VV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VV NAGAR, TISAIYANVILLAI – 627657

PHYSICS PRACTICALS MANAUL

GE6163 – PHYSICS LABORATORY I

(First semester B.E/B.Tech. students for the Academic Year 2016-2017)

Prepared by
Dr.P.N.Selvakumar, Dr.B.Karthikeyan, Dr.R.Vettumperumal, Mr.G.Roy Richi Renold

Mrs.S.Benita Jeba Silviya and Mrs.C.Babitha Lakshmi

Department of Physics

(Private Circulation Only)

 VV COLLEGE OF ENNGINEERING

VV NAGAR, TISAIYANVILLAI – 627657

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Instructions to the students
The following instructions must be followed by the students in their laboratory classes.
1. Students are expected to be punctual to the lab classes. If they are late, they will be considered
absent for that particular session.
2. Students should strictly maintain the dress code.

3. Students must bring their observation note, record note (completed with previous experiment)
and the calculator to every lab class without fail.
4. Students are advised to come with full preparation for their lab sessions by

(i) Reading the detailed procedure of the experiment from the laboratory manual.
(ii) Completion of observation note book (i.e.) Aim, Apparatus required, Formula (with
description), least count calculation, diagrams and the tabular column should be
written in the observation note before entering into the laboratory.
5. Data entry in the observation note book must be by pen only.

6. Students must get attestations immediately for their observed readings.

7. Students should complete their calculations for their experiments and get it corrected on the
same day of that experiment.
8. Students who miss observation, record note they have to do the experiment once again and get
it corrected.
9. Class assessment marks for each experiment is based only on their performance in the
laboratory.
10. Record note has to be completed then and there and get corrected when the students are
coming for the next lab class.
11. Students must strictly maintain silence during lab classes.
12. If any of the students is absent for the lab class for genuine reasons, he/she will be
permitted to do the experiment during the repetition class only.
13. Students are advised to perform their experiments under safety care.
14. If any student is found causing damage to the lab equipments, he/she shall replace the
same with a new.
 CONTENTS

S.NO DATE EXPERIMENT PAGE NO. MARKS SIGN.

1 SEMICONDUCTOR LASER PARAMETERS

2 ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

3 SPECTROMETER GRATING

4 LEE’S DISC – THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

YOUNG’S MODULUS BY NON-UNIFORM

5
BENDING
 DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER

TABLE I : To find the wavelength of the laser source

Number of rulings in the grating (N) = ______________ lines / metre
Distance between laser grating and screen (D) = ________cm = __________ x 10 -2
metre
Readings for the diffracted image
Left Side Right Side
Order Distance of Mean
of different
Distance of
(1   2 )   Sin
S.No
diffraction x  x n  different xn 1  x n 
 
(n)
orders (xn)
from the
tan 1  n 1  tan 1   orders (xn) tan  2   2  tan   2 Nn
central D  D  from the D D
central spot
spot
Unit No. cm cm m

1 1 X1= X1=

2 2 X2= X2=

3 3 X3= X3=

4 4 X4= X4=

Mean wavelength of the laser source ‘'=_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _m

CALCULATION:

To find the number of lines per metre in the grating ‘N’:

N = 2500 lines /inch
1 inch = 2.54 cm = 2.54 x 10-2 m
2500 lines
N  N = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Lines/m
2.54 x10  2 m

Sin
Wavelength of the given laser  
Nn
1.n = 1, θ= =
 SEMICONDUCTOR LASER
a. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER USING GRATING
b. PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION
c. DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE
OF AN OPTICAL FIBRE
Expt.No:
Date:
Aim:
To determine
 Wavelength of the given laser source using grating
 To find the size of the given particle using the laser source
 To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of the given optical fibre.
Objective:
To evaluate the wavelength of the laser using a grating and to find the particle size of
lycopodium powder.
To calculate the acceptance angle and numerical aperture an optical fiber by total
internal reflection method.
Specific Objectives:
1. To obtain diffraction spots on the screen using grating and the laser source
2. To measure the distance between centre spot and first order spot by varying the
distance between the grating and screen
3. To expose a laser light source on circular patch on the screen.
4. To measure the distance from the fiber end to circular image (d).
Apparatus Required:
Laser source, Laser grating, Given particle slide, Screen, Scale, Optical fibre, Numerical
aperture measurements zig.
Formulae:
Sin 
a). Wavelength of the given laser source   Ao
Nn
n D
b). Size of the particle ‘a’ = metre
xn
c). i) Numerical aperture of the given optical fibre (NA) = n 0Sin a
r 180
ii) Acceptance angle a = 
r d
2 2  degree
Where,
N number of rulings in the grating lines/metre
 Wavelength of the laser source Ao
 Angle of diffraction Degree
n order of spectrum --
Xn Distance of the nth order from zeroth order metre
D Distance between the particle slide and the screen metre
Distance between the tip of the optical fibre and the aperture of the
d metre
numerical aperture(NA) zig
r radius of the circular opening in numerical aperture zig metre
n0 Refractive index of air (n0=1) --
2. n = 2, θ= =

