Advanced i.

c
engines

COMPILED BY

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR M.Tech,Ph.D
HOD/MECHANICAL

S.DHILEEPAN ME, (Ph.D)

ASSIST PROFESSOR/MECHANICAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GRT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

UNIT - 1
SPARK IGNITION
ENGINES

Mixture requirements – Fuel injection systems – Monopoint, Multipoint &

Direct injection - Stages of combustion – Normal and Abnormal combustion –
Knock - Factors affecting knock – Combustion chambers.

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

1. Discuss the Air-fuel ratio requirements of SI Engine

As per requirement of engine, the carburettor provides an air-fuel ratio, which must be within
combustion range. Engine is cold at the time of starting so, very rich mixture is required. Rich
mixture is also required at time of idling and producing maximum power. During the normal
running, a comparatively lean mixture can be used. For petrol engine; different air-fuel ratios
are required under various conditions of load. These are as discussed below.

i) Air-Fuel Ratio for Starting

Very rich mixture (10: 1) is required at starting of engine. During starting very small amount of
fuel is vaporizes and rest of it stay in the liquid state so as to give an ignitable mixture.

ii) Air-Fuel Ratio for Idling

An idling, engine demands a rich mixture, which can be made leaner as the throttle is gradually
opened. During idling, the pressure in the inlet manifold is about 20 to 25% of atmospheric
pressure. At suction stroke, inlet valve opens and the product of combustion trapped in the
clearance volume, expands in the inlet manifold. Latter when the piston moves downwards, the
gases along with the fresh charges go into the cylinder. A rich mixture must be supplied during
idling, to counteract the tendency of dilution and to get an ignitable mixture.

iii) Air-Fuel Ratio for Medium Load

Most of the time, engine is running in medium load condition, therefore, it is desirable that the
running should be most economical in this condition. So a lean mixture can be supplied, as
engine has low fuel consumption at medium load. For multi cylinder engine, slightly more fuel
is required due to mal distribution of fuel.

iv) Air-Fuel Ratio for Maximum Power Range

When maximum power is required, the engine must be supplied with rich mixture as the
economy is of no consideration. As the engine enters in the power range,the spark must be
retarded otherwise knocking would occur. A lean mixture burns at latter part of working stroke.
As the exhaust valve expose to high temperature gases and have very less time to cool down.
Moreover, the excess air in the lean mixture may cause an oxidizing action on the hot exhaust
valve and leads to failure.

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

v) Air-Fuel Ratio for Acceleration

Even during normal running, sometimes more power is required for a short period such as to
accelerate the vehicle for overtaking etc. During this period rich mixture is required.

2. Discuss the various Stages of combustion in SI Engine with P-θ diagram

Three Stage of Combustion

There are three stages of combustion in SI Engine as shown

i. Ignition lag stage
ii. Flame propagation stage
iii. After burning stage

i. Ignition lag stage:

There is a certain time interval between instant of spark and instant where there isa noticeable
rise in pressure due to combustion. This time lag is called IGNITION LAG. Ignition lag is the
time interval in the process of chemical reaction during which molecules get heated up to self-
ignition temperature , get ignited and produce a self-propagating nucleus of flame. The ignition
lag is generally expressed in terms of crank angle .

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

The period of ignition lag is shown by path ab. Ignition lag is very small and lies between
0.00015 to 0.0002 seconds. An ignition lag of0.002 seconds corresponds to 35 deg crank
rotation when the engine is running at 3000 RPM. Angle of advance increase with the speed.
This is a chemical process depending upon the nature of fuel, temperature and pressure,
proportions of exhaust gas and rate of oxidation or burning.

ii. Flame propagation stage:

Once the flame is formed at ‚b‛, it should be self-sustained and must be able to propagate
through the mixture. This is possible when the rate of heat generation by burning is greater
than heat lost by flame to surrounding. After the point ‚b‛, the flame propagation is abnormally
low at the beginning as heat lost is more than heat generated. Therefore pressure rise is also
slow as mass of mixture burned is small. Therefore it is necessary to provide angle of advance
30 to35 deg, if the peak pressure to be attained 5-10 deg after TDC. The time required for
crank to rotate through an angle q2 is known as combustion period during which propagation
of flame takes place.

iii. After burning:

Combustion will not stop at point ‚c‛ but continue after attaining peak pressure and this
combustion is known as after burning. This generally happens when the rich mixture is
supplied to engine.

3. Explain the various Factors affect knock in SI engines

The various engine variables affecting knocking can be classified as:

 Temperature factors
 Density factors
 Time factors
 Composition factors

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

(A) TEMPERATURE FACTORS

Increasing the temperature of the unburned mixture increase the possibility of knock in the SI
engine we shall now discuss the effect of following engine parameters on the temperature of the
unburned mixture:

i. Raising the Compression Ratio

Increasing the compression ratio increases both the temperature and pressure(density of the
unburned mixture). Increase in temperature reduces the delay period of the end gas which in
turn increases the tendency to knock.

ii.Supercharging

It also increases both temperature and density, which increase the knocking tendency of engine

iii.Coolant Temperature

Delay period decreases with increase of coolant temperature, decreased delay Period increase
the tendency to knock

iv. Temperature Of The Cylinder And Combustion Chamber Walls :

The temperature of the end gas depends on the design of combustion chamber.Sparking plug
and exhaust valve are two hottest parts in the combustion chamber and uneven temperature
leads to pre-ignition and hence the knocking.

(B) DENSITY FACTORS

Increasing the density of unburnt mixture will increase the possibility of knock in the engine.
The engine parameters which affect the density are as follows:

“Increased compression ratio increase the density

“Increasing the load opens the throttle valve more and thus the density
“Supercharging increase the density of the mixture
“Increasing the inlet pressure increases the overall pressure during the cycle. The high pressure
end gas decreases the delay period which increase the tendency of knocking.

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

“Advanced spark timing: quantity of fuel burnt per cycle before and after TDC position
depends on spark timing. The temperature of charge increases by increasing the spark advance
and it increases with rate of burning and does not allow sufficient time to the end mixture to
dissipate the heat and increase the knocking tendency

(C) TIME FACTORS

Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-ignition conditions increase
the possibility of knock in SI engines.

i. Flame travel distance:

If the distance of flame travel is more, then possibility of knocking is also more. This problem
can be solved by combustion chamber design, spark plug location and engine size. Compact
combustion chamber will have better anti-knock characteristics, since the flame travel and
combustion time will be shorter. Further,if the combustion chamber is highly turbulent, the
combustion rate is high and consequently combustion time is further reduced; this further
reduces the tendency to knock.

ii.Location of sparkplug:

A spark plug which is centrally located in the combustion chamber has minimum tendency to
knock as the flame travel is minimum. The flame travel can be reduced by using two or more
spark plugs.

iii. Location of exhaust valve:

The exhaust valve should be located close to the spark plug so that it is not in the end gas
region; otherwise there will be a tendency to knock.

iv.Engine size

Large engines have a greater knocking tendency because flame requires a longer time to travel
across the combustion chamber. In SI engine therefore, generally limited to 100mm

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

v. Turbulence of mixture

Decreasing the turbulence of the mixture decreases the flame speed and hence Increases the
tendency to knock. Turbulence depends on the design of combustion chamber and one engine
speed.

D) COMPOSITION FACTORS

i. Molecular Structure

The knocking tendency is markedly affected by the type of the fuel used. Petroleum fuels
usually consist of many hydro-carbons of different molecular structure. The structure of the
fuel molecule has enormous effect on knocking tendency. Increasing the carbon-chain
increases the knocking tendency and centralizing the carbon atoms decreases the knocking
tendency. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have less knocking tendency than saturated
hydrocarbons.

ii.Fuel-air ratio:

The most important effect of fuel-aft ratio is on the reaction time or ignition delay. When the
mixture is nearly 10% richer than stoichiometric (fuel-air ratio =0.08) ignition lag of the end gas
is minimum and the velocity of flame propagation is maximum. By making the mixture leaner
or richer (than F/A 0.08) the tendency to knocks decreased. A too rich mixture is especially
effective in decreasing or eliminating the knock due to longer delay and lower temperature of
compression.

iii. Humidity of air:

Increasing atmospheric humidity decreases the tendency to knock by decreasing the reaction
time of the fuel.

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

4. Discuss the different types of combustion chambers in SI engine

Variations are enumerated and discussed below:

 T-head combustion chamber

 L-head combustion chamber
 I-head (or overhead valve) combustion chamber
 F-head combustion chamber

It may be noted that these chambers are designed to obtain the objectives namely:

 A high combustion rate at the start.

 A high surface-to-volume ratio near the end of burning.
 A rather centrally located spark plug.

i. T Head Type Combustion chambers

This was first introduced by Ford Motor Corporation in 1908. This design has following
disadvantages.

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

 Requires two cam shafts (for actuating the in-let valve and exhaust valve separately) by
two cams mounted on the two cam shafts.
 Very prone to detonation. There was violent detonation even at a compression ratio of
4. This is because the average octane number in 1908 was about 40 -50.

ii.L Head Type Combustion chambers

It is a modification of the T-head type of combustion chamber. It provides the two values on
the same side of the cylinder, and the valves are operated through tappet by a single camshaft.
This was first introduced by Ford motor in 1910-30 and was quite popular for some time. This
design has an advantage both from manufacturing and maintenance point of view.

Advantages:

 Valve mechanism is simple and easy to lubricate.

 Detachable head easy to remove for cleaning and decarburizing without
 Disturbing either the valve gear or main pipe work.
 Valves of larger sizes can be provided.

Disadvantages:

 Lack of turbulence as the air had to take two right angle turns to enter the cylinder
and in doing so much initial velocity is lost.
 Extremely prone to detonation due to large flame length and slow combustion due
to lack of turbulence.
 More surface-to-volume ratio and therefore more heat loss.
 Extremely sensitive to ignition timing due to slow combustion process
 Valve size restricted.
 Thermal failure in cylinder block also. In I-head engine the thermal failure is
confined to cylinder head only.

iii.Overhead valve or I head combustion chamber

The disappearance of the side valve or L-head design was inevitable at high compression ratio
of 8:1 because of the lack of space in the combustion chamber to accommodate the valves.
Diesel engines, with high compression ratios, invariably used overhead valve design. Since 1950
or so mostly overhead valve combustion chambers are used. This type of combustion chamber

Dr.A.A.ARIVALAGAR HOD/MECH S .DHILEEPAN Asst Professor/ MECH

ME 6016 ADVANCED I.C ENGINES GRTIET

has both the inlet valve and the exhaust valve located in the cylinder head. An overhead engine
is superior to side valve engine at high compression ratios.

The overhead valve engine is superior to side valve or L head engine at high compression
ratios, for the following reasons:

 Lower pumping losses and higher volumetric efficiency from better breathing of the
engine from larger valves or valve lifts and more direct passageways.
 Less distance for the flame to travel and therefore greater freedom fromknock, or in
other words, lower octane requirements.
 Less force on the head bolts and therefore less possibility of leakage (of compression
gases or jacket water). The projected area of a side valvecombustion chamber is
inevitably greater than that of an overhead valve chamber.
 Removal of the hot exhaust valve from the block to the head, thus confining heat
failures to the head. Absence of exhaust valve from block also results in more uniform
cooling of cylinder and piston.
 Lower surface-volume ratio and, therefore, less heat loss and less air pollution.

iv F- Head combustion chamber

In such a combustion chamber one valve is in head and other in the block. This design is a
compromise between L-head and I-head combustion chambers. One of the most F head
engines (wedge type) is the one used by the Rover Company for several years. Another
successful design of this type of chamber is that used in Willeys jeeps.

Advantages

 High volumetric efficiency

 Maximum compression ratio for fuel of given octane rating
 High thermal efficiency
 It can operate on leaner air-fuel ratios without misfiring.

The drawback

 This design is the complex mechanism for operation of valves and expensive special
shaped piston.

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5. Explain in detail Normal and Abnormal combustion in SI engine

Normal combustion

Spark-ignited flame moves steadily across the combustion chamber until the charge is fully
consumed. A combustion process which is initiated solely by a timed spark and in which the
flame front moves completely across the combustion chamber in a uniform manner at a
normal velocity

Flame travels from A→

D and compresses the end charge BB´D and raises its temperature.
Temperature also increases due to heat transfer from the flame front. Now, if the final
temperature is less than the auto-ignition temperature, Normal Combustion occurs and charge
BB´D is consumed by the flame itself.

Abnormal combustion or knocking

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Now, if the final temperature is greater than and equal to the auto-ignition temperature, the
charge BB´D auto-ignites (knocking). A second flame front develops and moves in opposite
direction, where the collision occurs between the flames. This causes severe pressure pulsation,
and leads to engine damage/failure.

Fuel composition, engine design and operating parameters, combustion chamber deposits may
prevent occurring of the normal combustion process. A combustion process in which a flame
front may be started by hot combustion-chamber surfaces either prior to or after spark ignition,
or a process in which some part or all of the charge may be consumed at extremely high rates
There are two types of abnormal combustion:
1. Knock
2. Surface ignition

i.Knock
Knock is the auto ignition of the portion of fuel, air and residual gas mixture ahead of the
advancing flame that produces a noise. As the flame propagates across combustion chamber,
end gas is compressed causing pressure, temperature and density to increase. This causes high
frequency pressure oscillations inside the cylinder that produce sharp metallic noise called
knock. Knock will not occur when the flame front consumes the end gas before these reactions
have time to cause fuel-air mixture to autoignite. Knock will occur if the precombustion
reactions produce auto ignition before the flame front arrives

ii.Surface Ignition
Surface ignition is ignition of the fuel-air charge by overheated valves or spark plugs, by glowing
combustion chamber deposits or by any other hot spot in the engine combustion chamber - it
is ignition by any source other than the spark plug. It may occur before the spark plug ignites
the charge (preignition) or after normal ignition (postignition).

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6. Compare Knock in SI And CI Engines

It may be interesting to note that knocking in spark-ignition engines and compression ignition
engines is fundamentally due to the auto ignition of the fuel air mixture. In both the cases, the
knocking depends on the auto ignition lag of the fuel-air mixture. But careful examination of
knocking phenomenon in SI and CI engines reveals the following differences:

1. In spark ignition engines, auto ignition of end gas away from the spark plug, most likely near
the end of combustion causes knocking. But in compression engines the auto ignition of charge
causing knocking is at the start of combustion.

2. In order to avoid knocking in SI engine, it is necessary to prevent auto ignition of the end
gas to take place at all. In CI engine, the earliest auto ”ignition is necessary to avoid knocking

3. The knocking in SI engine takes place in homogeneous mixture, therefore, the rate of
pressure rise and maximum pressure is considerably high. In case of CI engine, the mixture is
not homogenous and hence the rate of pressure is lower than in SI engine.

4. In CI engine only air is compressed, therefore there is no question of Preignition in CI

engines as in SI engines.

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5. It is lot more easily to distinguish between knocking and non-knocking condition in SI

engines as human ear easily finds the difference. However in CI engines,normal ignition itself is
by auto-ignition and rate of pressure rise under the normal conditions is considerably high (10
bar against 2.5 bar for SI engine) and causes high noise. The noise level becomes excessive
under detonation condition.

