ASME BPVC.VIII.

1-2017 1-1 – 1-3

MANDATORY APPENDIX 1
SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN FORMULAS

ð 17Þ 1-1 THICKNESS OF CYLINDRICAL AND (b) Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints). When
SPHERICAL SHELLS the thickness of the cylindrical shell under internal design
pressure exceeds one ‐ half of the inside radius, or when P
The following equations, in terms of the outside radius, exceeds 1.25 SE, the following equations shall apply:
are equivalent to and may be used instead of those given When P is known and t is desired,
in UG-27(c) and UG-27(d):
(a) For cylindrical shells (circumferential stress),
ð3 Þ

ð1 Þ

where
where
Z =
Ro = o u ts i d e r a d i u s o f th e s h e l l c o u r s e u n d e r
consideration When t is known and P is desired,
(b) For spherical shells,
ð4 Þ

ð2 Þ where

Z =
Other symbols are as defined in UG-27.
Symbols are as defined in UG-27 and 1-1.

ð 17Þ 1-2 CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

1-3 SPHERICAL SHELLS
(a) Circumferential Stress (Longitudinal Joints). When
the thickness of the cylindrical shell under internal design When the thickness of the shell of a wholly spherical
pressure exceeds one ‐ half of the inside radius, or when P vessel or of a hemispherical head under internal design
exceeds 0.385 SE, the following equations shall apply. The pressure exceeds 0.356 R, or when P exceeds 0.665 SE,
following equations may be used in lieu of those given in the following equations shall apply. The following equa-
UG-27(c): tions may be used in lieu of those given in UG-27(d).
When P is known and t is desired, When P is known and t is desired,

ð1 Þ ð1 Þ

When t is known and P is desired,

Where t is known and P is desired,

ð2 Þ
ð2 Þ

Symbols are as defined in UG-27 and 1-1.

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1-4 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017

1-4 FORMULAS FOR THE DESIGN OF Sy = yield strength at maximum design temperature,
FORMED HEADS UNDER INTERNAL psi. The value of S y shall be taken from Section
PRESSURE II, Part D, Subpart 1, Table Y-1
t = minimum required thicknes s o f head after
forming
(a) The equations of this paragraph provide for the de- t s = minimum specified thickness of head after form-
sign of formed heads of proportions other than those giv- ing, in. (mm). ts shall be ≥ t
en in UG-32, in terms of inside and outside diameter. α = one ‐ half of the included (apex) angle of the cone
at the centerline of the head
The equations in (c) and (d) given below shall be used
for t/L ≥ 0.002. For t/L < 0.002, the rules of (f) shall also (c) Ellipsoidal Heads 90
be met.
ð1 Þ
(b) The symbols defined below are used in the equa-
tions of this paragraph (see Figure 1-4):
D = inside diameter of the head skirt; or inside length
of the major axis of an ellipsoidal head; or inside
diameter of a cone head at the point under con-
sideration measured perpendicular to the longi- or
tudinal axis
Do = outside diameter of the head skirt; or outside
ð2 Þ
length of the major axis of an ellipsoidal head;
or outside diameter of a cone head at the point
under consideration measured perpendicular to where
the longitudinal axis
D/2h = ratio of the major to the minor axis of ellipsoidal
heads, which equals the inside diameter of the K =
skirt of the head divided by twice the inside
height of the head, and is used in Table 1-4.1 Numerical values of the factor K are given in Table
E = lowest efficiency of any Category A joint in the 1-4.1.
head (for hemispherical heads this includes
(d) Torispherical Heads90
head ‐ to ‐ shell joint). For welded vessels, use the
efficiency specified in UW-12
ð3 Þ
ET = modulus of elasticity at maximum design tem-
perature, psi. The value of ET shall be taken from
the applicable Section II, Part D, Subpart 2, Table
TM
h = one ‐ half of the length of the minor axis of the el-
lipsoidal head, or the inside depth of the ellipsoi- or
d a l h e a d m e a s u re d fro m th e ta n ge n t l i n e
(head ‐ bend line)
ð4 Þ
K = a factor in the equations for ellipsoidal heads de-
pending on the head proportion D /2 h
L = inside spherical or crown radius for torispherical where
and hemispherical heads
= K1 D for ellipsoidal heads in which K1 is obtained
from Table UG-37 M =
Lo = outside spherical or crown radius
L/r = ratio of the inside crown radius to the inside Numerical values of the factor M are given in Table
knuckle radius, used in Table 1-4.2 1-4.2.
M = a factor in the equations for torispherical heads (e) Conical Heads
depending on the head proportion L/r
P = internal design pressure (see UG-21)
r = inside knuckle radius
S = maximum allowable working stress, as given in
Subsection C except as limited by endnote 9 0 ,
UG-24, UG-32(d), and UW-12 or