3. n = 3, θ= =

4. n = 4, θ= =

PARTICLE DETERMINATION BY LASER

TABLE II : To find the size of the given particle

Wavelength of the given laser source () = _ _ _ _ _ _ _x10-10m = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ A
o
Distance between Particle Size
Distance between Order of
S.No screen and particle diffraction
the central bright n D
point and nth fringe a
slide (D) n xn
xn

Unit cm cm m
1
1 10
2
1
2 15
2
1
3 20
2

Mean size of the particle ‘a’ =_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _m

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE
1. LASER
It is an acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

2. Properties of LASER
 High intensity
 Directionality
 Monochromaticity
 Coherence

3. Diffraction
Bending of light around the edges of an obstacle

4. Optical grating
It is a glass plate consisting of alternate ruling and slit

5. Pythagoras theorem
It states that the square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is
equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides

PROCEDURE
I. To determine the wavelength of the given laser source
1. An optical grating of known N value is fixed on the grating mount that is placed on a
wooden stand.
2. Laser beam from the given semiconductor laser source is made to fall normally on
the fixed grating.
3. Now, the grating diffracts laser beam. A screen is kept on the other side of the
grating to obtain the diffraction spots.
4. The distance between the grating and screen (D) is fixed.
5. The distance between the centre spot and first order diffraction spot on either side
of the screen is measured.
6. The above procedure is repeated for different values of D.
7. The distance between the diffracting slit and the first order diffraction spot Xn is
calculated.
8. The wavelength of the laser is calculated using the formula.

II. To determine the particle size of the given powder

1. The lycopodium powder dispersed in a transparent thin glass plate is kept vertically
using a stand in between the laser source and screen.
2. The laser beam incident on the glass plate undergoes diffraction by the particles.
3. By adjusting the distance of the glass plate from the screen, a clear concentric ring
pattern is obtained. The ring pattern is due to the diffraction of the laser light by
the powder particles.
 nD
CALCULATION: Size of the given Particle 'a '
xn
1. D = 10cm = 10 x 10-2m, n =1, xn=_ _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m a=

n =2, xn=_ _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m a=

2. D= 15cm = 15 x 10-2m, n =1, xn=_ _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m a=

n =2, xn=_ _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m a=

3. D= 20cm = 20 x 10-2m, n =1, xn=_ _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m a=

n =2, xn=_ _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m a=

TABLE III: Measurement Of Acceptance Angle And Numerical Aperture

Acceptance
Numerical
Distance from the fibre Radius of the angle θ a =
S.No aperture
end to circular image ‘d’ circular image ‘r’ r

180
 (NA) = n0Sin θa
r d
2 2

cm mm degree
1 5
2 7.5
3 10
4 12.5
5 15
4. The centre of the ring pattern is marked on the screen. The radius of the first order
ring (n = 1) is measured and the measurement can be made for other orders (n = 2, 3,
4,…….) also.
5. The readings are taken for different values of D (distance between screen and glass
plate).