6. SI fuels should have long delay period to avoid knocking. CI fuels should have short delay
period to avoid knocking.

7. With neat sketch explain in detail about the different types of fuel injection system used in SI
Engines
1. Mono or Single or Throttle Body Injection System

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1 – Fuel supply, 2 – Air intake, 3 – Throttle, 4 – Intake manifold, 5 – Fuel injector (or
injectors), 6 – Engine

At first, carburetors were replaced with throttle body fuel injection systems, also known as
single point or central fuel injection systems. That incorporated electrically controlled fuel-
injector valves into the throttle body. Those were almost a bolt-in replacement for the
carburetor, so the automakers didn't have to make any drastic changes to their engine designs.
Definition: A type of electronic fuel injection system that uses a single injector or pair of
injectors mounted in a centrally located throttle body. The throttle unit resembles a carburetor
except that there is no fuel bowl float or metering jets. Fuel is sprayed directly into the throttle
bore(s) by the injector(s)

Working Principle
The first electronically regulated single point injection dates back to the year 1974 and was
developed by GM. There is only one electromagnetic fuel injector for all four cylinders,
injecting fuel intermittently above the throttle valve. The injection amount is regulated by
opening or closing the fuel injector. Because the supply pressure is low, a simple turbine pump
is sufficient instead of a roller vane pump. The system pressure does not have to be regulated –
like with the multipoint injection that we are going to explain later in this presentation – in
dependence on negative pressure. The control unit keeps track of all essential data, speed,
load, or temperature of the engine, but as well as the throttle-valve angle and position, or
whether the air conditioning is on or off and regulates the amount of fuel injected according to
this variables. The idle-speed operation can be steered or via bypass.

Advantages:
 Only one fuel injector
 The system pressure is not dependent on the intake air pressure
 Reduced fuel consumption - precise adaptation of engine changing conditions;
 Improved performance through greater latitude of the intake tract;
 The large distance of heat-stressed parts leads to fewer steam bubbles and a cheaper
delivery pump.

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2. Multi point fuel Injection System

1 – Fuel supply, 2 – Air intake, 3 – Throttle, 4 – Intake manifold, 5 – Fuel injector (or
injectors), 6 – Engine

In the Multipoint Injection System, we have one injector per cylinder, the injector injects the
fuel into the admission valve which admits the fuel and air into the cylinder. This gives an
individual control on this cylinder, improving the fuel consumption in relation of the Single
point injection.
Working Principle

In The first Multipoint injection system, the injection was done at the same time in all injectors.
The improvement in relation of the single point is the same amount of Fuel is deliver to all
cylinders. This system only solved one problem, because the problem of lag was still existent,
like in the single point injection. So if the injection occur, the fuel and air are in the admission
valve, and if driver make a sudden change it only change the fuel in the next admission, so it
would be a waste of fuel or insufficient fuel. To solve this problem it was develop one new
system of Multipoint Injection. This system is sequential Multipoint injection system, the layout
is the same that the original Multipoint injection system, the difference is that the injection is
done individually, in each cylinder.
In this system because we have injection individually and sequential, we don’t have the lag
problem. Lets suppose that the injection occurs in cylinder 1, then cylinder 3, and suddenly the

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driver makes a change, in the injection in the cylinder 4 will be done whit the new value. This
was the improvement in relation of the first Multipoint injection system.

3. Direct Injection System or Gasoline Direct Injection System

1 – Fuel supply, 2 – Air intake, 3 – Throttle, 4 – Intake manifold, 5 – Fuel injector (or
injectors), 6 – Engine

With direct injection, fuel is injected directly into the cylinder during the compression stroke,
just a moment before the spark plug ignites the mixture. This was not done earlier because it
requires much higher fuel line pressures, over 2,000 pounds per square inch (psi) vs. about 40
psi with conventional fuel injection. Direct benefits, include a more even fuelair mixture (with
no fuel left behind in the runner or on the back of the valve) and a cooling effect inside the
cylinder.

Working Principle
With a direct injection engine, the fuel gets to skip a step and add a bit of efficiency. Instead of
hanging out in the air intake manifold, fuel is squirted directly into the combustion chamber.
With an assist from modern engine management computers, the fuel gets burned right where
it's needed, when it's needed. As a result, it's possible to compress the mixture more without
risking premature detonation. Compression ratios for direct injected engines tend to be about
12:1 without boost from a turbocharger or supercharger, and about 10:1 with it. In a

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conventional engine, these numbers would be about 10.5:1 and 8.5:1, respectively A couple of
items could de found in every direct injection engine: fuel injectors (at least one per cylinder);
and a combustion chamber

Advantages:-
 Combined with ultra-precise computer management, direct injection allows more
accurate control over fuel metering (the amount of fuel injected) and injection timing
(exactly when the fuel is introduced into the cylinder).
 More of the gasoline is burned, which translates to more power and less pollution from
each drop of gasoline.
Disadvantages:-
 The primary disadvantages of direct injection engines are complexity and cost.
 Direct injection systems are more expensive to build.

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UNIT - 2

COMPRESSION
IGNIT ION ENGINE

Diesel Fuel Injection Systems - Stages of combustion – Knocking – Factors

affecting knock – Direct and Indirect injection systems – Combustion
chambers – Fuel Spray behaviour – Spray structure and spray penetration –
Air motion - Introduction to Turbo charging.

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1. Discuss in detail about the various Stages of combustion in a CI Engine

The combustion in CI engine is considered to be taking place in four phases:

 Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion

 Uncontrolled combustion
 Controlled combustion
 After burning

i. Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion

The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the combustion chamber.
There is a definite period of inactivity between the time of injection and the actual burning this
period is known as the ignition delay period. In Figure the delay period is shown on pressure
crank angle (or time)diagram between points a and b. Point ‚a‛ represents the time of injection
and point ‚b‛ represents the time of combustion. The ignition delay period can be divided into
two parts, the physical delay and the chemical delay.

The delay period in the CI engine exerts a very great influence on both engine design
performance. It is of extreme importance because of its effect on both the combustion rate and
knocking and also its influence on engine starting ability and the presence of smoke in the
exhaust.

ii.Period of Rapid Combustion

The period of rapid combustion also called the uncontrolled combustion, is that phase in
which the pressure rise is rapid. During the delay period, a considerable

amount of fuel is accumulated in combustion chamber, these accumulated fuel droplets burns
very rapidly causing a steep rise in pressure. The period of rapid combustion is counted from

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end of delay period or the beginning of the combustion to the point of maximum pressure on
the indicator diagram.

The rate of heat-release is maximum during this period. This is also known as
uncontrolled combustion phase, because it is difficult to control the amount of burning /
injection during the process of burning. It may be noted that the pressure reached during the
period of rapid combustion will depend on the duration of the delay period (the longer the delay
the more rapid and higher is the pressure rise since more fuel would have been present in the
cylinder before the rate of burning comes under control).

iii.Period of Controlled Combustion

The rapid combustion period is followed by the third stage, the controlled combustion.
The temperature and pressure in the second stage are so high that fuel droplets injected burn
almost as they enter and find the necessary oxygen and any further pressure rise can be
controlled by injection rate. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at
maximum cycle temperature.

iv. Period of After-Burning

Combustion does not stop with the completion of the injection process. The unburnt and
partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber start burning as soon as they come
into contact with the oxygen. This process continues for a certain duration called the after-
burning period. This burning may continue in expansion stroke up to 70 to 80% of crank travel
from TDC.

2. Write a short note on Direct and Indirect Injection Systems

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Direct injection diesel engine

1. Direct injection diesel engines have injectors mounted at the top of the combustion chamber.
2. The injectors are activated using one of two methods - hydraulic pressure from the fuel pump,
or an electronic signal from an engine controller.
3. Hydraulic pressure activated injectors can produce harsh engine noise.
4. Fuel consumption is about 15 to 20% lower than indirect injection diesels.
5. The extra noise is generally not a problem for industrial uses of the engine,but for automotive
usage, buyers have to decide whether or not the increased fuel efficiency would compensate for
the extra noise.
6. Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine by allowing
much greater control over the combustion.

Indirect injection diesel engine

1. An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber,
called a pre-chamber or ante-chamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main
combustion chamber,assisted by turbulence created in the chamber.
2. This system allows for a smoother, quieter running engine, and because combustion is assisted
by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower, about 100 bar (10 MPa; 1,500 psi), using a single
orifice tapered jet injector.
3. Mechanical injection systems allowed high-speed running suitable for road vehicles (typically
up to speeds of around 4,000 rpm).
4. The pre-chamber had the disadvantage of increasing heat loss to the engine's cooling system,
and restricting the combustion burn, which reduced the efficiency by 5”10%.[35] Indirect
injection engines are cheaper to build and it is easier to produce smooth, quiet-running vehicles
with a simple mechanical system.
5. In road-going vehicles most prefer the greater efficiency and better controlled emission levels
of direct injection.
6. Indirect injection diesels can still be found in the many ATV diesel applications.

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3. What are the types of combustion chambers in CI Engines?

C I engine combustion chambers are classified into two categories:
1. DIRECT INJECTION CHAMBERS Or OPEN INJECTION (DI) TYPE:
2. INDIRECT INJECTION (IDI) TYPE:

1. DIRECT INJECTION CHAMBERS – OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

This type of combustion chamber is also called an Open combustion chamber. In this
type the entire volume of combustion chamber is located in the main cylinder and the fuel is
injected into this volume.

a) Shallow Depth Chamber:

In shallow depth chamber the depth of the cavity provided in the piston is quite small. This
chamber is usually adopted for large engines running at low speeds.Since the cavity diameter is
very large, the squish is negligible.
b)Hemispherical Chamber:
This chamber also gives small squish. However, the depth to diameter ratio for a cylindrical
chamber can be varied to give any desired squish to give better performance.

c)Cylindrical Chamber:
This design was attempted in recent diesel engines. This is a modification of the cylindrical
chamber in the form of a truncated cone with base angle of 30°. The swirl was produced by
masking the valve for nearly 1800 of circumference. Squish can also be varied by varying the
depth.
d)Toroidal Chamber:
The idea behind this shape is to provide a powerful squish along with the air movement, similar
to that of the familiar smoke ring, within the toroidal chamber.Due to powerful squish the mask

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needed on inlet valve is small and there is better utilisation of oxygen. The cone angle of spray
for this type of chamber is 150° to 160°.

2. INDIRECT INJECTION COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

In this type of combustion chambers, the combustion space is divided into two parts, one part in
the main cylinder and the other part in the cylinder head. The fuel ”injection is effected usually
into the part of chamber located in the cylinder head. These chambers are classified

i)Ricardo’s Swirl Chamber:

Swirl chamber consists of a spherical shaped chamber separated from the engine cylinder and
located in the cylinder head. In to this chamber, about 50% of the air is transferred during the
compressionstroke. A throat connects the chamber to the cylinder which enters the chamber in a
tangential direction so that the air coming into this chamber is given a strong rotary movement
inside the swirl chamber and after combustion, the products rush back into the cylinder through
same throat at much higher velocity. The use of single hole of larger diameter for the fuel spray
nozzle is often important consideration for the choice of swirl chamber engine.

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ii)Pre Combustion Chamber

Typical pre-combustion chamber consists of an anti-chamber connected to the main chamber
through a number of small holes (compared to a relatively large passage in the swirl chamber).
The pre-combustion chamber is located in the cylinder head and its volume accounts for about
40% of the total combustion, space. During the compression stroke the piston forces the air into
the pre-combustion chamber. The fuel is injected into the pre-chamber and the combustion is
initiated. The resulting pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air and their
combustion products to rush out into the main cylinder at high velocity through the small holes.

iii) Energy cell:

The ‘energy cell’ is more complex than the precombustion chamber. As the piston
moves up on the compression stroke, some of the air is forced into the major and minor
chambers of the energy cell. When the fuel is injected through the pintle type nozzle, part of the
fuel passes across the main combustion chamber and enters the minor cell, where it is mixed
with the entering air. Combustion first commences in the main combustion chamber where the
temperatures higher, but the rate of burning is slower in this location, due to insufficient mixing
of the fuel and air. The burning in the minor cell is slower at the start, but due to better mixing,
progresses at a more rapid rate. The pressure built up in the minor cell ,therefore , force the
burning gases out into the main chamber, thereby creating added turbulence and producing
better combustion in the this chamber.

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4. Explain with neat sketch working principle of turbocharger

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A turbocharger or turbo is a forced induction device used to allow more power to be produced
for an engine of a given size. A turbocharged engine can be more powerful and efficient than a
naturally aspirated engine because the turbine forces more air, and proportionately more fuel,
into the combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure alone.

Working principle
Turbocharger is a small radial fan pump driven by the energy of the exhaust gases of an
engine. A turbocharger consists of a turbine and a compressor on a shared shaft. The turbine
section of a turbocharger is a heat engine in itself. It converts the heat energy from the exhaust to
power, which then drives the compressor, compressing ambient air and delivering it to the air
intake manifold of the engine at higher pressure, resulting in a greater mass of air entering each
cylinder. In some instances, compressed air is routed through an intercooler before introduction
to the intake manifold. Because a turbocharger is a heat engine, and is converting otherwise
wasted exhaust heat to power, it compresses the inlet air to the engine more efficiently than a
supercharger.

Components
 The turbocharger has four main components. The turbine (almost always a radial
turbine) and impeller/compressor wheels are each contained within their own folded
conical housing on opposite sides of the third component, the centre housing/hub
rotating assembly (CHRA).
 The housings fitted around the compressor impeller and turbine collect and direct
the gas flow through the wheels as they spin. The size and shape can dictate some
performance characteristics of the overall turbocharger. Often the same basic
turbocharger assembly will be available from the manufacturer with multiple housing
choices for the turbine and sometimes the compressor cover as well. This allows the
designer of the engine system to tailor the ompromises between performance,response,
and efficiency to application or preference. Twin-scroll designs have two valve-operated
exhaust gas inlets, a smaller sharper angled one for quick responseand a larger less angled
one for peak performance.
 The turbine and impeller wheel sizes also dictate the amount of air or exhaust that can be
flowed through the system, and the relative efficiency at which they operate. Generally,
the larger the turbine wheel and compressor wheel, the larger the flow capacity.

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Measurements and shapes can vary, as well as curvature and number of blades on the
wheels. Variable geometry turbochargers are further developments of these ideas.
 The centre hub rotating assembly (CHRA) houses the shaft which connects the
compressor impeller and turbine. It also must contain a bearing system to suspend the
shaft, allowing it to rotate at very high speed with minimal friction. For instance, in
automotive applications the CHRA typically uses a thrust bearing or ball bearing
lubricated by a constant supply of pressurized engine oil. The CHRA may also be
considered "water cooled" by having an entry and exit point for engine coolant to be
cycled. Water cooled models allow engine coolant to be used to keep the lubricating oil
cooler, avoiding possible oil coking from the extreme heat found in the turbine. The
development of air-foil bearings has removed this risk.
Advantages
1. Higher power output
2. Mass of charge inducted is greater
3. Better atomization of fuel
4. Better mixing of fuel and air
5. Combustion is more complete and smoother
6. Can use inferior (poor ignition quality) fuels.
7. Scavenging of products is better

5. Explain about knocking in CI Engine

 Knock in SI and CI engines are fundamentally similar. In SI engines, it occurs near the
end of combustion; whereas in CI engines, it occurs near the beginning of combustion.
 Knock in CI engines is related to delay period. When DP is longer, there will be more
and more accumulation of fuel droplets in combustion chamber. This leads to a too
rapid a pressure rise due to ignition, resulting in jamming of forces against the piston and
rough engine operation. When the DP is too long, the rate of pressure rise is almost
instantaneous with more accumulation of fuel.