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 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017 1-4

Figure 1-4
Principal Dimensions of Typical Heads

(f) Design of Heads With ts/L < 0. 002. The following

ð5 Þ rules shall be used when the maximum design tempera-
ture is less than or equal to the temperature limit given
in Table 1-4.3. See U-2(g) for maximum design tempera-
ture exceeding the temperature limit given in Table 1-4.3
(1 ) Torispherical Heads With ts/L < 0.002. The mini-
mum required thickness of a torispherical head having
or 0.0005 ≤ ts/L < 0.002 shall be larger of the thickness cal-
culated by the equations in UG-32(d) or in (d) above, or
by the equations given below.
ð6 Þ

Table 1-4.1
Values of Factor K
D /2 h 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0
K 1.83 1.73 1.64 1.55 1.46 1.37 1.29 1.21 1.14 1.07 1.00
D /2 h 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 …
K 0.93 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.66 0.61 0.57 0.53 0.50 …
GENERAL NOTE: Use nearest value of D /2 h ; interpolation unnecessary.

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1-4 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017

Table 1-4.2
Values of Factor M
L /r 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
M 1.00 1.03 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.13 1.15 1.17 1.18 1.20 1.22

L /r 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
M 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.34 1.36 1.39 1.41 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.50

L /r 9.5 10.00 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 16 2/3 [Note (1)]
M 1.52 1.54 1.56 1.58 1.60 1.62 1.65 1.69 1.72 1.75 1.77

GENERAL NOTE: Use nearest value of L / r ; interpolation unnecessary.

NOTE:
(1) Maximum ratio allowed by UG-32(i) when L equals the outside diameter of the skirt of the head.

(-a) Calculate a coefficient, C 1 . (-e) Calculate the value of c .

If ϕ is less than β , then

If ϕ is equal to or greater than β , then

(-b) Calculate the elastic buckling stress, S e .

Determine the value of R e .

(-c) Calculate a coefficient, C 2 .

(-f) Calculate the value of internal pressure ex-

pected to produce elastic buckling, P e .

(-d) Calculate values of constants a , b , β , and ϕ .

(-g) Calculate the value of internal pressure ex-

pected to result in yield stress at the point of maximum
stress, P y .

Table 1-4.3
Maximum Metal Temperature (-h) Calculate the value of internal pressure ex-
pected to result in knuckle failure, P c k .
Table in Which
Material Is Listed Temperature, °F
Table UCS-23 700
Table UNF-23.1 300
Table UNF-23.2 150
Table UNF-23.3 900

Table UNF-23.4 600 (-i) Calculate the value Pck/1.5. If Pck/1.5 is equal to
Table UNF-23.5 600
or greater than the required internal design pressure P,
Table UHA-23 800
Table UHT-23 700 then the design is complete. If Pck/1.5 is less than the re-
quired internal design pressure P, then increase the thick-
ness and repeat the calculations.