To determine the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber

1. The given LASER source is connected to the optical fiber cable.
2. The other end is exposed to the air medium in the dark place.
3. The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper.
4. Now, we get illuminated circular path on the screen.
5. The distance from the fiber end to circular image(d) is measured using meter
scale.
6. Similarly, the radius of the image is also measured.
7. Thus acceptance angle and numerical aperture of cable is found by using the
formula.
Calculation:
r 180
Acceptance angle, θ a =  Numerical aperture(NA) =
r d
2 2 
n0Sin θa
1. r = 5 x 10-3m, d = _ _ _ _ x 10-2m n0 = 1, NA = Sin θa =
r 180
θa =  NA =
r d
2 2  = ---------------- =

2. r = 7.5 x 10-3m, d = _ _ _ _ x 10-2m NA =

r 180
θa = 
r d
2 2  = ---------------- =

3. r = 10 x 10-3m, d = _ _ _ _ x 10-2m NA =
r 180
θa = 
r d
2 2  = ---------------- =

4. r = 12.5 x 10-3m, d = _ _ _ _ x 10-2m NA =

r 180
θa = 
r d
2 2  = ---------------- =

5. r = 15 x 10-3m, d = _ _ _ _ x 10-2m NA =
r 180
θa = 
r d
2 2  = ---------------- =
APPLICATIONS Photography (3D view-Hologram), Medicine (treatment of a detached retina),
Computer (Printers), Meteorology (laser interferometer to measure length), Weapons (LIDAR -
Light Detection and Ranging), Industry (To weld or melt the materials)

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. Define coherence.

2. Identify two types of coherence.

3. Can we use X-rays instead of laser source in this experiment?

4. List six applications of LASER.

5. Why do we get rings in the particle size determination instead of spots?

6. Is there any other method to measure the particle size?

STIMULATING QUESTIONS
1. Can we use the sodium vapour lamp as a source to measure particle size?

2. While increasing the distance between the screen and glass plate, what happens to the
particle size?

INFERENCE:
The magnitude of the wavelength remains same within a range if the order of diffraction
‘n’ and the distance between grating and screen ‘D’ increased.
Average size of the particle is same within the range of values if the radius of the
circular fringes and the distance between the particle slide and screen increased.
Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture increases with the increase in core diameter
and satisfies the theoretical value.

Result:
A. The wavelength of the given laser  = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _m
B. The size of the given particle ‘a’ = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _m
C. The numerical aperture of the given optical fibre NA= _ _ _ _ _ _ _
The Acceptance angle of the given optical fibre a = _ _ _ _ _ _ _
degree
Preparation Observation Calculation Result Viva Submission Total Sign.
(20) (25) (25) (10) (10) (10) (100)
ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA IN THE AMMETER READING

UTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER – VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC WAVES IN LIQUID AND

COMPRESSIBILITY OF THE LIQUID

Expt.No:
Date:

Aim:
To determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves and compressibility of the given liquid
using Ultrasonic Interferometer.

General Objective:
To study the compressibility of the liquid by measuring the wavelength and velocity of
ultrasonic waves in the liquid using ultrasonic interferometer

Specific Objectives:
1. To generate high frequency ultrasonic waves in the liquid using piezoelectric oscillator
2. To form standing waves between quartz crystal and reflector plate
3. To measure the distance ‘d’ between two successive maxima or minima
4. To find the wavelength and velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid
5. To evaluate the compressibility of the liquid from the formula

Apparatus Required:
Ultrasonic Interferometer, Measuring cell, Frequency generator, Given
liquid(water/kerosne)

Formula:
2d

Wavelength of the ultrasonic waves  = metre
n

Ultrasonic velocity in the given liquid v  f m/sec
1

Adiabatic compressibility of the given liquid ‘K’ = 2 m2N-1
v 
Where,
f frequency of the generator which excites the crystal hertz
d distance moved by the micrometer screw metre
n number of oscillations --
 density of the given liquid kg/m3

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE
1. Ultrasonic waves
Ultrasonic waves are the sound waves of frequency above audible range (i.e.)
above 20000 Hz.

2. Properties of ultrasonic waves

  highly energetic
 travel through long distances

TABLE I: To find the velocity of ultrasonic waves in the liquid

Micrometer reading for ‘n'  = 2d/n
maximum deflections d =(n+5)th reading –
Order of
nth reading)
maxima or PSR HSC HSR TR
S.No
minima
mm
mm div mm mm mm

1 n
2 n+5
3 n+10
4 n+15
5 n+20
6 n+25
Least count of Micrometer screw = 0.01mm HSR = HSC * LC
Frequency of the generator ‘f’ = 2 MHz = 2x106Hz TR = PSR + HSR

Mean  = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ x10-3m
CALCULATION :
1. Wavelength of the ultrasonic wave
2d
 milli metre
n
  undergo reflection, refraction and absorption similar to ordinary sound waves
 produce stationary wave pattern in liquids of suitable dimension and behave as an
acoustical grating
 generate heat in materials for a longer time of exposure

3. Ultrasonic interferometer
An ultrasonic interferometer is a simple and NDT device to determine the
ultrasonic velocity in liquids with a high degree of accuracy.