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Delay period is directly related to Knocking in CI engine. An extensive delay period can
be due to following factors:
A low compression ratio permitting only a marginal self-ignition temperature to be reached.

 A low combustion pressure due to worn out piston, rings and bad valves
 Low cetane number of fuel
 poorly atomized fuel spray preventing early combustion
 Coarse droplet formation due to malfunctioning of injector parts like spring
 Low intake temperature and pressure of air

6. Explain in detail about spray structure and spray penetration in CI Engine

The fuel is introduced into the combustion chamber of a diesel engine through one or more
nodes or orifices with a large pressure differential between the supply line and the cylinder.
Different designs of nozzle are used (e.& sin Different spray configurations are used in the
different diesel combustion orifice, multiorifice, throttle, or pintle
A schematic description of a full-cone high-pressure spray is given in Fig. The graphic
shows the lower part of an injection nozzle with needle, sac hole, and injection hole. Modern
injectors for passenger cars have hole diameters of about 180 μm and less, while the length of the
injection holes is about 1 mm..

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Today, injection pressures of up to 200 MPa are used. The liquid enters the combustion
chamber with velocities of 500 m/s and more, and the jet breaks up according to the mechanisms
of the atomization regime.
Immediately after leaving the nozzle hole, the jet starts to break up into a conical spray.
This first break-up of the liquid is called primary break-up and results in large ligaments and
droplets that form the dense spray near the nozzle. In case of high-pressure injection, cavitation
and turbulence, which are generated inside the injection holes, are the main break-up
mechanisms. The subsequent break-up processes of already existing droplets into smaller ones
are called secondary break-up and are due to aerodynamic forces caused by the relative velocity
between droplets and surrounding gas, as described in the previous section.The aerodynamic
forces decelerate the droplets.
The drops at the spray tip experience the strongest drag force and are much more
decelerated than droplets that follow in their wake. For this reason the droplets at the spray tip
are continuously replaced by new ones, and the spray penetration S increases, The droplets with
low kinetic energy are pushed aside and form the outer spray region.

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Interaction of fuel jet with air swirl

A schematic of the spray pattern which results when a fuel jet is injected radially outward
into a swirling flow is shown in Fig. Because there is now relative motion in both radial and
tangential injected at the beginning of the injection process. These regions of the sprays are
tangential directions between the initial jet and the air, the structure of the jet is more complex
.As the spray entrains air and slows down it becomes increasingly bent toward the liquid fuel
enters the quiescent air charge, atomizes, moves outward from the swirl direction; for the .same
injection conditions it will penetrate less with swirl than without swirl. An important feature of the
spray is the large vapour containing region downstream of the liquid-containing core

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7. Explain in detail about air motion with in the cylinder and its effect
AIR MOTION WITHIN THE CYLINDER
The air motion inside the cylinder greatly influences the performance of diesel engines. It
is one of the major factors that control the fuel-air mixing in diesel engines. Air-fuel mixing
influences combustion, performance and emission level in the engine. The air motion inside the
cylinder mainly depends on manifold design, inlet and exhaust valve profile and combustion
chamber configuration. The initial in-cylinder intake flow pattern is set up by the intake process,
and then it is modified during thecompression process. The shape of the bowl in the piston and
the intake system, control the turbulence level and air-fuel mixing of the DI diesel engine. The
variation of shape of intake system, shape of piston cavity, etc. lead to a change in the flow field
inside the engine.
EFFECTS OF AIR MOTION
The air motion inside the cylinder
1. Atomizes the injected fuel into droplets of different sizes.
2. Distributes the fuel droplets uniformly in the air charge.
3. Mixes injected fuel droplets with the air mass.
4. Assists combustion of fuel droplets.
5. Peels off the combustion products from the surface of the burning drops as they are being consumed.
6. Supplies fresh air to the interior portion of the fuel drops and thereby ensures complete combustion.
7. Reduces delay period.
8. Reduces after burning of the fuel.
9. Better utilization of air contained in the cylinder.

8. What are the types of Air motion in CI Engine

TYPES OF AIR MOTION
The air motion in a diesel engine is generally caused by either by the intake port during
the suction stroke or by combustion chamber geometry during the compression stroke. Three
different elements of the air motion present during intake to expansion strokes in a diesel engine
cylinder have been classified as
1) Swirl
2) Squish
3) Tumble
4) Turbulence

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1 Swirl
Swirl is defined as the organized rotation of the charge about the cylinder axis. It is
created by bringing the intake flow into the cylinder with an initial angular momentum. Swirl is
generated during the intake process in DI diesel engines by the intake port and subsequently by
combustion chamber geometry during the compression stroke. The swirl intensity increases the
tangential component of the velocity of air inside the cylinder, which aids in the mixing of fuel
and air, and significantly affects the combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engines.

Suction swirl
During suction, air is admitted into the engine cylinder in a tangential direction. The
entering air is deflected by the cylinder wall. Air thereby assumes a rotary motion i.e. swirl about
the cylinder axis. This swirl is called suction swirl. Helical ports produce swirl upstream of the
valve and directed ports have it downstream. In diesel engines, tangential entry of air is effected
by one of the following methods:
1. By masking a portion of the inlet valve.
2. By angling the inlet port in the desired direction.
3. By providing a lip in the inlet port, over one side of the inlet valve.
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Compression swirl
The combustion chamber cavity tends to modify the swirl as the piston approaches the
Top Dead Centre (TDC) position during the compression process. As the piston approaches
TDC the rotating air is forced into the piston bowl. The rotational force is magnified by the
reduced diameter of the piston bowl. Thin, deep bowls have a higher swirl rate.

2. Squish
The squish motion of air is brought about by a recess in the piston crown. At the end of
the compression stroke, the piston is brought to within a very small distance from the cylinder
head. This fact causes a flow of air from the periphery of the cylinder to its centre and into the
recess in the piston crown. This radial inward movement of air is called squish by Ricardo. The
combustion recess, into which the air mass is squeezed in, is located either in the piston crown or
in the cylinder head. The former arrangement is preferred and is widely used. In this case, heat
losses from the compressed air will be lesser. This is because the piston crown is not cooled to
that extent as the cylinder head which is cooled by the coolant. The figure shows squish
motion during compression.

3. TUMBLE
As the piston reaches TDC the sqish motion generates a secondary flow called tumble,
where rotation occurs about circumferential axis near the outer edge of thge cavity or piston
bowl.

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4) Turbulence
Turbulence contributes to the dispersion of fuel and the micro mixing of fuel and air
respectively. As such, they greatly influence the diesel engine performance. The flow processes in
the engine cylinder are turbulent. In turbulent flows, the rates of transfer and mixing are several
times greater than the rates due to molecular diffusion. This turbulent diffusion results from the
local fluctuations in the flow field. It leads to increased rates of momentum and heat and mass
transfer, and is essential to the satisfactory operation of Spark Ignition and Diesel engines.

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UNIT - 3

POLLUTANT FORMATION
AND CONTROL

Pollutant – Sources – Formation of Carbon Monoxide, Unburnt hydrocarbon,

Oxides of Nitrogen,Smoke and Particulate matter – Methods of controlling
Emissions – Catalytic converters, SelectiveCatalytic Reduction and Particulate
Traps – Methods of measurement – Emission norms and Driving cycles.

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1. Explain the mechanism of formation of carbon mono oxide

FORMATION OF CARBON MONOXIDE

Carbon monoxide is formed during combustion of fuel-rich mixtures due to deficiency of oxygen.
Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels may be considered as a two-step process leading to complete
combustion when carbon dioxide is the final product.

Step 1Conversion of hydrocarbons to CO:

Oxidation reactions involving intermediate species like smaller hydrocarbon molecules, aldehydes,
ketones etc lead to formation of CO as schematically shown below are.

RH represents a hydrocarbon where R stands for the hydrocarbon radical

Step 2
Conversion of CO to CO2:
When sufficient oxygen is available. Hydroxyl radical OH is one the principal oxidizing species and
converts CO to CO2,

 The reaction is quite fast and is under equilibrium at high temperatures. In fact, the reactions
involving C-O-H system may be taken in chemical equilibrium during combustion and large part of
expansion stroke when temperatures are above 1800 K.
 CO emitted is higher than the equilibrium concentrations corresponding to the temperature and
pressure conditions at the end of expansion. The calculations show that until about 60 degrees after
top dead centre,the burned gases are close to equilibrium. However, late in the expansion stroke
and during exhaust blow down on opening of the exhaust valve as the gases cool down, the CO
concentrations differ from the equilibrium value.

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 The predicted CO levels at the end of expansion computed by equilibrium considerations during
early part of expansion and CO oxidation kinetics in the later part of expansion correlated well with
the experimental data as shown on graph These CO values may be considered as partial
equilibrium vales. Detailed investigations have shown:

• For rich mixtures (f>1), the average exhaust CO concentrations are close to equilibrium
concentrations during expansion.
• For near stoichiometric mixtures (f ˜1) exhaust CO is close to computed partial equilibrium values.
• For lean mixtures the measured CO is higher than the computed values using kinetic models. This
discrepancy may occur due to partial oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons released from crevices and
lubricating oil film and deposits on the combustion chamber walls during expansion.
• For estimation of CO concentration a good approximation is to assume chemical equilibrium frozen
at 1750 K.

Comparison of calculated CO using partial equilibrium (kinetics in later part of expansion stroke) and
experimental data

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CO emissions in real engines:

 Mixture mal-distribution in multicylinder engines causes cylinder-to-cylinder variation in air-fuel
ratio. It results in significant increase in the average CO emissions. This is especially prominent in
the carburetted or single point throttle body-injected (TBI) engines.
 Another contributing factor to higher CO emissions is non-uniform mixture distribution within the
cylinder.
 During cold start of engine and acceleration rich mixtures are used resulting in higher CO
emissions
 Overall, the air-fuel ratio is the most important engine parameter affecting CO emissions. Other
factors influence CO mostly indirectly through changes in mixture composition and/or promotion
of slow oxidation reactions resulting in incomplete combustion.

2. Explain the mechanism of formation of Hydrocarbons

FORMATION OF UNBURNED HYDROCARBONS
 The unburned hydrocarbons are also called volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
 Unburned hydrocarbon emissions result as part of the fuel inducted into the engine escapes
combustion. Most of hydrocarbons in exhaust HC are the same compounds as in the fuel. A
typical petroleum fuel contains 100 to 200 different hydrocarbons (10 to 20 are the major
constituents) and other organic compounds. Thus, if the fuels are rich in aromatics and olefins the
exhaust hydrocarbons also consist of a high fraction of aromatics and olefins, which are photo-
chemically more reactive.
 Almost 400 hundred different organic compounds are present in the engine exhaust. A number of
these compounds are formed during combustion process in the engine cylinder.
 Nearly 50% mass of organic compounds emitted in the exhaust is similar to fuel in composition.
The balance 50% is composed of the chemical species which are produced by thermal cracking,
pyrolysis, chemical synthesis and partial oxidation of the fuel molecules during combustion.
 Methane is also present in significant amounts in the exhaust of gasoline and diesel engines. As
methane is not photo-chemically reactive, hydrocarbon emissions now, are also measured
neglecting methane emissions and these are termed as non-methane hydrocarbons or nonmethane
organic gases (NMHC/NMOG).
 Hydrocarbon concentration in the exhaust is measured by flame ionization analyzer (FIA), which is
basically a carbon atom counter. The total hydrocarbon concentration measured by this method is
specified in parts per million as methane or C1 (ppmC1 or simply ppmC). It means that if the FIA
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is calibrated with propane (C3H8), the HC measurement reading is to be multiplied by a factor of

3 to obtain HC concentration in ppmC.
 Several engine processes contribute to the unburned fuel emissions. The sources of unburned
hydrocarbon emissions also vary with the engine design; whether it is a homogeneous SI or a
heterogeneous CI ignition engine, whether 4-stroke or crankcase scavenged 2-stroke engine. In the
crankcase scavenged, small two stroke SI engines, fuel-air mixture bypasses combustion and is
directly ‘short-circuited’ to the exhaust port during scavenging period and the mixture short-
circuiting is the main source of hydrocarbon emissions in these engines.

3. Explain in detail the how the Unburnt hydrocarbons emissions occur inside the cylinder in S.I
Engine
The causes of HC emissions from SI engine

 Non stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio.

 Incomplete Combustion.
 Leak Past the Exhaust Valve.
 Valve Overlap.
 Deposits on Combustion Chamber Walls.
 Oil on Combustion Chamber Walls.

In figure -Emissions from an SI engine as a function of equivalence ratio. A fuel rich air-fuel ratio
does not have enough oxygen to react with all the carbon and hydrogen, and both HC and CO
emissions increase. HC emissions also increase at very lean mixtures due to poor combustion and
misfires. The generation of nitrogen oxide emissions is a function of the combustion temperature,
being greatest near stoichiometric conditions when temperatures are the highest. Peak NOx

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emissions occur at slightly lean conditions, where the combustion temperature is high and there is
an excess of oxygen to react with the nitrogen.

Nonstoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio.

Figure shows that HC emission levels are a strong function of AF. With a fuel-rich mixture
there is not enough oxygen to react with all the carbon, resulting in high levels of HC and CO in the
exhaust products. This is particularly true in engine startup, when the air-fuel mixture is purposely
made very rich. It is also true to a lesser extent during rapid acceleration under load. If AF is too lean
poorer combustion occurs, again resulting in HC emissions. The extreme of poor combustion for a
cycle is total misfire. This occurs more often as AF is made more lean. One misfire out of 1000 cycles
gives exhaust emissions of 1 gmlkg of fuel used.
Incomplete Combustion.
Even when the fuel and air entering an engine are at the ideal stoichiometric mixture, perfect
combustion does not occur and some HC ends up in the exhaust. There are several causes of this.
Incomplete mixing of the air and fuel results in some fuel particles not finding oxygen to react with.
Flame quenching at the walls leaves a small volume of unreacted air-and-fuel mixture. The thickness of
this unburned layer is on the order of tenths of a mm. Some of this mixture,near the wall that does not
originally get burned as the flame front passes, will burn later in the combustion process as additional
mixing occurs due to swirl and turbulence.
Crevice Volumes.
During the compression stroke and early part of the combustion process, air and fuel are
compressed into the crevice volume of the combustion chamber at high pressure. As much as 3% of
the fuel in the chamber can be forced into this crevice volume. Later in the cycle during the expansion
stroke,pressure in the cylinder is reduced below crevice volume pressure, and reverse
blowby occurs. Fuel and air flow back into the combustion chamber, where most of the mixture is
consumed in the flame reaction. However, by the time the last elements of reverse blowby flow occur,
flame reaction has been quenched and unreacted fuel particles remain in the exhaust. Location of the
spark plug relative to the top compression ring gap will affect the amount of HC in engine exhaust, the
ring gap being a large percent of crevice volume. The farther the spark plug is from the ring gap, the
greater is the HC in the exhaust. This is because more fuel will be forced into the gap before the flame
front passes. Crevice volume around the piston rings is greatest when the engine is cold, due to the
differences in thermal expansion of the various

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Leak past the Exhaust Valve.

