therefore, they will produce
secondary twisting.

◼ Mz2 = P (y0 du/dz – x0 dv/dz)

◼ Therefore, Mz2 = P (y0 u’ – x0 v’)
 Twisting component – 3 of 4

◼ The end reactions (shears) Rx and Ry act at the shear center S

at the ends. But, along the member ends, the shear center will
move by u, v, and f.
◼ Hence, these reactions will also have a twisting effect produced
by their eccentricity with respect to the shear center S.
◼ Mz4 + Ry u + Rx v = 0
◼ Therefore,
◼ Mz4 = – (MTY + MBY) v/L – (MTX + MBX) u/L
 Twisting component – 4 of 4
◼ Wagner’s effect or contribution
– complicated.
◼ Two cross-sections that are dz
apart will warp with respect to
each other.
◼ The stress element  dA will
become inclined by angle (a
df/dz) with respect to dz axis.
◼ Twist produced by each stress
element about S is equal to
 df 
dM z 3 = − a ( dA) a 
 dz 
df
dz A
 Mz 3 = −  a 2
dA
 Twisting component – 4 of 4

Let ,   a 2 dA = K
A
df
 Mz 3 = −K
dz
df
 Mz 3 = −K  for small angles
dz
 Twisting component – 4 of 4

Let ,   a 2 dA = K
A
df
 Mz 3 = −K
dz
df
 Mz 3 = −K  for small angles 
dz
x
y

x 
y
 Total Twisting Component
◼ Mz = Mz1 + Mz2 + Mz3 + Mz4
Mz1 = Mx u’ + My v’
Mz2 = P (y0 u’ – x0 v’)
Mz4 = – (MTY + MBY) v/L – (MTX + MBX) u/L
Mz3 = -K f’
◼ Therefore,
Mz = Mx u’ + My v’+ P (y0 u’ – x0 v’) – (MTY + MBY) v/L – (MTX + MBX) u/L-K
f’

 
M x = − M BX + (M TX + M BX ) + P v − f  P x0 + M BY − (M TY + M BY )
◼ While, z z
L  L 

M h = − M BY +
z
(M TY + M BY ) + P u + f  − P y0 + M BX − z (M TX + M BX )
L  L 
 Total Twisting Component
◼ Mz = Mz1 + Mz2 + Mz3 + Mz4
Mz1 = Mx u’ + My v’ Mz2 = P (y0 u’ – x0 v’) Mz3 = -K f’
Mz4 = – (MTY + MBY) v/L – (MTX + MBX) u/L
◼ Therefore,
v u
 M z = M x u  + M y v + P ( y0 u  − x0 v ) − ( M TY + M BY ) − ( M TX + M BX ) − K f 
L L
v u
 M z = ( M x + P y0 ) u  + ( M y − P x0 ) v − ( M TY + M BY ) − ( M TX + M BX ) − K f 
L L
z
But , M x = − M BX + ( M BX + M TX ) + P (v − f x0 )
L
z
and , M y = − M BY + ( M BY + M TY ) − P (u + f y0 )
L
z z
 M z = (− M BX − ( M BX + M TX ) + P y0 ) u  + (− M BY − ( M BY + M TY ) − P x0 ) v
L L
v u
− ( M TY + M BY ) − ( M TX + M BX ) − K f 
L L
 Internal moments about the x−h−z axes
◼ Thus, now we have the internal moments about the x−h−z axes for the
deformed member cross-section.
( M TX + M BX ) + P v − f  P x0 + M BY − ( M TY + M BY ) 
z z
M x = − M BX +
L  L 
z  z 
M h = − M BY + (MMTYTX+M
+ MBYBX ) − P u + f  − P y0 + M BX − (M TY +M
MTX BY ) 
+ MBX
L  L 
z z
M z = (− M BX − ( M BX + M TX ) + P y0 ) u  + (− M BY − ( M BY + M TY ) − P x0 ) v
L L
v u
− ( M TY + M BY ) − ( M TX + M BX ) − K f 
L L

z
x

h
 Internal Moment – Deformation Relations
◼ The internal moments Mx, Mh, and Mz will still produce flexural bending
about the centroidal principal axis and twisting about the shear center.
◼ The flexural bending about the principal axes will produce
linearly varying longitudinal stresses.
◼ The torsional moment will produce longitudinal and shear
stresses due to warping and pure torsion.
◼ The differential equations relating moments to deformations are
still valid. Therefore,
Mx = - E Ix v” …………………..(Ix = Ix)
Mh = E Ih u” …………………..(Ih = Iy)
Mz = G KT f’ – E Iw f’”
 Internal Moment – Deformation Relations

Therefore,

( M TX + M BX ) + P v − f  P x0 + M BY − ( M TY + M BY ) 
z z
M x = − E I x v = − M BX +
L  L 
z  z 
M h = E I y u  = − M BY + (M TX +MBY
MTY + M ) − P u + f  − P y + M − ( M + )
M TY +MBXBY 
M
L TX
BX 0 BX
L  
z
M z = G KT f  − E I w f  = (− M BX − ( M BX + M TX ) + P y0 ) u  +
L
z v u
(− M BY − ( M BY + M TY ) − P x0 ) v − ( M TY + M BY ) − ( M TX + M BX ) − K f 
L L L
 Second-Order Differential Equations
You end up with three coupled differential equations that relate
the applied forces and moments to the deformations u, v, and f.
Therefore,
 z  z
1 E I x v + P v − f  P x0 + M BY − ( M TY + M BY )  = M BX − ( M TX + M BX )

 L  L
 z  z
2 E I y u + P u − f  − P y0 + M BX − (M
 +M
MMTYTX+ M BYBX)  = − M BY + (M
+M +M
TX+M
MTY BYBX )
 L TX BX  L
z
3 E I w f  − (G KT + K ) f  + u  (− M BX − ( M BX + M TX ) + P y0 )
L
z v u

− v ( M BY + ( M BY + M TY ) + P x0 ) − ( M TY + M BY ) − ( M TX + M BX ) = 0
L L L

These differential equations can be used to investigate the elastic

behavior and buckling of beams, columns, beam-columns and
also complete frames – that will form a major part of this course.
 Chapter 3. Structural Columns

◼ 3.1 Elastic Buckling of Columns

◼ 3.2 Elastic Buckling of Column Systems – Frames
◼ 3.3 Inelastic Buckling of Columns
◼ 3.4 Column Design Provisions (U.S. and Abroad)
 3.1 Elastic Buckling of Columns

◼ Start out with the second-order differential equations derived in

Chapter 2. Substitute P=P and MTY = MBY = MTX = MBX = 0
◼ Therefore, the second-order differential equations simplify to:

1 E I x v + P v − f ( P x0 ) = 0
2 E I y u  + P u − f ( − P y0 ) = 0

3 E I w f  − (G KT + K ) f  + u ( P y0 ) − v ( P x0 ) = 0

◼ This is all great, but before we proceed any further we need to

deal with Wagner’s effect – which is a little complicated.
 Wagner’s effect for columns

