MEAM 520 V.

Kumar
Fall 1996

V. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

1. Introduction

The principle of virtual work is essentially a statement of static equilibrium. It allows us to

formulate the equations of static equilibrium of a mechanical system without having to draw free
body diagrams of each member of the system and having to consider internal forces and
moments. Its origins date back to Galileo (1594) and Bernoulli (1717), although Aristotle
appears to have written about it. However, it was Lagrange (1788) who developed it into a
powerful tool. The principle of virtual work is a fundamental postulate that enables us to
transition from Newtonian mechanics to analytical (Lagrangian) mechanics.

2. Definitions

Generalized coordinates: Any set of coordinates that completely specify the configuration of the
system. For a n degree of freedom manipulator, the generalized coordinates can be the joint
displacements, q1 , q 2 , ..., qn . Sometimes, we will also require that this set of generalized
coordinates be a minimal set. Thus if a system has m degrees of freedom, such a minimal set of
coordinates will necessarily consist of m generalized coordinates. For example, for a five degree
of freedom manipulator, three coordinates that specify the position of the end effector and three
Euler angles that specify the orientation of the end effector constitute a set of six generalized
coordinates. But the five joint displacements would give us a minimal set of generalized
coordinates.

Virtual displacements: Any set of infinitesimal displacements that are consistent with the
kinematic constraints on the system are called virtual displacements. They are different from
“real” infinitesimal displacements because they occur without passage of time. The virtual
displacement of a joint (whose displacement is denoted by q i ) is denoted by δqi .

Virtual work: The work done by any force during a virtual displacement is the virtual work done
by that force. Thus if r is the position vector of a particle and a force F acts on that particle, the
virtual work done by that force on the particle is simply δW=F. δr.

Applied forces: All forces which do non zero virtual work are called active forces. Some texts
will use the terms “active” or “external” instead of “applied”.
Equilibrium: A state where the resultant force and moment on each member of the system is
zero.

Generalized forces: In a n degree of freedom mechanical system, with generalized coordinates

q1 , q2 , ..., q n , the net virtual work due to all the applied forces (the sum of the virtual work done
by each applied force) can be written in the form:

δW= Q 1 δq1 + Q 2 δq2 + ... + Q n δqn

The coefficient Q i is the generalized force corresponding to the ith generalized coordinate.

The principle of virtual work: A mechanical system is in equilibrium if and only if the net virtual
work of all the applied forces vanishes for every set of virtual displacements.

3. Example: A slider crank mechanism

a. Generalized coordinate(s): define the minimal set of generalized coordinates you want to
work with.

b. Virtual displacements: list all the virtual displacements that will be of interest to you. These
will generally include all virtual displacements that will be required to calculate the virtual
work due to all applied forces.

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c. Applied forces (forces and moments that do work): External forces will generally do work
on the system. Generally constraint forces will do no virtual work unless there is friction.
Actuator forces will do work (even though they are internal to the system).

d. Virtual work: Write down the net virtual work by summing up the virtual work done by each
applied force on the system.

e. Kinematics: The basic objective is to write the expression of virtual work in terms of the
virtual displacements of the generalized coordinates. Thus the task is to eliminate all other
virtual displacements (call these δp1 , δp2, ...) in favor of the virtual displacements δq 1 , δq2 , ...

e.1 Velocity analysis: Find expressions for the velocity variables corresponding to the
unwanted virtual displacements in terms of the velocity variables corresponding to the virtual
displacements. In other words, derive expressions of the form:

p˙ i = f 1 ( q1, q2 ,K,qn )q˙1 + f 2 (q1,q2 ,K,qn )q˙2 +K+ f n (q1,q2 ,K,qn )q˙n

e.2 Elimination: From the above expressions we can write:

δpi = f 1 (q1 ,q2 ,K, qn )δq1 + f 2 ( q1 ,q2 ,K,qn )δq2 +K+ f n (q1 ,q2 ,K,qn )δqn

f. Principle of virtual work: Write the express of virtual work in terms of virtual displacements
corresponding to the generalized coordinates in the form:

δW= Q 1 δq1 + Q 2 δq2 + ... + Q n δqn

In order for the mechanical system to be in equilibrium,

Q1 = 0, Q 2 = 0, ..., Q n = 0

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4. Example: A 2R planar manipulator

a. Generalized coordinate(s):

b. Virtual displacements:

c. Applied forces (forces and moments that do work):

d. Virtual work:

e. Kinematics:

e.1 Velocity analysis:

e.2 Elimination:

f. Principle of virtual work:

δW= Q 1 δq1 + Q 2 δq2

In order for the mechanical system to be in equilibrium,

Q1 = 0, Q 2 = 0

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5. Example: n degree of freedom robot manipulator

ASSUMPTIONS

1. Frictionless 2. No gravitational forces

3. Only forces are joint forces (or torques), τ, and the wrench (forces and moments) exerted
by the end effector, W.

a. Generalized coordinate(s): q 1 , q2 , ..., qn .