As pressure increases during compression and combustion, some air-fuel is forced into the
crevice volume around the edges of the exhaust valve and between the valve and valve seat. A small
amount even leaks past the valve into the exhaust manifold. When the exhaust valve opens, the air-fuel
which is still in this crevice volume gets carried into the exhaust manifold, and there is a momentary
peak in HC concentration at the start of blowdown.
Valve Overlap.
During valve overlap, both the exhaust and intake valves are open, creating a path where air-
fuel intake can flow directly into the exhaust. A well-designed engine minimizes this flow, but a small
amount can occur. The worst condition for this is at idle and low speed, when real time of overlap is
greatest.
Deposits on Combustion Chamber Walls.
Gas particles, including those of fuel vapor, are absorbed by the deposits on the walls of the
combustion chamber. The amount of absorption is a function of gas pressure, so the maximum occurs
during compression and combustion. Later in the cycle, when the exhaust valve opens and cylinder
pressure is reduced, absorption capacity of the deposit material is lowered and gas particles are
desorbed back into the cylinder. These particles, including
some HC, are then expelled from the cylinder during the exhaust stroke. This problem is greater in
engines with higher compression ratios due to the higher pressure these engines generate. More gas
absorption occurs as pressure goes up. Clean combustion chamber walls with minimum deposits will
reduce HC emissions in the exhaust. Most gasoline blends include additives to reduce deposit buildup
in engines.
Oil on Combustion Chamber Walls.
A very thin layer of oil is deposited on the cylinder walls of an engine to provide lubrication
between them and the moving piston. During the intake and compression strokes, the incoming air
and fuel comes in contact with this oil film. In much the same way as wall deposits, this oil film absorbs
and desorbs gas particles, depending on gas pressure. During compression and combustion, when
cylinder pressure is high, gas particles, including fuel
vapor, are absorbed into the oil film. When pressure is later reduced during expansion and blowdown,
the absorption capability of the oil is reduced and fuel particles are desorbed back into the cylinder.
Some of this fuel ends up in the exhaust.

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4. Explain the mechanism of formation of NOx emission in SI engines. Sketch the variation of NOx
concentration with equivalence ratio and explain the reason same

 Exhaust gases of an engine can have up to 2000 ppm of oxides of nitrogen. Most of this will be
nitrogen oxide (NO), with a small amount of nitrogen dioxide (NOz),and traces of other nitrogen-
{)xygen combinations. These are all grouped together as NOx (or NOx), with x representing some
suitable number. NOx is a very undesirable emission, and regulations that restrict the allowable
amount continue to become more stringent. Released NOx reacts in the atmosphere to form
ozone and is one of the major causes of photochemical smog.
 NOx is created mostly from nitrogen in the air. Nitrogen can also be found infuel blends, which
may contain trace amounts ofNH3, NC, and HCN, but this would contribute only to a minor
degree. There are a number of possible reactions that form NO, all of which are probably
occurring during the combustion process and immediately after. These include but are not limited
to:

 Atmospheric nitrogen exists as a stable diatomic molecule at low temperatures, and only very small
trace amounts of oxides of nitrogen are found. However, at the very high temperatures that occurs
in the combustion chamber of an engine, some diatomic nitrogen (Nz) breaks down to monatomic
nitrogen (N) which is reactive:
Nz ~ 2 N
 In addition to temperature, the formation of NOx depends on pressure,air-fuel ratio, and
combustion time within the cylinder, chemical reactions not being instantaneous. Figure 9-3 shows
the NOx-versus-time relationship and supports the fact that NOx is reduced in modern engines
with fast-burn combustion chambers.
 The amount of NOx generated also depends on the location within the combustion chamber. The
highest concentration is formed around the spark plug, where the highest temperatures occur.
Because they generally have higher compression ratios and higher temperatures and pressure, CI

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engines with divided combustion chambers and indirect injection (IDI) tend to generate higher
levels of NOx.

 Figure 9-4 shows how NOx can be correlated with ignition timing. If ignition spark is advanced, the
cylinder temperature will be increased and more NOx will be created.

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5. Write short notes on particulate matter emission

 The exhaust of CI engines contains solid carbon soot particles that are generated in the fuel-rich
zones within the cylinder during combustion. These are seen as exhaust smoke and are an
undesirable odorous pollution. Maximum density of particulate emissions occurs when the engine
is under load at WOT. At this condition maximum fuel is injected to supply maximum power,
resulting in a rich mixture and poor fuel economy.this can be seen in the heaviest exhaust smoke
emitted when a truck or rail road locomotive accelerates up a hill or from a stop
 Soot particles are clusters of solid carbon spheres. These spheres have diameters from 10 nm to 80
nm (1 nm = 10-9 m), with most within the range of 15-30 nm. The spheres are solid carbon with
HC and traces of other components absorbed on the surface. A single soot particle will contain up
to 4000 carbon spheres
 Carbon spheres are generated in the combustion chamber in the fuel-rich zones where there is not
enough oxygen to convert all carbon to CO2

CxHy + z 02 ~a CO2 + bH20 + cCO + dC(s

 Then, as turbulence and mass motion continue to mix the components in the combustion
chamber, most of these carbon particles find sufficient oxygen to further react and are consumed to
CO2:
C(s) + O2 ~ CO2
 Over 90% of carbon particles originally generated within an engine are thus consumed and never
get exhausted. If CI engines would operate with an overall stoichiometric air-fuel mixture, instead
of overall lean as they do, particulate emissions in the exhaust would far exceed acceptable levels.

Composition and Structure of Diesel Particulates

 US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) defines the particulate matter as any substance
other than water that is collected by filtration of the diluted exhaust gases at or below 325 K (125
F).Composition of particulate matter collected on a filter is schematically shown on Fig. 2.20.
Various components adsorbed on the surface of spherical soot particles are shown.

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Schematic representation of diesel particulate matter collected from diluted exhaust on filter.

6. Write short notes on smoke emission in CI engine

Formation of smoke in Diesel engines:
 The main cause of smoke formation is known to be inadequate mixing of fuel and air. Smoke is
formed when the local temperature is high enough to decompose fuel in a region where there is
insufficient oxygen to burn the carbon that is formed. The formation of over-rich fuel air mixtures
either generally or in localized regions will result in smoke.
 Large amounts of carbons will be formed during the early stage of combustion. This carbon
appears as smoke if there is insufficient air, if there is insufficient mixing or if local temperatures
fall below the carbon reaction temperatures (approximately 1000C) before the mixing occurs.
 Acceptable performance of diesel engine is critically influenced by exhaust some emissions. Failure
of engine to meet smoke legislation requirement prevents sale and particularly for military use,
possible visibility by smoke is useful to enemy force. Diesel emissions give information on
effectiveness of combustion, general performance and condition of engine

Types of smoke

 Engine exhaust smoke is a visible indicator of the combustion process in the engine. Smoke is due
to incomplete combustion. Smoke in diesel engine can be divided into three categories: blue, white
and black.
Blue smoke:
It results from the burning of engine lubricating oil that reaches combustion chamber due to
worn piston rings, cylinder liners and valve guides.
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White or cold smoke:

It is made up of droplets of unburnt or partially burnt fuel droplets and is usually associated
with the engine running at less than normal operating temperature after starting, long period of
idling, operating under very light load, operating with leaking injectors and water leakage in
combustion chamber. This smoke normally fades away as engine is warmed up and brought to
normal stage.
Black or hot smoke:
It consists of unburnt carbon particles (0.5” 1 microns in diameter) and other solid products of
combustion. This smoke appears after engine is warmed up and is accelerating or pulling under
load.

7. With help of neat sketch describe the principle and working of three way catalytic converter

 The most effective aftertreatment system for reducing engine emissions is the catalytic converter
found on most automobiles and other modern engines of medium or large size. HC and CO can
be oxidized to Hz0 and COz in exhaust systems and thermal converters if the temperature is held
at 600°-700°C.
 If certain catalysts are present, the temperature needed to sustain these oxidation processes is
reduced to 250°-300°C, making for a much more attractive system.
 A catalyst is a substance that accelerates a chemical reaction by lowering the energy needed for it to
proceed. The catalyst is not consumed in the reaction and so functions indefinitely unless degraded
by heat, age, contaminants, or other factors.

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 Catalytic converters are chambers mounted in the flow system through which the exhaust gases
flow. These chambers contain catalytic material, which promotes the oxidation of the emissions
contained in the exhaust flow.
 Generally, catalytic converters are called three-way converters because they promote the reduction
of CO, HC, and NOx. Most consist of a stainless steel container mounted somewhere along the
exhaust pipe of the engine. Inside the container is a porous ceramic structure through which the gas
flows.
 In most converters, the ceramic is a single honeycomb structure with many flow passages (see
Figure 9-5). Some converters use loose granular ceramic with the gas passing between the packed
spheres. Volume of the ceramic structure of a converter is generally about half the displacement
volume of the engine.
 This results in a volumetric flow rate of exhaust gas such that there are 5 to 30 changeovers of gas
each second,through the converter. Catalytic converters for CI engines need larger flow passages
because of the solid soot in the exhaust gases.
 The surface of the ceramic passages contains small embedded particles of catalytic material that
promote the oxidation reactions in the exhaust gas as it passes Aluminum oxide (alumina) is the
base ceramic material used for most catalytic converters.Alumina can withstand the high
temperatures, it remains chemically neutral,it has very low thermal expansion, and it does not
thermally degrade with age. The catalyst materials most commonly used are platinum, palladium,
and rhodium.

Figure - Conversion efficiency of catalytic converters as a function of fuel equivalence ratio. Greatest efficiency occurs when
engines operate near stoichiometric conditions. Converters are very inefficient for NOx conversion when an engine
operates lean. This creates a greater problem for modern CI engines and stratified charge SI engines, which generally
operate very lean overall.

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8. With help of neat sketch describe the principle and working of particulate traps

 A diesel particulate filter (or DPF) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot
from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine. Wall-flow diesel particulate filters usually remove 85% or
more of the soot and under certain conditions can attain soot removal efficiencies of close to 100%.
 Some filters are single-use, intended for disposal and replacement once full of accumulated ash.
Others are designed to burn off the accumulated particulate either passively through the use of a
catalyst or by active means such as a fuel burner which heats the filter to soot combustion
temperatures; engine programming to run when the filter is full in a manner that elevates exhaust
temperature or produces high amount Of NOx to oxidize the accumulated ash, or through other
methods. This is known as "filter regeneration".
 Cleaning is also required as part of periodic maintenance,and it must be done carefully to avoid
damaging the filter. Failure of fuel injectors or turbochargers resulting in contamination of the filter
with raw diesel or engine oil can also necessitate cleaning.

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9. Write a short notes on Engine emission norms

Emission norms for passenger cars ( Petrol)

Emission Norms for 2/3 Wheelers ( Petrol)

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Emission norms for diesel vehicles

10. Explain with neat sketch and working of Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

 The selective catalytic reduction of NOx by ammonia has been applied now for several decades in
the stationary systems like gas turbines, utility boilers, diesel engine power plants, and incinerators.
Now, SCR is being used in heavy duty diesel vehicles quite widely in Europe to meet Euro 4 and
later emission standards. On the road vehicles, urea is used as the carrier of ammonia.
 Hydrolysis of urea is carried out at first on a catalyst on board of the vehicle to produce ammonia
and carbon dioxide. Ammonia then, reacts on the SCR catalyst with the NOx and converts it to
nitrogen.
 Vanadium and titanium oxide mixture (V2O5 + TiO2 + WO3) coated on a ceramic oneycomb
substrate of 200- 400 cpsi is used as SCR catalyst.

 The basic chemical reactions in the urea-SCR process are as follows:

Hydrolysis of Urea:
(NH2)2 CO + H2O → CO2 + 2 NH3 (6.5)

NOx Reduction:

4NO + 4 NH3 +O2→ 4 N2 + 6 H2O (6.6) 6NO2 + 8 NH3 →7N2 + 12 H2O

Urea concentrations of 30 to 40 % in water solution are stored on board as the temperature of

crystallization is the lowest (-11º C) for 33% solution.

NH3/NOx Ratio and Ammonia Slip

 Based on the stoichiometric considerations, 90% conversion of NOx requires the NH3/NOx
molar ratio of about 0.9, assuming NO2 constitutes 10% of NOx. Concentration of NOx in the
exhaust gases varies depending upon engine operating conditions. Hence, for a vehicle
continuously variable injection rate of urea is required. If more urea than stoichiometric
requirements is injected, unreacted ammonia is emitted in the exhaust which is called ‘ammonia
slip’. To minimize ammonia slip, a dynamic urea dosage system governed by engine operating

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conditions is to be employed. Even with the dynamic dosage system, ammonia slip occurs during
transient operation.
 Typical conversion efficiency at different NH3/NO molar ratio and ammonia slip are shown on Fig
6.12.With increase in NH3/NO molar ratio NOx conversion efficiency increases and but the
ammonia slip also increases. An oxidation catalyst is therefore, added to SCR system to prevent
emissions of ammonia.

NOx conversion and ammonia slip for a SCR catalyst as a function of NH3/NOx ratio.

SCR Catalyst System

 The basic SCR system using urea consists of three catalysts viz., Hydrolysis catalyst SCR catalyst,
and An oxidation catalyst to oxidize ammonia slip NOx conversion efficiency can however, be
improved at low catalyst temperatures (< 300º C) when all the NOx is converted to NO2 before
entering the SCR catalyst.
 An additional oxidation catalyst therefore, ahead of SCR catalyst is used in the modern SCR
systems. A typical SCR system for heavy-duty vehicles is shown schematically in Fig. 6.13. NOx
conversions of more than 70 % have been obtained with SCR over the HD driving cycle. On
road, over all reductions of close to 68 % have been obtained for heavy duty trucks. Urea
consumption is about 5.5% of the fuel consumption. Urea requirements for several thousand kms
of operation can be stored on board.

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Schematic layout of SCR catalyst system using preoxidation catalyst.

Advantages:

• High conversion rate up to 90%

• Technology already developed and used in stationary applications

Disadvantages:

• Costly and large space requirements

• Injections of another substance i.e., urea/ammonia as reductant
• Dynamic dosage control of reducing agent needed
• Extra oxidation catalyst for excess ammonia and SOF necessary
• Additional urea distribution network required

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UNIT – 4

ALTERNATE FUELS

Alcohol, Hydrogen, Compressed Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas and Bio
Diesel - Properties, Suitability, Merits and Demerits - Engine Modifications.

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1. List out the properties of fuels?

FUEL PROPERTIES:

1. Auto Ignition Temperature:

Auto ignition temperature is a minimum temperature of a substance to initiate self

sustained combustion independent of any ignition source.