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 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017 1-4 – 1-5

(2) Design ofEllipsoidal Heads With ts/L < 0.002. The E2 = efficiency of longitudinal joint in cone. For com-
minimum required thickness of an ellipsoidal head having pression, E 2 = 1.0 for butt welds.
0.0005 ≤ ts/L < 0.002 shall be larger of the thicknesses Ec = modulus of elasticity of cone material
calculated by the equations in UG-32(c), or in (c) or (1). Er = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing ring material
In using the equations in (1), the value of L is to be ob- Es = modulus of elasticity of cylinder material
tained from Table UG-37 and the value of r is to be ob- f1 = axial load per unit circumference at large end due
tained from Table 1-4.4. to wind, dead load, etc., excluding pressure
f2 = axial load per unit circumference at small end due
to wind, dead load, etc., excluding pressure
P = internal design pressure (see UG-21)
ð 17Þ 1-5 RULES FOR CONICAL REDUCER QL = algebraical sum of PRL/2 and f1
SECTIONS AND CONICAL HEADS UNDER Qs = algebraical sum of PRs/2 and f2
INTERNAL PRESSURE RL = inside radius of large cylinder at large end of cone
Rs = inside radius of small cylinder at small end of cone
(a) The equations of (d) and (e) below provide for the Sc = al l o wab l e s tre s s o f co ne mate ri al at de s i gn
design of reinforcement, if needed, at the large and small temperature
ends for conical reducer sections and conical heads where Sr = allowable stress of reinforcing ring material at de-
all the elements have a common axis and the half‐ apex an- sign temperature
gle α ≤ 30 deg. Subparagraph (g) below provides for spe- Ss = allowable stress of cylinder material at design
c i a l a n a l ys i s i n th e d e s i g n o f c o n e ‐ to ‐ c yl i n d e r temperature
intersections with or without reinforcing rings where α t = minimum required thickness of cylinder at cone ‐
is greater than 30 deg. to ‐ cylinder junction
In the design of reinforcement at the large and small tc = nominal thickness of cone at cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder
ends of cones and conical reducers, the requirements of junction
UG-41 shall be met. tr = minimum required thickness of cone at cone ‐ to ‐
(b) Nomenclature cylinder junction
ts = nominal thickness of cylinder at cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder
AeL = effective area o f reinforcement at l arge end junction
intersection y = cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder factor
A e s = effective area of reinforcement at small end = SsEs for reinforcing ring on shell
intersection = ScEc for reinforcing ring on cone
A r L = required area of reinforcement at large end of Δ = angle indicating need for reinforcement at cone ‐
cone to ‐ cylinder junction having a half‐ apex angle α ≤
A r s = required area of reinforcement at small end of 30 deg. When Δ ≥ α , no reinforcement is required
cone at the junction (see Tables 1-5.1 and 1-5.2), deg.
E 1 = efficiency of longitudinal j oint in cylinder. For α = half‐ apex angle of cone or conical section, deg.
compression (such as at large end of cone), E 1 =
1.0 for butt welds. (c) For conical reducers and conical heads, the follow-
ing values shall be determined at large end and again at
the small end in order that both the large end and the
Table 1-4.4 small end can be examined:
Values of Knuckle Radius, r
D /2h r /D
3.0 0.10
2.8 0.11
2.6 0.12
2.4 0.13 Table 1-5.1
2.2 0.15 Δ
Values of for Junctions at the Large
Cylinder for α ≤ 30 deg
2.0 0.17
1.8 0.20 P/SsE 1 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
1.6 0.24 Δ , deg 11 15 18 21 23
1.4 0.29
1.2 0.37 P/SsE 1 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 [Note (1)] …
1.0 0.50 Δ , deg 25 27 28.5 30 …
GE N E RAL N O TE : I nterp o lati o n NOTE:
permitted for intermediate values. (1) Δ = 30 deg for greater values of P/SsE1 .

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1-5 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017

Table 1-5.2
The effective area of reinforcement can be deter-
Values of Δ for Junctions at the Small
mined in accordance with the following formula:
Cylinder for α ≤ 30 deg ð2 Þ
P/SsE 1 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.02
Δ , deg 4 6 9 12.5
0.04 0.08 0.10 0.125 [Note (1)] Any additional area ofreinforcement that is required
P/SsE 1
Δ , deg 17.5 24 27 30 shall be situated within a distance of from the junc-
NOTE:
tion of the reducer and the cylinder. The centroid of the
(1) Δ = 30 deg for greater values of P/S E1 . added area shall be within a distance of
from the junction.
s

(2) For cones attached to flat covers, flanges, or other

When a cylinder having a minimum length of
(1 ) components where the length of cylinder, if present, is
2.0 is attached to the large end of the cone, deter- less than 2.0 , the required reinforcement shall be
mine P /S E1 and then determine Δ at the large end from at least equal to that indicated by the following formula:
Table 1-5.1.
s

NOTE: If a cylinder is not present or does not meet the minimum ð3 Þ

length requirement, Δ is not calculated.

