AESA BASED IPM Package No.

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AESA based IPM – Chillies/ Capsicum

Pests Defenders

Directorate of Plant Protection National Institute of Plant Health National Centre for
Quarantine and Storage Management Integrated Pest Management
N. H. IV, Faridabad, Haryana Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, A. P LBS Building, IARI Campus,
New Delhi

Department of Agriculture and Cooperation

Ministry of Agriculture
Government of India

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The AESA based IPM – Chillies/ Capsicum was compiled by the NIPHM working group under
the Chairmanship of Dr. K. Satyagopal DG, NIPHM, and guidance of Shri. Utpal Kumar Singh
JS (PP). The package was developed taking into account the advice of experts listed below on
various occasions before finalization.

NIPHM Working Group:

Chairman : Dr. K. Satyagopal, IAS, Director General

Vice-Chairmen : Dr. S. N. Sushil, Plant Protection Advisor
: Dr. P. Jeyakumar, Director (PHM)
Core Members :

1. Er. G. Shankar, Joint Director (PHE), Pesticide Application Techniques Expertise.

2. Dr. O. P. Sharma, Joint Director (A & AM), Agronomy Expertise.
3. Dr. Dhana Raj Boina, Assistant Director (PHM), Entomology Expertise.
4. Dr. Richa Varshney, Assistant Scientific Officer (PHM), Entomology Expertise.

Other Members :

1. Dr. Satish Kumar Sain, Assistant Director (PHM), Pathology Expertise.

2. Dr. B. S. Sunanda, Assistant Scientific Officer (PHM), Nematology Expertise.

Contributions by DPPQ&S Experts:

1. Shri. Ram Asre, Additional Plant Protection Advisor (IPM),

2. Dr. K. S. Kapoor, Deputy Director (Entomology),
3. Dr. Sanjay Arya, Deputy Director (Plant Pathology),
4. Dr. Subhash Kumar, Deputy Director (Weed Science)
5. Dr. C. S. Patni, Plant Protection Officer (Plant Pathology)

Contributions by External Experts:

1. Dr. A. Krishnamurthy, Principal Scientist & Head, Division of Entomology and Nematology,
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka.
2. Dr. Uma Devi, Professor of Pathology, Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Hyderabad. Andhra
Pradesh.
3. Dr. Koteshwar Rao, As. Prof. of Entomology, ANGRAU, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
4. Dr. M. Vijaya, Principal Scientist, Pathology, Vegetable Research Station, YSR Horticultural
University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
5. Dr. K. Sireesha, Scientist, Entomology, Vegetable Research Station, YSR Horticultural
University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
6. Dr. Madhavilatha, Scientist, Agronomy, Vegetable Research Station, YSR Horticultural
University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
7. Prof. S. Sreedharan, Department of Entomology, TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
8. Dr. R. P. Chandel, Professor of Entomology, YS Parmar University of Agriculture and
Horticulture, Sholan, Himachal Pradesh.
9. Dr. Y. S. Kotikal, Professor of Entomology, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bhagalkot,
Karnataka.

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Information on Region-wise Distribution of Pests Provided by:

1. Dr. N. Sathyanarayana, Director, Plant Biosecurity Division, NIPHM

2. Mrs. S. Latha, Scientific Officer, Plant Biosecurity Division, NIPHM

For internal circulation only. Not for sale.

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 Contents

I. Pests
A. Pests of National Significance
1. Insect and mite pests
2. Diseases
3. Nematodes
4. Weeds
B. Pests of Regional Significance
1. Insect pests

II. AESA based IPM

A. Agro-ecosystem analysis
B. Field scouting
C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for Spodoptera and
Helicoverpa
D. Yellow pan water trap/sticky traps
E. Light traps
F. Nematode sampling

III. Ecological engineering for pest management

A. Resistant/tolerant varieties

IV. Crop stage-wise IPM

V. Insecticide resistance and its management

VI. Nutritional deficiencies/disorders

VII. Description of common weeds

VIII. Description of insect pests

IX. Description of diseases

X. Safety measures
A. At the time of harvest
B. Post-harvest storage

XI. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM

XII. Safety parameters in pesticide usage

XIII. Basic precautions in pesticides usage

XIV. Pesticide application techniques

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XV. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief

XVI. References

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 IPM Package for Chillies

I. PESTS

A. Pests of National Significance

1. Insect and mite pests

1.1 Gram pod borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

(Karnataka)

1.2 Tobacco caterpillar: Spodoptera litura Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

(Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh)

1.3 Thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) (Tamil Nadu,

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Manipur)

1.4 Aphids:

1.4.1 Aphis gossypii (Glover) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) (Bihar)

1.4.2 Myzus persicae (Sulzar) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) (Andhra pradesh, Tamil Nadu)

1.5 Spider mites: Tetranhychus spp.

1.6 Yellow mites: Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks (Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka)

2. Diseases

2.1 Damping off: Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp (Andhra Pradesh)

2.2 Die back and fruit rot: Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.) (Himachal pradesh)

2.3 Coeanephora blight: Coeanephora cucurbitarum (Berk. & Ravenel) Thaxt

2.4 Mosaic complex: (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, UP, Maharashtra)

2.5 Powdery mildew: Leveillula taurica (Lév.) G. Arnaud (Tamil Nadu)

2.6 Cercospora leaf rot: Cercospora capsici Heald & F.A. Wolf

2.7 Bacterial leaf spot: Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria (Pammel) Dowson

2.8 Fusarium wilt: Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. (Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh)

2.9 Alternaria leaf spot: Alternaria solani Ell. Mart.

2.10 Leaf curl virus: (Himachal Pradesh)

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3. Nematodes

3.1 Root-knot nematode: Meloidogyne spp. (Kerala, Karnataka, Bihar)

3.2 Lesion nematode: Pratylenchus spp.

4. Weeds

4.1 Major Kharif weeds

Broadleaf weeds

4.1.1 Pigweed: Amaranthus viridis Hook. F.

4.1.2 Swine cress: Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.

4.1.3 Black nightshade: Solanum nigrum L.

4.1.4 Common purselane: Portulaca oleracea L.

4.1.5 False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk.

Grassy weeds

4.1.6 Rabbit/Crow foot grass: Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Beauv.

4.1.7 Crabgrass: Digiteria sanguinalis (L.) Willd.

4.1.8 Barnyard grass: Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Scop.

Sedges

4.1.9 Purple nutsedge: Cyperus rotundus L.

4.1.10 Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L.

4.2 Major Rabi weeds

Broadleaf weeds

4.2.1 Lamb’s quarter: Chenopodium album L.

4.2.2 Scarlet Pimpernel: Anagallis arvensis L.

4.2.3 Sweet clover: Melilotus indica (L.) All.

4.2.4 Fine leaf fumitory: Fumaria parviflora Lam.

4.2.5 Corn spurry: Spergula arvensis L.

Grassy weeds

4.2.6 Blue grass: Poa annua L.

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 4.2.7 Canary grass: Phalaris minor Retz.

B. Pests of Regional Significance

1. Insect pests

1.1 Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

I AESA based IPM

A. Agro-ecosystem Analysis

The integrated pest management (IPM) has been evolving over the decades to address the
deleterious impacts of synthetic chemical pesticides on environment ultimately affecting the
interests of the farmers. The economic threshold level (ETL) was the basis for several decades
but in modern IPM (FAO 2002) emphasis is given to AESA where farmers take decisions based
on larger range of field observations. The health of a plant is determined by its environment
which includes physical factors (i.e. soil, rain, sunshine hours, wind etc.) and biological factors
(i.e. pests, diseases and weeds). All these factors can play a role in the balance which exists
between herbivore insects and their natural enemies. Understanding the intricate interactions in
an ecosystem can play a critical role in pest management.

Decision making in pest management requires a thorough analysis of the agro-

ecosystem. Farmer has to learn how to observe the crop, how to analyze the field situation and
how to make proper decisions for their crop management. This process is called the AESA.
Participants of AESA will have to make a drawing on a large piece of paper (60 x 80 cm), to
include all their observations. The advantage of using a drawing is that it forces the
participants/farmers to observe closely and intensively. It is a focal point for the analysis and for
the discussions that follow, and the drawing can be kept as a record.

AESA is an approach, which can be gainfully employed by extension functionaries and

farmers to analyze the field situations with regards to pests, defenders, soil conditions, plant
health and the influence of climatic factors and their relationship for growing a healthy crop.

 The basic components of AESA are

 Plant health at different stages
 Built-in compensation abilities of plants
 Pest and defender population dynamics
 Soil conditions
 Climatic factors
 Farmers past experience

Principles of AESA based Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

Grow a healthy crop

 Select a variety resistant/tolerant to major pests

 Treat the seed with recommended pesticides especially biopesticides

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  Select healthy seeds and seedlings
 Follow proper spacing
 Soil health improvement (mulching and green manuring)
 Nutrient management especially organic manures and biofertilizers based on the soil
test results. If the dosage of nitrogenous fertilizers is too high the crop becomes too
succulent and therefore susceptible to insects and diseases. If the dosage is too low, the
crop growth is retarded. So, the farmers should apply an adequate for best results. The
phosphatic fertilizers should not be applied each and every season as the residual
phosphate of the previous season will be available for the current season also.
 Proper irrigation
 Crop rotation

Observe the field regularly (climatic factors, soil and biotic factors)

Farmers should
 Monitor the field situation at least once a week (soil, water, plants, pests, natural
enemies, weather factors etc.)
 Make decisions based on the field situation and P: D ratio
 Take direct action when needed (e.g. collect egg masses, remove infested plants etc.)

Compensation ability

Compensation is defined as the replacement of plant biomass lost to herbivores has

been associated with increased photosynthetic rates and mobilization of stored
resources from source organs to sinks (e.g., from roots and remaining leaves to new
leaves). Plant tolerance to herbivory can arise from the interaction of a variety of plant
traits and external environmental factors. Several studies have documented
compensatory regrowth via side braches, through increased growth and photosynthetic
rates.

Understand and conserve defenders

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  Know defenders/natural enemies to understand their role through regular observations
of the agro-ecosystem
 Avoid the use of poisonous chemicals that kill the natural enemies of pests

Insect zoo

In field various types of insects are present. Some are beneficial and some may be harmful.
Generally farmers are not aware about it. Predators (friends of the farmers) which feed on
pests are not easy to observe in crop field. Insect zoo concept can be helpful to enhance
farmers’ skill to identify beneficial and harmful insects. In this method, unfamiliar/unknown
predators are collected in plastic containers with brush from the field and brought to a place for
study. Each predator is placed inside a plastic bottle together with parts of the plant and some
known insect pests. Insects in the bottle are observed for certain time and determined whether
the test insect is a pest (feeds on plant) or a predator (feeds on other insects).

Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio):

Identifying the number of pests and beneficial insects helps the farmers to make appropriate
pest management decisions. Sweep net, visual counts etc. can be adopted to arrive at the
numbers of pests and defenders. The P: D ratio can vary depending on the feeding potential of
natural enemy as well as the type of pest. The natural enemies of chillies pests can be divided
into 3 categories 1. parasitoids; 2. predators; and 3. pathogens. The important natural enemies
in chillies are given in ecological engineering table on page ………..

Model Agro-Ecosystem Analysis chart

Date:
Village:
Farmer:

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 Pests Defenders

Decision taken based on the

analysis of field situation
Soil condition :
Weather condition :
Diseases types and severity :
Weeds types and intensity :
Rodent damage (if any) :
No. of insect pests :
No. of natural enemies :
P: D ratio :

The general rule to be adopted for management decisions relying on the P: D ratio is 2:
1. However, some of the parasitoids and predators will be able to control more than 2 pests.
Wherever specific P: D ratios are not found, it is safer to adopt the 2: 1, as P: D ratio. Whenever
the P: D ratio is found to be favourable, there is no need for adoption of other management
strategies. In cases where the P: D ratio is found to be unfavourable, the farmers can be
advised to resort to inundative release of parasitoids/predators depending upon the type of pest.
In addition to inundative release of parasitoids and predators, the usage of microbial
biopesticides and biochemical biopesticides such as insect growth regulators, botanicals etc.
can be relied upon before resorting to synthetic chemical pesticides

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Feeding/egg laying potential of different parasitoids/predators

Predators/ Parasitoids Feeding potential/ Egg laying capacity

Predatory rate of adult coccinellid on aphids is 50 aphids per
day

Lady bird beetle

1st instar larva can consume 15-19 aphids/day
2nd instar larva can consume 45-52 aphids/day
3rd instar larva can consume 80-90 aphids/day
In total life cycle they can consume approx. 400 aphids.
Hover fly
Each larva can consume 100 aphids, 329 pupa of whitefly and
288 nymphs of jassids

Green Lace wing

1st & 2nd nymphal instars can consume 1 small larva/day
3rd & 4th nymphal instars can consume 2 to 3 medium
larvae/day
Reduviid bug 5th nymphal instar & adult can consume 3 to 4 big larvae/day
In total life cycle they can consume approx. 250 to 300 larvae
5 big larvae/day

Spider
Predatory rate of adult is 20-35 phytophagous
mites/female/day

Predatory mite
http://www.eduwebs.org/bugs/predatory_mites.htm

Egg laying capacity is 100-200 eggs/female. 1-8 eggs/larva

Bracon hebetor
Egg laying capacity is 20-200 eggs/female.