4. Standing wave
It is a wave in a medium in which each point on the axis of the wave has an
associated constant amplitude.

5. Adiabatic compressibility
Compressibility is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a
response to a pressure (or mean stress) change.

PROCEDURE
1. Ultrasonic interferometer is used to determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in liquids. It
consists of a high frequency generator and a measuring cell.
2. The high frequency generator is used to excite the quartz crystal fixed at the bottom of the
measuring cell. The measuring cell is a double walled cell to maintain the temperature of the
cell at a constant value.
3. The measuring cell is connected to a high frequency generator. The cell is filled with the
given liquid and the frequency of the generator is set at a desired value.
4. Then ultrasonic waves are reflected back from the movable plate, and standing waves are
formed between the quartz crystal and the reflector plate.
5. The micrometer screw is moved till the anode current reaches maximum. Micrometer
readings are noted for ‘n’ number of maxima / minima.
6. The distance ‘d’ between two successive maxima and minima is obtained from the readings
taken.
7. The wavelength of the ultrasound is calculated using the ‘d’ value and hence the velocity of
the ultrasonic wave can be calculated using the known frequency.
8. The compressibility of the given liquid is determined by knowing the density of the given
liquid.

APPLICATIONS
Detection of flaws in metals, SONAR for detection of submarines, iceberg and other objects in
ocean, soldering and metal cutting, diagnostics applications such as detection of tumors and
defects in human body, ultrasonic cleaner and humidifier.
 CALCULATION :
2. Ultrasonic velocity in the given liquid:
Frequency of the generator ‘f’ = 2 MHz = 2x10 6 Hz
Wavelength of the ultrasonic wave ‘  ‘ =_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ x10-3m
v  f

= m/sec

3. Adiabatic compressibility of the given liquid:

Ultrasonic velocity v = _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ m/Sec
Density of the given liquid(water) kg/m
1
K = 2 m2N-1
v 

= m2N-1
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS
1. Why ultrasonic waves are not audible to humans?

2. Are ultrasonic waves electromagnetic waves? Comment.

3. Define acoustic grating.

4. List two methods to produce ultrasonic waves.

5. Name two technological importance of measuring the velocity and adiabatic

compressibility of liquids.

STIMULATING QUESTIONS
1. How do bats locate the prey and objects?

2. Recognize how dolphins communicate with each other.

3. Can we calculate adiabatic compressibility for a solid?

INFERENCE:
Velocity of ultrasonic wave increases then the adiabatic compressibility of any liquid
decreases. The longer wave has a lesser velocity.

Result:
1. The Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves in the given liquid( ) = _ _ _ _ _ _ m/sec
2. Adiabatic Compressibility of the given liquid = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ m2/N

Preparation Observation Calculation Result Viva Submission Total Sign.

(20) (25) (25) (10) (10) (10) (100)
Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence

Angle of Diffraction
 DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF THE MERCURY SPECTRUM - SPECTROMETER
GRATING
Expt.No:
Date:

AIM:
To determine the different wavelength present in the light emitted by mercury vapour
lamp.

OBJECTIVE:
To gain knowledge about the different pattern produced by the grating elements.

GENERAL OBJECTIVE:
To evaluate the number of lines per metre length of the given grating using green line of
mercury source and the wavelength of the five prominent lines of mercury spectrum using
Spectrometer.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
1. To execute the preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer
2. To adjust the grating for normal incidence
3. To calculate the angle of diffraction
4. To compute the number of lines per metre length of the given grating using green line
5. To find the wavelengths of the five prominent spectral lines of the spectrum

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Mercury vapour lamp, Grating, Spectrometer, Reading lens, Spirit level, etc.

FORMULA:
Wavelength of the prominent lines in the mercury spectrum,
sin  o
 A
Nn
Where,
 Angle of diffraction degrees
n order of diffraction --
N Number of lines per meter in the grating lines/m

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE
1. Wavelength
Distance between two successive crests or troughs of a wave.