(2)When a cylinder having a minimum length of The effective area of reinforcement can be deter-
1.4 is attached to the small end of the cone, deter- mined in accordance with the following formula:
mine P /S E1 and then determine Δ at the small end from
Table 1-5.2.
S
ð4 Þ

(3) Determine k:
Any additional area ofreinforcement that is required
k = 1 when additional area of reinforcement is not shall be added to the cone.
required (e) Reinforcement shall be provided at the small end of
= y/S E when a stiffening ring is required, but k is not the cone when required by the following:
less than 1.0
r r

(1 ) For cones attached to a cylinder having a mini-

(d) Reinforcement shall be provided at the large end of

mum length of 1.4 , reinforcement shall be provided
the cone when required by the following: at the junction of the conical shell of a reducer without a
flare and the small cylinder when the value of Δ obtained
(1 ) For cones attached to a cylinder having a mini- from Table 1-5.2, using the appropriate ratio P/S E1 , is
mum length of 2.0 , reinforcement shall be provided less than α .
s

at the junction ofthe cone with the large cylinder for con- The required area of reinforcement shall be at least
ical heads and reducers without knuckles when the value equal to that indicated by the following formula when
of Δ obtained from Table 1-5.1, using the appropriate ra- Q is in tension:
tio P/S E1 , is less than α . Interpolation may be made in the
s

Table.
s

ð5 Þ
The required area of reinforcement shall be at least
equal to that indicated by the following formula when
Q is in tension:
L
At the small end ofthe cone to cylinder juncture, the
/2 term is in tension. When f2 is in compression and
‐ ‐

PRs
ð1 Þ the quantity is larger than the PR /2 term, the design shall
be in accordance with U-2(g). The calculated localized
s

stresses at the discontinuity shall not exceed the stress

values specified in (g)(1) and (g)(2).
At the large end of the cone to cylinder juncture, the The effective area of reinforcement can be deter-
/2 term is in tension. When f1 is in compression and mined in accordance with the following formula:
‐ ‐

PRL
the quantity is larger than the PR /2 term, the design shall
be in accordance with U-2(g). The calculated localized
L
ð6 Þ
stresses at the discontinuity shall not exceed the stress
values specified in (g)(1) and (g)(2).
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 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017 1-5 – 1-6