K f  =   a 2 f dA
A

where,
P M x y Mh x
 =− + − + E Wn f 
A Ix Iy
M x = P (v − f x0 )
M h = − P (u + f y0 )
 P P (v − f x0 ) y − P (u + f y0 ) x 
 K f  =  − + − + E Wn f  f  a 2 dA
A A 
Ix Iy
 P P (v − f x0 ) y − P (u + f y0 ) x 
 K f  = − + − + E Wn f  f   a 2 dA
 A Ix Iy  A
P
Neglecting higher order terms; K f  = − f   a 2 dA
A A
 Wagner’s effect for columns
But , a 2 = ( x0 − x) 2 + ( y0 − y ) 2
  a 2 dA =  ( x0 − x) 2 + ( y0 − y ) 2 dA
A A

  a 2 dA =   x02 + y02 + x 2 + y 2 − 2 x0 x − 2 y0 y  dA
A A

  a 2 dA =  x02 + y02   dA +  x 2 dA +  y 2 dA − 2 x0  x dA − 2 y0  y dA
A A A A A A

  a 2 dA = ( x02 + y02 ) A + I x + I y
A

Finally,
P
 K f = − ( x02 + y02 ) A + I x + I y  f 
A
 Ix + I y 
 K f  = − P ( x02 + y02 ) +  f
 A 
 2 Ix + I y 
Let r0 = ( x0 + y0 ) +
2 2

 A 
 K f  = − P r02 f 
 Second-order differential equations for columns
◼ Simplify to:

1 E I x v + P v − f ( P x0 ) = 0
2 E I y u + P u + f ( P y0 ) = 0

3 E I w f  + ( P r02 − G KT ) f  + u  ( P y0 ) − v ( P x0 ) = 0

◼ Where
Ix + I y
r0 = x + y +
2 2
0
2
0
A
 Column buckling – doubly symmetric section
◼ For a doubly symmetric section, the shear center is located at the
centroid xo= y0 = 0. Therefore, the three equations become uncoupled
1 E I x v + P v = 0
2 E I y u + P u = 0
3 E I w f  + ( P r02 − G KT ) f  = 0
◼ Take two derivatives of the first two equations and one more derivative
of the third equation.
1 E I x viv + P v = 0
2 E I y u iv + P u  = 0

3 E I w f iv + ( P r02 − G KT ) f  = 0

0 − G KT
2
P P P r
Let , Fv =
2
Fu =
2
Ff =
2

E Ix E Iy E Iw
 Column buckling – doubly symmetric section

1 v iv + Fv2 v = 0
2 u iv + Fu2 u  = 0

3
f iv + Ff2f  = 0

◼ All three equations are similar and of the fourth order. The
solution will be of the form C1 sin lz + C2 cos lz + C3 z + C4
◼ Need four boundary conditions to evaluate the constant C1..C4
◼ For the simply supported case, the boundary conditions are:
u= u”=0; v= v”=0; f= f”=0
◼ Lets solve one differential equation – the solution will be valid for
all three.
 Column buckling – doubly symmetric section
v iv + Fv2 v = 0
Solution is
v = C1 sin Fv z + C2 cos Fv z + C3 z + C4
 v = −C1 Fv2 sin Fv z − C2 Fv2 cos Fv z
The coefficient matrix = 0
Boundary conditions :
v(0) = v(0) = v( L) = v( L) = 0  Fv2 sin Fv L = 0
 sin Fv L = 0
C2 + C4 = 0 v(0) = 0  Fv L = n 
C2 = 0 v(0) = 0 P n
 Fv = =
C1 sin Fv L + C2 cos Fv L + C3 L + C4 v( L) = 0 E Ix L
−C1 Fv2 sin Fv L − C2 Fv2 cos Fv L v( L) = 0 n2  2
 Px = 2 E I x
L
 0 1 0 1   C1  0  Smallest value of n = 1:
 0 1 0 0  C2  0 
  =  2 E Ix
 sin Fv L cos Fv L L 1  C3  0   Px =
   
 − Fv2 sin Fv L − Fv2 cos Fv L 0 0  C4  0  L2
 Column buckling – doubly symmetric section
Similarly, Similarly,
sin Fu L = 0 sin Ff L = 0
 Fu L = n   Ff L = n 
P n P r02 − G KT n 
 Fu = =  Ff = =
E Iy L E Iw L
n2  2  n2  2  1
 Py = 2 E I y  Pf =  2 E I w + G KT  2
L
 L  r0
 2 E Iy Smallest value of n = 1:
Smallest value of n = 1: Py = 2
L
 n2  2  1
Pf =  2 E I w + G KT  2
 2 E Ix  L  r0
Px = 1
L2
 2 E Iy
Summary Py = 2
2
L
 2 E Iw  1
Pf =  2
+ G K T 2 3
 L  r0
 Column buckling – doubly symmetric section

◼ Thus, for a doubly symmetric cross-section, there are three distinct

buckling loads Px, Py, and Pz.

◼ The corresponding buckling modes are:

v = C1 sin(z/L), u =C2 sin(z/L), and f = C3 sin(z/L).

◼ These are, flexural buckling about the x and y axes and torsional
buckling about the z axis.

◼ As you can see, the three buckling modes are uncoupled. You must
compute all three buckling load values.

◼ The smallest of three buckling loads will govern the buckling of the
column.
 Column buckling – boundary conditions
Consider the case of fix-fix boundary conditions:
v iv + Fv2 v = 0
Solution is
v = C1 sin Fv z + C2 cos Fv z + C3 z + C4 The coefficient matrix = 0
 v = C1 Fv cos Fv z − C2 Fv sin Fv z + C3  Fv L sin Fv L − 2 cos Fv L + 2 = 0
Boundary conditions : Fv L  Fv L Fv L 
 2 sin F L cos + 2sin =0
2  2 
v
v(0) = v(0) = v( L) = v( L) = 0 2
 C2 + C4 = 0 v (0) = 0 Fv L
 = n
2
C1 Fv + C3 = 0 v(0) = 0
2n
C1 sin Fv L + C2 cos Fv L + C3 L + C4 v( L) = 0  Fv =
L
C1 Fv cos Fv L − C2 Fv sin Fv L + C3 v( L) = 0 4 n2  2
 Px = E Ix
L2
 0 1 0 1   C1  0  Smallest value of n = 1:
 Fv 0 1 0  C2  0 
  =    2 E Ix  2 E Ix
 sin Fv L cos Fv L L 1  C3  Px = =
  0  ( 0.5 L )
2
( K L )
2
 Fv cos Fv L − Fv sin Fv L 1 0  C4  0 
 Column Boundary Conditions