2. Spectrum
The distribution of colors produced when composite light is dispersed by a prism or
diffracted by a grating.

3. Wavelength range for visible spectral region

4000 – 7000 Aº

4. Diffraction
Bending of light at the obstacles.
LEAST COUNT FOR SPECTROMETER
 Least Count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
1 MSD = 30’
30 VSD = 29 MSD
1 VSD = (29/30) X 30’ = 29’
Least Count = 30’ - 29’ = 1’

CALCULATION:
To find the number of lines per metre in the grating ‘N’.
 green = 5461 Aº = 5461x10-10m
g =
sin  g =
Diffraction order ‘m’ = 1
sin  g
N  = -------------- lines/m
 green
N = ---------------- ines/m

5. Diffraction grating
A polished surface of glass or metal having a large number of equidistant fine parallel
grooves or slits, used to diffract a composite light into its constituent colors.
6. Primary colors
Red, Blue and Green.

7. Polychromatic source
It is source of radiation contains more than one color (wavelength).

8. Normal incidence
Adjustment is made in the mounting of grating in such a way the incident ray falls on the
grating at right angle

PROCEDURE
I. Initial Adjustments of the spectrometer
1. The telescope is turned to a white background and the eyepiece is moved to and fro till the
cross-wires are well defined.
2. The telescope is focused towards a long distant object and the screw of the telescope is
adjusted to get the inverted image of the distant object clearly. Now the telescope has been
adjusted to receive the parallel rays.
3. The telescope is brought in line with the collimator and the well defined image of the slit
illuminated by a light source is obtained by adjusting the screw of the collimator. The width
of the slit image is made narrow.
4. The spectrometer base is made horizontal by adjusting leveling screws with the help of spirit
level.
5. The level leveling screws of grating table is adjusted with the help of spirit level to make it
horizontal.

II. Setting the Grating for Normal Incidence

1. The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made.
2. The telescope is brought along the direction of the collimator. The direct reading is taken
after making the vertical crosswire to coincide with the image of the slit illuminated by the
mercury source.
3. The telescope is then rotated through an angle of 90 o and fixed. Now the grating is mounted
on the grating table.
4. The grating table is adjusted to get the reflected image of the slit coinciding with the
crosswire in the telescope.
5. The vernier disc is released and rotated by an angle of 45 o in the appropriate direction such
that the light coming out of the collimator will be incident normally on the grating.

III. Standardization of the grating

1. The slit is illuminated by mercury vapour lamp.
2. The telescope is released to catch the first order green line on the left side of the direct
image and the reading is noted.
3. Now the telescope is turned to the right side to catch the first order diffracted image of
TABLE I: To Find The Wavelength Of Different Colours
Least count = 1’
Order of the spectrum n = 1 N=_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ lines/m.
Difference
Reading for the diffracted image between the
readings Mean sin 
Spectral 
Left Side Right Side θ Nn
lines
Ver A Ver B Ver A Ver B 2θ 2θ
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR
deg Div deg deg div deg deg div deg deg div deg deg deg deg m

Violet

Blue

Green

Yellow

Red
 green line and the reading is noted.
4. The difference between the two readings gives 2 for the first order, where  is angle of
diffraction.

IV. Determination of wavelengths of Hg spectrum

1. The central image is an undiffracted direct image. On either side of the direct image we will
get diffracted images of different colors.
2. The angles of diffraction for different colors are determined as discussed in the
standardization part.

APPLICATIONS
 Diffraction gratings are used for accurately measuring the wavelength of light.
 Used as wavelength selectors for tunable lasers and beam sampling mirrors for high
power lasers.
 Used as beam splitters in optical engineering.
 Metallic gratings increase the efficiency of solar cells owing to their high absorption
coefficient.

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. Define diffraction grating.

2. Explain the term normal incidence.

3. Identify why violet spectral line is least diffracted.

4. Distinguish between diffraction and dispersion.

STIMULATING QUESTIONS
1. Can we use optical grating to diffract x-rays? Justify.

2. Which type of diffraction occurs in this experiment, Fresnel or Fraunhofer?

3. What is the dimension of diffraction pattern in this experiment?

CALCULATION:
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
1. The refractive index of rulings in grating is ideally
a) 0 b) infinity c) unity d) 1.5

2. The parameter which changes if the grating is not adjusted to normal incidence is
a) wavelength b) grating constant c) angle of diffraction d) order of diffraction

3. The spectral lines violet I and violet II appears single line when the
a) intensity of source is less b) intensity of source is more
c) slit width is broad d) slit width is narrow

INFERENCE:
Changes in number of rulings per metre in the grating affect diffraction angle by which the
wavelength remains same for the range of colours.