Any additional area of reinforcement which is re- (b) The symbols used in the equations of this paragraph
quired shall be situated within a distance of from are defined as follows:
the junction, and the centroid of the added area shall be A = outside diameter of flange
within a distance of from the junction. B = inside diameter of flange
C = bolt circle, diameter
(2) For cones attached to flat covers, flanges, or other
L = inside spherical or crown radius
components where the length of cylinder, if present, is Mo = the total moment determined as in 2-6 for heads
less than 1.4 , the required reinforcement shall be concave to pressure and 2-11 for heads convex to
at least equal to that indicated by the following formula: pressure; except that for heads of the type shown
in Figure 1-6 sketch (d), HD and h D shall be as de-
fined below, and an additional moment Hrh r (which
may add or subtract) shall be included where
The effective area of reinforcement can be deter- H D = axial component of the membrane load in
mined in accordance with the following formula: the spherical segment acting at the inside
of the flange ring
= 0.785 B 2 P
h D = radial distance from the bolt circle to the in-
Any additional area of reinforcement that is required side of the flange ring
shall be added to the cone. H r = radial component of the membrane load in
(f) Reducers not described in UG-36(e) (5), such as the spherical segment acting at the intersec-
those made up of two or more conical frustums having tion of the inside of the flange ring with the
different slopes, may be designed in accordance with (g). centerline of the dished cover thickness
= HD cot β 1
(g) When the half‐ apex angle α is greater than 30 deg
h r = lever arm of force Hr about centroid of flange
(0.52 rad), cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder junctions without a knuckle ring
may be used, with or without reinforcing rings, if the de- β 1 = angle formed by the tangent to the center‐
sign is based on special analysis, such as the beam ‐ on ‐ line of the dished cover thickness at its point
elastic ‐ foundation analysis of Timoshenko, Hetenyi, or of intersection with the flange ring, and a
Watts and Lang. See U-2(g). When such an analysis is line perpendicular to the axis of the dished
made, the calculated localized stresses at the discontinu- cover
ity shall not exceed the following values:
(1 ) Membrane hoop stress plus average discontinu- = arc sin
ity hoop stress shall not be greater than 1.5 S, where the
“ average discontinuity hoop stress ” is the average hoop NOTE: Since Hrh r in some cases will subtract from the total
stress across the wall thickness due to the discontinuity moment, the moment in the flange ring when the internal
at the junction, disregarding the effect of Poisson ’ s ratio pressure is zero may be the determining loading for flange
times the longitudinal stress at the surfaces. design.
P = internal pressure (see UG-21) for the pressure on
(2) Membrane longitudinal stress plus discontinuity
concave side, and external pressure for the pres-
longitudinal stress due to bending shall not be greater sure on convex side [see UG-28(f)]
than SPS [see UG-23(e)]. r = inside knuckle radius
The angle joint (see 3-2) between the cone and cylinder S = maximum allowable stress value (see UG-23)
shall be designed equivalent to a double butt‐ welded T = flange thickness
joint, and because of the high bending stress, there shall t = minimum required thickness of head plate after
be no weak zones around the angle joint. The thickness forming
of the cylinder may have to be increased to limit the dif-
ference in thickness so that the angle joint has a smooth (c) It is important to note that the actual value of the
contour. total moment Mo may calculate to be either plus or minus
for both the heads concave to pressure and the heads con-
vex to pressure. However, for use in all of the equations
that follow, the absolute values for both P and Mo are
1-6 DISHED COVERS (BOLTED HEADS) used.
(a) Dished heads with bolting flanges, both concave and (d) Heads of the type shown in Figure 1-6 sketch (a):
convex to the pressure and conforming to the several (1 ) the thickness of the head t shall be determined by
types illustrated in Figure 1-6, shall be designed in accor- the appropriate formula in UG-32 for pressure on concave
dance with the equations which follow. side, and UG-33 for pressure on convex side; the thickness

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1-6 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017

Figure 1-6
Dished Covers With Bolting Flanges

Edge of weld Hemispherical head Hemispherical head

shall not overlap
knuckle Toriconical head Toriconical head
See N ote (1 )
t
Ellipsoidal or Not less than t Ellipsoidal or
torispherical 2 t and in torispherical
head no case head
t less than t
See N ote (1 ) Knuckle 1 / in. (1 3 mm) Knuckle
radius 2
Tangent line radius Tangent line

Skirt
Skirt

Flange Gasket
Flange Gasket

Loose Fl a n g e Type I n teg ra l Fl a n g e Type

( a ) [ N otes ( 2) a n d ( 3 ) ]

1/ A
2
1/ C
2

Preferably t
2 t min. Preferably
2 t min.
t

T L

t T* L
1/ B
2 Ring 1/ B
2
Ring gasket 1/ C
0.7 t min. 2
gasket shown
shown T* ? T? t
( b) ( c)

1/ A
2
1 / (A
4 ? B)
Point of HD
Full penetration weld action
? t
1
HD
L
T Hr
hr Shown as welded.
Centroid Smooth weld both
sides.
1/ B
2
Use any suitable 1/ C
2
type of gasket

( d)

NOTES:
(1) For head and skirt of different thicknesses, see Figure UW-13.1 for transition requirement.
(2) Welding details as shown are for illustrating the distance between the toe of the fillet weld and the tangent line of the head. Welding details
shall be per Figure 2-4.
(3) An optional flange can be designed as loose type or integral type. When an optional flange is attached to a formed head per this sketch, the
distance between the toe of the fillet weld and the tangent line of the head shall be as shown.

