THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

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General Science - Physics

S.No Contents Page Number

1 Units and Measurements 2
2 Motion 6
3 Force and laws of motion 8
4 Gravitation 10
5 Works and energy 12
6 Sound 14
7 Light 16
8 The human eye and the colourful world 20
9 Electricity 23
10 Sources of energy 25
11 Inventions and discoveries 26
12 Physics one liners 27

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

Units and Measurements

UNIT
A unit is defined as a standard or fixed quantity of one kind used to measure other quantities of the same kind
 Fundamental units and derived units are the two classifications of units
 Fundamental units :Units of basic quantities of length, mass and time
 Derived units:Units which are derived from basic units and bear a constant relationship with
fundamental units. Examples are area, volume, pressure, force, etc.

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

In earlier time scientists of different countries were using different systems of units for measurement. Three such
systems are CGS, FPS and MKS.Base units for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows
 FPS system:The basic units of length, mass and time are measured in foot, pound and second respectively
 CGS system:The basic units of length, mass and time are measured in centimeter, gram and seconds
respectively
 MKS system:The basic units of length, mass and time are measured in metre, kilogram and second
respectively
 S.I. units are referred to as Systems International units

FUNDAMENT UNITS OF FPS, CGS, MKS AND SI UNITS

S.No Basic FPS CGS MKS SI Units

quantity
1 Length Foot Centimetre Metre Metre
2 Mass Pound Gram Kilogram Kilogram
3 Time Second Second Second Second
4 Current Ampere Ampere Ampere Ampere
5 Temperature Fahrenheit Centigrade Centigrade Kelvin
6 Light Candela Candela Candela Candela
intensity

SI BASE QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Length Metre M
Mass kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Thermo dynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

SI DERIVED UNITS
S.No Quantity SI Unit
1 Area Square metre
2 Volume Cubic metre
3 Velocity Metre/second
4 Acceleration Metre/second square
5 Density Kilogram/metre Cube
6 Work Joule
7 Energy Joule
8 Force Newton
9 Weight Newton
10 Pressure Pascal
11 Frequency Hertz
12 Power Watt
13 Impulse Newton-second
14 Angular velocity Radian /second
15 Electric charge Coulomb
16 Electric potential(voltage) Volt
17 Capacitance Farad
18 Inductance Henry
19 Resistance Ohm
20 Impedance Ohm
21 Reactance Ohm
22 Electrical conductance siemens
23 Magnetic flux Weber
24 Magnetic flux density Tesla
25 Heat Joule
26 Angle Radian
27 Radioactivity Becquerel
28 Luminous flux Lumen
29 Momentum kilogram meter per second
30 Torque Newton metre
31 Specific heat Joule per kilogram kelvin

SI Prefixes Used with Units in Physics

Name Factor
Femto 10-15
Pico 10-12
Nano 10-9
Micro 10-6
Milli 10-3
Centi 10-2

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

Deci 10-1
Deka 10
Hector 102
Kilo 103
Mega 106
Giga 109
Tera 1012
Peta 1015

Measurement of length
 Metre scale is used for lengths from 10^–3m to 10^2 m
 Verniercalliper is used for lengths to an accuracy of 10^–4 m
 Screw gauge and a spherometer can be used to measure lengths as less as to 10^–5m

IMPORTANT POINTS
 1 fermi = 10^–15 m
 1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10^–10 m
 1 astronomical unit = 1.496 × 10^11 m
 1 astronomical unit = Average distance of the Sun from the Earth
 Light year is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances.
 Speed of the light in vacuum is 3.00 × 108 m/s
 1 Parsec = 3.08 × 10^16 m
 Heat is a form of energy. Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The relationship for
conversion from one temperature scale to the others is

LIST OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES

S.No Instrument Uses

1 Altimeter Measures altitude. It’s used in aircrafts
2 Ammeter Measures strength of electric current
3 Anemometer Used for measuring wind speed and direction
4 Audiometer Measures Intensity of Sound
5 Barograph Continuous recording of atmospheric pressure
6 Barometer Measures atmospheric pressure
7 Binoculars Optical instrument used for magnified view of
distant object
8 Bolometer To measure heat Radiation
9 Callipers Measure diameter of thin cylinder or wire
10 Calorimeter Measures quantities of heat
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

11 Cardiogram Traces movements of the heart and recorded on a

Cardiograph
12 Colorimeter Compares Intensity of colours
13 Commutator Used in generators to reverse the direction of
electric current
14 Crescograph Used to measure the growth of plants
15 Cryometer Used to measure very low temperatures
16 Dynamometer Measures electrical power
17 Electroscope It detects presence of an electric charge
18 Endoscope To examine internal parts of the body
19 Fathometer Measure depth of the ocean
20 Galvanometer Measures electric current
21 Hydrometer Instrument used for measuring the relative density
of liquids
22 Hygrometer It measures humidity of air
23 Hydrophone Measures sound under water
24 Lactometer It determines the purity of milk
25 Microscope To obtain a magnified view of small objects
26 Photometer The instrument Compares the luminous intensity
of the source of light.
27 Pyrometer Measure very high temperature especially in
furnaces and kilns
28 Odometer The instrument used for measuring the distance
traveled by a vehicle such as a bicycle or car
29 Ohmmeter The electrical instrument that measures electrical
resistance
30 Periscope It is used to view object above the sea level
31 Salinometer It determines the salinity of solutions
32 Sphygmometer It measures the blood pressure
33 Stroboscope To view rapidly moving objects
34 Seismograph The instrument used to detect and record
earthquakes
35 Telescope Used for magnified view of distant objects