2. Boiling Temperature:

Boling temperature is a temperature at which the transformation from liquid to vapor

phase occurs on a substance at a pressure of 14.7 psi (atmospheric pressure at sea level). Fuels that

are pure compounds (such as methanol) have a single temperature as their boiling points, while

fuels with mixtures of several compounds (like gasoline) have boiling points of each individual

compound in the mixture. For these mixtures, the 10% point of distillation is often used as the

boiling point.

3. Cetane Number:

The ignition of a diesel fuel measured using an engine test specified in ASTM methods

D613. Cetane number is determined using two pure hydrocarbon reference fuels: cetane, which

has a cetane rating of 100; and heptamethylnoname (also called isocetane) which has a cetane

rating of 15. Density – mass per 2 methyl napthalene unit volume, expressed in kg / 1 or IB / gal.

4. Electrical Conductivity:

Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct an electrical

charge.

5. Flame Spread Rate:

Flame spread rate is a rate of flame propagation across a fuel pool.

6. Flame Visibility:

Flame visibility is a degree to which combustion of a substance under various conditions

can be seen.

7. Flammability Limits:

Minimum and maximum concentrations of vapor on air below and above which the

mixtures are unignitable a vapor – air concentration below the lower flammable limits is too lean

to ignite, while a concentration above the upper flammable limit is too rich to ignite.

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8. Flash Point and Fre Point:

Flash point is the minimum temperature of a liquid at which sufficient vapor as produced

to form a flammable mixture with air.

9. Freezing Point:

Freezing point is the temperature where a liquid can exist as both a liquid and a solid in

equilibrium.

10. Heating Value:

The heat released when a fuel is combusted completely corrected to standard pressure and

temperature. The higher heating value is complete combustion with the air in the exhaust gases

condensed. The lower heating value is when the water vapor in the exhaust is in the vapor phase.

11. Latent Heat of Vaporization:

Latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat absorbed by a fuel on passing between

liquid and gaseous phases. The condition under which latent heat of vaporization is measured is

the boiling point and atmospheric pressure, 101.4 kpa.

12. Molecular Weight:

The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule.

13. Octane Number:

Octane number is a measure of the resistance of a fuel to combustion knock using

standardized engine tests. The research and motor octane number is determined using ASTM

Method. The antiknock Index is the average of the Research and motor numbers. Octane

numbers are determined using n – heptanes that has an octane number of 0, and isooctane that has

an octane number of 100.

14. Odor Recognition:

Degree of smell associated with that fuel vapor.

15. Specific Gravity:

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water.

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2.Compare the properties of gasoline methanol and ethanol and put up in Tabular form

Property Gasoline Methanol Ethanol

1. Chemical formula mC H *
n 2n CH OH
3 C H OH
2 5

2. Molecular weight 112 32.0 46.0

3. Composition by weight -%
Carbon 84.0 37.5 52.0
Hydrogen 16.0 12.5 13.0
Oxygen Nil 50.0 35.0
4. Specific gravity at 15.5°C 0.7 to 0.75 0.796 0.794

5. Boiling point or range °C 30.0 65.0 78.0

6. Latent heat of vaporization
Keal/kg 70 – 100 264.0 204.0
7. Vapour pressure at 58°C, per 0.8 0.32 0.21
8. Lower Calorific value Kcal/kg 10,500 4700.00 6400.0
9. Mixing heating value Kcal/kg
air 714 734.00 711.0
10. Stoichiometric Air/Fuel ratio 14:1 6:4 9:0
11. Ignition limit Air/fuel ratio,
kg air/14 fuel 6.0 to 22.0 2.15 to 3.57 to 17
12.8
12. Self ignition temperature °C 300 – 400 478 420
13. Octane numbers
(a) Research 91 114 111
(b) Motor (Regular) 94 94
82
(Regular)
14. Cetane number 8.14 3 8

Table Important properties of gasoline, methanol and ethanol

All the alcohols have a common feature. Their molecular structure includes an OH, or
hydroxyl radical, which gives them certain characteristics, high solubility in water. Their water-like
characteristics are most apparent in the alcohols of low molecular weight, methanol and ethanol,
because the OH radical predominates over their short hydrocarbon chains. They are least apparent
in the alcohols of high molecular weight, tertiary butyl or heavier alchols, because their longer
hydrocarbon chains predominate over the OH radical.

The properties of a typical gasoline used as I.C. engine fuel and two alcohols, namely
methanol and ethanol, are given in table.
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 The value of gasoline would vary to some extent depending on the composition of a particular
sample of gasoline.
Air fuel ratio: Because of the fixed oxygen the quantity of air required for a stoichiometric
combustion of the alcohols is considerably lower than that required for petrol.

3. Write short notes on Alcohol?

Alcohol:

Alcohols are an attractive alternate fuel because they can be obtained from both natural and
manufactured sources. Methanol (methyl alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) are two kinds of
alcohols that seem most promising.

The advantages of alcohol as a fuel are:

i. It can be obtained from a number of sources, both natural and manufactured.
ii. It is a high octane fuel with anti – knock index numbers (octane number) of over 100.
Engines using high – octane fuel can run more efficiently by using higher compression ratios.
Alcohols have higher flame speed.
iii. It produces less overall emissions compared to gasoline.
iv. When alcohols are burned, it forms more of exhaust gases, which gives higher pressure and
more power in the expansion stroke.
v. It have high latent heat of vaporization (hfg) which results in a cooler intake process. This
raises the volumetric efficiency of the engine and reduces the required work input in the
compression stroke.
vi. Alcohols have low sulphur content in the fuel.

4. What are the disadvantages of Alcohol as a fuel?

The disadvantages of alcohol as a fuel are:

1. Alcohols have low energy content or in other words the calorific value of the fuel is almost
half. This means that almost twice as much alcohol as gasoline must be burned to give the
same energy input to the engine. With equal thermal efficiency and similar engine output
usage, twice as much fuel would have to be purchased, and the distance which could be driven
with a given fuel tank volume would be cut in half. Automobiles as well as distribution
stations would require twice as much storage capacity, twice the number of storage facilities,
twice the volume of storage at the service station, twice as many tank trucks and pipelines, etc.
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Even with the lower energy content of alcohol, engine power for a given displacement would
be about the same. This is because of the lower air – fuel ratio needed by alcohol. Alcohol
contains oxygen and thus requires less air for stoichiometric combustion. More fuel can be
burned with the same amount of air.
2. Combustion of alcohols produces more aldehydes in the exhaust. If as much alcohol fuel was
consumed as gasoline, aldehyde emissions would be a serious exhaust pollution problem.
3. Alcohol is much more corrosive than gasoline on copper, brass, aluminum, rubber, and many
plastics. This puts some restrictions on the design and manufacturing of engines to be used
with this fuel. Fuel lines and tanks, gaskets, and even metal engine parts can deteriorate with
long – term alcohol use (resulting in cracked fuel lines, the need for special fuel tank, etc).
Methanol is very corrosive on metals.
4. It has poor cold weather starting characteristics due to low vapor pressure and evaporation.
Alcohol – fuelled engines generally have difficulty in starting at temperatures below 100 C.
Often a small amount of gasoline is added to alcohol fuel, which greatly improves cold –
weather starting. However, the need to do this greatly reduced the attractiveness of any
alternate fuel.
5. Alcohols have poor ignition characteristics in general.
6. Alcohols have an almost invisible flame, which is considered dangerous when handling fuel.
A small amount of gasoline removes this danger.
7. There is the danger of storage tank flammability due to low vapor pressure. Air can leak into
storage tanks and create a combustible mixture.
8. There will be less NOx emissions because of low flame temperatures. However, the resulting
lower exhaust temperatures take longer time to heat the catalytic converter to an efficient
operating temperature.
9. Many people find the strong odor of alcohol very offensive. Headaches and dizziness have
been experienced when refueling an automobile.
10. There is a possibility of vapor lock in fuel delivery systems.

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5. Discuss the performance and emission characteristics of with alcohols

For use of pure alcohols some engine modifications are necessary. The high octane number
alcohol fuels should be utilized by appropriate high engine compression rations in order to achieve
maximum output and economy. The pure alcohol engines have unsatisfactory cold starting and
warm-up behaviour. If can be improved by fuel additives with a low boiling point.
Methanol Engines: Figure compares the performance of automotive petrol, diesel and methanol
engines. It shows that a pure methanol engine has about 20% greater output compared to that of the
standard petrol engine due to higher compression ratio and the more efficient thermodynamic
process. The methanol engine has also greater thermal efficiency as shown by lower specific
consumption. However, the mass of fuel consumed is about 10% more at wide open throttle due to
the lower calorific value of methanol compared to petrol.
Ethanol Engines: Figure 9.8 shows the comparison of petrol and ethyl alcohol (198 proof) engines
based on Ricardo’s experiments of a variable compression ratio single cylinder engine.
The increased mean effective pressure of ethanol at all mixture ratios is the most noticeable
difference between two fuels. This increase in mean pressure is due principally to the greater volume
efficiency. This results from the high latent heat of vaporizations of ethanol and the greater mass of
fuel per unit mass of air.

Figure: Wide open throttle characteristics of a 4-cylinder pure methanol engine.

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Figure: Engine performance with ethyl alcohol and gasoline.

The intake manifold temperature is reduced, with resulting increase in the air density and engine
volumetric efficiency. Much of the ethanol is probably evaporated during the compression stroke
with resulting reduction of work on compression. It is interesting that for alcohols the mean effective
pressure is maximum with mixture having upto at least 40% excess fuel, whereas for gasoline the
maximum pressure is reached with 20% excess fuel. To obtain maximum power, therefore, there
would be temptation to use a greater percent of excess fuel with alcohol. But this would result in
incomplete burning and consequent reduced thermal efficiency.
The figure shows that gasoline and ethanol have about the same lean mixture limitation. Both
fuels develop their maximum thermal efficiency with about 15% excess air. With mixtures leaner
than this, the burning velocity for both is reduced and offsets other advantages of lean mixture.
The small increment of increased thermal efficiency of ethanol in relation to gasoline is
mainly due to the evaporative cooling effect of the alcohol. This reduces the specific heats of the
gases as well as the heat losses.
Exhaust Emissions:
Figure 9.9 (a), (b), (c) shows that exhaust emission of methanol engines. The lower flame
temperature of a methanol flame results in substantially lower NOx emissions particularly with fuel air
equivalence ration less than 0.9. The CO emissions, using improved fuel preparation methods, may
be comparable in methanol and gasoline engines. The CO emissions are very low in the lean region
and rise rapidly emissions are lower in methanol engines.

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Figure 9.9 (a) Exhaust emission of methanol engines.

Figure: (b) HC emission of an air-cooled, single cylinder engine, C.R. = 8.2, 2000 rpm, will load,
maximum power spark timing rpm 15 = 15% methanol gasoline blend.

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Figure: (c) NOx emission of an aircooled, single cylinder engine. C.R. = 8.2. 2000 rpm, full load
maximum power spark timing.
In both ethanol and methanol engines high levels of aldehyde emissions is, there, chiefly
formaldehyde in the case of methanol and acetaldehyde in the case of ethanol. By means of a simple
oxidation catalyst the aldehyde emissions of alcohol engines can be reduced to petrol engine levels.
This would not be difficult since alcohol engines normally run on a lean mixture, which means that
there is sufficient oxygen in the exhaust gas to facilitate subsequent oxidation. In addition, the fuel
contains neither lead nor any other catalyst poison.

6. What are the methods of using alcohol fuels in C.I Engine

There are various techniques by which alcohol fuels can partially or completely displace
diesel fuel

1. Alcohol fumigation - the addition of alcohols to the intake air charge, displacing up to 50% of
diesel fuel demand.

2. Dual injection -separate injection systems for each fuel, displacing up to 90% of diesel fuel
demand.

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3. Alcohol±diesel fuel blend - mixture of the fuels just prior to injection, displacing up to 25% of
diesel fuel demand.

4. Alcohol±diesel fuel emulsion - using an emulsifier to mix the fuels to prevent separation, displacing
up to 25% diesel fuel demand diesel engine vehicles. They are

1. Alcohol/diesel fuel solutions

An advantage of ethanol±diesel fuel solutions is that few major component changes are
required for their use. Small adjustments to the injection timing and fuel delivery may be
necessary to restore full power. The adjustments depend on the ethanol concentration and
the combustion effects of ethanol . In this study, no modification on the engine was made for
blends, since the amounts used were within the permitted range.
2. Alcohol/diesel fuel emulsions
Alcohol±diesel fuel emulsion Ð using an emulsifier to mix the fuels to prevent separation,
displacing up to 25% diesel fuel demand diesel engine vehicles.

3. Alcohol fumigation

Fumigation is a process of introducing alcohol into the diesel engine (up to 50%) by means of
a carburetor in the inlet manifold. At the same time, the diesel pump operates at a reduced
flow. In this process, diesel fuel is used for generating a pilot flame. And, alcohol is used as a
fumigated fuel.

Two points should be noted in using this method. At low loads, quantity of alcohol must be
reduced to prevent misfire. On the other hand, at high loads, quantity of alcohol must be also
reduced to prevent pre-ignition.

Alcohol fumigation of diesel engines causes increased HC and CO emissions and reduced
NOx. The HC tend to increase because of the quench layer of unburned fumigated alcohol
present during fumigation. The ethanol fumigation of diesel engine tends to decrease the
smoke in the exhaust gas.

4. Dual injection

There are several techniques involving alcohol±diesel dual fuel operation. The ignition of
alcohol in dual fuel operation is ensured by the high self-ignition diesel fuel. The most
common methods for achieving dual fuel operation.

5. Spark ignition of alcohols

When a spark plug is used, diesel engine can be converted to Otto cycle engine. In this case,
compression ratio should be reduced, from 16:1 to 10.5:1. There are two types about this kind of
conversion. They are as follows:

Type 1: The original fuel injection system is maintained. Alcohol needs additive for lubricity
(Nitride glycol). Besides, both distributor and sparkplug need to be installed, thus leading to a high
cost of conversion. It is critical to adjust an ideal injection and spark time for this kind of conversion.
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Type 2: Original fuel injection is eliminated. But, a carburetor, a spark plug and a distributor
need to be installed, which increases the cost of conversion. In this conversion, spark timing is
critical.

Both the type 1 and type 2 conversion have a lower thermal efficient than that of diesel. In
this kind of spark assisted diesel engines huge in crease in engine torque is available at lower engine
speeds, which should increase the engine’s flexibility and response in use.

6. Surface ignition of alcohols

Alcohol can ignite with hot surfaces. For this reason, glow plugs can be utilized as a source of
ignition for alcohol. In this system, specific fuel consumption depends on glow-plug positions
and temperatures. It must be noted that the temperature of glow-plugs must vary with load.
However, the glow-plug becomes inefficient at a high load. In addition, the specific fuel
consumption is higher than that of diesel.

Ignition characteristics of ethanol affected by fuel amount, injection timing, position and
length of glow plug, glow plug temperature and water content in ethanol. Engine speed, fuel
injection timing and position of the glow plug temperature and water content in ethanol.
Engine speed, fuel injection timing and position of the glow plugs have a strong effect on the
ignition characteristics. Combustion difficulties appear as the load decreases, making idling
impossible.