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 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017 1-6

of the skirt shall be determined by the formula for cylind- where

rical shell in UG-2 7 for pressure on concave side and
UG-28 for pressure on convex side; Q =
(2) the head radius L or the knuckle radius r shall
comply with the limitations given in UG-32; (3) flange thickness for ring gasket for heads with
(3) the flange shall comply at least with the require- bolting holes slotted through the edge of the head
ments of Figure 2-4 and shall be designed in accordance
with the provisions of 2-1 through 2 -8 for pressure on
ð6 Þ
concave side, and 2-11 for pressure on convex side. When
a slip-on flange conforming to the standards listed in
Table U-3 is used, design calculations per Mandatory where
Ap p e nd ix 2 n e e d n o t b e d o n e p ro vid e d th e d e s i gn
p re s s u re – te m p e ra tu re i s wi th i n th e p re s s u r e ‐
Q =
temperature rating permitted in the flange standard.
(e) Heads of the type shown in Figure 1-6 sketch (b)
(4) flange thickness for full ‐ face gasket for heads
(no joint efficiency factor is required):
with round bolting holes
(1 ) head thickness
(-a) for pressure on concave side,
ð7 Þ

ð1 Þ

where

(-b) for pressure on convex side, the head thick- Q =

ness shall be determined based on UG-3 3 (c) using the
outside radius of the spherical head segment; (5) flange thickness for full ‐ face gasket for heads
(2) flange thickness for ring gasket with bolting holes slotted through the edge of the head

ð2 Þ ð8 Þ

where
(3) flange thickness for full face gasket

Q =
ð3 Þ

(6) the required flange thickness shall be T as calcu-

lated in (2), (3), (4), or (5) above, but in no case less than
NOTE: The radial components of the membrane load in the spherical the value of t calculated in (1) above.
segment are assumed to be resisted by its flange. (g) Heads of the type shown in Figure 1-6 sketch (d)
(no joint efficiency factor is required):
(f) Heads of the type shown in Figure 1-6 sketch (c) (1 ) head thickness
(no joint efficiency factor is required): (-a) for pressure on concave side,
(1 ) head thickness
(-a) for pressure on concave side, ð9 Þ

ð4 Þ

(-b) for pressure on convex side, the head thick-

ness shall be determined based on UG-3 3 (c) using the
(-b) for pressure on convex side, the head thick- outside radius of the spherical head segment;
ness shall be determined based on UG-3 3 (c) using the (2) flange thickness
outside radius of the spherical head segment;
(2) flange thickness for ring gasket for heads with ð 10 Þ

round bolting holes

where
ð5 Þ

F =

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1-6 – 1-7 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017

and in the no zzle neck, no zzle fo rging, reinfo rcing p late,

and/or nozzle flange divided by the shell material allow-
J = able stress is at least 0.80.
NOTE: The bending stress Sb calculated by eq. (5) is valid and applic-
able only at the nozzle neck‐ shell junction. It is a primary bending
(h ) These equations are approximate in that they do
stress because it is a measure of the stiffness required to maintain
not take into account continuity between the flange ring
equilibrium at the longitudinal axis junction of the nozzle ‐ shell inter-
and the dished head. A more exact method of analysis section due to the bending moment calculated by eq. (3) .
which takes this into account may be used if it meets
the requirements of U-2. Case A (see Figure 1 -7-1 )

ð1 Þ
1-7 LARGE OPENINGS IN CYLINDRICAL AND
CONICAL SHELLS
(a) Openings exceeding the dimensional limits given in
Case B (see Figure 1 -7-1 )
UG-3 6(b) (1) shall be provided with reinforcement that
complies with the following rules. Two ‐ thirds of the re-
ð2 Þ
quired reinforcement shall be within the following limits:
(1 ) parallel to vessel wall: the larger of three ‐ fourths
times the limit in UG-40(b) (1 ) , or equal to the limit in
UG-40(b)(2); Cases A and B (See Figure 1 -7-1 or Figure 1 -7-2)
(2) normal to vessel wall: the smaller of the limit in
UG-40(c)(1), or in UG-40(c)(2) .
ð3 Þ
(b) In addition to meeting the requirements of (a),
(1 ) openings for radial nozzles that exceed the limits
in UG-36(b)(1) and that also are within the range defined
ð4 Þ
by the following limits shall meet the requirements in (2) ,
(3), and (4) below:
(-a) v e s s e l d i a m e t e r s g r e a t e r t h a n 6 0 i n . ð5 Þ
(1 520 mm) I.D.;
(-b) n o z z l e d i a m e t e r s t h a t e x c e e d 4 0 i n .