36 spectrometer Properties of light

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

MOTION
 Motion is a change of position it can be described in terms of the distance moved or the displacement.
 When a body does not change its position, with respect to its surroundings, it is said to be at rest.When a body
changes its position, with respect to its surroundings, it is said to be in motion
 The motion of an object could be uniform or non-uniform depending on whether its velocity is constant or
changing.
 Scalar and vector

SCALAR VECTOR

A scalar is a quantity with A vector is a quantity with the

magnitude only magnitude as well as direction

Examples are Length, Area, Examples are Displacement,

Distance, Speed, Mass, Velocity, Acceleration, momentum,
Density, Pressure, etc.. Force

 Distance and displacement

DISTANCE DISPLACEMENT
Distance of the object can be defined as the Displacement of the object can be defined
complete path travelled by on object as the overall motion of the object or
during its motion minimum distance between the starting
point of the object and the final position of
the object
Distance is a scalar quantity Displacement is a vector quantity
Distance of the any object does not depend Displacement of the any object depends on
on the direction of its motion the direction of its motion

 Distance is refers to how much ground an object has covered during its motion(A - BC ) Distance=4+3=7
 Displacement is a to refers to “how far out of place an object is(“AC ) Displacement=5
 Distance gives the complete information about the path travelled by the object
 Displacement does not gives the complete information about the path travelled by the object
 The speed of an object is the distance covered per unit time, and velocity is the displacement per unit time
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

Speed=Distance/time
Velocity=Displacement/time
 Speed is scalar quantity and unit is m/s
 Velocity is vector quantity and unit is m/s
 During uniform motion of an object along a straight line, the velocity remains constant with time. In this case, the
change in velocity of the object for any time interval is zero.
 During non-uniform motion, velocity varies with time. It has different values at different instants and at different
points of the path. Thus, the change in velocity of the object during any time interval is not zero. This
phenomenon is called acceleration
 Acceleration of an object is the change in velocity per unit time
Acceleration= change in velocity/time
 Unit of acceleration is m/s2
 Acceleration is vector quantity
 Velocity-time graph for a body having uniform acceleration

 Velocity-time graph for a body having non-uniform acceleration

 Equations of motion
When an object moves along a straight line with uniform acceleration, it is possible to relate its velocity,
acceleration during motion and the distance covered by it in a certain time interval by a set of equations known as
the equations of motion. Such equations are
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at^2
2 a s = v^2 – u^2
Where uis the initial velocity
vis the initial velocity
a = Acceleration
s = Displacement
t=Time of motion
 If an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular motion
 The state of motion of an object is described by its speed and the direction of motion. The state of rest is
considered to be the state of zero speed. An object may be at rest or in motion both are its states of motion

FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION

 In science, a push or a pull on an object with mass that causes it to change velocity is called a force.Force has
magnitude as well as direction
 Force acting on an object may cause a change in its state of motion or a change in its shape
 Forces applied on an object in the same direction add to one another
 Forces act in the opposite directions on an object, the net force acting on it is the difference between the two
forces
 Balanced and unbalanced forces
Balanced forces do not cause any change in motion whereas unbalanced forces does
 Objects or things fall towards the earth because it pulls them. This force is called the force of gravity or just
gravity
 Force per unit area is called pressure
 Body is said to be a equilibrium if sum of all the forces acts on the body is zero.In other words if it is at rest or
moving with uniform velocity
 Nuclear force is the strongest force in the nature

First Law of Motion

 The first law of motion is stated as“An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled to change that state by an applied force “
 All objects resist a change in their state of motion. In a qualitative way, the tendency of undisturbed objects to
stay at rest or to keep moving with the same velocity is called inertia. This is why, the first law of motion is
also known as the law of inertia
 Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion or of rest. The mass of an
object is a measure of its inertia.Its SI unit is kilogram

Second Law of Motion

 The second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the
applied unbalanced force in the direction of force

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 The SI unit of force is kg m s–2. This is also known as newton and represented by the symbol N. A force of
one newton produces an acceleration of 1 m s–2 on an object of mass 1 kg
 The second law of motion gives a method to measure the force acting on an object as a product of its mass
and accelerations
F=ma
 The momentum, p of an object is defined as the product of its mass, m and velocity, v. That is p=mv
 Momentum has both direction and magnitude. Its direction is the same as that of velocity, v. The SI unit of
momentum is kilogram-metre per second
 Real time example is a fielder pulls his hand backward while catching a cricket ball coming with a great
speed to reduce the momentum of the ball with a little delay.In doing so the fielder increases the time during
which the high velocity of the moving ball decreases to zero. Thus the acceleration of the ball is decreased
and therefore the impact of catching the fast moving ball is also reduced
 In a high jump athletic event the athletes are made to fall either on a cushioned bed or on a sand bed. This is
to increase the time of the athlete’s fall to stop after making the jump. This decreases the rate of change of
momentum and hence the force. This prevents the athlete from getting hurt