7. Discuss the sailent features of hydrogen as fuel?

• A hydrogen molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms.

• Hydrogen is a colorless and odorless gas at room temperature and is the lightest gas, being
about 1/14 as dense as air.
• Liquefied hydrogen, which has very low boiling point (−252.88 °C), takes up much less space,
about 1/700 times as much space as gaseous hydrogen. But even in liquefied state, it is still
very light.
• Its density is about 0.07 g cm−3. Hydrogen itself is a rather stable molecule with high bond

energy (435.99 kJ mol−1), but it reacts with many different kinds of elements to form
compounds with them.
• As is well known, hydrogen easily reacts (burns) with oxygen at a wide range of mixing ratios
and forms water.
• This makes it possible to use hydrogen as an energy medium.
• The mixture of hydrogen and air can be ignited with very low energy sparks and safety
precautions are required.

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• The reactivity of hydrogen with other elements is used for various chemical industries, but this
article focuses on its application as an energy medium.
• The reactions of hydrogen with some organic compounds can be used to store and carry
hydrogen.
• For instance, byreacting hydrogen with benzene to make cyclohexane, hydrogen can be stored
as cyclohexane, which can later be separated to benzene and hydrogen.
• Ammonia and metal hydrides are also applications of the reactivity of hydrogen for storage.

8.What are the methods of using Hydrogen in C.I Engine

There are two methods, by which hydrogen can be used in diesel engines,

1. By introducing hydrogen with air and using a spray of diesel oil to ignite the mixture, that is,
by the dual fuel mode:

 The limiting conditions are when the diesel quantity is too small to produce
effective ignition, that is, failure of ignition and when the hydrogen air mixture is so
rich that the combustion becomes unacceptably violent. in between these limits a
wide range of diesel to hydrogen proportion can be tolerated.
 Investigations show that beyond certain range (30-50% substitution of diesel fuel by
hydrogen),further introduction is to violent pressure rise.

2. By introducing hydrogen directly into the cylinder at the end of compression:

 Since the self ignition temperature of hydrogen is very high, the gas spray is made
to impinge on a hot glow plug in the combustion chamber-that is by surface
ignition.
 It is also possible to feed a very lean hydrogen air mixture during the intake into
an engine and then inject the bulk of the hydrogen to the end of the compression
stroke.

9. What are the methods of using Hydrogen in C.I Engine

Three general fuel delivery systems have been used in hydrogen engines. These are:
carburetion, inlet manifold injection, and direct cylinder injection. The first two techniques involve
forming the fuel-air mixture during the intake stroke, either through the carburetor, or through the
intake manifold. By directly injecting fuel into the cylinder, fuel delivery can be controlled to take
place after the closure of the intake valve.

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Carburetion

The simplest method of delivering fuel to a hydrogen engine is via a carburetor. Although
carburetion is no longer a viable technology for modern vehicles, there were several advantages to
using a carburetor for carburetor for early hydrogen engine developments. This system is similar to
that used for carbureted gasoline engines, which made it easy to convert a standard gasoline engine to
a duel fueled gasoline/hydrogen or simply a hydrogen engine. This application does not require a
sophisticated high pressure injector either. The disadvantage to this technique is that engines which
use carburetors are more susceptible to irregular combustion due to pre ignition and back fire
problems. Additionally, the power output of an ideal hydrogen engine with a carburetor is about 15%
lower than that of a comparable gasoline engine.

Inlet manifold injection:

Troubled by the dual problems of lower power output and continual pre ignition problems, a
number of researches began exploring alternatives to carburetion. One solution to this problem is a
technique called inlet manifold injection. This technique involves injecting fuel directly into the
intake manifold rather than drawing fuel through the carburetor. Typically, the timing of the fuel
injection is controlled so that the hydrogen is not injected into the manifold until after the beginning
of the intake stroke, at a point where conditions are much less severe and the probability for
premature ignition is reduced. The air, which is injected separately at the beginning of the intake
stroke, dilutes the hot residual gases and cools off ant hot spots.

Direct injection

As hydrogen engines continued to progress, direct injection into the combustion cylinder
stroke became more commonly used. Utilizing this technique, premature ignition during the intake
stroke and backfire can be completely avoided if the fuel is injected after the intake valve is closed.
The power output can also potentially be increased with this method to be 20% more than that of a
gasoline engine and 42% more than that of a premixed gaseous hydrogen mixture.

10. Explain the combustion and emission characteristic of using hydrogen in CI engine?

Emission analysis

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

shows the variation of nitrogen oxides emissions with load. NOX forms at peak
combustion temperature and higher oxygen concentrations [23,24]. NOX formation is higher
with 8 lpm compared to neat diesel and other flow rates of hydrogen. As the hydrogen
percentage increases, the flame speed and hence combustion efficiency increased [25]. The
percentage of increase of NOX is 25% at full load compared neat diesel.

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Hydrocarbon (HC)
Unburned hydrocarbon decreases significantly because hydrogen fuel does not contain
carbon. The variation of HC emissions with Brake power for different values of hydrogen
enrichment is shown in fig 7. It is observed that the HC emission values of 4 lpm, 6 lpm and 8
lpm hydrogen flow rate with diesel fuel operation are 90 ppm, 92 ppm and 87 ppm respectively
at full load. The lowest HC emission obtained was 87 ppm with 8 lpm hydrogen flow rate
compared to 94 ppm for diesel. The reduction in HC is due to the higher burning velocity of
hydrogen, that enhances the diesel burning. The absence of carbon in hydrogen fuel also
reduces the HC emissions to a greater extent . There are similar results reported in previous in
previous studies.

Carbon monoxide
The variation of carbon monoxide with engine brake power and different proportion of
hydrogen enrichment is shown fig 8.The lowest CO emission was obtained as 0.044% with 8
lpm when compared to 0.05% for diesel. With 8 lpm the CO emission is lower than other
hydrogen flow rates and neat diesel operation. The reduction CO in 8 lpm hydrogen operated
dual fuel engine is due to the absence of carbon in hydrogen fuel. At no load since the engine is
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operated at lean equivalence ratio, a reduction in CO is observed for hydrogen dual fuel
operation. But the oxygen concentration reduces significantly and in addition due to lesser
reaction time it results in a significant increase in CO formation rate, that makes the overall CO
concentration to increase at full load compared to diesel

Exhaust gas temperature

The variation of exhaust gas temperature with brake power and different proportions of
hydrogen enrichment is shown in Fig 9. It is observed that the exhaust gas temperate value of 4
lpm, 6 lpm and 8 lpm hydrogen and diesel fuel operation increased averagely compared to
diesel at, full load respectively. The highest exhaust temperature 467 °C with 8 lpm hydrogen
addition compared to 425 °C for diesel. This is due to better mixing of hydrogen with air
resulting in complete combustion of fuel with the increase in temperature around the
combustion chamber.

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Combustion Analysis
Cylinder Pressure
Fig. 10 shows the variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle. It is observed that
hydrogen (8 lpm) and diesel fuel mode gives a higher peak pressure compared to diesel fuel
operation at full load. With diesel, the peak pressure is 66.60 bar and with hydrogen 68.58bar
peak pressure. The peak pressure for hydrogen occurs 5ºCA later than that of diesel. The
pressure rise is always lower in the case of diesel operation due to its slower burning
characteristics.

Heat release rate (HRR)

Fig. 11 depicts the variation of heat release rate for hydrogen diesel combustion with 8
lpm hydrogen enrichment at full load. It is evident that heat release for hydrogen is more rapid
than for diesel. The ignition of hydrogen with 8 lpm hydrogen enrichment operation takes place
only after injection of diesel at 23º bTDC. It can also be observed that the highest heat release
rate is 52.79 J/deg CA for 8 lpm hydrogen enrichment compared to neat diesel value of 48.84
J/deg CA. This is due to the instantaneous combustion (constant volume) that takes place with
hydrogen fuel. The premixed fuel burns rapidly and releases an enormous amount of heat
followed by the controlled heat release. The HRR during the premixed combustion is
responsible for the high peak pressure.

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11. What are the advantages of Bio diesel?

1. Biodiesel reduces emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) by approximately 50% and carbon
dioxide by 78.45% on a net lifecycle basis because the carbon in biodiesel emissions is recycled
from carbon that was already in the atmosphere, rather than being new carbon from petroleum
that was sequestered in the earth’s crust. (Sheehan, 1998).
2. Biodiesel contains fewer aromatic hydrocarbons: benzofluoranthene: 56% reduction;
Benzoprenes: 71% reduction.
3. It also eliminates sulfur emissions (SO2), because biodiesel does not include sulfur.
4. Biodiesel reduces by as much as 65% the emission of particulates, small particulates of solid
combustion products.
5. Biodiesel does produce more NOx emissions than diesel, but these emissions can be reduced
through the use of catalytic converters. The increase in NOx emissions may also be due to the
higher cetane rating of biodiesel. Properly designed and tuned engines may eliminate this
increase.
6. Biodiesel has a higher cetane rating than diesel, and therefore ignites more rapidly when
injected into the engine.
7. Reduction of all major measures of air pollution (except nitrous oxides which show slight
increases.
8. Because it is a 100% organic product, biodiesel is biodegradable under normal environmental
conditions when spilled (yet very stable when stored properly).
9. Superior lubricating ability of biodiesel will improve life of moving parts in diesel engines and
result in reduced maintenance costs, which can be significant benefit to trucking fleet
operations.

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10. Significant use of biodiesel nationally could reduce future needs for imported oil to
manufacture regular diesel fuel.

12. What are the engine modifications requied for using Biodiesel (Vegetable oil) in existing diesel
engines?
Almost all modern diesel engines will run biodiesel quite happily provided that the biodiesel
is of high enough quality. Generally speaking biodiesel requires much less engine modification.

RUBBER SEALS
With some older vehicles rubber seals used in the fuel lines may require replacing with non-
rubber products such as VITONTM. This is due to the way biodiesel reacts with rubber. If a low
blend is used (5% biodiesel for example) then the concentration of biodiesel isn’t high enough to
cause this problem.
COLD STARTING
Cold starting can sometimes be a problem when using higher blends. This is due to biodiesel
thickening more during cold weather than fossil diesel. Arrangements would have to be made for
this, either by having a fuel heating system or using biodegradable activities which reduces the
viscosity. This effect is only a problem with higher blends.
It was noticed that during many field trials that engines running on biodiesel tended to require
more frequent oil changes. This was generally the case with blends about 20%. During an
ALTENER project where two Mercedes Benz buses were run on diesel and biodiesel it was found
that the bus running on biodiesel required on oil change after 12,000 km compaired to 21,000 km
for the bus running fossil diesel. It is worth noting however that the engine had not been significantly
affected in any adverse manner.
ENGINE TIMING
For higher blends engine performance will be improved with a slight change to engine timing,
2 or 3 degrees for a 100% blend. The use of advanced injection timing and increased injection
pressure has been known to reduce NOx emissions. It is worth noting that catalytic converters are
just as effective on biodiesel emissions as on fossil diesel

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13. Write a short note on Biodiesel

 Biodiesel or biofuel is the name for a variety of ester based fuels (fatty acids)generally defined
as the monoalkyl esters made from vegetable oils, such as soybean oil rape seed oil, sunflower
oil, jatropha oil etc or sometimes from animal fats through a simple transesterification
process.
 This renewable source is as efficient as petroleum diesel in powering unmodified diesel
engine.
ADVANTAGES

 Biodiesel has a higher cetane rating than diesel and therefore ignites more rapidly when
injected in to the engine.
 It also eliminates sulphur emissions SO2 because biodiesel does not include sulphur.
 Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable , non toxic and essentially free of sulphur and
aromatics
 The use of bio diesel can be extend the life of the diesel engines because it is more lubricating
and further more power output are relatively unaffected by biodiesel.
 The use of biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine results in substantial reduction of
unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter.

DISADVANTAGES

 Quality of biodiesel depends on the blend thus quality can be tampered.

 There may be problems of winter operatibility.
 Spills of bio diesel can decolorize any painted surface if left for along.
 Neat biodiesel demands compatible elastomers (hoses, gaskets, etc..)

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14. Explain the performance and emission characteristic of using mahua bio diesel in CI engine?

Brake thermal efficiency

Figure 2 shows the brake power having an increasing trend. There is an increase in brake thermal
efficiency of the diesel with fuel blends of mahua biodiesel. The mahua B50 gives higher brake
thermal efficiency than the diesel fuel at all load conditions. At full load condition the brake thermal
efficiency of the biodiesel blend B25 is lower than that of standard diesel. The brake thermal
efficiency depends upon the combustion quality of the fuel. The mahua methyl ester blends give
better combustion quality than that of diesel.
Fig. 2: Brake thermal efficiency Vs brake power

Specific fuel consumption

The specific fuel consumption depends upon the mass flow rate of hydrogen. The mass flow
rate of hydrogen is low for biodiesel where as for diesel, it is slightly high. So it leads to increase in
specific fuel consumption. At low load condition the specific fuel consumption of fuel blends B25 is
lower than that of diesel. At full load condition the specific fuel consumption of the fuel blends B25
and B50 is higher than the diesel fuel. It is also observed that specific fuel consumption decreases
with the increase of injection pressure.
Hydro carbon
The biodiesel blends have more oxygen content than that of standard diesel. So it involves in
complete combustion process. The hydrocarbon emissions of the biodiesel blends are lower than the
standard diesel due to complete combustion process. When percentage of blends of biodiesel
increases, hydrocarbon decreases It can be due to improved combustion because of increased
injection pressure and advanced injection timing. The figure clearly shows that the biodiesel B50 gives
lower hydrocarbon emissions than that of the other designed fuels.

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Fig. 3: Specific fuel consumption Vs brake power Fig. 4: Hydro carbon Vs brake power

Exhaust Gas Temperatures

The exhaust gas temperatures of mahua B25 and B50 blends are lower than that of diesel fuel
due to the lower heating value of the blend. The higher viscosities of mahua oil compared with
standard diesel fuel have adverse effects on combustion. These factors also cause to produce low
exhaust temperature. At high load condition the biodiesel blend B50, exhaust gas temperature is
similar to the diesel fuel.

Carbon monoxide

The carbon monoxide emission depends upon the oxygen content and cetane number of the
fuel. The biodiesel has more oxygen content than the diesel fuel. So the biodiesel blends are involved
in complete combustion process. The maximum carbon monoxide emission was observed at full
brake power of the engine.
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Oxides of nitrogen

Nox emissions depend up on the oxygen concentration and the combustion time. At all loads
conditions NOx emission of biodiesel blends is always higher than that of standard diesel due to the
oxygen concentration and combustion timing. The cetane numbers of the biodiesel blends are lower
than that of standard diesel. This causes increase in the NOx emission of the biodiesel blends. The
shorter ignition delay could be a reason of increased NOx emission. Reduction of NOx emission is
possible with the proper adjustment of injection timing.