Result:
The wavelength of the prominent spectral lines in the mercury source are calculated and tabulated.
Wavelength
Colours
X 10-10 m
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red

Preparation Observation Calculation Result Viva Submission Total Sign.

(20) (25) (25) (10) (10) (10) (100)
 1. Lee’s disc apparatus

TABIE-I: To find the thickness(d) of the cardboard using Screw gauge

Least count of Screw gauge(L.C)= 0.01mm
Zero error =_ _ _ _div Zero correction = (Z.EXL.C) = _ _ _ _ _ mm
S.NO PSR HSC HSR= HSCXL.C O.R = PSR+HSR C.R = O.R + Z.C
mm Div mm mm mm
1
2
3
4
5
Mean thickness (d) = X10 -3m

PSR = Pitch Scale Reading HSC = Head Scale Coincidence HSR = Head Scale Reading
O.R = Observed Reading C.R = Correct Reading
Z.E = Zero error Z.C = Zero Correction

TABLE-II: Thickness of the lower metallic disc ‘h’ using Screw gauge
Least count of Screw gauge(L.C)= 0.01mm
Zero error =_ _ _ _div Zero correction = (Z.EXL.C) = _ _ _ _ _ mm
S.NO PSR HSC HSR= HSCXL.C O.R = PSR+HSR C.R = O.R + Z.C
mm Div mm mm Mm
1
2
3
4
5
Mean thickness (h) = X10 -3m
 LEE’S DISC – THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Expt.No:
Date:
AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor (card board) by Lee’s disc
method.
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
To assess the thermal behavior of a given bad conductor using Lee’s disc apparatus

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. To identify the steady temperature of steam chamber.
2. To find the steady temperature of the metallic disc.
3. To measure the radius of the given metallic disc.
4. To compute the rate of fall of temperature.
5. To find the thickness of the given bad conductor.

APPARATUS REQURIED:
Lee’s disc, thermometer, card board sheet, stop clock, screw gauge, vernier caliper.

FORMULA:
The thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor is calculated by,

MS d ( r  2h)  d  1 1
K   Wm K
2 r 2 (1   2 )(r  h)  dt  2
Where,
M Mass of metal disc kg
S Specific heat capacity of metal disc (S = 370 J/kg/K) J/kg/K
d Thickness of card board metre
r Radius of the card board/metallic disc metre
h Thickness of the Lee’s disc metre
 d  Rate of cooling at steady temperature θ2 K/sec
 
 dt  
2

Θ1 Temperature of the steam chamber Kelvin

Θ2 Steady temperature of the disc Kelvin

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE
1. Thermal Conductivity
A measure of the ability of a material to allow the flow of heat from its warmer surface
through the material to its colder surface.

 d 
TABLE-III: Determination of Rate of Cooling  dt 
  2
 Θ1 SteadyTemperature of the steam chamber = Kelvin
Θ2 Steady temperature of the disc = Kelvin

Temperature Time Taken

S.no o
C Kelvin Sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

2. Rate of cooling

To find the radius of the cardboard/metallic disc ’r’:

Circumference of the metallic disc 2r = _______________cm

r = --------------------- cm

r = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _x10-2 m

2. Coefficient of thermal conductivity

 The amount of heat conducted per second normally across unit area of cross section
maintained at unit temperature gradient.

3. Specific heat capacity

The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature
by one degree Celsius.

4. Temperature gradient
The change in temperature with respect to the distance is called as temperature
gradient.

5. Newton’s law of cooling

The rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between the body and its surrounding, of same nature.

6. Thermal diffusivity
The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to the product of density (ρ) and specific heat
capacity (s) of a material is known as thermal diffusivity (h) of the material.