Third Law of Motion

 The third law of motion states To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and they act on two
different bodies
 Real time example is when a gun is fired it exerts a forward force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal
and opposite force on the gun. This results in the recoil of the gun . Since the gun has a much greater mass
than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is much less than the acceleration of the bullet
 Third law of motion is another example is when a sailor jumps out of a rowing boat. As the sailor jumps
forward, the force on the boat moves it backwards
 Motion of rocket

Conservation of Momentum
 Sum of momenta of the two objects before collision is equal to the sum of momenta after the collision
provided there is no external unbalanced force acting on them. This is known as the law of conservation of
momentum
 In an isolated system (where there is no external force), the total momentum remains conserved

GRAVITATION
All objects in the universe attract each other. This force of attraction between objects is called the gravitational force.
Gravitation is a weak force unless large masses are involved

Centripetal
 The force that causes acceleration and keeps the body moving along the circular path is acting towards the
Centre. This force is called the centripetal (‘Centreseeking’) force
 The motion of the moon around the earth is due to the centripetal force. If there were no such force the
moon would pursue a uniform straight line motion.
Centrifugal force
 The force that is felt by an object moving in a curved path that acts outwardly away from the center of
rotation
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 Some of the applications of centrifugal force

1. Banking of roads.
2. Washing machine dryer.
3. Cream separator.

UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force which is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

G Universal gravitation constant

G6.673 *10–11 N m^2 kg^–2

The force exerted by the earth on the moon is 2.02 *10^20 N

IMPORTANCE OF THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

 The force that binds us to the earth.
 The motion of the moon around the earth.
 The motion of planets around the Sun.
 The tides due to the moon and the Sun.

Acceleration due to gravity

Whenever an object falls towards the earth acceleration is involved. This acceleration is due to the earth’s
gravitational force. Therefore this acceleration is called the acceleration due to the gravitational force of the earth or
acceleration due to gravity

g=GM/R^2

G = 6.7 × 10–11 N m2 kg-2,

Mass of the earth M= 6 × 10^24 kg
Radius of the earthR= 6.4 × 10^6 m.
From the equation we get g value
 Value of acceleration due to gravity of the earth, g = 9.8 m/s^2
 The earth is not a perfect sphere. The radius of the earth increases from the poles to the equator because value
of g becomes greater at the poles than at the equator.
 Value of g decreases with the increase of height
 Value of g decreases with depth and become zero at the center of the earth
 Acceleration experienced by an object is independent of its mass. It means that all objects hollow or solid, big
or small, should fall at the same rate

MASS
 The Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object and it is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is
kilograms
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 It remains the same whether the object is on the earth the moon or even in outer space
 The mass of an object is constant and does not change from place to place

WEIGHT
 The earth attracts every object with a certain force and this force depends on the mass (m) of the object and
the acceleration due to the gravity (g)
 The weight of an object is the force with which it is attracted towards the earth
W=mg
 The SI unit of weight is the same as that of force that is newton (N) and weight is a vector quantity
 Weight depends on its location because g depends on location
 Acceleration due to gravity of the moon is less than the acceleration due to gravity of the earth because
Weight of the object on the moon1/6th of its weight on the earth

Buoyancy
 Buoyancy is the force exerted on an object that is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid
 All objects experience a force of buoyancy when they are immersed in a fluid
 The magnitude of this buoyant force depends on the density of the fluid

Archimedes’ Principle
 When a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid it experiences an upward force that is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by it.
 Archimedes principle has many applications
 It is used in designing ships and submarines
 Lactometers which are used to determine the purity of a sample of milk
 Hydrometers used for determining density of liquids

Relative Density
The density of a substance is defined as mass of a unit volume. The unit of density is kilogram per
metre cube
 Objects having density less than that of the liquid in which they are immersed float on the surface
of the liquid
 Density of the object is more than the density of the liquid in which it is immersed then it sinks in
the liquid
 The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of water
Relative density=Density of a substance/Density of water

WORK AND ENERGY

WORK
 We define work to be equal to the product of the force and displacement
Work done = force * displacement
 Work done by force acting on an object is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the distance
moved in the direction of the force. Work has only magnitude and no direction
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 Unit of work is newton metre (N m) or joule (J)

 Work done on an object by a force would be zero if the displacement of the object is zero
 The work done by a force can be either positive or negative
 Work done is negative when the force acts opposite to the direction of displacement.
 Work done is positive when the force is in the direction of displacement
 When a body falls freely under gravity then the work done by the gravity is positive
Explanation is
If a force acting on a body has a component in the direction of displacement then the work done by the
force is positive becausewhen a body falls freely under the influence of gravity the work done by the
gravity is positive
 When a body slides against a rough horizontal surface the work done by friction is negative
Explanation is
When a body slides against a rough horizontal surface its displacement is opposite to that of the force of
friction so the works done by the friction is negative