Trichogramma sp

Decision making

Farmers become experts in crop management

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Farmers have to make timely decisions about the management of their crops. AESA
farmers have learned to make these decisions based on observations and analysis viz.
abiotic and biotic factors of the crop ecosystem. The past experience of the farmers
should also be considered for decision making. However, as field conditions continue to
change and new technologies become available, farmers need to continue improving
their skills and knowledge.

 Farmers are capable of improving farming practices by experimentation

 Farmers can share their knowledge with other farmers

AESA methodology

 Go to the field in groups (about 5 farmers per group). Walk across the field and choose
20 plants/acre randomly. Observe keenly each of these plants and record your
observations:

 Plant: Observe the plant height, number of branches, crop stage, deficiency
symptoms etc.
 Pests: Observe and count pests at different places on the plant.
 Defenders (natural enemies): Observe and count parasitoids and predators.
 Diseases: Observe leaves and stems and identify any visible disease symptoms
and severity.
 Rats: Count number of plants affected by rats.
 Weeds: Observe weeds in the field and their intensity.
 Water: Observe the water situation of the field.
 Weather: Observe the weather condition.

 While walking in the field, manually collect insects in plastic bags. Use a sweep net to
collect additional insects. Collect plant parts with disease symptoms.
 Find a shady place to sit as a group in a small circle for drawing and discussion.
 If needed, kill the insects with some chloroform (if available) on a piece of cotton.
 Each group will first identify the pests, defenders and diseases collected.
 Each group will then analyze the field situation in detail and present their observations
and analysis in a drawing (the AESA drawing).
 Each drawing will show a plant representing the field situation. The weather condition,
water level, disease symptoms, etc. will be shown in the drawing. Pest insects will be
drawn on one side. Defenders (beneficial insects) will be drawn on another side. Write
the number next to each insect. Indicate the plant part where the pests and defenders
were found. Try to show the interaction between pests and defenders.
 Each group will discuss the situation and make a crop management recommendation.
 The small groups then join each other and a member of each group will now present their
analysis in front of all participants.
 The facilitator will facilitate the discussion by asking guiding questions and makes sure
that all participants (also shy or illiterate persons) are actively involved in this process.
 Formulate a common conclusion. The whole group should support the decision on what
field management is required in the AESA plot.
 Make sure that the required activities (based on the decision) will be carried out.
 Keep the drawing for comparison purpose in the following weeks.

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Data recording

Farmers should record data in a notebook and drawing on a chart

 Keep records of what has happened

 Help us making an analysis and draw conclusions

Data to be recorded

 Plant growth (weekly)

 Height of plant
 Number of leaves
 Crop situation (e.g. for AESA)
 Plant health
 Pests, diseases, weeds
 Natural enemies
 Soil condition
 Irrigation
 Weather conditions
 Input costs
 Seeds
 Fertilizer
 Pesticides
 Labour
 Harvest
 Yield (kg/acre)
 Price of produce (Rs./kg)

Some questions that can be used during the discussion

 Summarize the present situation of the field?

 What crop management aspect is most important at this moment?
 Is there a big change in crop situation compared to last visit? What kind of change?
 Is there any serious pest or disease outbreak?
 What is the situation of the beneficial insects?
 Is there a balance in the field between pests and defenders?
 Were you able to identify all pests and diseases?
 Do you think the crop is healthy?
 What management practices are needed at this moment?
 When will it be done? Who will do it? Make sure that responsibilities for all activities are
being discussed.
 Are you expecting any problems to emerge during the coming week such as congenial
weather conditions for pest buildup?
 What problems? How can we avoid it? How can we be prepared?
 Summarize the actions to be taken.

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Advantages of AESA over ETL

One of the problems of the ETL is that it is based on parameters that are changing all
the time, and that are often not known. The damage or losses caused by a certain
density of insects cannot be predicted at all. In ETL the due recognition of the role of
natural enemies in decreasing pest population is ignored. Farmers cannot base their
decisions on just a simple count of pests. They will have to consider many other aspects
of the crop (crop ecology, growth stage, natural enemies, weather condition, etc.) and
their own economic and social situation before they can make the right crop
management decisions. In ETL based IPM, natural enemies, plant compensation ability
and abiotic factors are not considered. In AESA based IPM emphasis is given to natural
enemies, plant compensation ability, abiotic factors and P: D ratio.

AESA and farmer field school (FFS)

AESA is a season-long training activity that takes place in the farmer field. It is season-
long so that it covers all the different developmental stages of the crop and their related
management practices. The process is always learner-centered, participatory and
relying on an experiential learning approach and therefore it has become an integral
part of FFS.

Farmers can learn from AESA

 Identification of pests and their nature of

 damage
 Identification of natural enemies
 Management of pests
 Water and nutrient management
 Influence of weather factors on pest buildup
 Role of natural enemies in pest management

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FFS to teach AESA based IPM skills

Active involvement of the farmers

Participatory
Farmers learn from other IPM
farmers

Not classroom training

Practical
Active involvement of the farmers

Group meetings

Regular meetings Throughout cropping season

Guided by IPM facilitator

AESA based IPM
training for farmers Learning through Design studies to solve problems
field experiments
Learning by doing

Problem oriented Farmers choose topics

Learning about crop ecology

Understanding role of beneficial insects

B. Field scouting

AESA requires skill. So only the trained farmers can undertake their exercise. However, other
farmers also can do field scouting in their own fields at regular intervals to monitor the major
pest situation. Surveillance on pest occurrence at the main field should commence soon after
crop establishment after transplanting and at weekly intervals thereafter.

For sucking pests:

For aphids, and mites: Count and record the number of both nymphs and adults on five
randomly selected leaves per plant.
For thrips: Count and record the number of nymphs and adults of thrips present on five
terminal leaves per plant (tapping method also can be used to count thrips).
For Helicoverpa and Spodoptera: Total number of fruits, damaged fruits due to Helicoverpa
and Spodoptera and number of larvae on individual plants should be counted and recorded.

C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for Spodoptera and Helicoverpa:

Pheromone traps for two insects viz., Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura @ 2/fixed
field have to be installed. Install the traps for each species separated by a distance of >75 feet
in the vicinity of the selected fixed field. Fix the traps to the supporting pole at a height of one
foot above the plant canopy. Change of lures should be made at 2-3 week interval (regular
interval). During each week of surveillance, the number of moths/trap should be counted and
entered.

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Procedure for observation: Total number of moths of Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera
litura/trap/week should be recorded year round. The trapped moths should be destroyed and
removed after each recording.

D. Yellow pan water trap/sticky traps

Set up yellow pan water trap/sticky traps 15 cm above the canopy for monitoring whitefly and
blue sticky trap for thrips @ 4-5 traps/acre. Locally available empty tins can be painted yellow/
coated with grease/Vaseline/castor oil on outer surface may also be used.

E. Light traps
Set up light traps 1 trap/acre 15 cm above the crop canopy for monitoring and mass trapping
insects. Light traps with exit option for natural enemies of smaller size should be installed and
operate around the dusk time (6 pm to 10 pm).

F. Nematode sampling
Collect 100 to 300 cm3 (200-300 g) soil sample. Mix soil sample and pass through a coarse
sieve to remove rocks, roots, etc. Take a 600 cc subsample of soil, pack lightly into a beaker
uniformly. Place soil in one of the buckets or pans half filled with water. Mix soil and water by
stirring with paddle; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling. Pour all but heavy sediment
through 20-mesh sieve into second bucket; discard residue in first bucket; discard material
caught on sieve. Stir material in second bucket; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling.
Pour all but heavy sediment through 200-mesh sieve into first bucket; discard residue in second
bucket. Backwash material caught on 200-mesh sieve (which includes large nematodes) into
250-ml beaker. Stir material in first bucket; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling. Pour
all but heavy sediment through 325-mesh sieve into second bucket; discard residue in first
bucket. Backwash material caught on 325-mesh sieve (which includes small to mid-sized
nematodes and silty material) into 250-ml beaker. More than 90% of the live nematodes are
recovered in the first 5-8 mm of water drawn from the rubber tubing and the sample is placed in
a shallow dish for examination

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III. Ecological engineering for pest management

Ecological engineering for pest management has recently emerged as a paradigm for
considering pest management approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to
effect habitat manipulation and to enhance biological control. The cultural practices are
informed by ecological knowledge rather than on high technology approaches such as
synthetic pesticides and genetically engineered crops (Gurr et al. 2004).

Natural enemies may require

1. Food in the form of pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies.
2. Shelters such as overwintering sites, moderate microclimate, etc are needed.
3. Natural enemies may also require alternate host when primary host are not present.
Ecological engineering for pest management – Above ground:

 Raising the flowering plants / compatible cash crops along the field border by arranging
shorter plants towards main crop and taller plants towards the border to attract natural
enemies as well as to avoid immigrating pest population
 Growing flowering plants on the internal bunds inside the field
 Not to uproot weed plants those are growing naturally like Tridax procumbens, Ageratum
sp. Alternanthera sp., which act as nectar source for natural enemies,
 Not to apply broad spectrum chemical pesticides, when the . P: D is favourable. The
plant compensation ability should also be considered before applying chemical
pesticides.

Ecological engineering for pest management – Below ground:

 Crop rotations with leguminous plants which enhance nitrogen content.

 Keeping soils covered year-round with living vegetation and/or crop residue.
 Adding organic matter in the form of FYM, Vermicompost, crop residue which enhance
below ground biodiversity.
 Reducing tillage intensity so that hibernating natural enemies can be saved.
 Applying balanced dose of nutrients using biofertilizers
 Apply mychorrhiza and PGPR
 Applying Trichoderma as seed and nursery treatment and Pseudomonas fluorescens as
seed, nursery treatment and soil application (if commercial products are used, check for
label claim. However, biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their
fields, registration is not required).

Due to enhancement of biodiversity by the flowering plants, parasitoids and predatory natural
enemies number also will increase due to availability of nectar, pollen, fruits, insects, etc. The
major predators are a wide variety of spiders, lady bird beetles, long horned grasshoppers,
Chrysoperla, earwigs, etc.

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Good insectary plants belonging to Compositae, Leguminaceae, Umbelliferae,
Brassicaceae etc. families

French bean Marigold Carrot

Sunflower Buckwheat Desmodium sp

Mustard Castor Maize

Alfalfa Chrysanthemum Dill

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Flowering plants that attract natural enemies/repel pests
Insect pest Natural enemies Attractant Plants
1 Gram pod Parasitoids: Trichogramma  Repellant plants: Ocimum/Basil
borer chilonis (egg), Tetrastichus spp.  Attractant plants: Carrot family,
(egg), Telenomus spp. (egg), sunflower family, buck wheat,
Chelonus blackburni (egg-larval), alfalfa, corn, shrubs (minute
Carcelia spp. (larval-pupal), pirate bug and lacewing)
Campoletis chlorideae (larval),  Nectar rich plants with small
Goniophthalmus halli (larval), flowers i.e. anise, caraway, dill,
Bracon spp. (larval) etc. parsely, mustard, sunflower,
buck wheat and cowpea (wasp)
Predators: Chrysoperla carnea,
coccinellids, King crow, common
mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider,
robber fly, reduviid bug, praying
mantis, fire ants, big eyed bugs
(Geocoris sp), pentatomid bug
(Eocanthecona furcellata),
earwigs, ground beetles, rove
beetles etc.

Ovomermis albicans, a nematode,

2. Tobacco Parasitoids: Trichogramma  Repellant plants: Osimum/Basil
caterpillar chilonis (egg), Tetrastichus spp.  Attractant plants: Carrot family,
(egg), Telenomus spp. (egg), sunflower family, buck wheat,
Chelonus blackburni (egg-larval), alfalfa, corn, shrubs (minute
Carcelia spp. (larval-pupal), pirate bug and lacewing)
Campoletis chlorideae (larval),  Nectar rich plants with small
Eriborus argentiopilosus (larval), flowers i.e anise, caraway, dill,
Microplitis sp (larval) etc. parsely, mustard, sunflower,
buck wheat and cowpea (wasp)
Predators: Chrysoperla carnea,
coccinellids, King crow, common
mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider,
robber fly, reduviid bug, praying
mantis, fire ants, big eyed bugs
(Geocoris sp), pentatomid bug
(Eocanthecona furcellata),
earwigs, ground beetles, rove
beetles etc.

Ovomermis albicans, a nematode,

3. Leafhoppers Parasitoids: Lymaenon  Sunflower family, alfalfa (damsel
empoascae (egg), Anagrus bug & minute pirate bug)
flaveolus, Stethynium triclavatum  Carrot family, buck wheat,
alfalfa, corn, shrubs (minute
Predators: Lady beetle, ants pirate bug)
Distina albino, Chrysoperla spp.,
mirid bug (Dicyphus hesperus),
big-eyed bug, (Geocoris sp) etc.