PROCEDURE
1. The experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 1, steam is allowed to pass through the inlet
of the vessel B and it escapes out through the outlet. The temperature indicated by the two
thermometers will start rising.
2. After the steady state is reached (there will be no change in the temperature with time), the
temperatures in both the thermometers are noted as 1 and 2 respectively. This is the static
part of the experiment.
3. The bad conductor is removed by gently lifting the upper steam chamber. Now the lower
metallic disc is allowed to be directly in contact with the steam chamber.
4. When the temperature of the lower disc attains a value of about 10 0 C more than its steady
state temperature (2), the steam chamber is then removed and the lower metallic disc is
allowed to cool down on its own.
5. A stop watch is started when the temperature is 5ºC above the steady temperature θ 2 and
time is noted for every 1ºC fall in temperature until the metallic disc attains 5ºC below θ 2.
6. A graph between temperature and time is drawn shown in figure 2. Rate of cooling dθ/dt at
θ2 is calculated from the graph.
7. The mass of the disc (M) is found using rough balance and the thickness (d) of the bad
conductor and thickness of the metallic disc (h) are measured using screw gauge.

Applications
Measurement of the thermal conductivity of gypsum-bearing rocks will determine the
influence of this rock type on the generation and preservation of oil and gas. High thermal
conductivity graphite film was used for chip cooling in the smart phone.
Viva Questions
1. Differentiate good and bad conductors.

OBSERVATION:
Steady temperature of steam chamber θ1 = _ _ _ _ _K
Steady temperature of the metallic disc θ2 = _ _ _ _ _K
Mass of the metallic disc M = _ _ _ _x10-3Kg
Specific heat capacity of the metallic disc S = 370 Jkg-1K-1
Thickness of the bad conductor d = _ _ _ _ _x10-3 m
Thickness of the metallic disc h = _ _ _ _ _x10-3 m
Radius of the metallic disc r = _ _ _ _ _x10-2 m
 d 
Rate of fall of temperature at a mean temperature θ2  dt  =_ _ _ _ _ _K/Sec
  2

The thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor is calculated by,

MS d ( r  2h)  d  1 1
K   Wm K
2 r (1   2 )(r  h)  dt  2
2

2. Represent the steady state.

3. List two applications of bad conductors.

4. Predict two examples for bad conductor.

Stimulating Questions
1. Bad conductor should be thin – Justify.

2. Is thickness of the material alters the conducting nature. Comment.

3. Lee’s disc method is not suitable to determine the thermal conductivity of a good conductor.
Justify.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
1. If the thickness of the bad conductor is halved, the thermal conductivity
a. Increases twice b. decreases twice c. increases four times d. remains constant

2. If the radius of the Lee’s disc increases, then

a. thermal conductivity increases b. thermal conductivity decreases.
c. rate of fall of temperature increases d. rate of fall of temperature decreases

3. The radius of the metallic disc is calculated using the formula

a. circumference/π b. circumference/2π c. circumference/4π d. circumference×2π

INFERENCE:
Thickness of the bad conductor increases then the thermal conductivity of it decreases. The
 d 
slope  dt  depends on the thermal conductivity.
  2

Result:
Thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor:______________W/m/K

Preparation Observation Calculation Result Viva Submission Total Sign.

(20) (25) (25) (10) (10) (10) (100)
 Young’s modulus - Non-uniform bending

LEAST COUNT FOR TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

Value of 1 Main Scale Division (MSD)
Least Count (LC) 
Number of divisions in the vernier
20 MSD = 1 cm
1
Value of 1 MSD   0.05cm
20cm
Number of divisions in the vernier = 50
0.05
Least Count (LC)   0.001cm
50

V.S.R = V.S.D x L.C T.R = M.S.R+ V.S.R

Distance between the two knife edges (l) = _ _ _ _ cm

TABLE I: To find the average value of depression( y)

Load Microscope Readings

Depression
M During Loading During Unloading Mean
S.No y for M gm
MSR VSD VSR TR MSR VSD VSR TR
Gm cm div cm cm cm Div cm cm cm cm
1 50
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250

Mean ‘ y ’ = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m
 YOUNG’S MODULUS BY NON-UNIFORM BENDING
Expt.No:
Date:
Aim:
To determine the Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of the given beam by non-
uniform bending.

General Objective:
To evaluate the elastic behavior of the given wooden beam by pin and microscope
experimental method and to find its Young’s modulus

Specific Objectives:
1. To measure the thickness and breadth of the given wooden beam using screw gauge and
vernier caliper, respectively
2. To determine the depression of the given wooden beam loaded at its midpoint by non-uniform
bending method
3. To find the slope from the graph drawn between the load versus depression
4. To calculate the Young’s modulus of the wooden beam from the mean depression and slope
obtained from table and graph, respectively
5. To analyze the elastic behavior of the given wooden beam from the results obtained

Apparatus required:
Travelling microscope, two knife edge supports, weight hanger with set of weights, pin,
metre scale, vernier calipers and screw guage.