ENERGY
 Life is impossible without energy
 An object having capability to do work is said to possess energy
 Unit of energy is joule. Joule is also unit of work
 Various form of energy are Mechanical energy, Electrical energy, Atomic energy, Heat energy, Light
energy, Chemical energy and sound energy.
 Energy of one form can be transformed into energy of another form
 The sum of the kinetic and potential energies of an object is called its mechanical energy

KINETIC ENERGY
 Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion
 The kinetic energy of an object increases with its Speed
 Example of kinetic energy are Falling coconut, a speeding car, a rolling stone, a flying aircraft, flowing
water, blowing wind, a running athlete etc.
 The kinetic energy of a body moving with a certain velocity is equal to the work done on it to make it
acquire that velocity
 An object of mass mmoving with velocity vhas a kinetic energy of

POTENTIAL ENERGY
 The energy possessed by a body due to its change in position or shape is called the potential energy
 The potential energy possessed by the object is the energy present in it by virtue of its position or
configuration
 An object increases its energy when raised through a height. This is because work is done on it against
gravity while it is being raised. The energy present in such an object is the gravitational potential energy.
 The gravitational potential energy of an object of mass mraised through a height hfrom the earth’s surface is
given by = m g h.
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 The work done by gravity depends on the difference in vertical heights of the initial and final positions of
the object and not on the path along which the object is moved

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

According to the law of conservation of energy
 The energy can neither be created nor destroyed
 Energy can only be transformed from one form to another
 The total energy before and after the transformation always remains constant
 An object of mass mis made to fall freely from a heighth. At the start, the potential energy is mghand kinetic
energy is zero. Why is the kinetic energy zero. It is zero because its velocity is zero. The total energy of the
object is thus mgh. As it falls its potential energy will change into kinetic energy. If v is the velocity of the
object at a given instant the kinetic energy would be ½mv^2. As the fall of the object continues, the
potential energy would decrease while the kinetic energy would increase. When the object is about to reach
the ground, h = 0 and v will be the highest. Therefore, the kinetic energy would be the largest and potential
energy the least. However, the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the object would be the
same at all points
Potential energy + kinetic energy = constant
 The sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of an object is its total mechanical energy

Rate of Doing Work

 Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy
Power = work/time
 Unit of power is watt
 The unit joule is too small and hence is inconvenient to express large quantities of energy. We use a bigger
unit of energy called kilowatt hour
 1 kW h = 3.6 * 10^6 J

SOUND
 Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears. There are also other forms of
energy like mechanical energy, light energy, etc.
 Sound is produced due to vibration of different objects
 Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves
 Sound waves are characterized by the motion of particles in the medium and are called mechanical waves
 The sound of the human voice is produced due to vibrations in the vocal cords
 The eardrum senses the vibrations of sound it sends the signals to the brain. This process is called hearing.
 The outer ear is called pinna Its collects the sound from the surroundings
 The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas.
 Propagation of sound can be visualized as propagation of density variations or pressure variations in the
medium

SOUND NEEDS A MEDIUM TO TRAVEL

 Sound is a mechanical wave and needs a material medium like air, water, steel etc.
 Sound cannot travel through vacuum

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOUND WAVE

Sound wave describe its
 Frequency
 Amplitude
 Speed

FREQUENCY
 The distance between two consecutive compressions or two consecutive rarefactions is called the
wavelength.Its SI unit is metre.
 The number of such oscillations per unit time is the frequency of the sound wave.SI unit is hertz
 Time taken by two consecutive compressions or rarefactions to cross a fixed point is called the time period of
the wave.SI unit is second
 Relationship between frequency and time period is

 The sensation of frequency commonly referred as the pitch of a sound. Objects of different sizes and
conditions vibrate at different frequencies to produce sounds of different pitch.
 A sound of single frequency is called a tone
 When sound waves move from one medium to another medium its wavelength and speed changes but
frequency remains unchanged

AMPLITUDE
 Magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either side of the mean value is called the
amplitude of the wave.
 The loudness or softness of a sound is determined basically by its amplitude
 Sound wave source moves away from the source its amplitude as well as its loudness decreases.Louder sound
can travel a larger distance as it is associated with higher energy

SPEED
 Speed of sound is defined as the distance which a point on a wave such as a compression or a rarefaction
travels per unit time
Speed=distance/time
 Amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is called the intensity of sound
 The speed of sound decreases when we go from solid to gaseous state. Speed of the sound maximum in solid
state and minimum in gaseous state.
 The speed of the sound remains unchanged by the increase or decrease of pressure.
 In any medium as we increase the temperature the speed of sound increases
 Speed of sound is more in humid air than dry air because density of humid air is less than dry air
 The speed of sound depends on the properties of the medium through which it travels
 Speed of sound in different medium

Substance Speed m/s

Aluminium 6420

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

Nickel 6040
Steel 5960
Iron 5950
Brass 4700
Glass 3980
Water(sea) 1531
Water(distilled) 1498
Ethanol 1207
Methanol 1103
Hydrogen 1284
Helium 965
Air 346
Oxygen 316
Sulphur dioxide 213

ECHO
 We will hear the same sound again a little later due to the reflection of sound wave is called echo
 To hear a distinct echo the time interval between the original sound and the reflected one must be at least 0.1s

REVERBERATION
 The repeated reflection that results in this persistence of sound is called reverberation