(1 0 2 0 mm) I. D . and also exceed ; the terms R (5) No m en clatu re. Symbols used in Figures 1 -7-1
and t are defined in Figures 1-7-1 and 1-7-2; and 1-7-2 are as defined in UG-37(a) and as follows:
(-c) the ratio Rn /R does n o t exceed 0.7; for nozzle
As = shaded (cross ‐ hatched) area in Figure 1-7-1, Case
openings with Rn /R exceeding 0.7, refer to U-2(g).
A or Case B
The rules are limited to radial nozzles in cylindrical
a = distance between neutral axis of the shaded area
and conical shells (with the half‐ apex angle equal to or
in Figure 1-7-1 or Figure 1-7-2 and the inside of
less than 30 deg) that do not have internal proj ections,
vessel wall
and do not include any analysis for stresses resulting
e = distance between neutral axis of the shaded area
from externally applied mechanical loads. For such cases,
and midwall of the shell
U-2(g) shall apply.
I = moment o f inertia of the larger of the shaded
(2) The memb rane stress Sm as calculated by eq.
areas in Figure 1-7-1 or Figure 1-7-2 about neu-
(4) (1) or (4) (2 ) below shall not exceed S, as defined in
tral axis
UG-37 for the applicable materials at design conditions.
P = internal or external pressure
The maximum combined membrane stress Sm and bend-
Rm = mean radius of shell
ing stress Sb shall not exceed 1.5 S at design conditions.
Rn m = mean radius of nozzle neck
Sb shall be calculated by eq. (4)(5) below.
Sb = bending stress at the intersection of inside of the
(3) Evaluation of combined stresses from pressure
nozzle neck and inside of the vessel shell along
and external loads shall be made in accordance with
the vessel shell longitudinal axis
U-2(g).
Sm = membrane stress calculated by eq. (4) (1) or eq.
(4) For membrane stress calculations, use the limits
(4)(2)
defined in Figure 1-7-1, and comply with the strength of
Sy = yield strength of the material at test temperature;
reinforcement requirements of UG-41. For bending stress
see Section II, Part D, Subpart 1, Table Y-1
calculation, the greater of the limits defined in Figure
1-7-1 or Figure 1-7-2 may be used. The strength reduc- (c) In the design and fabrication of large openings, the
tion ratio requirements of UG-41 need not be applied, Manufacturer should consider details that may be appro-
provided that the allowable stress ratio of the material p riate to minimize dis to rtio n and lo calized s tres s es

368
 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017 1-7 – 1-8

Figure 1-7-1

around the opening. For example, reinforcement often The nomenclature given below is used in the equations
may be advantageously obtained by use of heavier shell of the following subparagraphs:
plate for a vessel course or inserted locally around the
A = factor determined from Section II, Part D, Subpart
opening; weld may be ground to concave contour and
3, Figure G and used to enter the applicable mate-
the inside corners of the opening rounded to a generous
rial chart in Section II, Part D, Subpart 3
radius to reduce stress concentrations. The user and the
A e L = e ffe c ti ve are a o f re i n fo rce m e n t at l arge e n d
Manufacturer should agree on the extent and type of non-
intersection
destructive examination of welds that may be appropriate
A e s = e ffecti ve are a o f re i n fo rcem e nt at s m al l e n d
for the intended service conditions and the materials of
intersection
construction. Proof testing may be appropriate in extreme
A r L = required area of reinforcement at large end of
cases of large openings approaching full vessel diameter,
cone
openings of unusual shape, etc.
A r s = required area of reinforcement at small end of
cone
ð 17Þ 1-8 RULES FOR REINFORCEMENT OF CONES A s = cross ‐ sectional area of the stiffening ring
AND CONICAL REDUCERS UNDER A T = equivalent area of cylinder, cone, and stiffening
EXTERNAL PRESSURE ring, where