24
4. Aphids Parasitoids: Aphidius colemani,  Carrot family, sunflower family,
Diaeretiella spp., Aphelinus spp. marigold, buckwheat, spear mint
etc. (syrphid fly, lace wing, minute
pirate bug, damsel fly and lady
Predators: Anthocorid beetle)
bugs/pirate bugs (Orius spp.),  French bean (predatory thrips)
mirid bugs, syrphid/hover flies,  Strips of Rye, grains, cover crops
green lacewings (Mallada basalis and mulch beds (rove beetle)
and Chrysoperla carnea),  Mustard, sweet clove, dill (aphid
predatory coccinellids (Stethorus midge, Aphidoletes aphidimyza)
punctillum), staphylinid beetle  Nectar rich plants with small
(Oligota spp.), predatory flowers i.e. anise, caraway, dill,
cecidomyiid fly (Aphidoletis parsely, mustard, coriander
aphidimyza) and predatory gall (aphid parasite and braconid
midge, (Feltiella minuta), earwigs, wasp)
ground beetles, rove beetles,  Sunflower, buckwheat and
spiders, wasps etc. cowpea (braconid wasp)
5 Spider mites Predators: Anthocorid bugs  Attractant plants: Carrot family,
and yellow (Orius spp.), mirid bugs, bishop’s weed (spider mite
mites syrphid/hover flies, green destroyer)
lacewings (Mallada basalis and  Sunflower family, marigold, buck
Chrysoperla carnea), predatory wheat, spear mint (lady beetle)
mites (Amblyseius alstoniae, A.  Carrot family, sunflower family,
womersleyi, A. fallacies and buck wheat, alfalfa, corn, shrubs
Phytoseiulus persimilis), (minute pirate bug)
predatory coccinellids (Stethorus  Mustard, sweet clove, dill (aphid
punctillum), staphylinid beetle midge)
(Oligota spp.), predatory  French bean (predatory mites)
cecidomyiid fly (Anthrocnodax  Berseem clover,(big eyed bugs)
occidentalis) , predatory gall
midge (Feltiella minuta) etc.

Fungal pathogen: Beauveria

bassiana (entomo pathogen)
6 Root knot Use of biocontrol agents like  Intercropping of marigold with
nematode Paecilomyces lilacinus (egg tomato reduces nematode
parasite) population
 Repellant plants: Marigold
 Crop rotation : Marigold,
Chrysanthemum spp., Sesbania
spp., Crotalaria spp., Gaillardia
sp, castor bean and Desmodium
spp., (parasitic nematodes)
 Boarder crops: Strips of Rye,
grains, cover crops and mulch
beds (rove beetle)

25
A. Resistant/tolerant varieties:

Pest Resistant/Tolerant variety

Thrips Pusa Jwala, Phule Jyoti

Mites Pusa Jwala, Phule Jyoti

Viral diseases Pusa Sadabahar, Arka Harita, Arka Meghana, Arka Sweta, Hisar Shakti, Hisar
and leaf curl Vijay, Pant C-1
complex

Powdery Arka Suphal, Arka Harita, Arka Meghana, Hisar Shakti, Hisar Vijay, Phule
mildew Mukta

Fruit rot Hisar Shakti, Hisar Vijay, TNAU Chilli Hybrid Co 1

Fusarium Wilt Phule Jyoti, Phule Mukta

*For detailed and updated information nearest KVK, SAU / ICAR Institute may be
contacted

26
IV. Crop stage-wise IPM
Stage Management Activity
Pre-sowing* Nutrients  Add well rotten farm yard manure (FYM) @
25 t/acre or vermicompost @ 4 t/acre.
Incorporate at the time of field preparation 1
week (vermicompost) or 2 to 3 weeks
(FYM) before transplanting
Weeds  At the time of field preparation, adopt stale
seed bed technique to minimize the weeds
menace in field
 Keep the nursery weed free by hand
weeding

Soil borne fungus, Cultural control:

nematodes, and  Deep summer ploughing of fields to control
resting stages of nematodes, Helicoverpa, and Spodoptera.
insects  Soil solarization: Cover the beds with
polythene sheet of 45 gauge (0.45 mm)
thickness for three weeks before sowing for
soil solarization which will help in reducing
the soil borne pests

Biological control:
 Apply neem cake @ 100 kg/acre at the time
of transplanting for reducing nematodes
and borer damage.

Chemical control:
 In nematode severe area apply carbofuran
3% CG granules @ 26,640 g/acre
Damping off Cultural control:
 Excessive watering and poorly drained
areas of field should be avoided
 Use raised beds: more than 15 cm height
is better for water drainage.
 Raise seedlings in pro-trays/plug trays.

Chemical control:
 Seed treatment with captan 75 WS @ 25-
30 g/kg seed
 Soil drenching with captan 75% WP @
1000 g in 400 l of water/acre or
Seed Nutrients  Before sowing, soil testing should be done
Sowing/ to find out the soil fertility status. Nutrient
Transplanting should be provided as per soil test
stage* recommendations. Generally, for rainfed
chilli: 60: 30: 50: Kg N: P: Kg/ha should be
applied as basal dose. For irrigated chilli:
60: 60: 30 Kg N: P: K/ha should be applied

27
 as a basal dose.
 Based on soil test for micronutrient, the
deficient micronutrient should be
applied in soil at sowing / transplanting.
In Zn deficient areas, zinc sulphate @
25 kg/acre should be applied at last
ploughing.
 Biofertilizers: For seed treatment with
Azotobacter and phosphorous solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) cultures @ 8-10 g/kg seed
 For seedling root dip treatment with
Azotobacter and phosphorous solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) cultures @ 250 g/acre
seedlings
Weeds  Keep the nursery weed free by hand
weeding.
* Applying Trichoderma as seed and nursery treatment and Pseudomonas fluorescens
as seed, nursery treatment and soil application (if commercial products are used, check
for label claim. However, biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their
fields, registration is not required).
Vegetative Nutrients  In rainfed chilli, apply 25 kg N/acre as top
stage dressing with rains.
 In irrigated chilli, first top dressing of 20 kg
N + 10 kg K/acre should be done at 45
days after planting.
 Second top dressing of 20 kg N + 10 kg
K/acre should be done at 60 days after
planting.
 Third top dressing of 20 kg N + 10 kg
K/acre should be done at 75 days after
planting.
 Micronutrient deficiency should be
corrected by foliar spray of particular
micronutrient.
 Apply NAA @ 50 ppm (1 ml in 4.5 lit of
water ) 2-3 times at 15 days interval to
minimize flower drop.
Weeds  Field should be weed free up to 30 days to
enable the crop to cover up.
 After transplanting 2 hand weedings are
required.
 Mulching with black Low Density
Polyethylene (LDPE) sheets of 30 micron
thickness between the rows by burying both
the ends into the soil to a depth of 10 cm
as well as drip irrigation will avoid weed
growth.
Thrips Cultural control:
 Inter crop with Sesbania grandiflora, to

28
 provide barrier which regulate the thrips
population.
 Do not follow chilli and onion mixed crop –
both the crops attacked by thrips
 Sprinkle water over the seedlings to check
the multiplication of thrips

Biological control:
 Conserve predators such as predatory mite
(Amblyseius swirskii), insidious flower bugs
(Orius insidiosus) etc.
 Apply neem cake to the beds @ 100
kg/acre in two split doses at the time of
planting and 30 days after transplanting

Chemical control:
 Seed treatment with imidacloprid 70% WS
@ 400-600 g/100 kg seed.
 Apply fipronil 5% SC @ 320-400 ml in 200 l
of water/acre or lambda-cyhalothrin 4.9%
CS @ 200 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
lambda-cyhalothrin 5% EC @ 120 ml in
160-240 l of water/acre or spinosad 45%
SC @ 64 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
thiacloprid 21.7% SC @ 90-120 ml in 200 l
of water/acre or acetamiprid 20% SP @ 20-
40 g in 200-240 l of water/acre or
emamectin benzoate 5% SG @ 80 g in 200
l of water/acre or carbaryl 50% WP @ 800
g in 200-400 l of water/acre or carbofuran
3% CG @ 13320 g/acre or ethion 50% EC
@ 600-800 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or
fenpropathrin 30% EC @ 100-136 ml in
300-400 l of water/acre or methomyl 40%
SP @ 300-450 ml in 200-400 l of
water/acre or oxydemeton-methy 25% EC
@ 400 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or
phorate 10% CG @ 4000 g/acre or
phosalone 35% EC @ 800 ml in 200-400 l
of water/acre or indoxacarb 14.5% +
acetamiprid 7.7% W/W SC @ 160-200 ml
in 200 l of water/acre
Aphids Biological control:
 Conserve parasitoids such as Aphidius
colemani, Diaeretiella spp. Aphelinus spp.
etc.
 Conserve predators such as anthocorid
bugs/pirate bugs (Orius spp.), mirid bugs,
syrphid/hover flies, green lacewings
(Mallada basalis and Chrysoperla

29
 carnea), predatory coccinellids (Stethorus
punctillum), staphylinid beetle (Oligota
spp.), predatory cecidomyiid fly
(Aphidoletis aphidimyza) and predatory
gall midge, (Feltiella minuta), earwigs,
ground beetles, rove beetles, spiders,
wasps etc.

Chemical control:
 Seed treatment with imidacloprid 70% WS
@ 400-600 g/100 kg seed.
 Apply fipronil 5% SC @ 320-400 ml in 200 l
of water/acre or oxydemeton methyl 25%
EC @ 640 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or
carbofuran 3% CG @ 13320 g/acre or
carbosulfan 25% EC @ 320-400 ml in 200-
400 l of water/acre or phorate 10% CG @
4000 g/acre or phosalone 35% EC @ 800
ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or quinalphos
25% GEL @ 400 g in 200-400 l of
water/acre or quinalphos 25% EC @ 400
ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or quinalphos
1.5% DP @ 8000 g/acre
 Alternate chemicals at 10 days interval till
the end of aphid population
Yellow mite/other Cultural control:
mites  Chilli crop bordered by two rows of maize
at every 0.5 acre area (31.2 x 60 sqm).

Biological control:
 Conserve the predators such as predatory
mite (Amblyseius ovalis), predatory bug
(Orius spp.), spiders etc.
 If the incidence of mites is low, spray neem
seed powder extract 4% at 10 days interval

Chemical control:
 Spray dimethoate 30% EC @ 396 ml in
200-400 l of water/acre or emamectin
benzoate 5% SG @ 80 g in 200 l of
water/acre or fenazaquin 10% EC @ 500
ml in 160-240 l of water/acre or
fenpropathrin 30% EC @ 100-136 ml in
300-400 l of water/acre or fenpyroximate
5% EC @ 120-240 ml in 120-200 l of
water/acre or milbemectin 1% EC @ 130 ml
in 200 l of water/acre or propargite 57% EC
@ 600 ml in 200-250 l of water/acre or
spiromesifen 22.9% SC@ 160 ml in 200-
300 l of water/acre or chlorfenapyr 10% SC

30
 @ 300-400 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
diafenthiuron 50% WP @ 240 g in 200-300
l of water/acre or ethion 50% EC @ 600-
800 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre or
hexythiazox 5.45% W/W EC @ 120-200 ml
in 250 l of water/acre or lambda-cyhalothrin
5% EC @ 120 ml in 160-240 l of water/acre
or or oxydemeton-methy 25% EC @ 800 ml
in 200-400 l of water/acre or phorate 10%
CG @ 4000 g/acre or phosalone 35%
EC @ 514 ml in 200-400 l of water/acre
or quinalphos 25% EC @ 600 ml in
200-400 l of water/acre
Tobacco caterpillar Cultural control:
 Field sanitation and roguing
 Castor can be grown as a trap crop along
the field border to attract the egg laying
female adult moths (collect and destroy the
laid egg masses and gregarious neonates)
 Pest repellant plants: Ocimum/Basil
 Setting up light traps for collecting adults @
1/acre
 Erecting of bird perches for encouraging
predatory birds such as king crow, mynah
etc.
 Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre for
monitoring adult moth activity. Replace the
lures with fresh lures after every 2-3 weeks

Biological control:
 Spray NSKE 5 % against eggs and first
instar larva.
 Spray B. t. var gallariae @ 600-800 g in
400 l of water/acre
 Conserve parasitoids such as
Trichogramma chilonis (egg), Tetrastichus
spp. (egg), Telenomus spp. (egg),
Chelonus blackburni (egg-larval), Carcelia
spp. (larval-pupal), Campoletis chlorideae
(larval), Eriborus argentiopilosus (larval),
Microplitis sp etc.
 Conserve predators such as Chrysoperla
carnea, coccinellids, King crow, common
mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider, robber fly,
reduviid bug, praying mantis, fire ants, big
eyed bugs (Geocoris sp), pentatomid bug
(Eocanthecona furcellata), earwigs, ground
beetles, rove beetles etc.