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15. State the important properties of LPG as engine fuel and emission from such engine. With a
neat sketch explain LPG admission in an automotive S.I engine.
As the octane number of LPG is ∼100 to 104, LPG can be used as a petrol replacement in
modern vehicles with no major engine modifications (except of course, the addition of LPG storage
tanks and fuel metering systems etc). Retuning the engine and possibly advancing the timing is all that
is needed.
The fuel system of the LPG engine consists of a fuel cylinder, a solenoid valve, a regulator
(also called vaporizer), and a carburetor. LPG is stored in liquid form in the fuel cylinder, and the
solenoid valve functions to prevent unwanted gas leaks. The solenoid valve opens only when the
engine ignition switch is turned on to allow LPG to be supplied form the fuel cylinder to the
regulator, wherein it is heated by air or hot water and vaporized LPG is then mixed uniformly with air
in the carburetor before the mixture is induced to the combustion chamber.
LPG combustion implementation occurs with a neatly uniform fuel air mixture that reduces
deposit of the products incomplete combustion, such as soot, on the combustion chamber walls.
Furthermore, LPG does not cause fuel dilution of engine oil, which is often a problem with the
gasoline engine.
LPG engine have the advantage of reduced cylinder wear and extended engine oil life.
Advantage of the uniform mixture combustion realized by LPG is the reduced fuel consumption (by
weight). The net calorific value of LPG ranges 11,080-10,750 kcal/kg, as against approximately
10,500 kcal/kg of gasoline.
LPG consumption is as much as 10% less than gasoline. The reason for this is that LPG
generates the maximum engine torque at a higher air fuel ratio, a leaner mixture condition, than
gasoline. The stoichiometric air fuel ratio is 15.6 for propane and 14.7 for gasoline. LPG air fuel
mixture more uniformly distributed in the combustion chamber compared to gasoline.
In the LPG engines the fuel is preheated and vaporized in a heat exchange pressure regulator
before it is mixed with air in the carburetor, resulting high mixture temperature and a low mixture.
And also the weight of the LPG fuel supplied to the combustion chamber is less than gasoline.
Further, it calorific value (885 kcal/m3) is less than gasoline (928 kcal/m3). So, lower power
output is the result. By increasing the compression ratio the lower power problems can be overcome.
Emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide at idling and low loads are much less than
from a gasoline vehicle. This is due to the fact that LPG forms a uniform mixture with air in the
combustion chamber. Emissions of NOx are slightly more than gasoline engines but can be
sufficiently decreased by injecting water or water – methanol mixtures into LPG air mixtures.

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16. What are the engines modifications required for using in LPG in existing diesel engines? Discuss
the performance characteristics of LPG diesel dual fuel engine.

In the case of using LPG as a diesel replacement, a difficulty arises as it has a low certain
number and thus the auto-ignition temperature is considerably higher than that of diesel. To achieve
ignition temperatures, the compression ratio must be increased to impractically high levels (∼25:1).
To overcome this it is necessary to convert the engine to spark ignition which also requires decreasing
the compression ratio to ∼13:1, hence also reducing the thermal efficiency and increasing the
greenhouse emissions as compared to a diesel only system.
Alternatively using a relatively complicated dual-fuel system in which a small quantity of diesel
(∼15% of the total fuel blend by volume) is injected into the cylinder to act as a source of ignition for
the LPG. In this way the benefits of improved efficiency and reduced emissions from the higher
compression ratios can be captured while using LPG.
Diesel engines can be converted to run partly on LPG, partly on diesel. This method uses
the combustion of the diesel to ignite the LPG. The benefits include large increases in power and
reduction in emissions, particularly the black smoke often associated with diesels. Typically a ratio of
30% LPG to 70% diesel is possible.
No adjustments are required to the diesel injection system and fuel savings come from the fact
that throttle openings are lower due to the greatly increased power, which basically means you do not
have to press the accelerator as hard to get the same performance. Fuel savings upwards of 30% are
possible with the increased power levels seen as a major benefit to users.

17. What are the limitations of using LPG as I.C. Engine fuel?
Although LPG has a relatively high energy content per unit mass, its energy content per unit
volume is low which explains why LPG tanks take more space than diesel fuel tanks of the same
energy storage capacity.

1. Propane tanks are pressure vessels and thus weight more than the equivalent diesel tank.

2. Propane is heavier than air, which requires appropriate handling.

3. Propane vapor flammability limits in air are wider than those of petrol, which makes LPG,
ignite more easily.

4. Propane has a high expansion coefficient so that tanks can only be filled to 80% of capacity.

5. Propane in liquid form can cause cold burns to the skin in case of inappropriate use.

6. Due to its faint odor, leakage cannot be easily detected.

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7. LPG is advantageous only in engines working under high compression ratios.

8. Its octane number is quite low and the load sensitivity is very high.

18. What are the advantages of using LPG in engines?

Advantages LPG

1. Propane has low cold-start emissions due to its gaseous state.

2. Propane has lower peak pressure during combustion than conventional fuels, which generally
reduces noise and improves durability.

3. LPG fuel systems are sealed and evaporative losses are negligible.

4. Propane is easily transportable and offers stand-alone storage capability with simple and self-
contained LPG dispensing facilities, with minimum support infrastructure.

5. LPG vehicles do not require special catalysts.

6. Propane contains negligible toxic components.

7. LPG has lower particulate emissions and lower noise levels relative to diesel, making propane
attractive for urban areas. Noise levels can be less than 50% of equivalent engines using
diesel.

8. Propane’s emissions are low in greenhouse gases and low in NOx, thus they are low in ozone
precursors.

9. Increases in future demand for LPG can be easily satisfied from both natural gas fields and oil
refinery sources.

10. Emissions of PAH and aldehydes are much lower than those of diesel-fuelled vehicles.

11. It is cheaper than gasoline.

12. It gives better manifold distribution and mixes easily with air.

13. It is highly knock resistant.

14. Residue and oil contamination is small, as it burns cleanly.

15. Crankcase oil dilution is small, thereby resulting in increased engine life.

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19. What are the engines modifications required to be carried out for using CNG as fuel in existing
diesel engines?

To run existing diesel engines in natural gas some modifications to be done. They are:

1. Removal of Diesel fuel injection system.

2. Introduction of Spark ignition system

3. Fitting spark plugs Instead of injectors.

4. Connecting Gas carburetor to engine.

5. Fitment of turbo charger

20. What are the engines modifications required to be carried out for using natural gas as fuel in
existing petrol engines?

To run existing petrol engines in natural gas some modifications to be done. The conversion
kit is available in the market it consist of following items. They are:

1. CNG storage tank

2. Pressure regulator
3. Gas carburetor
4. Fuel selection switch
5. Gas filling valve
6. Petrol solenoid

So these are the new components to be installed in the existing petrol engine to run the engine either
by CNG or petrol. Hardly will it take an hour to modify the existing petrol engine to CNG operated
engine.

21. write a short note on compressed natural gas:

CNG is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. It consists mostly of methane and is drawn from
gas wells or in conjunction with crude oil production. CNG vehicles store natural gas in high-pressure
fuel cylinders at 3,000 to 3,600 pounds per square inch. An odorant is normally added to CNG for
safety reasons.
Two types of CNG fuel systems are on the market: dedicated vehicles, which operate
exclusively on natural gas, and dual-fuel vehicles, which can use both natural gas and gasoline.
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Performance:
The octane rating for CNG is higher than that for gasoline; in a dedicated engine, a CNG vehicle’s
power, acceleration, and cruise speed can be greater than that of a gasolinepowered vehicle. In
addition, due to the cleaner burning characteristics of natural gas, CNG vehicle engines can run more
efficiently than a gasolinepowered vehicle, thereby extending the life of the vehicle. In heavy-duty
vehicles, CNG engines are also generally less noisy than diesel engines.
Safety:
Although CNG is a flammable gas, it has a narrow flammability range, making it an inherently
safe fuel. Strict safety standards make CNG vehicles as safe as gasolinepowered vehicles. In the event
of a spill or accidental release, CNG poses no threat to land or water; it is nontoxic. CNG also
disperses rapidly, minimizing ignition risk relative to gasoline. Natural gas is lighter than air and will
not pool as a liquid or vapor on the ground. Nevertheless, leaks indoors may form a flammable
mixture in the vicinity of an ignition source.
There are some different safety concerns with CNG buses than diesel fuel buses, such as
greater breaking distance due to increased fuel storage system weight. This is a relatively small
concern, however, because the fuel system is a small fraction of a bus’ total weight. CNG buses also
might accelerate slower than their diesel counterparts.

Emission Characteristics:
Actual emissions will vary with engine design; these numbers reflect the potential reductions
offered by compressed natural gas, relative to conventional gasoline.
• Reductions in carbon monoxide emissions of 90 to 97 percent, and reductions in carbon dioxide
emissions of 25 percent.
• Reductions in nitrogen oxide emissions of 35 to 60 percent.
• Potential reductions in nonmethane hydrocarbon emissions of 50 to 75 percent.
• Fewer toxic and carcinogenic pollutants and little to no particulate matter produced.
• No evaporative emissions in dedicated engines (such as those associated with gasoline
or diesel).

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UNIT - 5

RECENT TRENDS

Air assisted Combustion, Homogeneous charge compression ignition engines

– Variable Geometry turbochargers – Common Rail Direct Injection Systems -
Hybrid Electric Vehicles – NOx Adsorbers -Onboard Diagnostics.

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1. With neat sketch explain in detail about HCCI Engine

 Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a form of internal combustion in

which well-mixed fuel and oxidizer (typically air) are compressed to the point of auto-
ignition.
 As in other forms of combustion, this exothermic reaction (is a chemical reaction that
releases energy in the form of light or heat.) Releases chemical energy into a sensible
form that can be transformed in an engine into work and heat.

Introduction:-

 HCCI has characteristics of the two most popular forms of combustion used in SI
engines: homogeneous charge spark ignition (gasoline engines) and CI engines:
stratified charge compression ignition (diesel engines).
 As in homogeneous charge spark ignition, the fuel and oxidizer are mixed together.
However, rather than using an electric discharge to ignite a portion of the mixture, the
density and temperature of the mixture are raised by compression until the entire
mixture reacts spontaneously.
 Stratified charge compression ignition also relies on temperature and density increase
resulting from compression, but combustion occurs at the boundary of fuel-air mixing,
caused by an injection event, to initiate combustion.
 The defining characteristic of HCCI is that the ignition occurs at several places at a time
which makes the fuel/air mixture burn nearly simultaneously.
 There is no direct initiator of combustion. This makes the process naturally challenging
to control.
 However, with advances in microprocessors and a physical understanding of the
ignition process, HCCI can be controlled to achieve gasoline engine-like emissions
along with diesel engine-like efficiency.
 In fact, HCCI engines have been shown to achieve extremely low levels of Nitrogen
oxide emissions (NOx) without an after treatment catalytic converter.
 The unburned hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are still high (due to
lower peak temperatures), as in gasoline engines, and must still be treated to meet
automotive emission regulations.

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 Recent research has shown that the use of two fuels with different reactivates (such as
gasoline and diesel) can help solve some of the difficulties of controlling HCCI ignition
and burn rates. RCCI or Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition has been
demonstrated to provide highly efficient, low emissions operation over wide load and
speed ranges *.

Methods:

 A mixture of fuel and air will ignite when the concentration and temperature of
reactants is sufficiently high. The concentration and/or temperature can be increased by
several different ways:
• High compression ratio
• Pre-heating of induction gases
• Forced induction
• Retained or re-inducted exhaust gases
 Once ignited, combustion occurs very quickly. When auto-ignition occurs too early or
with too much chemical energy, combustion is too fast and high in-cylinder pressures
can destroy an engine. For this reason, HCCI is typically operated at lean overall fuel
mixtures.

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WORKING:-

 In an HCCI engine (which is based on the four-stroke Otto cycle), fuel delivery control
is of paramount importance in controlling the combustion process.

 On the intake stroke, fuel is injected into each cylinder's combustion chamber via fuel
injectors mounted directly in the cylinder head.

 This is achieved independently from air induction which takes place through the intake
plenum.

 By the end of the intake stroke, fuel and air have been fully introduced and mixed in
the cylinder's combustion chamber.

 As the piston begins to move back up during the compression stroke, heat begins to
build in the combustion chamber. When the piston reaches the end of this stroke,
sufficient heat has accumulated to cause the fuel/air mixture to spontaneously combust
(no spark is necessary) and force the piston down for the power stroke.

 Unlike conventional spark engines (and even diesels), the combustion process is a lean,
low temperature and flameless release of energy across the entire combustion chamber.

 The entire fuel mixture is burned simultaneously producing equivalent power, but using
much less fuel and releasing far fewer emissions in the process.

 At the end of the power stroke, the piston reverses direction again and initiates the
exhaust stroke, but before all of the exhaust gases can be evacuated, the exhaust valves
close early, trapping some of the latent combustion heat.

 This heat is preserved, and a small quantity of fuel is injected into the combustion
chamber for a pre-charge (to help control combustion temperatures and emissions)
before the next intake stroke begins.

Advantages:-

 Lean combustion returns 15 percent increase in fuel efficiency over a conventional

spark ignition engine.
 Cleaner combustion and lower emissions (especially NOx) than a conventional spark
ignition engine.
 Compatible with gasoline as well as E85 (ethanol) fuel.

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 Fuel is burned quicker and at lower temperatures, reducing heat energy loss
compared to a conventional spark engine.
 Throttle less induction system eliminates frictional pumping losses incurred in
traditional (throttle body) spark engines.

Disadvantages:-

 High cylinder pressures require stronger (and more expensive) engine construction.
 More limited power range than a conventional spark engine.
 The many phases of combustion characteristics are difficult (and more expensive) to
control.

Emissions:-

 The low peak temperatures prevent the formation of NOx. This leads to
NOx emissions at levels far less than those found in traditional engines.

 However, the low peak temperatures also lead to incomplete burning of fuel, especially
near the walls of the combustion chamber. This leads to high carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbon emissions.

 An oxidizing catalyst would be effective at removing the regulated species because the
exhaust is still oxygen rich.

2. What are the types of HEV?

 The term hybrid vehicle refers to a vehicle with at least two sources of power. A hybrid-
electric vehicle indicates that one source of power is provided by an electric motor. The
other source of motive power can come from a number of different technologies, but is
typically provided by an internal combustion engine designed to run on either gasoline
or diesel fuel.
 As proposed by Technical Committee (Electric Road Vehicles) of the International
Electro technical Commission, an HEV is a vehicle in which propulsion energy is
available from two or more types of energy sources and at least one of them can deliver
electrical energy.

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 In HEV one powertrain favours steady state operation, such as an ICE or fuel cell. The
other powertrain in the HEV is used to supply the dynamic power. The total energy
output from the dynamic powertrain will be zero in the whole driving cycle. Generally,
electric motors are used to meet the dynamic power demand. This hybrid drivetrain
concept can be implemented by different configurations as follows:
1. Series configuration
2. Parallel configuration
3. Series-parallel configuration
4. Complex configuration

1. Series Hybrid System:

 In case of series hybrid system the mechanical output is first converted into electricity
using a generator. The converted electricity either charges the battery or can bypass the
battery to propel the wheels via the motor and mechanical transmission. Conceptually,
it is an ICE assisted Electric Vehicle (EV). The advantages of series hybrid drivetrains
are:

• Mechanical decoupling between the ICE and driven wheels allows the IC
engine operating at its very narrow optimal region.