USES OF MULTIPLE REFLECTION OF SOUND

 Megaphones or loudhailers, horns, musical instruments such as trumpets and shehanais are all designed to
send sound in a particular direction without spreading it in all directions
 Stethoscope is a medical instrument used for listening to sounds produced within the body, mainly in the heart
or lungs.
 The ceilings of concert halls conference halls and cinema halls are curved so that sound after reflection
reaches all corners of the hall

RANGE OF HEARING
 The audible range of hearing for average human beings is in the frequency range of 20 Hz – 20 kHz
 Sounds of frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasonic sound or infrasound
 Frequencies higher than 20 kHz are called ultrasonic sound or ultrasound

INFRASONIC SOUND
 Rhinoceroses communicate using infrasound of frequency as low as 5 Hz
 Whales and elephants produce sound in the infrasound range
 Earthquakes produce low-frequency infrasound before the main shock waves begin which possibly alert the
animals

APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASOUND
 Ultrasounds can be used to detect cracks and flaws in metal blocks
 Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from various parts of the heart and form the image of the heart. This
technique is called echocardiography.
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 Ultrasound scanner is an instrument which uses ultrasonic waves for getting images of internal organs of the
human body.
 Ultrasound may be employed to break small stones formed in the kidneys into fine grains

SONAR
 SONAR stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging
 Sonar is a device that uses ultrasonic waves to measure the distance ,direction and speed of underwater
objects
 Sonar is a device that uses ultrasonic waves to measure the distance, direction and speed of underwater
objects
 Porpoises use ultrasound for navigation and location of food in the dark

LIGHT

LIGHT-REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

 Light is a radiation which makes our eyes able to see the object when light from an object enters our eyes that
we see the object. The light may have been emitted by the object, or may have been reflected by it
 Light wave is an electromagnetic wave. It has an electric and a magnetic component
 Light is a transverse wave
 Light seems to travel in straight lines
 Opaque objects do not allow light to pass through them
 Transparent objects allow light to pass through them and we can see through these objects clearly
 Translucent objects allow light to pass through them partially
 Shadows are formed when an opaque object comes in the path of light
 Light travels in vacuum with an enormous speed of 3×10^8 m s-1. The speed of light is different in different
media
 Sun light is white colour
 Sunlight takes an average of 8 minutes and 20 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth
 White light is composed of seven colours.
 Splitting of light into its constituent colours isknown as dispersion
 Light is reflected from all surfaces
 Any polished or a shining surface acts as a mirror
 An image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image
 An image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image
 The image formed by a plane mirror is erect. It is virtual and is of the same size as the object. The image is at
the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
 In an image formed by a mirror, the left side of the object is seen on the right side in the image, and right side
of the object appears to be on the left side in the image
 Visually impaired persons can read and write using the Braille system
 Beautiful patterns are formed in a kaleidoscope because of multiple reflections
 Periscope works on the Laws of Reflection

REFLECTION
 A highly polished surface such as a mirror reflects most of the light falling on it.
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 Mirror changes the direction of light that falls on it. This change of direction by a mirror is called reflection of
light.
 Any polished or a shiny surface can act as a mirror.
 Example a shining stainless steel plate or a shining steel spoon can change the direction of light. The surface
of water can also act like a mirror and change the path of light.
 Image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual and erect
 The size of the image is equal to that of the object
 Want to see full image in a plane mirror a person required a mirror of at least half the object

LAWS OF REFLECTION
 After striking the mirror the ray of light is reflected in another direction. The light ray which strikes any
surface is called the incident ray
 The ray that comes back from the surface after reflection is known as the reflected ray
 These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including spherical surfaces
 Two laws of reflection are
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal drawn at the point of incidence to the reflecting surface, lie in the
same plane

SPHERICAL MIRROR
 The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror may be curved inwards or outwards
 A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved inwards that is faces towards the center of the sphere is
called a concave mirror
 A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards is called a convex mirror

CONCAVE MIRROR

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

CONVEX MIRROR

 Distance between the pole and the principal focus of a spherical mirror is called the focal length
 Radius of curvature is found to be equal to twice the focal length

IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE MIRROR FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT

Position of the Position of the Size of the image Nature of the image
object image
At infinity At the focus Highly diminished Real and inverted
Beyond center of Between focus and Diminished Real and inverted
curvature center of curvature
At center of curvature At center of curvature Same size Real and inverted
Between center of Beyond center of Enlarged Real and inverted
curvature and focus curvature
At focus At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between pole and Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
Focus

NATURE POSITION AND RELATIVE SIZE OF THE IMAGE FORMED BY A CONVEX MIRROR
Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At the focus Focus Highly diminished Virtual and erect
behind the mirror
Between infinity Between pole and Focus Diminished Virtual and erect
and the pole of the mirror behind the mirror

USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS

 Concave mirrors are used in torches, search-lights and vehicles headlights to get powerful parallel beams of
light.
 Used as a shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
 Dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients.
 Concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces

USES OF CONVEX MIRRORS

 Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear view mirrors in vehicles
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

MIRROR FORMULA
The relationship between the object-distance (u), image-distance (v), and focal length (f) of a spherical mirror given
by the mirror formula which is expressed as