Chemical control

31
  Apply emamectin benzoate 5% SG @ 80 g
in 200 l of water/acre or fipronil 5% SC @
320-400 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
flubendiamide 39.35% M/M SC @ 40-50 ml
in 200 l of water/acre or indoxacarb 14.5%
SC @ 133-160 ml in 120-240 l of
water/acre or lufenuron 5.4% EC @ 240 ml
in 200 l of water/acre or spinosad 45% SC
@ 64 ml in 200 l of water/acre or novaluron
10 % EC @ 150 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 60 ml in
200 l of water/acre or deltamethrin 2.8% EC
@ 160-200 ml in 160-240 l of water/acre or
lambda-cyhalothrin 4.9% CS @ 200 ml in
200 l of water/acre or lambda-cyhalothrin
5% EC @ 120 ml in 160-240 l of water/acre
or methomyl 40% SP @ 300-450 ml in 200-
400 l of water/acre or thiodicarb 75% WP
@ 250.4-400 g in 200 l of water/acre or
indoxacarb 14.5% + acetamiprid 7.7% W/W
SC @ 160-200 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
pyriproxyfen 5% + fenpropathrin 15% EC @
200-300 ml in 200-300 l of water/acre

Gram pod borer Cultural control:

 Field sanitation and roguing
 Erecting suitable physical barriers such as
nylon nets
 Growing intercrops such as cowpea, onion,
maize, coriander, urdbean in 5 or 4:1 ratio
 Guard crop sorghum or maize in 4 rows all
around cotton crop as guard crop.
 Rotate the chilli crop with a non-host cereal
crop, cucurbit, or cruciferous vegetable.
 Repellant plants: Ocimum/Basil
 Erecting of bird perches for encouraging
predatory birds such as king crow, mynah,
and drongo etc.
 Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre for
monitoring adult moths activity. Replace
the lures with fresh lures after every 2-3
weeks
 Use of ovipositional trap crops such as
marigold @ 100 plants/acre 1 row of
marigold for every 18 rows of chilli and
collection of larvae from flowers (marigold
seedling of 45 days should be planted
along with chilli transplanting)

32
 Biological control:
 Release of egg parasitoid Trichogramma
pretiosum @ 50,000 adults (in the form of
parasitized card)/acre/week commenced
right from the start of flower initiation to till
end of the crop, tie the egg cards on the
stick placed through out the field at 4-5 m
apart, in the evening, a day prior to the
emergence of adult.
 Conserve parasitoids such as Tetrastichus
spp. (egg), Telenomus spp. (egg),
Campoletis chlorideae (larval) etc.
 Conserve predators such as Chrysoperla
carnea, coccinellids, King crow, common
mynah, wasp, dragonfly, spider, robber fly,
reduviid bug, praying mantis, fire ants, big
eyed bugs (Geocoris sp), pentatomid bug
(Eocanthecona furcellata), earwigs, ground
beetles, rove beetles etc.

Chemical control:
 Seed treatment with thiamethoxam 30%
FS @ 7 g/kg seed
 Apply emamectin benzoate 5% SG @ 80 g
in 200 l of water/acre or fipronil 5% SC @
320-400 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
flubendiamide 39.35% M/M SC @ 40-50 ml
in 200 l of water/acre or indoxacarb 14.5%
SC @ 133-160 ml in 120-240 l of
water/acre or lufenuron 5.4% EC @ 240 ml
in 200 l of water/acre or spinosad 45% SC
@ 64 ml in 200 l of water/acre or novaluron
10 % EC @ 150 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 60 ml in
200 l of water/acre or deltamethrin 2.8% EC
@ 160-200 ml in 160-240 l of water/acre or
lambda-cyhalothrin 4.9% CS @ 200 ml in
200 l of water/acre or lambda-cyhalothrin
5% EC @ 120 ml in 160-240 l of water/acre
or methomyl 40% SP @ 300-450 ml in 200-
400 l of water/acre or thiodicarb 75% WP
@ 250.4-400 g in 200 l of water/acre or
indoxacarb 14.5% + acetamiprid 7.7% W/W
SC @ 160-200 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
pyriproxyfen 5% + fenpropathrin 15% EC @
200-300 ml in 200-300 l of water/acre
Choeanephora blight Cultural control:
 Adopt recommended spacing to maintain
adequate air circulation.
 Grow resistant varieties.

33
 Chemical control:
 Spray captan 75% WP @ 800 g in 400 l of
water/acre
Die back and fruit rot Cultural control:
 Production of pathogen-free planting
materials is the key control measure used
to manage the disease.
 Use healthy pathogen-free chilli seed
 Early removal of affected plants will control
the spread of the diseases.
 Transplants should be kept clean by
controlling weeds and solanaceous
volunteers in the vicinity of the transplant
houses
 Stagnation of water should not be allowed
in nursery beds and fields in order to avoid
fungal infection. The field should have good
drainage and be free from infected plant
debris.

Chemical control:
 For die back and fruit rot spray benomyl
50% WP @ 80 g in 240 l of water/acre or
captan 75% WP @ 800 g in 400 l of
water/acre or copper oxy chloride 50% WP
@ 1000 g in 300-400 l of water/acre or
difenoconazole 25% EC @ 50 ml in 200 l of
water/acre or hexaconazole 2% SC @ 1200
ml in 200 l of water/acre or propineb 70%
WP @ 200 g in 200-300 l of water/acre or
tebuconazole 25% WG @ 200-300 g in 200
l of water/acre or zineb 75 % WP @ 600-
800 g in 300-400 l of water/acre or
azoxystrobin 23% SC @ 200 ml in 200-300 l
of water/acre or chlorothalonil @ 75% WP
@ 320 g in 300 l of water/acre or kitazine
48% EC @ 80 ml in 200-300 l of water/acre
or mancozeb 75% WP @ 600-800 g in 300 l
of water
 For anthracnose and fruit rot apply captan
50% WG @ 600 g in 200 l of water/acre or
captan 70% + hexaconazole 5% WP @
200-400 g in 200 l of water/acre or copper
sulphate 2.62% SC @ 400 ml in 200 l of
water/acre or copper hydroxide 77% WP @
500 ml in 200 l of water/acre
Mosaic Cultural control:
 Select healthy seed for planting.
 Crop rotation with non-hosts.

34
  Control perennial weed hosts.
 Rogue out and destroy infected plants in
early stages of infection.
 Grow disease tolerant varieties.
 Raise 4 rows of maize or sorghum as
border crop to restrict the spread of aphid
vectors.
 Cover the seed bed with nylon net or paddy
straw.

Chemical control:
 For vector control
 Seed treatment with imidacloprid 70% WS
@ 10 g/kg of seed.
 Apply fipronil 5% SC @ 320-400 ml in 200 l
of water/acre.
Powdery mildew Chemical control:
 Spray dinocap 48% EC @ 90 ml in 300 l of
water/acre or fenarimol 12% EC @ 40 ml in
200-300 l of water/acre or flusilazole 40%
EC @ 40-60 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
sulphur 52% SC @ 800 ml in 160 l of
water/acre or sulphur 80% WP @ 1252 g in
300-400 l of water/acre or azoxystrobin
23% SC @ 200 ml in 200-300 l of
water/acre or benomyl 50% WP @ 80 g in
240 l of water/acre or hexaconazole 2% SC
@ 1200 ml in 200 l of water/acre or
tebuconazole 25% WG @ 200-300 g in 200
l of water/acre
Cercospora leaf spot Chemical control:
 Spray mancozeb 75% WP @ 600-800 g in
300 l of water or zineb 75% WP @ 600-800
g in 300-400 l of water/acre or copper oxy
chloride 50% WP @ 1000 g in 300-400 l of
water/acre or benomyl 50% WP @ 80 g in
240 l of water/acre or copper hydroxide
77% WP @ 500 ml in 200 l of water/acre
Bacterial leaf spot Cultural control:
 Field sanitation is important. Also seeds
must be obtained from disease free plants.
 Seeds should be collected from healthy
fruits

Chemical control:
 Spray streptomycin sulfate 9% +
tetracycline hydrochloride 1% SP solution
(streptocycline) 40-100 ppm in fields after
the appearance of first true leaves. Two
sprays of streptocycline, one before

35
 transplanting (nursery) and another after
transplanting (main field)

Reproductive Nutrients  Micronutrient deficiency should be

stage corrected by foliar spray of particular
micronutrient.
Weeds  Left over weeds should be removed from
the field to avoid further spread of weed
seeds.
Gram pod borer and  Same as in vegetative stage
Tobacco caterpillar
Thrips  Same as in vegetative stage

Mites  Same as in vegetative stage

Die back & fruit rot  Same as in vegetative stage

Choeanephora blight  Same as in vegetative stage

Bacterial blight  Same as in vegetative stage

V. Insecticide resistance and its management

Insecticide resistance: Resistance to insecticides may be defined as ‘a heritable change in the

sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the
expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest
species’ (IRAC). Cross-resistance occurs when resistance to one insecticide confers resistance
to another insecticide, even where the insect has not been exposed to the latter product.

Causes of resistance development: The causes and rate at which insecticide resistance
develops depend on several factors, including the initial frequency of resistance alleles present
in the population, how rapidly the insects reproduce, the insects’ level of resistance, the
migration and host range of the insects, the insecticide's persistence and specificity, and the
rate, timing and number of applications of insecticide made. For instance, insect pests that
survive in large populations and breed quickly are at greater advantage of evolving insecticide,
especially when insecticides are misused or over-used.

General strategy for insecticide resistance management: The best strategy to avoid
insecticide resistance is prevention and including insecticide resistance management tactics as
part of a larger integrated pest management (IPM) approach.

1) Monitor pests: Monitor insect population development in fields to determine if and when
control measures are warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control
decisions. After treatment, continue monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.
2) Focus on AESA. Insecticides should be used only as a last resort when all other non-
chemical management options are exhausted and P: D ratio is above 2: 1. Apply

36
biopesticides/chemical insecticides judiciously after observing unfavourable P: D ratio and when
the pests are in most vulnerable life stage. Use application rates and intervals as per label
claim.
3) Ecological engineering for pest management: Flowering plants that attract natural
enemies as well as plants that repel pests can be grown as border/intercrop.
4) Take an integrated approach to managing pests. Use as many different control measures
as possible viz., cultural, mechanical, physical, biological etc. Select insecticides with care and
consider the impact on future pest populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum
insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specific insecticide will work. More preference
should be given to green labeled insecticides.
5) Mix and apply carefully. While applying insecticides care should be taken for proper
application of insecticides in terms of dose, volume, timing, coverage, application techniques as
per label claim.
6) Alternate different insecticide classes. Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide,
insecticides in the same chemical class, or insecticides in different classes with same mode of
action and rotate/alternate insecticide classes and modes of action.
7) Preserve susceptible genes. Preserve susceptible individuals within the target population
by providing unsprayed areas within treated fields, adjacent "refuge" fields, or habitat attractions
within a treated field that facilitate immigration. These susceptible individuals may outcompete
and interbreed with resistant individuals, diluting the resistant genes and therefore the impact of
resistance.

VI. Nutritional deficiencies and disorders

Poor fruit setting and development, limited growth, defective flower formation and yellowing of
leaves are some of the symptoms caused by nutrients deficiencies in chilli plants. The
deficiency symptoms shown below help advice to identify the cause of symptoms and
physiological disorders in chilli plant.

Nutrient and their deficiency symptoms Appearance

Nitrogen: Plant development gradually slows
down. Gradual drying, beginning at leaf
margins, of the area between the lower leaf
veins. The petioles bend and hang downwards,
parallel to the stem. The plant develops few
flowers and fruit setting is poor. The fruit
receptacle is thin, and the ovary is small.
Sometimes there is no fruit development on the
plant at all, and on those plants that bear fruits,
the fruit is deformed.

37
Phosphorus: The plants display limited
growth. The leaves are hard and brittle to the
touch. Flower formation is defective. Few
flowers develop, and in those that do develop,
only one in every four or five develops a fruit.
The fruit is underdeveloped, with a thin
receptacle, and very few seeds. The root
system is undeveloped.

Potassium: Yellow chlorosis spots appear

between leaf veins, firstly in the lower leaves.
The veins and the areas adjacent to these
spots do not change their color. Later, the
chlorotic spots become lighter. (This can be
seen mainly in the upper parts of the plant).
There is little fruit setting, and not much fruit,
which is smaller than usual.

Magnesium: Common in pepper plants.

Yellowing of the leaves is apparent in the
interveinal areas and veins remain green. The
oldest leaves are affected first. Sometimes
magnesium deficiency occurs when excessive
applications of potassium have been made. It
may also show up under extremely hot dry
weather.

Sulphur: Chlorosis occur in young leaves;

leaves become small.