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• Nearly ideal torque-speed characteristics of electric motor make multigear

transmission unnecessary.

 However, a series hybrid drivetrain has the following disadvantages:

• The energy is converted twice (mechanical to electrical and then to
mechanical) and this reduces the overall efficiency.
• Two electric machines are needed and a big traction motor is required
because it is the only torque source of the driven wheels.

 The series hybrid drivetrain is used in heavy commercial vehicles, military vehicles and
buses. The reason is that large vehicles have enough space for the bulky
engine/generator system.

2. Parallel Hybrid System:

 The parallel HEV allows both ICE and electric motor (EM) to deliver power to drive
the wheels. Since both the ICE and EM are coupled to the drive shaft of the wheels via
two clutches, the propulsion power may be supplied by ICE alone, by EM only or by
both ICE and EM. The EM can be used as a generator to charge the battery by
regenerative braking or absorbing power from the ICE when its output is greater than
that required to drive the wheels.

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 The advantages of the parallel hybrid drive train are:

• Both engine and electric motor directly supply torques to the driven wheels and
no energy form conversion occurs, hence energy loss is less
• Compactness due to no need of the generator and smaller traction motor.
 The drawbacks of parallel hybrid drive trains are:
• Mechanical coupling between the engines and the driven wheels, thus the
engine operating points cannot be fixed in a narrow speed region.
• The mechanical configuration and the control strategy are complex compared
to series hybrid drivetrain.
 Due to its compact characteristics, small vehicles use parallel configuration. Most
passenger cars employ this configuration.

3. Series-Parallel System
 In the series-parallel hybrid , the configuration incorporates the features of both the series
and parallel HEVs. However, this configuration needs an additional electric machine and
a planetary gear unit making the control complex.

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4. Complex Hybrid System

 The complex hybrid system involves a complex configuration which cannot be classified
into the above three kinds. The complex hybrid is similar to the series-parallel hybrid
since the generator and electric motor is both electric machines.
 However, the key difference is due to the bi-directional power flow of the electric motor
in complex hybrid and the unidirectional power flow of the generator in the series-parallel
hybrid. The major disadvantage of complex hybrid is higher complexity.

3. Explain the operation of Common Rail Diesel Injection (CRDI) engine with neat sketch

 In the common rail systems, the high fuel pressure is generated by a common pump that
is separate from the injectors. The fuel pressure is independent of engine speed and load.
A typical layout of the common rail systems is shown in Fig.The CRDI has four main
components;
(i) high-pressure pump
(ii) high-pressure distribution rail (common rail) and pipes
(iii) injectors, and
(iv) Electronic engine control unit (ECU).
 A mechanical pump raises the fuel pressure and feeds the common rail with fuel at high
pressure. The common rail is connected to the injectors by short pipes. A solenoid valve
in each injector controls the injection timing and quantity.

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Schematic layout of a common rail diesel injection system

 In one design of the common rail systems, the rail pressure is same as the injection
pressure. In another design known as ‘intensified’ CRDI system, the fuel pressure in rail
is lower and it is multiplied by a factor of 3:1 to 10:1 in the injector body by a stepped
piston to raise it to the injection pressure. The CRDI systems mostly operate at
pressures of around 2100 bars.
 The main advantage of the common rail system over the conventional in-line jerk pumps
is that injection pressure is constant and independent of engine speed and load. For inline
pump- nozzle systems, the injection pressure is quite low at low engine speeds which
increase due to inertia effects at high speeds. It is therefore, difficult to obtain the required
engine performance with low emissions throughout the engine speed range with inline
fuel injection systems.
 Electronic unit injectors are better than the inline systems but the CRDI provides more
flexibility as a constant injection pressure is maintained at all engine speeds. In the
common rail systems, the injection timing and rate can be varied precisely depending
upon the engine requirements.
 As very high injection pressures are possible with electronically controlled CRDI, its
benefits are available through out the engine speed range. Because of reduction in
particulate emissions due to high injection pressures, higher EGR rates can be used at part
loads to reduce NOx emissions, which lead to a better NOx-particulate trade off. With the
common rail systems, injection rate shaping and pilot injection are also easier to
implement.

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ADVANTAGES
• Reduced noise and vibration
• Reduced smoke, particulates and exhaust
• Increased fuel economy
• High power output even at lower rpm

DIS ADVANTAGES
• Increased cost due to high pressure pump and electronic control unit
• Technology cannot be employed in present engines

4. Write a Short Note on NOX Adsorbers

• Lean engines enables better fuel efficiency and lower operating costs; nox emissions
from lean engines are difficult to control. Three-way catalysts commonly applied to
stoichiometric engines for nox control do not reduce nox in lean exhaust due to the
excess oxygen in the exhaust.
• Selective catalyst reduction with the ammonia or urea based solutions is capable of
reducing nox in lean exhaust.
• Lean nox trap (also known as noxadsorber) catalysts have been effectively reduced nox
emission on the lean burn diesel and gasoline reciprocating engines and on natural gas-
fired turbines.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
• Lean noxtrap catalyst operate in a cyclic fashion. During lean operation, the catalyst
adsorbs (“traps”) noxin the exhaust onto storage sites on the catalyst. The process is
called “sorption”.
• The catalyst is composed of alkali or alkaline earth materials that form nitrate
species on the surface of catalyst during the sorption phase.
• Once these nitrate species begins to saturate the catalyst, nox trapping efficiencies
begin to deteriorate, and the catalyst must be regenerated to renew the active
sorption sites for more nox storage.
• Regeneration occurs during net reducing condition and allows release of the nitrate
species from the alkali/alkaline earth sites and reduction of the nox into nitrogen.

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• After regeneration alkali/alkaline earth materials are again active for nox trapping
and the lean rich cyclic process begins again. The regeneration process occurs
relatively rapidly in comparison to the noxsaturation period observed during
sorption.
• In order to perform regeneration of the catalyst in application where lean operation
is the norm, excess fuel is introduced into the system and combusted to achieve the
rich conditions. These excess fuel represent the fuel penalty.
• In the engine the fuel was injected into the exhaust system periodically and
combusted over a methane oxidation catalyst to enable regeneration.
• As describe below, a valved exhaust system was employed to control exhaust
oxygen mass flow which reduced fuel requirement for regeneration process.

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• Two injectors are mounted on the inlet cone to the catalyst chamber so that the fuel
could be injected into the catalyst chamber during regeneration. the solenoid
injector where operated with a signal to control flow rate.
• The fuel supply for injectors was the same supply for the engine, and the fuel line to
the injector was located downstream of the fuel meter. The injector fueling rate is
controlled by via data acquisition.
ADVANTAGES:
• Lean nox trap catalysts have greater than 90% nox reduction in lean exhaust from
engine.
• Same fuel act as a reducing agent which,eliminating the requirement for storage and
handling of secondary fuels.
• Easy to control the trap by combined with data acquisition system.
• Higher nox storage capacity indicates less catalyst volume and lower cost is required
for a given engine emission rating and exhaust temperature.

5. Explain with neat sketch about onboard diagnostics

• On board diagnostic system were developed in the1980’s to help technicians
diagnose and service the computerized engine system of modern vehicles.
• OBD monitors the components that make up the emission system and key engine
components. It can usually detect a malfunction or deterioration of these
components before the driver becomes aware of the problem.

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• When a problem that could cause a substantial increase in air emissions is

detected, the OBD system turns on a dashboard warning light to alert the driver of
the need ro have the vehicle checked by a repair technician
• Early OBD systems included a Malfunction Indicator Light (MIL). This used a
rudimentary blinking light system where the number of blinks could be counted.
• This blank count could be cross –referenced against a list to find the problem
indicated. Over the years, there have been many refinements and improvements.
• A new generation of these systems called OBDIIis present on 1996 and newer
vehicles. The latest OBD standard is far more complex and includes a data link
connector for connection of an OBDII scan tool which can be a dedicated hand-
held unit.
• Alternatively, it may connect to a laptop computer via a cable that includes some
form of signal processing and which is used in conjunction with special
software.Either approach can be used to retrieve information from the vehicle.

TWO TYPES OF MONITORS:

CONTINUOUS:
These monitors run all the time as long as the key is turned on and/or the engine is
running. There are three continuous monitors that every OBD equipped vehicle
has, they are the Comprehensive Component Monitor, the fuel monitor and the
misfire monitor.
NON-CONTINUOUS:
These monitors require certain conditions such as speed, acceleration
/deceleration, fuel level, ambient and other conditions to met in order for the
monitor to run its testing sequence. If the specific conditions are not met, then the
monitor will not perform its tests and cannot report as to whether or not there are
any problems. Non-continuous monitors include the Catalyst, Heated Catalyst,
Evaporative System, Secondary Air System, Air Conditioning System, Oxygen
sensor, Heated o2 sensor and Exhaust Gas Recirculation system.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE:
• A basic OBA system consists of an ECU which uses input from various sensors to
control the actuators to get the desire performance.
• The Check Engine light, also known as MIL(malfunction indicator light), provides an
early warning of malfunctions to the vehicle owner.,
• The modern vehicle can support hundreds of parameters,which can be accessed via
the DLC(diagnostic link connector) using a device called a scan tool.
• OBDII standardizes that many trouble codes which are set when a malfunction is
detected in the emission related component of that the vehicle will be stored in
computer memory.
• OBDII mandates that all trouble codes are logged when they are set and are retrieved
by the scan tool when commanded.
• OBDII however turns on the malfunction indicator light selectively in malfunction
situation that require immediate attention of the driver for safety reasons.
• OBDII has ten major monitoring requirement are:
1. Catalyst.
2. Heated catalyst.
3. Misfire.
4. Evaporative system
5. Secondary air system.
6. Air conditioning system refrigerant.
7. Fuel system.
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8. Oxygen sensor.
9. Exhaust gas recirculation system.
10. Comprehensive components.

• The comprehensive components are mostly inputs and outputs to the power train
which are sensors, and the actuators.
• OBDII has to communicate the diagnostic information to the vehicle mechanic
through a communication network using diagnostic troubles codes (DTCs).
• The DTCs are defined by four categories .general circuit malfunction, malfunction
range/performance problem low and high circuit input.
• The DTC consists of an alpha numeric icon. each defined fault code is assigned a
message to the indicated the circuit, component or system area that was diagnosed as
faulty.
• Each group has generic code as the first code/message that indicates the generic nature
of the fault. The manufacturer has a choice to define more specific DTC for each lower
level fault in that group.
• However, only one code must be stored in OBDII foe each fault detected circuit.
Comprehensive components monitoring includes all the sensors, solenoids, fuel pump,
ignition coil, actuators(valves), and the associated wiring ,ground, and power supply.
The names of sensors are described below:
1. The manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensors.
2. Manifold- intake air temperature sensor.
3. Oxygen sensors.
4. Oxygen-mass air flow (MAF) sensor.
5. Throttle position sensor.
6. Crankshaft angle sensor.
7. Engine coolant temperature sensor.
8. Knock sensor.
9. Engine speed sensor.
10. Vehicle speed sensor.
11. Misfire detectors.
12. Canister vent valve sensor.
13. Purge valve sensor.
14. Ignition coil sensor.
15. Fuel system sensor.
16. Individual fuel injector sensor.
17. EGR sensor.
18. Idle air control valve sensor.
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6. Explain the operation of Variable Geometry Turbocharger with neat sketch

• VGT’s share the capability of changing boost pressure independent of engine load and
the amount of exhaust gas energy.
• This design allows for very fast turbocharger response time and ideal matching of air
flow to combustion requirement.
• VGT are commonly used on engines equipped with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
since they can also increase exhaust backpressure, which is necessary to force exhaust
gases back into the intake manifold.

DEFINITION OF A/R NUMBER:

• The A/R number is area “A” and “R”- the distance from the center of the turbine wheel
to the centroid of area “A” –will determine the flow of the gas for a given turbine wheel.
• If “A” is increased, the turbine wheel will slow down. If “A” is decreased, the turbine
wheel will increase in speed and boost pressure will increase giving false reading and
premature turbocharger failure can be accepted.

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Above & Below: A/R ratio

Working
• Variable geometry turbochargers are built along two designs. What are commonly
referred to as VGT are turbochargers which control the width of the nozzle directing
exhaust gas onto the turbine wheel. By narrowing the width of the nozzle opening, the
turbine speed increases as does exhaust backpressure.
• This has the same effect as holding your finger over the end of a garden hose to
increase the pressure of water forced from the hose end. An electric or air type actuator
operates a sliding nozzle ring to regulate the nozzle opening. As the actuator closes the
nozzle to narrow its width, turbine speed and boost pressure rapidly increase.
• This effect can be accomplished with minimal engine load or exhaust energy. So at low
speed and load operation, relatively higher boost pressure is achieved than with using
fixed geometry or even waste gated turbochargers.
• Opening the nozzle produces the opposite effect, more exhaust gas flow will take place
across the turbine but turbine speed will decrease and exhaust backpressure drops. By
varying the width of the nozzle opening with an actuator, turbine power can be set to
provide just sufficient energy to drive the compressor at the desired boost level
wherever the engine is operating.

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VGT Advantages:
• Minimal turbo lag:
• Faster response time
• Electronic control of exhaust backpressure
• Improved engine braking:
• Electronic control of air delivery

DISADVANTAGES OF THE VGT:

• Cost and Reliability
• Availability for Gasoline Engines

7. Explain with neat sketch about air assisted combustion

• The injection system required pressurized supplies of both fuel and air. The air
pressure was supplied from a cylinder of compressed air, using a regulator on the
cylinder to set and control the supply pressure.
• The return from the injector was then connected to the regulator block. The system
uses a conventional multipoint injector to meter fuel into the chamber.

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• This dramatically improves fuel atomization, allowing the use of a very low injection
pressure which in the turn reduces the spray velocity and penetration of the fuel into
the cylinder.

• The supply pressure from the bottle was set just higher than the regulator rated
pressure so a small amount of air was continuously dumped to atmosphere.
• If the supply pressure was set too high the regulator may not have been able to dump
sufficient air and the pressure at the injector would be too high.
• Instead, the supply pressure was set by monitoring the supply pressure to ensure that
the regulator was always functioning within its operating range. fuel pressure -1.5 bar, air
pressure-8 bar.
• After leaving the pumps, the fuel passed to the injector through a filter.as with the air
supply, the return from the injector was connected to the regulator block.

• The main reason for doing this is to ensure that the pressure across the fuel injector is
always constant, thereby allowing it to be accurately calibrated. If for any reason the air
pressure varies slightly the calibration will be preserved.
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ADVANTAGES:
• Because of excellent atomization and better distribution of fuel, combustion will be
more efficient and complete. This will result in a relatively higher mean effective
pressure.
• Due to good atomization and distribution of fuel, effective utilization of air charge is
possible.
• With reduced air charge, combustion chamber as well as cylinder size become smaller
for the given power output.

DISADVANTAGES:
• An injection requires a high pressure air compressor. This is relatively heavy. This also
absorbs part if the engine power. Hence the mechanical efficiency goes down.
• The high pressure air injection with fuel cools the cylinder charge, due to the
turbulence created by it.
• Compact cylinder size reduces heat losses. The former effect predominates over the
latter heat. As such a fairly high compression ratio is required.

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