◼ The critical buckling loads for columns with different boundary

conditions can be expressed as:
 2 E Ix
Px =
( Kx L) 1
2

 2 E Iy
Py = 2
( K L)
2
y

 2 E I  1
Pf =  w
+ G KT  2 3
 ( K z L )
2
 r0

◼ Where, Kx, Ky, and Kz are functions of the boundary conditions:

◼ K=1 for simply supported boundary conditions
◼ K=0.5 for fix-fix boundary conditions
◼ K=0.7 for fix-simple boundary conditions
 Column buckling – example.
◼ Consider a wide flange column W27 x 84. The boundary conditions are:
v=v”=u=u’=f=f’=0 at z=0, and v=v”=u=u’=f=f”=0 at z=L
◼ For flexural buckling about the x-axis – simply supported – Kx=1.0
◼ For flexural buckling about the y-axis – fixed at both ends – Ky = 0.5
◼ For torsional buckling about the z-axis – pin-fix at two ends - Kz=0.7
 2 E Ix  2 E A rx 2 2 E A
Px = = =
( Kx L) ( Kx L)
2 2 2
 L
 x 
K
 rx 
 2 E Iy  2 E A ry 2
2
 2 E A  ry 
Py = = = 2  
( K L) ( K L)
2 2
y y
 
L  x r
 Ky 
 rx 
 
 
 2 E I  1  2 E I 2 A
Pf =  w
+ G K  = w
+ G K r
 x ( x y)
 T x  2
 ( K z L ) r  I +I
2 T 2 2
 r0  K L 
  z rx  
 Column buckling – example.
Px 2 E A 1 2 E 5823.066
 =  = =
L  A Y
2 2 2
PY   L L
 Kx  Y  Kx   
 rx   rx   rx 
 2 E A (ry / rx )  E (ry / rx )
2 2 2
Py 791.02
=  = =
PY  L
2
A Y  L
2
L
2

 Ky  Y  K y   
 rx   rx   rx 
 
 
Pf   2 E I w 2 A 1
= + G K r 
 x ( x y)
2 T x  r2  I + I A Y
PY
 K  L 
  z rx  
 
 
Pf   2 E I w 2 1
 = + G K r
 x ( x y) Y
T x  2
r  I + I 
2
PY
 K  L 
  z rx  
P 578.26
 f = 2
+ 0.2333
PY L
 
 rx 
 Column buckling – example.
2

1.8 Flexural buckling Flexural buckling

about y-axis about x-axis
Critical buckling load / yield load (Pcr/PY)

1.6

1.4

1.2
Yield load PY
Cannot be exceeded
1

0.8

0.6 Torsional buckling about Torsional buckling

z-axis governs about z-axis
0.4

0.2 Flexural buckling about

y-axis governs
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

L-rx (Slenderness Ratio)

Px - flexural buckling Py - flexural buckling Pz - torsional buckling
 Column buckling – example.
◼ When L is such that L/rx < 31; torsional buckling will govern
◼ rx = 10.69 in. Therefore, L/rx = 31 → L=338 in.=28 ft.
◼ Typical column length =10 – 15 ft. Therefore, typical L/rx= 11.2 – 16.8
◼ Therefore elastic torsional buckling will govern.
◼ But, the predicted load is much greater than PY. Therefore, inelastic
buckling will govern.

◼ Summary – Typically must calculate all three buckling load values to

determine which one governs. However, for common steel buildings
made using wide flange sections – the minor (y-axis) flexural buckling
usually governs.
◼ In this problem, the torsional buckling governed because the end
conditions for minor axis flexural buckling were fixed. This is very
rarely achieved in common building construction.
 Column Buckling – Singly Symmetric Columns
◼ Well, what if the column has only one axis of symmetry. Like the x-
axis or the y-axis or so.

◼ As shown in this figure, the y – axis

C
is the axis of symmetry.
x
◼ The shear center S will be located
S
on this axis.
y ◼ Therefore x0= 0.
◼ The differential equations will
simplify to:
1 E I x v + P v = 0
2 E I y u  + P u + f ( P y0 ) = 0
3 E I w f  + ( P r02 − G KT ) f  + u  ( P y0 ) = 0
 Column Buckling – Singly Symmetric Columns

◼ The first equation for flexural buckling about the x-axis (axis of
non-symmetry) becomes uncoupled.
E I x v + P v = 0 (1)
◼ Equations (2) and (3) are still
 E I x v + P v = 0
iv
coupled in terms of u and f.
 v iv + Fv 2 v = 0
P 2 E I y u + P u + f ( P y0 ) = 0
where, Fv 2 =
E Ix 3 E I w f  + ( P r02 − G KT ) f  + u ( P y0 ) = 0
 v = C1 sin Fv z + C2 cos Fv z + C3 z + C4
Boundary conditions
◼ These equations will be satisfied by
sin Fv L = 0
the solutions of the form
 2 E Ix ◼ u=C2 sin (z/L) and f=C3 sin (z/L)
 Px =
( K x Lx ) 2
Buckling mod v = C1 sin Fv z
 Column Buckling – Singly Symmetric Columns
E I y u  + P u + f ( P y0 ) = 0 (2)
E I w f  + ( P r02 − G KT ) f  + u  ( P y0 ) = 0 (3)

 E I y u iv + P u  + f  ( P y0 ) = 0
E I w f iv + ( P r02 − G KT ) f  + u  ( P y0 ) = 0

z z
Let , u = C2 sin ; f = C3 sin
L L
Therefore, substituting these in equations 2 and 3
  z   z   z
4 2 2

E I y   C2 sin − P C2   sin − P y0   C3 sin =0

 
L L  
L L  
L L
  z   z   z
4 2 2

E I w   C3 sin − ( P r02 − G KT )   C3 sin − P y0   C2 sin =0

L L L L L L
Column Buckling – Singly Symmetric Columns
  
2

  E I y   − P  C2 − P y0 C3 = 0
 L 
  
2

and  E I w   − ( P r02 − G KT )  C3 − P y0 C2 = 0
 L 

 2 E Iy   2 E Iw  1
Let , Py = 2
and Pf =  2
+ G K T  2
L  L  r0

  Py − P  C2 − P y0 C3 = 0
 Pf − P  r02C3 − P y0 C2 = 0

 Py − P − P y0  C2 
 2  = 0
 − P y0 ( Pf − P ) r0  3
C
Py − P − P y0
 =0
− P y0 ( Pf − P ) r02
 Column Buckling – Singly Symmetric Columns

 ( Py − P)( Pf − P) r02 − P 2 y02 = 0

  Py Pf − P ( Py + Pf ) + P 2  r02 − P 2 y02 = 0
2  y02 
 P 2 (1 −
y0
) − P( Py + Pf ) + Py Pf = 0  4 Py Pf (1 − 2 ) 
2 ( Py + Pf )  r0 
r P = 1  1 −
y02  ( Py + Pf ) 2 
0

y02 2 (1 − 2 )  
( Py + Pf )  ( Py + Pf ) − 4 Py Pf (1 − 2 )
2
r0  
r0
P =
y02
2 (1 − 2 ) Thus, there are two roots for P
r0
Smaller value will govern
 y02