38
Calcium: The most common reason for
Blossom End Rot of the fruit. This may be
corrected by foliar spray of calcium chloride or
calcium nitrate. Further information following
downwards.
Blossom end rot (BER): occurs mainly during
hot weather conditions. Fruits are affected in
their early stages of development (10-15 days
after fruit set); the cause is related to the rate
of calcium supply to the fruit, which is lower
than the rate of the fruit growth. This results in
the collapse of certain tissues in the fruit,
demonstrated as BER. Factors that favor BER
are directly related to limited calcium uptake
and transport to the fruit, like high salinity, high
temperatures and high growing intensity and
water shortage.
Pepper spots: Black spot or strip is shown in
the fruit as grey/black spots, which develop
under the skin in the fruit wall about the time
the fruit attains a diameter of 8 centimeters or
more. As the fruits ripen, the spots slightly
enlarge and turn green or yellow. Strip is a
calcium disorder, caused by excessive N-
NH4 and K rates. Susceptibility greatly varies
by variety.

Boron: The deficiency manifests itself very

quickly. The lower leaves curl upwards. Growth
is stunted. The plant develops a thick, short
stem. The apex withers and the leaves become
yellow from bottom to top of the plant. There is
a reduced production of flowers, and fruit
setting is poor. In case of severe deficiency the
growing points die and decay, and the leaves
are misshapen:

39
Iron: Symptoms show at the later stages of
growth. The young leaves fade and then
become yellow in the areas between the veins.
The veins remain green.
Chloride: Wilted leaves, which then become
chlorotic bronze, and necrotic. Roots become
stunted and thickened near tips.
Manganese: Chlorotic spots between the
upper leaf veins.
Zinc: The leaves become narrow and small in
chili.
Copper: Appear late in the vegetative stage.
The leaf margins curl and dry up. The leaves
and the fruit become narrow and rectangular.
Molybdenum: The foliage turns yellow-green
and growth is somewhat restricted. The
deficiency occurs most commonly on acidic
substrates.

Source: http://www.haifa-group.com
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/agri_min_fldcrops_vegetables.html

VII. Description of common weeds

Major kharif weeds

1. Pigweed: Amaranthus viridis Hook. F. Amaranthaceae

It is an erect 6 to 100 cm tall annual herb with especially upwards glabrous to pubescent stem.
Leaves are also glabrous or pubescent on the veins of the lower surface; petioles long (up to 10
cm), occasionally longer than the blade; blade ovate to rhombic-oblong, base tapered to blunt,
tip rounded. Flowers green, unisexual, male and female intermixed, in slender axillary to
terminal paniculate spikes 2-12 cm long and 2-5 mm wide, or in dense axillary clusters in the
lower part of the stem. Fruits are capsule almost round shaped 1.25-1.75 mm long with rough
surface. Seeds 1-1.25 mm, round, slightly compressed, dark brown to black with a paler thick
border.

40
2. Swine cress: Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Brassicaceae

An annual herb with, horizontal or ascending stem, multiple from the base, radiating from a
central point; glabrous, green. Leaves are alternate, petiolate, pinnate, 4-5 cm long, 2 cm broad,
glabrous. Divisions of the leaves opposite, lobed or devided, linear-elliptic to linear oblong.
Inflorescence is a small raceme, up to 4 cm long, opposite to one of the stem leaves, compact.
Flowers minute, greenish. Fruits are glabrous, 3-4 mm broad, 2 mm long, slightly compressed,
sub-globose, 2-seeded.

3. Black nightshade : Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae

A variable annual herb upto 1 m tall with an erect, glabrous or sparsely pubescent stem and
staggered branching pattern. Leaves are 2.5-9 cm long and 2-5 cm wide, ovate, glabrous, thin,
margins toothed, tapering into the petiole, apex subacute. Flowers small, white, borne in
drooping, umbellate 3-8 flowered cymes. Fruits berries globose, 5-8 mm in diameter, red, yellow
or purplish-black. when ripened, fruits having numerous, disc-shaped, 1.5 mm in diameter,
yellow, minutely pitted seeds.

4. Common purselane: Portulaca oleracea L. Portualacaceae

An annual glabrous herb with prostrate and succulent stem. Leaves spatulate, flattened, apex
round nearly truncate. Flowers 3-10 mm diameter and yellow. Fruits capsules ovoid, 4-9 mm
diameter. Seeds black or dark brown, orbiculate or elongate, flattened, 0.6-1.1 mm; surface
cells sooth, granular, or stellate, with rounded tubercles.

41
5. False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk. Amaranthaceae

An annual herb, 30-60 cm high with spreading branches. Leaves variable, 2-7.5 cm long and
1.3-4.5 cm wide, ovate or elliptic, acute or rounded at the apex, sometimes with reddish
margins, glabrous. Flowers pink, borne in threes axillary, pedunculate spikes, 2.5-12.5 cm long.
Fruits globose, approximately 0.3 cm in diameter having yellowish-brown.

6. Rabbit/crow foot grass: Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd Poaceae

Annual, very variable, grass, 10-44 cm high. Stem erect or creeping culms, rooting from the
profusely branched nodes. Leaves are linear, tapering to a fine point, 2-10 cm long and 0.2-0.4
cm wide, flat, glaucous, glabrous or hispid; leaf sheaths striate, the lower whitish; ligules
membranous, very short. Inflorescence comprised of 2-6 digitate spikes, 0.5-4 cm long, olive-
grey; spikelets 2-5 flowered, spreading at right angles, pendulous, strongly striate. Grain 0.5-1
mm long, subglobose, reddish, very rugose.

7. Crabgrass: Digiteria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Poaceae

42
A prostrate or ascending annual grass with spreading, branched stem having rooting at nodes.
Leaves are 3-20 cm long, 3-10 mm wide, with hairs on both the surfaces. Stem sheaths hairy
and closed. Leaves and sheaths may turn dark red or maroon with age. Seed head composed
of 4-6 branches (spikes) at the top of the stems, each approximately 3-15 cm long. Fruit
caryopsis shiny, yellowish-brown, 2-3 mm long.

8. Barnyard grass: Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. Poaceae

Robust, tufted annual grass, erect or at the base decumbent and rooting at the nodes, 20-150
cm tall. Culms cylindrical, glabrous, filled with white spongy pith. Leaf sheaths glabrous and 9-
13 cm long. Leaf blades merging into the sheath, linear, with a broad, rounded base and acute
top; rough margined, glabrous or at the base with a few long hairs, smooth or the upper surface
minutely bristly. Inflorescence is an apical panicle of 5-40 spikes like racemes. Fruit are
caryopsis ovoid to obovoid, compressed, 1.5-2 mm long.

Sedges
9. Purple nutsedge: Cyperus rotundus L. Cypraceae

A perennial sedge, hard, fragrant, globose-ovoid tubers, up to 1.2 cm long and 0.3-0.7 cm in
diameter; culms solitary or few together, sparsely tufted, erect, 10-75 cm tall, 3-angled at top.
Leaves narrowly linear, sometimes longer than stem, 0.4-0.8 cm wide, dark green above, pale
beneath. Inflorescence is a simple or compound umbel, rays 2-8, each up to 7.5 cm long,
bearing short spikes of 3-10 spreading, red-brown spikelets. Nuts oblong to ovate-oblong, 3-
sided, 1.3-1.5 mm long and 0.5-0.7 mm wide, maturing brown.

43
10. Flat sedge: Cyperus iria L. Cypraceae

Annual sedge, sometimes behaving as a perennial with 8 to 60 cm high. The culms are tufted,
triangular, smooth, green and 0.6-3.0 mm thick. The roots are numerous, short and yellowish-
red. Leaves are linear-lanceolate, usually all shorter than the culm, 1-8 mm wide, flat, and rough
on the margin and major ribs; leaf sheaths are green to reddish-brown, membraneous and
envelope the culm at the base. Inflorescence is simple or compound, usually open, 1-20 cm
long and 1-20 cm wide, with groups of spikes which are either attached directly to stem or on
0.5-15.0 cm long peduncles (rays). Spikelets are erect-spreading, crowded, 6-24-flowered, 2-13
mm long, 1.5-2.0 mm wide, golden to yellowish green. Nutlet, 1.0-1.5 mm long, 0.6-0.7 mm
wide, obovate, triangular in cross section, dark-brown to almost black; the surface is almost
smooth.

Major rabi weeds

1. Lambs quarter: Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae

It is an annual weed found in agricultural fields. It is a polymorphous, non-aromatic, erect herb,

0.3-3 m tall with angled stems that are often striped green, red or purple. Leaves are variable in
size and shape, lower leaves are toothed or irregularly lobes, 10-15 cm long, with petioles often
as long as leaf blades. Flowers are green, borne in clusters forming a compact or loosely
panicled axillary spike. Fruits utricle, seeds round, compressed, black and shining.

44
2. Scarlet pimpernel: Anagallis arvensis Primulaceae L

A low-growing annual, up to 30 cm tall with branched or erect herbaceous, 4-angled, glabrous to

pubescent stem. Sometimes rooting observed at the nodes. Leaves are opposite, entire,
sessile, ovate variously pubescent, margins somewhat tuberculate. Flowers are bright blue,
solitary arising from the area between the stem and leaves (leaf axils) and occur on relatively
long stalks (pedicels). Fruits capsule, globose, seeds1.3 mm long, trigonous, brown.

3. Sweet clover: Melilotus indica (L.) All. Fabaceae

It is a sweet-smelling erect herb, up to 10-60 cm high with hairless, spreading or erect stem.
Leaves odd-1-pinnate; leaflets 1-2.5 cm, inverted, lance-shaped to wedge-shaped, generally
sharply toothed on the broader part. Flowers yellow; appear in slender, compact racemes that
are 1-2 inches in length. Plant bear papery, small, round, 2-3 mm long, yellow or grey,
reticulately wrinkled and slightly hairy pods. Seeds 2 mm long; 1.5 mm wide; broadly oval, one
side plane, the other side rounded; yellowish green; roughened by minute tubercles.

45
4. Fine leaf fumitory: Fumaria parviflora Lam. Fumariaceae

Annual herb, up to 60 cm tall. Stem Slender, much branched and succulent. Leaves 2-3
pinnatisect, 2-5 cm long, segments linear oblanceolate, apiculate. Flowers Purplish-red,
spurred, in terminal or leaf opposed bracteate racemes. Fruits are rounded nuts, 2-3 mm in
diameter, wrinkled when dry.

5. Corn spurry: Spergula arvensis L. Caryophyllaceae

A diffuse annual herb. Stem branched from the root, grooved. Leaves are in pseudo whorls,
fleshy, linear-subulate, spreading. Flowers small, white. Fruits capsule rounded, five valved.
Seeds are circular, thick lens shaped in cross section; margins winged with one small notch.
Seeds are greyish black to black with margins usually light brown.

6. Bluegrass: Poa annua L. Poaceae

Annual cool-season grass grows 6 to 8 inches high when left unmowed. It has light green
flattened stems that are bent at the base and often rooted at the lower stem joint. Leaf blades

46
are often crinkled part way down and vary from 1 to 3 inches long with typical Poa boat-shaped
leaf tips- a key characteristic of annual bluegrass. Inflorescence is branched with three to eight
flattened florets in each spikelet.

7. Canary grass: Phalaris minor Retz. Poaceae

A tufted annual bunchgrass, up to 1.8 meters in height. Stem is erect or horizontal with long,
linear leaves. Ligule is an oblong hyaline membrane, about 2-5 mm long, often truncate and/or
fringed; auricles absent, sheath smooth. Panicle more or less protruding or entirely protruding
from the uppermost swollen leaf sheath, ovate to oblong, 5-8 cm long, green. Spikelets green,
broadly lanceolate on short pedicels, shining, 4 -6 mm long, strongly laterally compressed.

VIII. Description of insect pests

1. Gram pod borer:

It is a polyphagous, infesting gram, lablab, safflower, chillies, groundnut, tobacco, cotton etc.

Biology:

Egg: The spherical, yellowish eggs are laid singly on tender parts and buds of plants. The egg
period lasts for 2-4 days.

Larva: Caterpillars vary in colour, initially brown and later turn greenish with darker broken lines
along the side of the body.

The larval period lasts for 18-25 days. Body covered with radiating hairs. When full grown, they
measure 3.7 to 5 cm in length. The full grown caterpillar pupates in the soil in an earthen cell
and emerges in 16-21 days.

47
Pupa: Pupation takes place inside the soil. Pupal stage lasts 7-15 days.

Adult: Moth is stout, medium sized with brownish/greyish forewings with a dark cross band near
outer margin and dark spots near costal margins, with a wing expanse of 3.7cm.

Life cycle:

4. Adult
7-10 days

ys
da
15
7-

3. Pupa Gram pod borer, 1. Eggs

Helicoverpa armigera

18
-2 ys
5
da da
4
ys 2-

2. Larva

1. http://www7.inra.fr/hyppz/RAVAGEUR/6helarm.htm
2. http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/120/crops
3. http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=9408
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicoverpa_armigera

Damage symptoms:

 Young larva feeds on the leaves for some time and then attacks fruits. Internal tissues are
eaten severely and completely hollowed out. While feeding the caterpillar thrust its head
inside leaving the rest of the body outside.
 Bored fruits with round holes.
 Fed leaves, shoots and buds.
 The activity of Helicoverpa starts on greengram, summer vegetables and maize and
continues their generation by Aug-Sept months synchronizing with main crop.