b. Virtual displacements:
Joint displacements: δq 1 , δq2 , ... , δqn
End effector displacements:
δ x   dx 
δ y  d y 
δx =  δ z , or D =  I3×3 03× 3  δx =  δ z 
0 I d
d x  13×
443 24 3
3×3
4 δ x 
d Λ y
 dy  δ 
 z  z

c. Applied forces (forces and moments that do work):

 fx 
 τ1   fy 
τ f
τ =  M2 , W =  mz 
τ  mx 
 n y
 m 
z

d. Virtual work: δW = τT δq − WT D

F
e. Kinematics: t = x˙ = F Jq˙ ⇒ Λ F D = F Jδq

f. Principle of virtual work:

δW = τT δq − F WT Λ F Jδq

(
= τ − F JT Λ F W δq )T
Equations for static equilibrium: τ = F J T ΛF W

τ = F J˜ T F W, F˜
where J = Λ FJ

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5. Transformation of wrenches

Wrenches transform the same way twists do provided we write them with forces on top and
moments at the bottom. We can show this using the principle of virtual work. Consider two
frames, frame A and frame B, with origins OA and O B respectively, attached to a rigid body
(say the end effector). Let the rigid body undergo a twist (an infinitesimal displacement) while
being acted on by an external wrench. The twist and wrench can each be represented in frame A
and in frame B.

In frame A,

 Aδ x   A fx 
 Aδ y   A fy 
A
 Aδ z  A
 Afz 
D = Λ A t, A
t =  A , W = A 
dx mx
 Ad   Am 
y y
 Ad   Am 
 z  z

Note that Aδ is the small angular displacement in frame A, while Ad is the small displacement of
a point on the rigid body coincident with O A . Similarly, Af is the force acting on the rigid body
expressed in frame A, and Am is the moment about O A acting on the rigid body.

In frame B,

 Bδ x   B fx 
 Bδ y   B fy 
B
 Bδ z  B
 B fz 
D = Λ Bt, B
t =  B , W = B 
dx mx
 Bd   Bm 
y y
 Bd   Bm 
 z  z

Note that Bδ is the small angular displacement in frame B, while Bd is the small displacement of
a point on the rigid body coincident with OB. Similarly, Bf is the force acting on the rigid body
expressed in frame B, and Bm is the moment about O B acting on the rigid body.

If AW and BW are equivalent, that is, they are the same wrench expressed in different
reference frames, two wrenches AW and (-BW) acting on the rigid body would be in equilibrium.
The virtual work done by these wrenches on the rigid body is given by:

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 ( AW) ( AD) + (− BW ) ( BD)
T T
δW =

= ( A W) ( ΛA t) + (− BW ) (ΛB t)
T T

= ( A W) ( Λ A t) + (− BW ) (Λ B Γ A A t )
T T

[ BΓ A]
T
=  Λ A W − Λ B W
T A
t

where BΓA is the usual 6×6 transformation matrix given by:

B  B
RA 03×3 
ΓA = 
[OBOA × ] R A R A 
B B

and [ OBOA × ] is the 3×3 skew symmetric matrix corresponding to the position vector of OA in
frame B.
According to the principle of virtual work, the system is in equilibrium if and only if the
virtual work is zero for every set of virtual displacements (i.e., for every twist). This in turn
implies that the system is in equilibrium if and only if the quantity within the parenthesis
vanishes:

[ BΓ A ] W =  Λ [ BΓ A] Λ  B W
T T
Λ AW − Λ BW = 0 ⇒ A

Thus the transformation law for wrenches from reference frame B to reference frame A is given
[ BΓ A ]
T
by the 6×6 transformation matrix, Λ Λ . However, we can simplify this matrix further:

T
 0 3× 3 I3×3   03×3   03×3
B I3× 3 
[ ]
T RA
Λ B
ΓA Λ =
 I3×3 0 3× 3  [OB OA × ] R A R A   I3× 3 03×3 
B B

(
I   BR A ) ( ) [OBOA ×]0
T T
0 − BR A I
= 
0  0 ( BR A )  0
T
I   I


=
( B R A )T 0 
T
( A ) [ B A ] ( A ) 
T
 − ×
B B
R O O R

 A
RB 0 
=
[ OA OB × ] RB R B 
A A

= AΓ B

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where [ OA OB × ] is the position vector of O B in frame A expressed as a skew symmetric matrix.
Note that we have used the identity:

( BRA ) [OBOA ×] = [OAOB ×]A R B

T
−

Thus we have the result:

[ BΓ A ]
A T
Γ B =Λ Λ

and the transformation law for wrenches:

A
W = AΓ B BW

Note that this is exactly the same transformation law for twists. This should not come as a
revelation to us. A twist has a screw axis and a magnitude (its amplitude) and the transformation
matrix Γ transforms a screw axis from one frame to another. A wrench is also characterized by a
screw axis and a magnitude (the intensity of the wrench) and therefore transforms in exactly the
same way.

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