 4 P P
y f (1 − 2 
)  y 2 

( Py + Pf )  ( Py + Pf ) 2 1 −
r0   4 Py Pf (1 − 2 ) 
0

 ( P +
( Py + Pf )   P = P = y f 1 − 1 −
2 P ) r0 
  y02  ( Py + Pf ) 2 
  2 (1 − 2 )  
P = r
y 2 0  
2 (1 − 02 )
r0
 Column Buckling – Singly Symmetric Columns

◼ The critical buckling load will the lowest of Px and the two roots
shown on the previous slide.
◼ If the flexural torsional buckling load govern, then the buckling
mode will be C2 sin (z/L) x C3 sin (z/L)
◼ This buckling mode will include both flexural and torsional
deformations – hence flexural-torsional buckling mode.
 Column Buckling – Asymmetric Section
◼ No axes of symmetry: Therefore, shear center S (xo, yo) is such that
neither xo not yo are zero.

E I x v + P v − f ( P x0 ) = 0 (1)
E I y u + P u + f ( P y0 ) = 0 (2)
E I w f  + ( P r02 − G KT ) f  + u  ( P y0 ) − v ( P x0 ) = 0 (3)

◼ For simply supported boundary conditions: (u, u”, v, v”, f, f”=0), the
solutions to the differential equations can be assumed to be:
◼ u = C1sin (z/L)
◼ v = C2 sin (z/L)
◼ f = C3 sin (z/L)
◼ These solutions will satisfy the boundary conditions noted above
 Column Buckling – Asymmetric Section
◼ Substitute the solutions into the d.e. and assume that it satisfied too:

  
2
  z      z     z 
E I x −C1   sin    + P C1 sin    − P x0 C3 sin   = 0
  
L  L     L    L 
  
2
  z      z     z 
E I y −C2   sin    + P C2 sin    + P y0 C3 sin   = 0
  L   L     L     L 
  
3
  z       z      z      z 
E I w −C3   cos    + ( P r0 − G KT ) C3 cos 
2
  + P y0 C1 cos    − P x0 C2 cos   = 0
  L   L    L  L    L  L    L  L 

   2  z 
 −  E Ix + P 0 − P x0   C1 sin   
 L   L  
  0 
  z    
2

 0 −  E Iy + P P y0   C2 sin   = 0 
 L   L   0 
  
  
2     z 
 − P x0 P y0 −   E I w + ( P r0 − G KT )   C3 cos 
2

 L L  L  
 
 Column Buckling – Asymmetric Section
 z  
 C1 sin   
 −P + P    L  
0 − P x0 0 
 x
 z    
 0 − Py + P P y0   C2 sin  L   = 0 
 
 −Px
 P y0 − Pf + P r02    
0 

  C cos   z  
0

 L 3  
 L  
where,
      2 E Iw  1
2 2

Px =   EI x Py =   EI y Pf =  + G K T 
L L
2
 L2  r0

◼ Either C1, C2, C3 = 0 (no buckling), or the determinant of the coefficient

matrix =0 at buckling.
◼ Therefore, determinant of the coefficient matrix is:
y2  x2 
( P − Px ) ( P − Py ) ( )
P − Pf − P ( P − Px )  o2
2

r 
(
 − P 2 P − Py )  o
r2
=0

 o   o 
 Column Buckling – Asymmetric Section
y2  x2 
( P − Px ) ( P − Py ) ( )
P − Pf − P ( P − Px )  o2
2

r 
(
 − P 2 P − Py )  o
r2
=0

 o   o 
◼ This is the equation for predicting buckling of a column with an
asymmetric section.
◼ The equation is cubic in P. Hence, it can be solved to obtain three
roots Pcr1, Pcr2, Pcr3.
◼ The smallest of the three roots will govern the buckling of the column.
◼ The critical buckling load will always be smaller than Px, Py, and Pf
◼ The buckling mode will always include all three deformations u, v, and
f. Hence, it will be a flexural-torsional buckling mode.
◼ For boundary conditions other than simply-supported, the
corresponding Px, Py, and Pf can be modified to include end condition
effects Kx, Ky, and Kf
 Homework No. 4
◼ See word file
◼ Problem No. 1
◼ Consider a column with doubly symmetric cross-section. The boundary conditions
for flexural buckling are simply supported at one end and fixed at the other end.
◼ Solve the differential equation for flexural buckling for these boundary conditions
and determine the eigenvalue (buckling load) and the eigenmode (buckling shape).
Plot the eigenmode.
◼ How the eigenvalue compare with the effective length approach for predicting
buckling?
◼ What is the relationship between the eigenmode and the effective length of the
column (Refer textbook).
◼ Problem No. 2
◼ Consider an A992 steel W14 x 68 column cross-section. Develop the normalized
buckling load (Pcr/PY) vs. slenderness ratio (L/rx) curves for the column cross-
section. Assume that the boundary conditions are simply supported for buckling
about the x, y, and z axes.
◼ Which buckling mode dominates for different column lengths?
◼ Is torsional buckling a possibility for practical columns of this length?
◼ Will elastic buckling occur for most practical lengths of this column?
◼ Problem No. 3
◼ Consider a C10 x 30 column section. The length of the column is 15 ft. What is the
buckling capacity of the column if it is simply supported for buckling about the y-
axis (of non-symmetry), pin-fix for flexure about the x-axis (of symmetry) and
simply supported in torsion about the z-axis. Which buckling mode dominates?
Column Buckling - Inelastic

A long topic
 Effects of geometric imperfection

EIx v  + Pv = 0 Leads to bifurcation buckling of

EIy u + Pu = 0 perfect doubly-symmetric columns
P
M x − P(v + v o ) = 0
  EIx v  + P(v + v o ) = 0
 v  + Fv2 (v + v o ) = 0
v o = do sin
z
L
vo
v
 v  + Fv2v = −Fv2v o
v Mx
z

 v  + Fv2v = −Fv2 (d o sin )
L
Solution = v c + v p
v c = A sin(Fv z) + B cos(Fv z)
z z
P
v p = C sin + Dcos
L L
 Effects of Geometric Imperfection

Solve for C and D first

z
 v p + Fv2v p = −Fv2do sin
L
  2  z z   z z  z
−  C sin +Dcos  + Fv2 C sin +Dcos  + Fv2do sin = 0
 L  L L  L L L
z      z     
2 2

 sin −C  + Fv C + Fv do  + cos −  D + Fv D = 0

2 2 2

L   L  L  L 
 
2    2 
−C  + Fv C + Fv do = 0 and −  D + Fv D = 0
2 2 2

L   L 
Fv2do
C = and D = 0
  2
  − Fv
2

L
 Solution becomes
Fv2do z
v = A sin(Fv z) + B cos(Fv z) + sin
  2 L
  − Fv
2

 L
 Geometric Imperfection
Solve for A and B P
Boundary conditionsv(0) = v(L) = 0 PE z
v = do sin
P L
v(0) = B = 0 1−
PE
v(L) = A sin Fv L = 0
Total Deflection
A=0
P
 Solution becomes
PE z z
Fv2do z = v + vo = do sin + do sin
v= sin P L L
2 1−
  L PE
  − Fv
2