48
*For management refer to page number------------------------

http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/chilli-fruit-borer

Parasitoids:

1. Trichogramma spp. 2. Tetrastichus spp. 3. Chelonus spp.

4. Telenomus spp. 5. Bracon spp. 6. Ichneumon spp.

7. Carcelia spp. 8. Campoletis spp. 9. Senometopia illota

49
1. http://gsquaredbugs.com/?page_id=318
2. http://www.pbase.com/image/135529248
3. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/chelonus.htm
4. http://baba-insects.blogspot.in/2012/02/telenomus.html
5. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/Bracon%20brevicornis.htm
6. http://www.organicgardeninfo.com/ichneumon-wasp.html
7. http://72.44.83.99/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=40633&pid=178398
8. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/Campoletis.htm
9. http://eol.org/pages/28099/details

Predators:

1. Lacewing 2. Lady beetle 3. Spider 4. Fire ant

5. Dragon fly 6. Robber fly 7. Reduviid bug 8. Praying mantis

9. Black drongo 10. Wasp 11. Common mynah

(King crow)

50
1. http://www.macro-world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
2. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_spider
4.http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/queensland-launched-a-war-against-the-fire-
ant-invasion-but-12-years-later-they8217re-still-on-the-march/story-fnihsrf2-1226686256021
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonfly
6. http://www.warpedphotosblog.com/robber-fly-and-prey
7.http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/field-crops-and-pastures/broadacre-field-crops/integrated-
pest-management/a-z-of-predators,-parasites-and-pathogens/assassin-bugs
8. http://spirit-animals.com/praying-mantis/
9. http://nagpurbirds.org/blackdrongo/picture/1639
10. http://somethingscrawlinginmyhair.com/2011/09/17/yellowjacket-with-prey/
11. http://nickdobbs65.wordpress.com/tag/herbie-the-love-bug/

2. Tobacco caterpillar:
It is found throughout the tropical and sub tropical parts of the world, wide spread in India.
Besides tobacco, it feeds on cotton, castor, groundnut, CHILLI, cabbage and various other
cruciferous crops.

Biology:

Eggs: Female lays about 300 eggs in clusters. The eggs are covered over by brown hairs and
they hatch in about 3-5 days.

Larva: Caterpillar measures 35-40 mm in length, when full grown. It is velvety, black with
yellowish – green dorsal stripes and lateral white bands with incomplete ring – like dark band on
anterior and posterior end of the body. It passes through 6 instars. Larval stage lasts 15-30
days.

Pupa: Pupation takes place inside the soil. Pupal stage lasts 7-15 days.

Adult: Moth is medium sized and stout bodied with forewings pale grey to dark brown in colour
having wavy white crisscross markings. Hind wings are whitish with brown patches along the
margin of wing.

Life cycle:

51
 4. Adult
5-10 days

ys
da
15
7-

3. Pupae Tobacco caterpillar, 1. Eggs

Spodoptera litura

15
-3 ys
0 da
da 5
ys 3-

2. Larva

1. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spodoptera_litura_egg_mass.jpg
2. http://lepidoptera.butterflyhouse.com.au/lynf/lynf.html
3. http://www.ccs-hk.org/DM/butterfly/Noctuid/Spodoptera-litura.html
4. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/images/Spodoptera-litura11.jpg

Damage symptoms:

 Pest breeds throughout the year.

 Moths are active at night.
 Adults live for 7-10 days. Total life cycle takes 32-60 days.
 There are eight generations in a year.

*For management refer to page number------------------------

1. Affected pods develop white 2. Holes on leaves color and drop off on drying

52
http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/chilli-tobacco-caterpillar

For parasitoids and predators see Helicoverpa armigera on page…………………..

3. Spider mites:

Life cycle (Tetranychus spp.):

3. Adult
14-21 days
s
day
2
3-1

Red spider mite,

Tetranychus spp.

2. Nymphs 1. Eggs
2-4 days

1.http://bugguide.net/node/view/348888
2. http://entomology.k-state.edu/extension/insect-photo-gallery/Corn-Insects.html
3. http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Other%20Arachnids/Acari4.htm

Damage symptoms:

53
 The infested leaves develop crinkles and curl downwards
 Elongated petiole
 Buds become brittle and drop down.
 Early stage, infestation leads to stunted growth and flower production, fruit set are arrested

*For management refer to page number------------------------

Downward curling

http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/chilli-mite

Predators:

1. Predatory mites 2. Predatory thrips 3. Oligota spp.

4. Orius spp. (pirate bug) 5. Hover flies 6. Mirid bug

54
1. http://www.dragonfli.co.uk/natural-pest-control/natural-enemies
2. http://biocontrol.ucr.edu/hoddle/persea_mite.html
3. http://www.fugleognatur.dk/forum/show_message.asp?MessageID=560188&ForumID=33
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orius_insidiosus_from_USDA_2_(cropped).jpg
5. http://freepages.misc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~larsonmorgan/flies/flies.html
6. http://www.britishbugs.org.uk/heteroptera/Miridae/blepharidopterus_angulatus.html

4. Root-knot nematodes:

Biology:

 Most species of plant parasitic nematodes have a relatively simple life cycle consisting of the
egg, four larval stages and the adult male and female. They are microscopic in size.
 Development of the first stage larvae occurs within the egg where the first moult occurs.
Second stage larvae hatch from eggs to find and infect plant roots or in some cases foliar
tissues.
 Under suitable environmental conditions, the eggs hatch and new larvae emerge to complete
the life cycle within 4 to 8 weeks depending on temperature.
 Nematode development is generally most rapid within an optimal soil temperature range of
70 to 80°F.

Life cycle:

Life stages are microscopic in size

55
 3. Adults
Male (longer): 16-22 days
Female (bulged): 25-30 days

s
ay
6d
-1
Root-knot nematode,
12

Meloidogyne spp.

2. Larvae
[Infective (J2) 1. Eggs
juveniles]
4-6 days

1.http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/sweetpotato/key/Sweetpotato%20Diagnotes/Media/Html/
2. http://nematology.umd.edu/rootknot.html
3. http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/pgg/dan_webpage/Introduction/Images/pyroform.htm

Damage symptoms:

 Infected plants in patches in the field

 Formation of galls on host root system is the primary symptom
 Roots branch profusely starting from the gall tissue causing a ‘beard root’ symptom
 Infected roots become knobby and knotty
 In severely infected plants the root system is reduced and the rootlets are almost completely
absent. The roots are seriously hampered in their function of uptake and transport of water
and nutrients
 Plants wilt during the hot part of day, especially under dry conditions and are often stunted
 Seedlings infected in nursery do not normally survive transplanting and those surviving have
reduced flowering and fruit production
 Nematode infection predisposes plants to fungal and bacterial root pathogens

Survival and spread:

Primary: Cysts and egg masses in infected plant debris and soil or collateral and other hosts
like Solonaceous, Malvaceous and Leguminaceous plants act as sources of inoculum
Secondary: Autonomous second stage juveniles that may also be water dispersed

56
Favourable conditions:
 Loamy light soils

*For management refer to page number-----------------------

5. Thrips:
Biology:

Egg: Hyaline, globular laid in mass.

Nymphs: Nymphs tiny, slender, fragile and straw yellow in colour.

Adult: Adults with heavily fringed wings

Life cycle:

1. Eggs are microscopic

3. Adults
13-15 days

ys
da
4
2-

Thrips,
2 Pupa Eggs are Eggs
Scirtothrips dorsalis microscopic

8-
10 ys
da da
ys 7
2-

1. Nymph

2,3,4: http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/thrips/chilli_thrips.htm

Damage symptoms:

57
 The infested leaves curl upward, crumble and shed
 Infested buds become brittle and drop down.
 Affected fruits show light brown scars
 Early stage, infestation leads to stunted growth and flower production, fruit set are arrested

Host-range and favourable conditions:

 S. dorsalis is found in almost all chilly growing areas. It is a polyphagus pest. Besides chilli, it
also infests brinjal, cotton, groundnut, castor, bottlegourd, guava, tea and grapevine. It is
more common on un-irrigated chilli crop than irrigated one.

*For management refer to page number------------------------.

1. Upward curling

2. Plant shows stunted growth and elongation of petiole

1, 2. http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/chilli-thrip

Predators:

1. Predatory mite 2. Predatory thrips 3. Oligota spp. Orius spp. (pirate bug)

58
5. Hover flies 6. Mirid bug

1. http://www.dragonfli.co.uk/natural-pest-control/natural-enemies
2. http://biocontrol.ucr.edu/hoddle/persea_mite.html
3. http://www.fugleognatur.dk/forum/show_message.asp?MessageID=560188&ForumID=33
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orius_insidiosus_from_USDA_2_(cropped).jpg
5. http://freepages.misc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~larsonmorgan/flies/flies.html
6. http://www.britishbugs.org.uk/heteroptera/Miridae/blepharidopterus_angulatus.html

6. Spider mites/Yellow mites:

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are oval shaped eggs and white in colour. Eggs are glued firmly on the leaf surface.

Nymph: Nymphs white in colour.

Adult: Adults large, oval and broad and yellowish in colour.

Life cycle (Polyphagotarsonemus latus):

59
 Adult
3-5 days

s
day
2-3
Chilli mite,
Polyphagotarsonemus latus

Nymphs Eggs
1-3 days

Damage symptoms:

 Both nymphs and adults suck sap and devitalize the plant causing ‘Murda’ disease of chillies.
 Infestation results in downward curling of leaves,
 The affected leaves becoming inverted boat shaped,
 The leaves rolling down along the margin with elongation of petioles.
 Affected leaves turning dark green in certain cases.
 Younger leaves at the tip of branch clustering.
*For management refer to page number------------------------

Downward curling

60
http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/chilli-mite

Predators:

Please see the predators of thrips (same as in thrips).

7. Aphids:
Biology:

Eggs are very tiny, shiny-black, and are found in the crevices of bud, stems, and barks of the
plant. Aphids usually do not lay eggs in warm parts of the world.

Nymphs (immature stages) are young aphids, they look like the wingless adults but are smaller.
They become adults within 7 to 10 days.

Adults are small, 1 to 4 mm long, soft-bodied insects with two long antennae that resemble
horns. Most aphids have two short cornicles (horns) towards the rear of the body

Life cycle:

61
 3. Adults
5-10 days

s
day
3-5

Aphid,
Aphis gossypii

2. Nymphs 1. Eggs
1-2 days

1. http://www.flickr.com/photos/23293858@N04/2672985270/
2. http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/2902/2902-1081/2902-1081.html
3. http://www.flickr.com/photos/25848431@N02/7479982150/

Damage symptoms:

 Appear on the tender shoots, leaves and on the lower surface of the leaves.

 The honeydew is very sweet which attracts sooty mould growth, making the leaves turn
black.

 Suck the sap and reduce the vigour of the plant.

 Secrete sweet substances which attracts ants and develops sooty mould.

 The pods that develop black colour due to sooty mould lose quality and fetch low price.

 The yields are also reduced by aphids directly and more through the spread of virus
diseases acting as vectors indirectly
*For management refer to page number----------------------

1. Aphids on chilli leaf 2. Aphid damage on chilli

62
1. http://www.thechilliking.com/aphids-on-chilli-pepper-plants-how-i-solved-the-problem/
2. http://chillininja.wordpress.com/tag/aphids/page/2/

Parasitoid:

1. Aphidius colemani 2. Aphelinus spp.

1. http://biobee.in/products-and-services/solutions/bio-aphidius/
2. http://australianmuseum.net.au/image/Aphelinus-wasp-stings-aphid-Denis-Crawford/

Predators:

1. Lacewing 2. Lady beetle 3. Spider 4. Syrphid larva

1.http://www.macro-world.cz/image.php?id_foto=514&gal=29
2. http://llladybug.blogspot.in/
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_spider
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphid

63
IX. Description of plant Diseases:

1) Damping off: Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp

Damage symptoms:
Disease of nursery beds and young seedlings resulting in reduced seed germination and poor
stand of seedlings.
Very high seedling mortality 25-75%
 Pre-emergence damping off: Seedlings disintegrate before they come out of soil surface
leading to poor seed germination
 Post-emergence damping off is characterised by development of disease after seedlings
have emerged out of soil but before the stems are lignified
 Water soaked lesion formation at collar region
 Infected areas turn brown and rot
 Plants shrivel and collapse as a result of softening of tissues
 In Rhizoctonia solani attack infected stems become hard, thin (wire stem symptoms) and
infected seedlings topple Disease appear in patches both in nursery and field beds.

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/IPM/images/peppers/diseases/damping_off/peppers_damping_off
2_zoom.jpg

Survival and spread:

Primary: Oospores in soil in case of Pythium

Sclerotia in soil in case of Rhizoctonia

Secondary: Zoospores through irrigation water in case of Pythium. Mycelial growth in soil and
sclerotia through irrigation water in case of Rhizoctonia.

Favourable conditions:

For Pythium:

64
Heavy rainfall, excessive and frequent irrigation, poorly drained soil and close spacing, high soil
moisture with temp around 25-30 °C

For Rhizoctonia:
High soil moisture with temp around 30 – 35 °C.