Formula:
Young’s modulus of the material of the beam (wooden metre scale):
MgL3
Y  3
Newton / metre 2
4bd y
Where
Y Young’s Modulus of the material of the beam Newton/metre2
y depression at the center of the beam metre
M Mass suspended at the center of the beam kg
g acceleration due to gravity(9.8 m/s2) m/s2
L distance between the two knife edges metre
b breadth of the beam metre
d thickness of the beam metre

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE
1. Stress
Stress is a dimension quantity defined as force per unit area.

2. Strain
Strain is the relative change in shape or size of an object due to externally applied
forces. It is dimensionless quantity and has no units.
Table II: To find the breadth of the beam using vernier calipers
Least count of vernier caliper (L.C) = 0.01cm
Zero error (Z.E) = ______div Zero correction (Z.C) = (Z.E x L.C) = _ _ _ _ _ _cm
M.S.R V.S.D V.S.R = V.S.D x L.C Breadth = M.S.R + V.S.R+ Z.C
S.No
cm div cm cm
1
2
3
4
5
Mean Breadth of the beam (b) = x10-2m

Table III: To find the Thickness of the beam using Screw Gauge
Least Count of Screw Gauge (L.c) = 0.01 mm
Zero Error (Z.E) = _ _ div Zero Correction (Z.C) = (Z.E x L.C) = _ _ _ _ mm
S.No P.S.R H.S.D H.S.R = H.S.D X L.c Thickness = (P.S.R + H.S.R + Z.c)
Mm divisions mm mm
1
2
3
4
5

Mean Thickness of the beam (d) = _ _ _ _ _x10-3 m

3. Young’s modulus
Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio between linear stress and linear strain.

4. Uniform and non-uniform bending

In uniform bending, the beam is elevated due to load, and non-uniform bending, the beam
is depressed due to load.
In uniform bending, every element of the beam is bent with the same radius of curvature
whereas in non-uniform bending, the radius of curvature is not the same for all the
elements in the beam.

PROCEDURE
1. The given beam is supported on two knife edges separated by a distance ‘L’. A pin is fixed
vertically at the mid-point. A weight hanger is suspended at the mid-point of the beam. The
beam is brought to the elastic mood by loading and unloading it several times.
2. With the dead load ‘W’, the pin is focused through microscope. The microscope is adjusted so
that the horizontal crosswire coincides with the tip of the pin. The microscope reading is
taken.
3. The load is changed in steps of 50 gm and in each case the microscope reading is taken
during loading and unloading. The readings are tabulated. The depression at the mid-point for
‘M’ kg is calculated.
4. The distance between the knife edges (L) is measured using a metre scale. The breadth (b)
and thickness (d) of the beam are found using vernier caliper and screw gauge, respectively.

APPLICATIONS
AFM probe, wings of air craft, helicopter rotator, marine fittings, designing of bridges,
bicycle frames and wind mill turbine blades.

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. Define elastic limit.

2. When a beam is loaded at its midpoint, it is then said to be under non-uniform bending. Why?

3. Differentiate between elasticity and plasticity.

4. Give the significance of neutral axis.

STIMULATING QUESTIONS
1. What happens to the Young’s modulus of the material if its dimension is increased?

2. Defense force is not allowed to do march past on the bridges. Reason out
OBSERVATION

Mass for the depression (M)= _ _ _ _ x 10-3 Kg

Distance between the two knife edges (L) = _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m

Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s2

Breadth of the beam (b) = _ _ _ _ _x10-2m

Thickness of the beam (d) = _ _ _ _ _x10-3 m

Depression produced for ‘M’ kg of load ‘ y ’ = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ x10-2m

CALCULATION

Young’s Modulus of the material of the beam

MgL3
Y  Newton / metre 2
4bd 3 y
3. Load VS depression plots for copper and steel are given. Which material is stiffer? Justify.

INFERENCE:
Any changes in dimension of the beam leads to changes in depression of the beam by which
young’s modulus remains same within the range.

Result:
Young’s modulus of the material of the given beam(wooden metre scale) = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Preparation Observation Calculation Result Viva Submission Total Sign.

(20) (25) (25) (10) (10) (10) (100)