L  P 
Fv2  P  z 1 z
d
2 o =  E + 1do sin = do sin
  P 1− P  L 1− P L
  d
L z PE o z  PE  PE
v = sin = sin
Fv2 L 1− P L z
1− 2
PE = AFdo sin
  L
 
L AF = amplification factor
 Geometric Imperfection
1
AF = = amplification factor
P
1−
PE
M x = P(v + v o )
z
 M x = AF (Pdo sin )
L
i.e., M x = AF  (moment due to initial crooked)
12

Increases exponentially
10
 Limit AF for design
Amplification Factor A F

8 Limit P/PE for design

6
Value used in the code is 0.877
4 This will give AF = 8.13
Have to live with it.
2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
P/PE
Residual Stress Effects
Residual Stress Effects
 History of column inelastic buckling

◼ Euler developed column elastic buckling equations (buried in the

million other things he did).
◼ Take a look at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuleR
◼ An amazing mathematician
◼ In the 1750s, I could not find the exact year.
◼ The elastica problem of column buckling indicates elastic
buckling occurs with no increase in load.
◼ dP/dv=0
 History of Column Inelastic Buckling

◼ Engesser extended the elastic column buckling theory in 1889.

◼ He assumed that inelastic
buckling occurs with no
increase in load, and the
relation between stress
and strain is defined by
tangent modulus Et

◼ Engesser’s tangent modulus theory is easy to apply. It

compares reasonably with experimental results.
◼ PT=ETI / (KL)2
 History of Column Inelastic Buckling

◼ In 1895, Jasinsky pointed out the problem with Engesser’s

theory.
◼ If dP/dv=0, then the 2nd order moment (Pv) will produce
incremental strains that will vary linearly and have a zero value at
the centroid (neutral axis).
◼ The linear strain variation will have compressive and tensile
values. The tangent modulus for the incremental compressive
strain is equal to Et and that for the tensile strain is E.
 History of Column Inelastic Buckling

◼ In 1898, Engesser corrected his original theory by accounting

for the different tangent modulus of the tensile increment.
◼ This is known as the reduced modulus or double modulus
◼ The assumptions are the same as before. That is, there is no
increase in load as buckling occurs.
◼ The corrected theory is shown in the following slide
 History of Column Inelastic Buckling
◼ The buckling load PR produces critical
stress R=Pr/A
◼ During buckling, a small curvature df
is introduced
◼ The strain distribution is shown.
◼ The loaded side has dL and dL
◼ The unloaded side has dU and dU
dL = ( y − y1 + y) df
dU = ( y − y + y1 ) df
 d L = E t ( y − y1 + y) df
 dU = E( y − y + y1 ) df
 History of Column Inelastic Buckling
df = −v 
d L = −E t ( y − y1 + y) v 
dU = −E( y − y + y1 ) v 
But, the assumption is dP = 0
y y −y1
  dU dA −  d L dA = 0
y −y1 −( d −y )
y y −y1
  E( y − y + y1 ) dA −  E t ( y − y1 + y) dA = 0
y −y1 −( d −y )

 ES1 − E t S2 = 0
y
where, S1 =  ( y − y + y1 ) dA
y −y1
y −y1
and S 2 =  ( y − y1 + y) dA
−( d −y )
 History of Column Inelastic Buckling
◼ S1 and S2 are the statical moments of the areas to the left and
right of the neutral axis.
◼ Note that the neutral axis does not coincide with the centroid any
more.
◼ The location of the neutral axis is calculated using the equation
derived ES1 - EtS2 = 0

M = Pv
y y −y1
 M =  dU ( y − y + y1) dA −  d L ( y − y1 + y) dA
y −y1 −( d −y )

 M = Pv = −v ( EI1 + E t I2 )
y
where, I1 =  ( y − y + y1 ) 2 dA
y −y1
y −y1
and I 2 =  ( y − y1 + y) 2 dA
−( d −y )
 History of Column Inelastic Buckling

M = Pv = −v ( EI1 + E t I2 )
 Pv + ( EI1 + E t I2 )v  = 0
P
 v  + v =0
EI1 + E t I2
 v  + Fv2v = 0
P P
where, Fv2 = =
EI1 + E t I2 EIx
I1 I2
and E = E + E t
Ix Ix
 2 EI x E is the reduced or double modulus
PR =
(KL) 2 PR is the reduced modulus buckling load
 History of Column Inelastic Buckling

◼ For 50 years, engineers were faced with the dilemma that the
reduced modulus theory is correct, but the experimental data
was closer to the tangent modulus theory. How to resolve?
◼ Shanley eventually resolved this dilemma in 1947. He
conducted very careful experiments on small aluminum
columns.
◼ He found that lateral deflection started very near the theoretical
tangent modulus load and the load capacity increased with
increasing lateral deflections.
◼ The column axial load capacity never reached the calculated
reduced or double modulus load.
◼ Shanley developed a column model to explain the observed
phenomenon
History of Column Inelastic Buckling
History of Column Inelastic Buckling
History of Column Inelastic Buckling
History of Column Inelastic Buckling
 Column Inelastic Buckling
◼ Three different theories P
◼ Tangent modulus
◼ Reduced modulus
◼ Shanley model
dP/dv=0

◼ Tangent modulus theory

assumes
◼ Perfectly straight column Slope is zero at buckling
P=0 with increasing v
◼ Ends are pinned
◼ Small deformations v
◼ No strain reversal during Elastic buckling analysis
buckling
PT
 Tangent modulus theory
◼ Assumes that the column buckles at the tangent modulus load such
that there is an increase in P (axial force) and M (moment).
◼ The axial strain increases everywhere and there is no strain reversal.