*For management refer to page number------------------------

2) Die-back and Anthracnose (fruit rot): Colletotrichum spp
Damage symptoms:

Dieback Symptoms:
 Disease is more in December - October in transplanted crop
 Small, circular to irregular, brownish black scattered spots appear on leaves
 Severely infected leaves defoliate
 Infection of growing tips leads to necrosis of branches from tip backwards
 Necrotic tissues appear grayish white with black dot like acervuli in the center
 Shedding of flowers due to the infection at pedicel and tips of branches
 Fruit symptoms
 Ripe fruits are more vulnerable to attack than green ones
 Small, circular, yellowish to pinkish sunken spots appear on fruits
 Spots increase along fruit length attaining elliptical shape
 Severe infection result in the shrivelling and drying of fruits.
 Tissues around lesions will be bleached and turn white or greyish in colour and lose their
pungency
 On the surface of the lesions minute black dot like fruiting bodies called ‘acervuli’ develop in
concentric rings and fruits appear straw coloured
 The affected fruits may fall off subsequently. The seeds produced in severely infected fruits
are discoloured and covered with mycelial mat.

Photos by: SK Sain

Survival and spread:

Primary: Mycelium and conidia in acervuli in infected seeds and diseased crop debris.

65
Secondary: Conidia dispersed by rain splash and wind.
Favourable conditions:

Temp, 28 °C with RH more than 97%, humid weather with rainfall at frequent intervals,
intercropping with turmeric which is another host of the fungus

*For management refer to page number------------------------

3. Choeanephora blight/ wet rot: Coeanephora cucurbitarum (Berk. & Ravenel) Thaxt
Damage symptoms:

 Plants from seedling to early flowering stage are susceptible

 Being a weak parasite the fungus colonises dead or dying tissues before it actively
 invades living tissues
 Fruit infection is observed predominantly around calyx
 The pathogen attacks flowers through the senescing petals and overgrows on flowers
resulting in brown or black mass of rotten tissue
 Flower stalks, buds and leaves will be attacked subsequently
 On infected tissues stiff silvery mass of whisker-like or hairy strands of the fungal growth
develops on which black mass of spores is produced which is the chief diagnostic feature
 Infected young fruits may abort
 Individual branches of plants may be attacked which show dieback
 Stems of infected plants appear wet and green and the bark peels of in to shreds

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-GUs2E-CWAj0/TdZMVhqlAuI/AAAAAAAAANI/-
gUzJ9qfZ7Q/s1600/7CHOANEPHORA+BLIGHT.jpg

Survival and spread:

Primary: Zygospores on seeds and diseased crop debris in soil.

Secondary: Conidia (sporangiospores) dispersed by rain splash and wind.

Favourable conditions:

 Warm, Rainy and wet weather Temp, 280 C with RH more than 97%
 Extended periods of high rainfall followed by warm weather.

66
*For management refer to page number------------------------
4. Mosaic complex:
Damage symptoms:
 Symptoms vary with the virus TMV
 Raised blisters and mottled areas of light and dark green areas on the foliage
 Leaves point towards ground
 Necrotic spots on stem
 Fruit ripens unevenly and is reduced in size CMV
 Reduction in leaf size and narrowing of lamina Chlorosis leading to mosaic symptoms
 Downward curling along with midrib
 Fruit may be small and distorted, on volunteer CHILLI plants and on infected plant debris.

Disease symptoms on plant foliage; Photos by: SK Sain

Survival and spread:
TMV:

Primary: Externally seed borne virus particles

Secondary: Mechanically transmitted virus particles.

CMV:

Primary: Externally seed borne virus particles to some extent and vector transmitted from other
and collateral hosts

Secondary: Virus particles transmitted by aphid vectors, Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii, A.
craccivora

Favourable conditions:
 Moist weather and splattering rains
 High humidity or persistent dew

67
*For management refer to page number------------------------
5. Powdery mildew: Leveillula taurica (Lév.) G. Arnaud
Damage symptoms:
 White powdery coating appears mostly on the lower surface and occasionally on upper
surface
 Correspondingly on the upper surface yellow patches are seen
 Severe infection results in the drying and shedding of affected leaves
 Powdery growth can also be seen on branches and young fruits
 Diseased fruits do not grow further and may drop down prematurely

http://www.chileplanet.eu/img/Leveillula%20taurica.jpg

Survival and spread:

Primary: Dormant mycelium in the infected crop debris
Secondary: Wind dispersed conidia
Favourable conditions
 Cool dry weather favours conidial germination
 High RH favours disease development

*For management refer to page number------------------------

6. Cercospora leaf spot: Cercospora capsici Heald & F.A. Wolf
Damage symptoms:
 Circular spots with brown margins and grey centre appear on leaves
 The spots enlarge and coalesce with others
 The central portion of the spot becomes white and the leaves turn yellow and defoliate
 Sometimes central portion of spot drops off
 Spots also appear on stems and twigs as dark brown, irregular lesions with whitish centers
 In severe cases die-back of twigs occur

68
Photos by: SK Sain

Survival and spread:

Primary: Dormant mycelium in the infected crop debris, seeds and volunteer plants
Secondary: Wind dispersed conidia

*For management refer to page number-------

7. Bacterial leaf spot: Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria (Pammel) Dowson
Damage symptoms:
 Leaves, fruits and stems are affected
 Lesions on leaf begin as circular, water soaked spots
 Spots become necrotic with brown center with chlorotic borders
 Enlarged spots may develop straw coloured centres
 Lesions are slightly raised on lower leaf surface
 Severely spotted leaves turn yellow and drop
 Raised brown lesions appear on fruits
 Narrow elongated lesions or streaks may develop on stems

69
http://www.chileplanet.eu/diseases.html#

Survival and spread:

Primary: Seed borne bacterial cells
Secondary: Bacterial cells spread by rain splash
Favourable conditions:
 Moderate temperature
 High relative humidity
 Intermittent rains

*For management refer to page number------------------------
8. Alternaria leaf spot: Alternaria solani Ell. Mart
Damage symptoms:

 This is a common disease of chilli occurring on the foliage at any stage of the growth.
 The fungus attacks the foliage causing characteristic leaf spots and blight. Early blight is
first observed on the plants as small, black lesions mostly on the older foliage.
 Spots enlarge, and by the time they are one-fourth inch in diameter or larger, concentric
rings in a bull's eye pattern can be seen in the center of the diseased area.
 Tissue surrounding the spots may turn yellow. If high temperature and humidity occur at
this time, much of the foliage is killed.
 Lesions on the stems are similar to those on leaves, sometimes girdling the plant if they
occur near the soil line.
 Transplants showing infection by the late blight fungus often die when set in the field.
The fungus also infects the fruit, generally through the calyx or stem attachment.
 Lesions attain considerable size, usually involving nearly the entire fruit; concentric rings
are also present on the fruit.

70
Disease symproms on leaf and fruit; Photo by: SK Sain

Survival and spread:

Primary : The fungus spends the winter in infected plant debris in or on the soil where it can
survive at least one and perhaps several years. It can also be seed borne.
Secondary:The spores are transported by water, wind, insects, other animals including man,
and machinery. Once the initial infections have occurred, they become the most important
source of new spore production and are responsible for rapid disease spread.

Favourable conditions:

 Warm, rainy and wet weather

*For management refer to page number------------------------

9. Fusarium wilt: Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc
Damage symptoms:

 The first symptom of the disease is clearing of the veinlets and chlorosis of the leaves.
 The younger leaves may die in succession and the entire may wilt and die in a course of
few days. Soon the petiole and the leaves droop and wilt.
 In young plants, symptom consists of clearing of veinlet and dropping of petioles. In field,
yellowing of the lower leaves first and affected leaflets wilt and die.
 The symptoms continue in subsequent leaves. At later stage, browning of vascular
system occurs. Plants become stunted and die.

71
http://www.infonet-biovision.org/res/res/files/1658.400x400.jpeg
http://www.apsnet.org/publications/apsnetfeatures/Article%20Images/Chile_Fig09.jpg

Survival and spread:

 Soil and implements

Favourable conditions:

 Relatively high soil moisture and soil temperature

*For management refer to page number-----

72
Disease cycles:

1. Damping off: : Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/IPM/images/peppers/diseases/damping_off/peppers_damping_off
2_zoom.jpg

2. Die-back, Anthracnose & fruit rot: Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.)

73
3. Choeanephora blight/ wet rot: Coeanephora cucurbitarum (Berk. & Ravenel) Thaxt

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-GUs2E-CWAj0/TdZMVhqlAuI/AAAAAAAAANI/-
gUzJ9qfZ7Q/s1600/7CHOANEPHORA+BLIGHT.jpg

4. Powdery mildew: Leveillula taurica (Lév.) G. Arnaud

http://www.chileplanet.eu/img/Leveillula%20taurica.jpg

74
5. Cercospora leaf spot: Cercospora capsici Heald & F.A. Wolf

6. Bacterial leaf spot: Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria (Pammel) Dowson

http://www.chileplanet.eu/diseases.html#

75
7. Alternaria leaf spot: Alternaria solani Ell. Mart

8. Fusarium wilt: Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/res/res/files/1658.400x400.jpeg
http://www.apsnet.org/publications/apsnetfeatures/Article%20Images/Chile_Fig09.jpg

76
 X. Safety measures

A. At the time of harvest:

Chillies are picked by hand. The fruit is harvested by removing it from the branch and ensuring
that the stem remains intact and attached to the fruit. Only fruit with the required color and size
should be harvested. If possible, overripe soft fruit is removed from the plant and graded out to
be used for other purposes. During harvesting, pickers should wear gloves to protect their
hands because the oils (capsaicin) in the fruit can cause severe burns; pickers should take care
not to touch their face or eyes. Harvested fruits can be placed directly into plastic field crates or
into smaller plastic buckets, which are then transferred to crates at the side of the field. Cotton
waist bags also can be used to collect the peppers and carry them to field crates. Mechanical
harvesting is not advisable for chillies destined for the fresh market because the machinery may
injure the fruit. However, mechanically harvested fruit can be used for processing.

B. Post-harvest storage
If cold storage facilities are available, peppers can be stored at 10 °C with 85-90% RH. The fruit
can last for 2-3 weeks. Chillies can be damaged when stored below 10 °C; symptoms include
surface pitting, water soaked areas, decay (especially Alternaria ) and discoloration of the seed
cavity. Symptoms can appear after a few days at 0°C or a few weeks at 5 °C. Sensitivity to cold
varies with the cultivar; ripe fruit is less sensitive than green fruit. When stored above 13 °C,
chillies is subject to accelerated ripening and bacterial soft rot infection. Because peppers are
sensitive to ethylene, chillies should be stored away from ethylene-producing fruit such as
bananas, avocados, melons, etc. and ripening rooms. Chillies in storage should be inspected
periodically and decayed fruit culled. Where no cold storage facilities are available, fruit should
be sorted, packed, and marketed within 24 hours of harvest. This is particularly important for
varieties that exhibit short shelf life. Simple methods to maintain freshness and extend shelf life
can be employed, such as modified atmosphere (MA) storage or packaging made from
polymeric films, particularly commercially available products such as polyethylene and
polypropylene bags.

XI. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM

S. No. Do’s Don’ts

1. Deep ploughing is to be done on bright sunny Do not plant or irrigate the field after
days during the months of May and June. ploughing, at least for 2-3 weeks, to allow
The field should be kept exposed to sun light at desiccation of weed’s bulbs and/or rhizomes
least for 2-3 weeks of perennial weeds.

2. Adopt crop rotation. Avoid growing monocrop.

3. Grow only recommended varieties. Do not grow varieties not suitable for the
season or the region.
4 Sow early in the season Avoid late sowing as this may lead to
reduced yields and incidence of white grubs
and diseases.

77
5 Always treat the seeds with approved Do not use seeds without seed treatment with
chemicals/bio products for the control of seed biocides/chemicals.
borne diseases/pests.

6. Sow in rows at optimum depths under proper Do not sow seeds beyond 5-7 cm depth.
moisture conditions for better establishment.

7. Apply only recommended herbicides at Pre-emergent as well as soil incorporated

recommended dose, proper time, as appropriate herbicides should not be applied in dry soils.
spray solution with standard equipment along Do not apply herbicides along with irrigation
with flat fan or flat jet nozzles. water or by mixing with soil, sand or urea.

8. Maintain optimum and healthy crop stand which Crops should not be exposed to moisture
would be capable of competing with weeds at a deficit stress at their critical growth stages.
critical stage of crop weed competition

9 Use NPK fertilizers as per the Avoid imbalanced use of fertilizers.

soil test recommendation.

10 Use micronutrient mixture after sowing based test Do not apply any micronutrient mixture after
recommendations. sowing without test recommendations.
11 Conduct AESA weekly in the morning preferably Do not take any management decision
before 9 a.m. Take decision on management without considering AESA and P: D ratio
practice based on AESA and P: D ratio only.

78
12 Install pheromone traps at appropriate period. Do not store the pheromone lures at normal
room temperature (keep them in refrigerator).