MAGNIFICATION
Magnification is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the Object

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

 Light does not travel in the same direction in all media travel in the same direction in all media. It appears that
when travelling obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of propagation of light in the second
medium changes. This phenomenon is known as refraction of light
 Refraction is due to change in the speed of light as it enters from one transparent medium to another
 The coin becomes visible on pouring water into the bowl. The coin appears slightly raised above its actual
position due to refraction of light.
 Lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bigger than its actual size, when viewed from the sides
due to refraction of light
 When a ray of light enter one medium to another medium its phase and frequency do not change but
wavelength and velocity change

LAWS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT

 Following are the laws of refraction of light.
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interfaceof two transparent media at the
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the
light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of
refraction.
(This is true for angle 0 <i < 90o)
If iis the angle of incidence and ris the angle of refraction

REFRACTIVE INDEX
 The refractive index of a transparent medium is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to that in the medium
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

LENS FORMULA
 Lens formula gives the relationship between object distance (u), image-distance (v) and the focal length (f ).
The lens formula is

MAGNIFICATION
The magnification is defined as the ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object

POWER OF LENS
 The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays achieved by a lens is expressed in terms of its power
 Power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length

 SI unit of power of a lens is dioptre

THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

 Human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs
 The ability of the eye to focus on both near and distant objects by adjusting its focal length is called the
accommodation of the eye
 The smallest distance at which the eye can see objects clearly without strain is called the near point of the eye
or the least distance of distinct vision. For a young adult with normal vision it is about 25 cm.
 Retina is lens system forms an image on a light-sensitive screen
 The human eye forms the image of an object at its retina
 Iris is colored part of the eye. It holds the pupil and also adjust the size of pupil according to the intensity of
light
 Pupil is black in color and absorbs all the light rays falling on it. It gets constricted when the intensity of light
is high. It gets expanded when the intensity of light is low
 Ciliary muscles hold the lens. They adjust the focal length of the lens

DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION

 There are mainly three common refractive defects of vision
 Myopia or near-sightedness
 Hypermetropia or farsightedness,
 Presbyopia
MYOPIA
 Myopia is also known as near-sightedness
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly.
 In a myopic eye the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina
 A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the defect is corrected

HYPERMETROPIA
 Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness
 A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects distinctly
 In a hypermetropia eye the image of a closeby object are focused at a point behind the retina
 This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate power

PRESBYOPIA
 The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing
 It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens
 This defect can be corrected by using a bi-focal lenses
 A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and convex lenses. The upper portion consists of
a concave lens

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM

 The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism
 The prism has probably split the incident white light into a band of colours
 The various colours seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red
 The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called its spectrum
 The splitting of light into its component colours is called dispersion
 Different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as they pass through
a prism. The red light bends the least while the violet the most
 Red light has the longest wavelength because red refract least, while violet has the shortest because violet
refract most
 A rainbow is scattering of lighta natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower .It is caused by
dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere
 A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun
 Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach the observer’s eye

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
 The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight
 The starlight on entering the earth’s atmosphere undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches the
earth. The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually changing refractive index
 The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset
because of atmospheric refraction

SCATTERING OF LIGHT
 When a beam of light interacts with a particle of matter it is redirected in many different directions. This
phenomenon is called scattering of light.
 Scattering of light causes the blue colour of sky and the reddening of the Sun at sunrise and sunset

WHY THE COLOUR OF SKY IS BLUE

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 Molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength of visible
light
 The red light has a wavelength greater than blue light.when sunlight passes through the atmosphere the fine
particles in air scatter the blue colour (shorter wavelengths) more strongly than red. The scattered blue light
enters our eyes.
 The earth had no atmosphere there would not have been any scattering
 The red is least scattered by fog or smoke that is the reason danger signal lights are red in colour
 At noon the Sun appears white as only a little of the blue and violet colours are scattered. Near the horizon
most of the blue light and shorter wavelengths are scattered away by the particles. Therefore the light that
reaches our eyes is of longer wavelengths. This gives rise to the reddish appearance of the Sun

ELECTRICITY

ELECTRIC CURRENT
 Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.

 A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.

 In electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons
which are negative charges.
 SI unit of electric charge is coulomb
 Coulomb is equivalent to the charge contained in approximately 6 × 10^18 electrons
 Unit of electric current is ampere

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 An instrument called ammeter measures electric current in a circuit. It is always connected in series in a
circuit through which the current is to be measured

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 Electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying some current as the work done
to move a unit charge from one point to the other
 SI unit of electric potential difference is volt
 Potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter
 Voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to be
measured

OHM’S LAW
 The potential difference across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional
to the current flowing through it provided its temperature remains the same. This is called Ohm’s law
V=IR
RESISTANCE
 Resistance is the property of a substance to oppose to the flow of electric current through it, is called
resistance
 The current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance
 Rheostat is used to change the resistance in the circuit
 Motion of electrons through a conductor is opposed by its resistance. Component of a given size that offers a
low resistance is a good conductor.
 A component of identical size that offers a higher resistance is a poor conductor
 Insulator have a higher resistance
 Resistance of the conductor depends on its length, on its area of cross-section, and on the nature of its
material. Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly proportional to its length (l ) and inversely
proportional to the area of cross-section (A)