Strain and stress state just before buckling

PT
T T=PT/A

Strain and stress state just after buckling

Mx - Pv = 0
v T T
v T T=ETT
Mx
Curvature = f = slope of strain diagram
T
f =
h
h 
T = f + y  where y = distance from centroid
2 
PT h 
 T = f + y  • E T
2 
 Tangent modulus theory

◼ Deriving the equation of equilibrium

M x =   • ydA
A

 =  T +  T
 =  T + f ( y + h / 2) • E T
 M x =  ( T + f ( y + h / 2)E T ) • ydA
A

 M x =  T  y dA + E T  f y 2 dA +(fh / 2)E T )  y dA
A A A

 M x = 0 + E T f Ix + 0
 M x = −E T Ix v 


◼ The equation Mx- PTv=0 becomes -ETIxv” - PTv=0
◼ Solution is PT=  ETIx/L
2 2
 Example - Aluminum columns

◼ Consider an aluminum column with Ramberg-Osgood stress-

E 10100 ksi
strain curve  40.15 ksi 0.2
n n 18.55
   
 = + 0.002    ET ET
E   0.2  0.000E+00 0 differences equation
1.980E-04 2 10100.0 10100.0
 1 0.002 n−1 3.960E-04 4 10100.0 10100.0
 = + n n 5.941E-04 6 10100.0 10100.0
 E  0.2 7.921E-04
9.901E-04
8
10
10100.0
10100.0
10100.0
10100.0
1.188E-03 12 10100.0 10100.0
0.002
1+ nE n−1 1.386E-03 14 10100.0 10100.0

  0.2
n 1.584E-03 16 10100.0 10100.0
 = 1.782E-03 18 10100.0 10099.9

 E 1.980E-03
2.178E-03
20
22
10099.8
10098.8
10099.5
10097.6
2.376E-03 24 10094.2 10088.7
0.002    n−1 2.575E-03 26 10075.1 10054.2
1+ nE   2.775E-03 28 10005.7 9934.0
  0.2   0.2  2.979E-03 30 9779.8 9563.7
 = 3.198E-03 32 9142.0 8602.6
 E 3.458E-03
3.829E-03
34
36
7697.4
5394.2
6713.6
4251.9
 E 4.483E-03 38 3056.9 2218.6
 = = ET 5.826E-03 40 1488.8 1037.0
 0.002    n−1
8.771E-03 42 679.2 468.1
1+ nE   1.529E-02 44 306.9 212.4

 0.2 
 0.2 
2.949E-02
5.967E-02
46
48
140.8
66.3
98.5
46.9
1.221E-01 50 32.1 23.0
 Tangent Modulus Buckling

Ramberg-Osgood Stress-Strain
Stress-tangent modulus relationship
60
12000
50
10000

Tangent Modulus (ksi)

40
8000
Stress (ksi)

30 6000

4000
20
2000
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 Stress (ksi)

Strain (in./in.) ET differences ET equation

 Tangent Modulus Buckling
 (KL/r)cr
0
2 223.2521046 Column Inelastic Buckling Curve
4 157.8630771
60
6 128.8946627
 2 E T Ix
8 111.6260523 PT =
Tangent Modulus Buckling Stress
10 99.84137641
50 L2
12 91.1422898
14 84.3813604 PT  2 E T Ix  2 ET
16 78.93150275  = T = =
(KL / r)
2
18 74.41710153
40 A AL2
20 70.59690679
22 67.3048795  2 ET
 (KL / r)cr =
30
24 64.4113691
26 61.77857434 T
28 59.17430952 20
30 56.09208286
32 51.5097656
34 44.14566415 10
36 34.1419685
38 24.00464013

40 15.9961201 0
42 10.48827475
0 30 60 90 120 150
44 6.902516144
46 4.596633406 KL/r
48 3.105440361
50 2.129145204
 Residual Stress Effects
b

◼ Consider a rectangular section x

d
with a simple residual stress
distribution
◼ Assume that the steel material
rc y rc
has elastic-plastic stress-strain
− curve.
◼ Assume simply supported end rt
conditions −0.5y −0.5y
2y/b

◼ Assume triangular distribution


for residual stresses +0.5y
y

E

 Residual Stress Effects
◼ One major constrain on residual
stresses is that they must be such
that
 dA = 0
r

0  2  b / 2 2 y 
   −0.5 y + y x d  dx +   +0.5 y − x d  dx
−b / 2  b  0  b 

2d y  b 2  2d y  b 2 
= −0.5 y d b 2 + 0.5 y d b 2 +  −  
b 8 b 8
=0

◼ Residual stresses are produced by

uneven cooling but no load is
present
 Residual Stress Effects
b
◼ Response will be such that - x
elastic behavior when d

  0.5 y
 2 EIx  2 EIy
Px = 2
and Py = y
L L2 ab ab
Yielding occurs when
x
 = 0.5 y i.e., P = 0.5PY
Inelastic buckling will occur after   0.5 y y

Y Y
2Y/b
 2 
 Y − Y ab =  Y (1− 2a )
 b 


 Residual Stress Effects

Total axial force correspondingto the yielded sec tion

  +  Y (1− 2a ) 
 Y (b − 2ab)d +  Y abd  2
 2 
=  Y (1− 2a )bd +  Y (2 − 2a )abd
=  Y bd − 2abd Y + 2 Y abd − 2a 2bd Y
=  Y bd(1− 2a 2 ) = PY (1− 2a 2 )

 If inelastic buckling were to occur at this load

Pcr = PY (1− 2a 2 )
1  Pcr 
a = 1− 
2  PY 


If inelastic buckling occurs about x − axis
 2E d3
Pcr = PTx = 2 (2ab)
L 12 ab ab
 2 EIx
 PTx = 2a x
L2
1  Pcr 
 PTx = Px  2  1−  y
2  PY 

1  PTx 
 PTx = Px  2  1−  Pcr = PTx
2  PY 
2
PTx Px 1  PTx  P 1 E  rx 
 = 2 1−  Let, x = 2 =  2  
PY PY 2  PY  PY lx  Y  K x Lx 

PTx 1 1  PTx 
 = 2 1− 
PY l2x 2  PY 
 P 
21− Tx 
 PY 
 l2x =
PTx
PY
If inelastic buckling occurs about y − axis
 2E d
Pcr = PTy = (2ab) 3
L2 12
 2 EIy
(2a )
3
 PTy =
L2 ab ab
3
  Pcr  
1 x
 PTy = Py  2 1−  
 2  PY  
  P 
3 y
 PTy = Py   21− Ty  Pcr = PTy
  PY 
3
PTy Py   PTy 
2
Py 1  r 
2 E
 =   21−  Let, = 2 =   y 
PY PY   PY  PY ly  Y  K y Ly 
3
PTy 1   PTy  
 = 2   21− 
PY ly   PY  
3
  P 
 21− Ty  
  PY  
 ly =
2
PTy
PY
 Residual Stress Effects

P/PY lx ly Column Inelastic Buckling

0.200 2.236 2.236
0.250 2.000 2.000
1.200 1.200
0.300 1.826 1.826

Normalized column capacity

0.350 1.690 1.690
0.400 1.581 1.581 1.000 1.000
0.450 1.491 1.491
0.500 1.414 1.414 0.800 0.800
0.550 1.313 1.246
0.600 1.221 1.092 0.600 0.600
0.650 1.135 0.949
0.700 1.052 0.815 0.400 0.400
0.750 0.971 0.687
0.800 0.889 0.562
0.200 0.200
0.850 0.803 0.440
0.900 0.705 0.315
0.950 0.577 0.182 0.000 0.000
0.995 0.317 0.032 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Lambda
Tangent modulus buckling - Numerical

Discretize the cross-section into fibers

1 Think about the discretization. Do you need the flange
To be discretized along the length and width?
Afib
yfib
For each fiber, save the area of fiber (Afib), the
2 distances from the centroid yfib and xfib,
Ix-fib and Iy-fib the fiber number in the matrix.