13 Release parasitoids only after noticing adult moth Do not apply chemical pesticides within
catches in the pheromone trap or as pheromone seven days of release of parasitoids.
trap or as per field observation

14 Apply HaNPV or SINPV at recommended dose Do not apply NPV on late instar larva and
when a large number of egg masses and early during day time.
instar larvae are noticed. Apply NPV only in the
evening hours after 5 pm.

15 In case of pests which are active during night like Do not spray pesticides at midday since,
Spodoptera spray recommended biocides/ most of the insects are not active during this
chemicals at the time of their appearance in the period.
night.

16 Spray pesticides thoroughly to treat the Do not spray pesticides only on the upper
undersurface of the leaves, particularly for mites, surface of leaves.
whiteflies, Spodoptera etc.

79
17 Apply short persistent pesticides to avoid Do not apply pesticides during preceding 7
pesticide residue in the soil and produce. days before harvest.

18 Follow the recommended procedure of trap crop Do not apply long persistent on trap crop,
technology. otherwise it may not attract the pests and
natural enemies.

80
XII. Safety parameters in pesticides usage

S. Pesticide Classification Colour of WHO First Aid Symptoms Treatment of Waiting

N as per toxicity classificati measures poisoning poisoning period(days)
o. insecticide triangle on of
rules 1971 hazard
Organophosphate insecticides

1 Dimethoate Highly toxic Class II Mild-anorexia, For extreme

Moderately headache, symptoms of
hazardous dizziness, OP poisoning,
weakness, injection of
anxiety, tremors atropine (2-4
of tongue and mg for adults,
eyelids, miosis, 0.5-1.0 mg for
impairment of children) is
visual acuity recommended.
Repeated at 5-
10 minute
intervals until
signs of
atropinization
occur.
2 Phorate Have Weakness, Give atropine
person sip a headache, intramuscularly
glass of tightness of chest, or
water if able blurred vision, intravenously,
to swallow. nonreactive depending on
Do not pinpoint pupils, severity of
induce salivation, poisoning, 2 to
vomiting sweating, 4 milligrams (3
unless told nausea, vomiting, to 6 tablets,
to do so by diarrhea and 1/100 grain
a doctor, do abdominal each) every 10
not give cramps. minutes until
anything by fully

81
 mouth to an atropinized as
unconscious shown by
Person. dilated pupils,
dry flushed
skin and
tachycardia.
Twenty to
thirty
milligrams, or
more, may be
required during
the first 24
hours. Never
give opiates or
phenothiazine
tranquilizers

Carbamate insecticides

3 Carbofuran Extremely Class I b Constriction of Atropine

toxic highly pupils, salivation, injection-1-4
haardous profuse sweating, mg. repeat 2
muscle mg when
incordination, symptoms
nausea, begin to recur
vomiting,diarrhea, (15-16 min
epigastric pain, interval)
tightness in chest excessive
salivation-
good sign,
more atropine
needed
Synthetic pyrethroids

4 Fenpropathrin Do not Salivation, Possible 7

induce weakness, ataxia, mucosal

82
 vomiting tremors, damage may
unless told convulsions, contraindicate
to do so by gastrointestinal the use of
a doctor, do irritation, nausea, gastric lavage.
not give vomiting and Treatment is
anything by diarrhea. supportive and
mouth to an symptomatic.
unconscious Diazepam has
person been
recommended
to reduce the
central
nervous
system effects
Neonicotinoids

5 Imidacloprid Have Harmful if No specific

person sip a swallowed, antidote.
glass of absorbed through Treatment is
water if able skin or inhaled. essentially
to swallow. Avoid breathing symptomatic.
Do not vapor or spray
induce mist
vomiting .
unless told Causes moderate
to do so by eye irritation.
a doctor, do
not give
anything by
mouth to an
unconscious
person

Avermectins

6 Milbemectin Do not No specific 7

83
 induce antidote.
vomiting Treatment is
unless told essentially
to do so by symptomatic
a poison
control
center or
doctor. Do
not give
anything by
mouth to an
unconscious
Insect growth regulators

7 Novaluron Have Causes No specific 3

person sip a substantial but antidote.
glass of temporary eye Treatment is
water if able injury. essentially
to swallow. symptomatic.
Do not
induce
vomiting
unless told
to do so by
a poison
control
center or
doctor. Do
not give
anything by
mouth to an
unconscious

8 Buprofezin Have Causes No specific 5

person sip a substantial but antidote.
glass of temporary eye Treatment is

84
 water if able injury. essentially
to swallow. symptomatic.
Do not
induce
vomiting
unless told
to do so by
a poison
control
center or
doctor. Do
not give
anything by
mouth to an
unconscious

Other classes insecticides

9 Spinosad Do not May be harmful if No specific 3

induce swallowed antidote.
vomiting Treatment is
unless told essentially
to do so by symptomatic
a doctor.
Have
person sip a
glass of
water if able
to swallow.
Do not give
anything by
mouth to an
unconscious
person

10 Fipronil Do not In severe cases of No specific 7

85
 induce overexposure by antidote.
vomiting oral ingestion, Treatment is
unless told lethargy, muscle essentially
to do so by tremors, and in symptomatic
a doctor. extreme cases,
Have possibly
person sip a convulsions, may
glass of occur
water if able
to swallow.
Do not give
anything by
mouth to an
unconscious
person
11 Indoxacarb Have Altered blood No specific 5
person sip a chemistry antidote.
glass of Abnormal Treatment is
water if able decrease in essentially
to swallow. number of red symptomatic.
Do not blood cells
induce (anaemia) which
vomiting could produce
unless told tiredness, rapid
to do so by heartbeat,
a doctor. Do dizziness, pale
not give skin, leg cramps,
anything by shortness of
mouth to an breath, Central
unconscious nervous system
person effects

Fungicides

86
12 Wettable sulphur Slightly toxic Unlikely to Headache, palpitation, No specific
present nausea, vomiting, antidote.
acute flushed face, irritation of Treatment is
hazard in nose,throat, eyes and essentially
normal use skin etc. symptomatic
13 Captan Moderately Class III -----------do----------- --do------ 5
toxic slightly
hazardous

14 Mancozeb Slightly toxic Unlikely ------------do---------- -------do--------

produce -
acute
hazard
15 Copper Moderately Class III ------do----------- ------------do---
oxychloride toxic slightly ----------
hazardous

87
XIII. Basic precautions in pesticides usage

A. Purchase
1. Purchase only just required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500, 1000 g/ml for single
application in specified area.
2. Do not purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags.
3. Do not purchase pesticides without proper/approved labels.
4. While purchasing insist for invoice/bill/cash memo
B. Storage
1. Avoid storage of pesticides in house premises.
2. Keep only in original container with intact seal.
3. Do not transfer pesticides to other containers.
4. Never keep them together with food or feed/fodder.
5. Keep away from reach of children and livestock.
6. Do not expose to sunlight or rain water.
7. Do not store weedicides along with other pesticides.
C. Handling
1. Never carry/ transport pesticides along with food materials.
2. Avoid carrying bulk pesticides (dust/granules) on head shoulders or on the back.
D. Precautions for preparing spray solution
1. Use clean water.
2. Always protect your nose, eyes, mouth, ears and hands.
3. Use hand gloves, face mask and cover your head with cap.
4. Use polythene bags as hand gloves, handkerchiefs or piece of clean cloth as mask
and a cap or towel to cover the head (Do not use polythene bag contaminated with
pesticides).
5. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
6. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
7. Prepare the spray solution as per requirement
8. Do not mix granules with water
9. Concentrated pesticides must not fall on hands etc. while opening sealed container.
Do not smell pesticides.
10. Avoid spilling of pesticides while filling the sprayer tank.
11. Do not eat, drink, smoke or chew while preparing solution
12. The operator should protect his bare feet and hands with polythene bags
E. Equipment
1. Select right kind of equipment.
2. Do not use leaky and defective equipment
3. Select right kind of nozzles
4. Don’t blow/clean clogged nozzle with mouth. Use old tooth brush tied with the
sprayer and clean with water.
5. Do not use same sprayer for weedicide and insecticide.
F. Precautions for applying pesticides
1. Apply only at recommended dose and dilution

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 2.Do not apply on hot sunny day or strong windy condition
3.Do not apply just before the rains and after the rains.
4.Do not apply against the windy direction
5.Emulsifiable concentrate formulations should not be used for spraying with battery
operated ULV sprayer
6. Wash the sprayer and buckets etc. with soap water after spraying
7. Containers buckets etc. used for mixing pesticides should not be used for domestic
purpose
8. Avoid entry of animals and workers in the field immediately after spraying
9. Avoid tank mixing of different pesticides
G. Disposal
1. Left over spray solution should not be drained in ponds or water lines etc. throw it in
barren isolated area if possible
2. The used/empty containers should be crushed with a stone/stick and buried deep
into soil away from water source.
3. Never reuse empty pesticides container for any other purpose.

XIV. Pesticide application techniques

Equipment
Category A: Stationary, crawling pest/ disease
Vegetative Insecticides  Lever operated
stage and knapsack sprayer
i) for crawling fungicides (Droplets of big size)
and soil borne  Hollow cone nozzle
pests @ 35 to 40 psi
 Lever operating
speed = 15 to 20
strokes/min
ii) for small or
sucking leaf  Motorized knapsack
borne pests sprayer or mist
blower (Droplets of
small size)
 Airblast nozzle
 Operating speed:
2/3rd throttle
Reproductive Insecticides  Lever operated
stage and knapsack sprayer
fungicides (Droplets of big size)
 Hollow cone nozzle
@ 35 to 40 psi
 Lever operating
speed = 15 to 20
strokes/min
Category B: Field Flying pest/ airborne pest

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Vegetative Insecticides  Motorized knapsack
stage and sprayer or mist
Reproductive fungicides blower (Droplets of
stage small size)
(Field Pests)  Airblast nozzle
 Operating speed:
2/3rd throttle
Or
 Battery operated low
volume sprayer
(Droplets of small
size)
Spinning disc nozzle
Mosquito/ Insecticides  Fogging machine and
locust and and ENV (Exhaust nozzle
spatial fungicides vehicle) (Droplets of
application very small size)
(migratory  Hot tube nozzle
Pests)
Category C: Weeds
Post- Weedicide  Lever operated
emergence knapsack sprayer
application (Droplets of big size)
 Flat fan or floodjet
nozzle @ 15 to 20 psi
 Lever operating
speed = 7 to 10
strokes/min
Pre- Weedicide  Trolley mounted low
emergence volume sprayer
application (Droplets of small
size)
 Battery operated low
volume sprayer
(Droplets of small
size)

XV. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief

1. For application rate and

dosage see the label and
leaflet of the particular
pesticide.

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2. It is advisable to check the
output of the sprayer
(calibration) before
commencement of spraying
under guidance of trained
person.

3. Clean and wash the machines

and nozzles and store in dry
place after use.

4. It is advisable to use
protective clothing, face mask
and gloves while preparing
and applying pesticides.

Do not apply pesticides

without protective clothing and
wash clothes immediately
after spray application.
5. Do not apply in hot or windy
conditions.

6. Operator should maintain

normal walking speed while
undertaking application.

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7. Do not smoke, chew or eat
while undertaking the spraying
operation

8. Operator should take proper

bath with soap after
completing spraying

9. Do not blow the nozzle with

mouth for any blockages.
Clean with water and a soft
brush.

XVI. References

http://www.ikisan.com/Crop%20Specific/Eng/links/ap_chilliHarvestingandStorage.shtml
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/pfvegetable/ChilePeppers/
http://www.icar.org.in/files/reports/icar-dare-annual-reports/2009-10/Post-harvest-
Management.pdf
http://www.farmerfred.com/plants_that_attract_benefi.html
NHM manual for post harvest management and integrated pest management:
http://www.nhm.nic.in
AVRDC the world vegetable center: http://www.avrdc.org
FAO Regional Vegetable IPM Programme in South & Southeast Asia:
http://www.vegetableipmasia.org/CropsSites.html
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research: http://www.iihr.ernet.in
Fiedler, A., Tuell, J., Isaacs, R. and Doug Landis . Attracting beneficial insects with native
flowering plants. January 2007. Extension bulletin. E-2973.
Acharya N. G. Agricultural University, Hyderabad: http://www.angrau.ac.in
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad: http://www.uasd.edu
Jawarharlal Nehru Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur: http://www.jnkvv.nic.in
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana: http://www.pau.edu
http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/management-strategies-chilli-thrips-scirtothrips-dorsalis
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_prot_crop_insect-veg_chillies.html#1
http://14.139.155.167/test5/index.php/kjas/article/viewFile/1047/1040
http://www.iivr.org.in/Division.aspx?subId=Protection
http://www.icrisat.org/what-we-do/agro-ecosystems/projects/SBY-
H%20Final/Pages/PDFs/IPM%20in%20vegetable%20crops.pdf

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http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/chilli-mite
http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/thrips/chilli_thrips.htm
http://www.angrau.ac.in/media/7416/ento331.pdf

93