 The resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature

 The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10^–8 ohm to 10^–6 ohm They are good
conductors of electricity
 Resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals
 Tungsten is used almost exclusively for filaments of electric bulbs
 Copper and Aluminium are used in electrical transmission lines
 Silver is good conductor of electricity

RESISTORS IN SERIES
 The equivalent resistance of several resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances
 The same current flows through all the loads.
 The voltage across each load is proportional to the resistance of the load.
 The sum of the voltages across each load is equal to the applied voltage
 If resistors in series

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
 The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of
the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
 The current flowing through each load depends upon the resistance of the load.
 The voltage across each load is the same and is equal to the voltage applied to the circuit.
 The total resistance of a parallel connection is always smaller than the smallest resistance in the circuit.
 If resistors in parallel

ELECTRICAL POWER
 Electric power is defined as the rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit
 SI unit of electric power is watt
P=VI
 The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour
1KWH=3.6*10^6 J

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Electric current carrying wire behaves like a magnet
 The region surrounding a magnet in which the force of the magnet can be detected is said to have a magnetic
field
 Magnetic field is a quantity that has both direction and magnitude. Magnetic field lines are closed curves.
 The pattern of the magnetic field around a conductor due to an electric current flowing through it depends on
the shape of the conductor. The magnetic field of a solenoid carrying a current is similar to that of a bar
magnet
 An electromagnet consists of a core of soft iron wrapped around with a coil of insulated copper wire
 A current carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. If the direction of the field
and that of the current are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the force acting on the conductor will be
perpendicular to both and will be given by Fleming’s left hand rule. This is the basis of an electric motor. An
electric motor is a device that converts electric energy into mechanical energy.
 A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It works on the basis of electromagnetic
induction.

DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

 In houses we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 One of the wires in this supply is with red insulation called live wire. The other one is of black insulation
which is a neutral wire.
 The potential difference between the two is 220 V
 The third is the earth wire that has green insulation and this is connected to a metallic body deep inside earth
 The metallic body is connected to the earth wire which provides a low resistance conducting path for the
current

FUSE
 Fuse is the most important safety device used for protecting the circuits due to Short circuiting or
overloading of the circuits
 The Joule heating that takes place in the fuse melts it to break the electric circuit

SOURCES OF ENERGY

 Nature has provide variety of natural sources of energy and energy can be converted from one form to another
 Good source of energy is
 Which would do a large amount of work per unit volume or mass,
 Be easily accessible,
 Be easy to store and transport, and
 Perhaps most importantly, be economical
 Less combustile

SOURCES OF ENERGY
1. Conventional sources of energy
2. Non-conventional sources of energy

CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

 Conventional Sources of energy are also called as nonrenewable sources
 Coal, petroleum, Natural gas, Nuclear energy

NON CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

 Nonconventional Sources of energy are also called as renewable sources
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Tidal energy
 Geothermal energy
 Biomass energy

FOSSIL FUELS
 The fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy
 Air pollution caused by burning of coal or petroleum products. The oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur
that are released on burning fossil fuels are acidic oxides. These lead to acid rain which affects our water and
soil resources

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 Nuclear fission reaction is used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants

 overall efficiency of nuclear power plant is 30-40 percent
 Water, heavy water, Graphite used as a moderator
 Function of coolant is toextract heat from reactor

INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES

Inventions Inventors
Adding machine Pascal
Aeroplane Wright brothers
Ball point pen John Loud
Anemometer Leon Battista Alberti

Air brake George Westinghouse

Barometer Evangelista Torricelli

Bicycle Macmillan
Calculating machine Blaise Pascal

Diesel engine Rudolf Diesel

Electric tram Fyodor Pirotsky

Dynamite Alfred Nobel

Dynamo Michael Faraday

Electric battery Alessandro Volta
Electricity Benjamin Franklin
Electric generator Michael Faraday

Fountain pen Lewis Edson Waterman

Jet engine Frank Whittle

Lift or Elevator Elisha Otis
Lightning conductor Benjamin Franklin
Machine gun Jordan Gatling
Mercury thermometer Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit

Paper clips Johan Vaaler

Braille Louis Braille

Radio Guglielmo Marconi

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

Radium Marie curie

Railway engine George Stephenson

Raman effect C.V.Raman

Revolver Samuel Colt

Sewing machine Thomas Saint

Steam engine James watt

Telescope Hans Lippershey

Television John Logie Baird

X-rays Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

Vernier caliper Pierre Vernier

PHYSICS ONE LINERS

 In summer, the mirages are seen due to the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection
 In the visible spectrum Red colour has the longest wavelength.
 Sound travels faster in solids
 Insects can move on the surface of water without sinking due to Surface tension of water
 Liquid droplets isspherical structure due to the surface tension of water
 Light travels in a Straight line
 Water is used as a cooling agent in most of the world’s nuclear power plants
 Working principle of transformer is Mutual Induction
 Distance between Earth and Sun is known as 1 Astronomical unit
 Potential energy of your body is minimum when you on ground
 Radian is the unit of an Angle
 Radio waves of constant amplitude can be generated with an Oscillator
 Water moving up a straw is an example of Capillary Action
 Sudden fall in barometer is indication of strom
 Hooke’s law is related to Elasticity
 Blue colour of the clear sky is due to Dispersion of Light
 Filament string in an electric bulb is made of Tungsten
 Hydraulic brake used in automobiles is a direct application of Pascal’s Law
 The image formed by convex lens in a simple microscope is Virtual & Erect
 Convex mirror is used in motor vehicles near the driver’s seat
 From the moon’s surface Astronauts see a Black Sky. This is because of Absence of Atmosphere on Moon
 Specific resistance of a wire varies with its material
 Pyrometer is used to measure the temperature of the sun
 Total Internal reflection occurs when light passes from a denser to rarer medium
 Value of Specific Gravity remains same in all system of units
 The speed of sound in air is about 343 metres per second
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 During a fog the visibility is reduced because of Scattering of light.

 Weightlessness experienced in a spaceship is due to Absence of Gravity
 SONAR is used to find submerged objects
 Unit of power of lens is Dioptre
 An object has to attain the velocity of 11.2 km/secto escape from earth’s atmosphere
 Angstrom is the measuring unit of length of light waves.
 Weber is the unit of magnetic flux
 Ohm-metre is the unit of specific resistance
 The wavelength of visible spectrum ranges from390-700 nanometres
 A Washing machine works on the principle of Centrifugation
 Magnifying glass is made of Convex lens
 Magnetite is the only natural magnet
 Nephelometer is used to measure the scattering of light by particles suspended in a liquid
 Fathometer is used to measure depth of ocean
 Dilatometer is used to measure change in volume of substances
 Altimeter is used to measure altitudes in aircrafts
 Red glass is heated in dark room it will seem Green colour
 The value of acceleration due to gravity is maximum at poles
 Escape velocity of Moon is 2.38 Km/s
 Resistance of a Conductor is inversely proportional to its Cross Sectional Area and directly proportional to
length
 Nuclear Fissions are initiated by Neutrons
 National physical laboratory is located in New delhi
 Higgs bosonis known as God particle
 Enrico Fermi is inventor of nuclear reactor
 A viscometer is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid
 Gold was used in the Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment
 Alpha rays have the highest ionising power
 Gamma rays have the highest penetrating power
 SI unit of radioactivity is becquerel
 Hydrogen isotope named as Tritium
 The fuse in an electric circuit is connected in series with live
 Ball pen function on the principle of surface tension and capillarity
 Bat can fly dark because they produce ultrasonic wave
 Infrared rays of the sunlight makes the solar cooker hot
 Centripetal force acts on the body moving in circular path
 Mirage is an optical illusion
 In radio transmission FM stands for Frequency Modulation
 Tidal wave on sea is mainly due to Gravitational effect of moon on earth
 Light year is unit of distance
 A train starts suddenly the passengers bends backwards is example of inertia
 Optical fibre works on the principle of Total internal reflection
 Kepler’s law governs motion of planet
 Sparkling of diamond due to total internal reflection
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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

 Reason for a swimming pool appear less deep than actual depth is refraction
 Energy released by the sun and other star due to nuclear fusion
 Microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy
 Law of inertia also called newton first law
 Blue colour of sky due to dispersion
 If magnet has a third pole then the third pole is called consequent pole
 Astigmatism is corrected by cylindrical lens
 Light from laser is monochromatic
 Weight of body maximum at pole
 Microwave is used in oven
 Doppler’s effect is related to the change in frequency of sound
 A moving electric charge produce electric and magnetic field
 Black hole theory is given by Stephen hawking
 Einstein’s mass energy equivalence is based on theory of relativity
 Physical quantity which have magnitude and direction and obey triangle law is called vector quantity
 Hydraulic lift, Hydraulic press and Hydraulic works on Pascal law
 Soap bubble obtain spherical shape due to surface tension
 Reed,Green,Blue are primary colours
 Newton’s second law of motion gives measure of force
 A clean and dry needle is kept on the surface of water it floats due to surface tension
 A person is not able to see distinct as well as nearby objects is suffering from presbyopia
 Minimum distance required to hear an echo 17 meter
 When a body is moving along a circular path with constant speed work done on it is zero
 Pure water freezes at 32 degrees farenheit
 Recoil of gun is example of conservation of linear momentum
 Archimedes principle is related to laws of floatation
 Odometer is used to measure distance
 Twinkling of star is a example of refraction
 Red light is used in traffic signal because Long wavelength
 Electric bulb filament made of tungsten
 Galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting High resistance in series
 Light stands for Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
 Fat can be separated from milk by centrifugal force
 Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion
 Loudness of sound based on amplitude
 At 4 Degree celsius density of water is maximum
 Stone falling towards earth both stone and earth attract each other
 Soft iron is used to making electromagnet
 Gamma rays have minimum wavelength
 Parsec is a unit of Astronomical distance
 Soap bubble appear coloured due to interference
 Longitudinal waves cannot travel through vaccum

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 THE COMPLETE General Science Notes (Physics) for Railway Exams

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