Centroidal axis

3 Discretize residual stress distribution

4 Calculate residual stress (r-fib)

each fiber

Check that sum(r-fib Afib)for

5
Section = zero
 Tangent Modulus Buckling - Numerical

14 Calculate the critical (KL)X and (KL)Y for the 

Calculate effective residual (KL)X-cr =  sqrt [(EI)Tx/P]
6
strain (r) for each fiber (KL)y-cr =  sqrt [(EI)Ty/P]
r=r/E

Calculate the tangent (EI)TX and (EI)TY for the 

13 (EI)TX = sum(ET-fib{yfib2 Afib+Ix-fib})
7 Assume centroidal strain (EI)Ty = sum(ET-fib{xfib2 Afib+ Iy-fib})


Calculate average stress =  = P/A 12

Calculate total strain for each fiber

8
tot=+r
Calculate Axial Force = P 11
Sum (fibAfib)

Assume a material stress-strain 10

9 Calculate stress in each fiber fib
curve for each fiber
 Tangent modulus buckling - numerical

Section Dimension
b 12 fiber no. Afib xfib yfib r-fib r-fib Ixfib Iyfib
d 4 1 2.4 -5.7 0 -22.5 -7.759E-04 3.2 78.05
y 50 2 2.4 -5.1 0 -17.5 -6.034E-04 3.2 62.50
3 2.4 -4.5 0 -12.5 -4.310E-04 3.2 48.67
No. of fibers 20 4 2.4 -3.9 0 -7.5 -2.586E-04 3.2 36.58
5 2.4 -3.3 0 -2.5 -8.621E-05 3.2 26.21
6 2.4 -2.7 0 2.5 8.621E-05 3.2 17.57
A 48 7 2.4 -2.1 0 7.5 2.586E-04 3.2 10.66
Ix 64 8 2.4 -1.5 0 12.5 4.310E-04 3.2 5.47
Iy 576.00 9 2.4 -0.9 0 17.5 6.034E-04 3.2 2.02
10 2.4 -0.3 0 22.5 7.759E-04 3.2 0.29
11 2.4 0.3 0 22.5 7.759E-04 3.2 0.29
12 2.4 0.9 0 17.5 6.034E-04 3.2 2.02
13 2.4 1.5 0 12.5 4.310E-04 3.2 5.47
14 2.4 2.1 0 7.5 2.586E-04 3.2 10.66
15 2.4 2.7 0 2.5 8.621E-05 3.2 17.57
16 2.4 3.3 0 -2.5 -8.621E-05 3.2 26.21
17 2.4 3.9 0 -7.5 -2.586E-04 3.2 36.58
18 2.4 4.5 0 -12.5 -4.310E-04 3.2 48.67
19 2.4 5.1 0 -17.5 -6.034E-04 3.2 62.50
20 2.4 5.7 0 -22.5 -7.759E-04 3.2 78.05
 Tangent Modulus Buckling - numerical

Strain Increment
 Fiber no. tot fib Efib Tx-fib Ty-fib Pfib
-0.0003 1 -1.076E-03 -31.2 29000 92800 2.26E+06 -74.88
2 -9.034E-04 -26.2 29000 92800 1.81E+06 -62.88
3 -7.310E-04 -21.2 29000 92800 1.41E+06 -50.88
4 -5.586E-04 -16.2 29000 92800 1.06E+06 -38.88
5 -3.862E-04 -11.2 29000 92800 7.60E+05 -26.88
6 -2.138E-04 -6.2 29000 92800 5.09E+05 -14.88
7 -4.138E-05 -1.2 29000 92800 3.09E+05 -2.88
8 1.310E-04 3.8 29000 92800 1.59E+05 9.12
9 3.034E-04 8.8 29000 92800 5.85E+04 21.12
10 4.759E-04 13.8 29000 92800 8.35E+03 33.12
11 4.759E-04 13.8 29000 92800 8.35E+03 33.12
12 3.034E-04 8.8 29000 92800 5.85E+04 21.12
13 1.310E-04 3.8 29000 92800 1.59E+05 9.12
14 -4.138E-05 -1.2 29000 92800 3.09E+05 -2.88
15 -2.138E-04 -6.2 29000 92800 5.09E+05 -14.88
16 -3.862E-04 -11.2 29000 92800 7.60E+05 -26.88
17 -5.586E-04 -16.2 29000 92800 1.06E+06 -38.88
18 -7.310E-04 -21.2 29000 92800 1.41E+06 -50.88
19 -9.034E-04 -26.2 29000 92800 1.81E+06 -62.88
20 -1.076E-03 -31.2 29000 92800 2.26E+06 -74.88
 Tangent Modulus Buckling - Numerical

 P Tx Ty KLx-cr KLy-cr T/Y (KL/r)x (KL/r)y

−0.0003 -417.6 15000 104000 209.4395102 628.3185307 0.174 181.3799364 181.3799364
−0.0004 -556.8 15000 104000 181.3799364 544.1398093 0.232 157.0796327 157.0796327
-0.0005 -696 1856000 16704000 162.231147 486.6934411 0.29 140.4962946 140.4962946
-0.0006 -835.2 1856000 16704000 148.0960979 444.2882938 0.348 128.254983 128.254983
-0.0007 -974.4 1856000 16704000 137.1103442 411.3310325 0.406 118.7410412 118.7410412
-0.0008 -1113.6 1856000 16704000 128.254983 384.764949 0.464 111.0720735 111.0720735
-0.0009 -1252.8 1856000 16704000 120.9199576 362.7598728 0.522 104.7197551 104.7197551
-0.001 -1384.8 1670400 12177216 109.11051 294.5983771 0.577 94.49247352 85.04322617
-0.0011 -1510.08 1670400 12177216 104.4864889 282.1135199 0.6292 90.48795371 81.43915834
-0.0012 -1624.32 1484800 8552448 94.98347542 227.960341 0.6768 82.25810265 65.80648212
-0.0013 -1734.72 1299200 5729472 85.97519823 180.5479163 0.7228 74.45670576 52.11969403
-0.0014 -1832.16 1299200 5729472 83.65775001 175.681275 0.7634 72.44973673 50.71481571
-0.0015 -1924.8 1113600 3608064 75.56517263 136.0173107 0.802 65.44135914 39.26481548
-0.0016 -2008.32 1113600 3608064 73.97722346 133.1590022 0.8368 64.06615482 38.43969289
-0.0017 -2083.2 928000 2088000 66.30684706 99.46027059 0.868 57.423414 28.711707
-0.0018 -2152.8 928000 2088000 65.22619108 97.83928663 0.897 56.48753847 28.24376924
-0.0019 -2209.92 742400 1069056 57.58118233 69.0974188 0.9208 49.86676668 19.94670667
-0.002 -2263.2 556800 451008 49.27629185 44.34866267 0.943 42.67452055 12.80235616
-0.0021 -2304.96 556800 451008 48.8278711 43.94508399 0.9604 42.28617679 12.68585304
-0.0022 -2340.48 371200 133632 39.56410897 23.73846538 0.9752 34.26352344 6.852704688
-0.0023 -2368.32 371200 133632 39.33088015 23.59852809 0.9868 34.06154136 6.812308273
-0.0024 -2386.08 185600 16704 27.70743725 8.312231176 0.9942 23.99534453 2.399534453
-0.00249 -2398.608 185600 16704 27.63498414 8.290495243 0.99942 23.9325983 2.39325983
 Tangent Modulus Buckling - Numerical

Inelastic Column Buckling

1.2
Normalized critical stress

1
( T/ Y)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

KL/r ratio
(KL/r)x (KL/r)y
 Column Inelastic Buckling

1.2 1.2

1 1.0
Normalized column capacity

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Num-x Num-y Analytical-x
Elastic
Lambda
AISC-Design Analytical-y
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS
◼ Going back to the original three second-order differential
equations:

Therefore,
 z  z
1 E I x v + P v − f  P x0 + M BY − ( M TY + M BY )  = M BX − ( M TX + M BX )
 L  L
 z  z
2 E I y u  + P u − f  − P y0 + M BX − (M ( MTXTY +M
+ MBXBY ))  = − M BY + ((M TY+M
M TX BX))
+ MBY
 L  L
z
3 E I w f  − (G KT + K ) f  + u  (− M BX − ( M BX + M TX ) + P y0 )
L
z v u
− v ( M BY + ( M BY + M TY ) + P x0 ) − ( M TY + M BY ) − ( M TX + M BX ) = 0
L L L
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS

◼ Consider the case of a beam subjected to uniaxial bending only:

◼ because most steel structures have beams in uniaxial bending
◼ Beams under biaxial bending do not undergo elastic buckling
◼ P=0; MTY=MBY=0
◼ The three equations simplify to:
z
1 E I x v = M BX − ( M TX + M BX )
L
z
2 E I y u − f M BX = ( M TX + M BX ) (−f)

L
 z  u
3 E I w f  − (G KT + K ) f  + u   − M BX − ( M BX + M TX )  − ( M TX + M BX ) = 0
 L  L
◼ Equation (1) is an uncoupled differential equation describing in-
plane bending behavior caused by MTX and MBX
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS

◼ Equations (2) and (3) are coupled equations in u and f – that

describe the lateral bending and torsional behavior of the beam.
In fact they define the lateral torsional buckling of the beam.
◼ The beam must satisfy all three equations (1, 2, and 3). Hence,
beam in-plane bending will occur UNTIL the lateral torsional
buckling moment is reached, when it will take over.
◼ Consider the case of uniform moment (Mo) causing compression
in the top flange. This will mean that
◼ -MBX = MTX = Mo
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS
◼ For this case, the differential equations (2 and 3) will become:
E I y u  + f M o = 0
E I w f  − (G KT + K ) f  + u  ( M o ) = 0
where :
K = Wagner ' s effect due to warping caused by torsion
K =   a 2 dA
A

Mo
But ,  = y  neglecting higher order terms
Ix
Mo
K =  y ( xo − x) 2 + ( yo − y ) 2  dA
A
Ix
Mo
K =   + − + + − 2 yy0  dA
2 2 2 2
y xo x 2 xx0 yo y
Ix A

Mo  2 
K =  o +   +  − 0 + o − o
2 2 2 2
x y dA y  x y  dA x 2xy dA y y dA 2 y y dA 
Ix  A A A A A 
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS
Mo  
K =   y  x + y  dA − 2 yo I x 
 
2 2

Ix  A 
 y  x 2 + y 2  dA 
A   
K = Mo  − 2 yo 
 Ix 
 
  +  dA
2 2
y x y
 K = M ox  where,  x = A
− 2 yo
Ix
 x is a new sec tional property

The beam buckling differential equations become :

(2) E I y u + f M o = 0
(3) E I w f  − (G KT + M o  x ) f  + u ( M o ) = 0
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS
Mo
Equation (2) gives u  = − f
E Iy
Substituting u  from Equation (2) in (3) gives :
2
M
E I w f iv − (G KT + M o  x ) f  − o f = 0
E Iy
For doubly symmetric sec tion :  x = 0
G KT M o2
f −
iv
f  − 2 f =0
E Iw E I y Iw
G KT M o2
Let , l1 = and l2 = 2
E Iw E I y Iw
f iv − l1 f  − l2f = 0  becomes the combined d .e. of LTB
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS
Assume solution is of the form f = e l z
( )
 l 4 − l1 l 2 − l2 el z = 0
 l 4 − l1 l 2 − l2 = 0
l1 + l12 + 4l2 l12 + 4l2 − l1
l = 2
, −
2 2
l1 + l12 + 4l2 l1 + l12 + 4l2
l =  , i
2 2

 Let , l = a1 , and  i a2

Above are the four roots for l

f = C1ea1 z + C2 e −a1z + C3eia 2 z + C4 e −ia 2 z
 collecting real and imaginary terms
f = G1 cosh(a1 z ) + G2 sinh(a1 z ) + G3 sin(a 2 z ) + G4 cos(a 2 z )
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS

◼ Assume simply supported boundary conditions for the beam:

f (0) = f (0) = f ( L) = f ( L) = 0
Solution for f must satisfy all four b.c.
 1 0 0 1   G1 
 a12 0 0 −a 22  G 
  2 = 0
 cosh(a1 L) sinh(a1 L) sin(a 2 L) cos(a 2 L)  G3
 
a12 cosh(a1 L) a12 sinh(a1 L) −a 22 sin(a 2 L) −a 22 cos(a 2 L)  G4 
For buckling coefficient matrix must be sin gular :
 det er min ant of matrix = 0
( )
 a12 + a 22  sinh(a1 L)  sinh(a 2 L) = 0
Of these :
only sinh(a 2 L) = 0
a 2 L = n
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS
n
a 2 =
L
l12 + 4l2 − l1 
 =
2 L
2 2
 l + 4l2 − l1 = 2
1
2

L
2
 2 2   2 2   2 2 
 2 + l1  − l1  2 + 2l1   2 
2

 l2 =   =  L 
L L
4 4
2   2 
 l2 =  2 + l1   2 
L  L 
M o2   2 G KT    2 
 l2 = 2 = 2 +  
E I y Iw  L E I w   L2 

 2
G KT   
2  2E I y   2E Iw 
Mo = (E 2
I y Iw )  2 +  2 
Mo =
L2

 L2
+ G KT 

 L E I w  L 