(a) The equations of (b) and (c) below provide for the A TL =
design of reinforcement, if needed, at the cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder
junctions for reducer sections and conical heads where all
A TS =
the elements have a common axis and the half‐ apex angle
α ≤ 60 deg. Subparagraph (e) below provides for special
analysis in the design of cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder intersections B = factor determined from the applicable material
with or without reinforcing rings where α is greater than chart in Section II, Part D, Subpart 3 for maximum
60 deg. design metal temperature [see UG-20(c)]
In the design of reinforcement for a cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder D L = outside diameter of large end of conical section
juncture, the requirements of UG-41 shall be met. under consideration

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1-8 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017

Figure 1-7-2

Rn Rn
tn Neutral axis te ? 1 6tn tn Neutral axis 1 6tn
of shaded area of shaded area
te

e e
a a

t
t

Rnm Rnm
1 6t Rm R
1 6t R Rm

Shell centerline Shell centerline

Nozzle centerline Nozzle centerline

Case A: Nozzle With Case B: Nozzle With

Reinforcing Pad Integral-Type Reinforcement
GENERAL NOTE: When any part of a flange is located within the greater of the or 16 tn + te limit as indicated in Figure 1-7-1 or
Figure 1-7-2 Case A, or the greater of or 16 tn for Figure 1-7-1 or Figure 1-7-2 Case B, the flange may be included as part of the section
that resists bending moment.

Do = outside diameter of cylindrical shell (In conical of the shell which is taken as contributing to the
shell calculations, the value of D s and D L should moment of inertia of the combined section shall
be used in calculations in place of D o depending not be greater than and shall be taken
on whether the small end D s, or large end D L , is
as lying o ne ‐ half o n each side of the co ne ‐ to ‐
being examined.)
cylinder j unction or of the centroid of the ring.
Ds = outside diameter at small end of conical section
Portions of the shell plate shall not be considered
under consideration
as contributing area to more than one stiffening
E1 = efficiency of longitudinal j oint in cylinder. For
ring.
compression (such as at small end of cone), E 1 =
1.0 for butt welds. CAUTION: Stiffening rings may be subj ect to lateral
E2 = efficiency of longitudinal joint in cone. For com- buckling. This should be considered in addition to the
requirements for Is and I′s [see U-2(g)].
pression, E 2 = 1.0 for butt welds.
Ec = modulus of elasticity of cone material Is = required moment of inertia of the stiffening ring
Er = modulus of elasticity of stiffening ring material cross section about its neutral axis parallel to the
Es = modulus of elasticity of shell material axis of the shell
Ex = Ec, Er, or Es I ′s = required moment of inertia of the combined shell ‐
f1 = axial load per unit circumference at large end due cone or ring‐ shell ‐ cone cross section about its neu-
to wind, dead load, etc., excluding pressure tral axis parallel to the axis of the shell
f2 = axial load per unit circumference at small end due k = 1 when additional area of reinforcement is not
to wind, dead load, etc., excluding pressure required
I = available moment of inertia of the stiffening ring = y/SrEr when a stiffening ring is required, but k is
cross section about its neutral axis parallel to the not less than 1.0
axis of the shell L = axial length of cone
I′ = available moment of inertia of combined shell ‐ L c = length of cone between stiffening rings measured
cone or ring‐ shell ‐ cone cross section about its neu- along surface of cone, in. (mm). For cones without
tral axis parallel to the axis of the shell. The nom- intermediate stiffeners,
inal shell thickness, ts, shall be used, and the width
=

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 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017 1-8

L L = design length of a vessel section taken as the lar-

gest of the following:
Table 1-8.1
(a) the center‐ to ‐ center distance between the
Values of Δ for Junctions at the Large
cone ‐ to ‐ large ‐ shell junction and an adj acent stif-
Cylinder for α ≤ 60 deg
fening ring on the large shell; P/S s E 1 0 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.02
(b) the distance between the cone ‐ to ‐ large ‐ Δ , deg 0 5 7 10 15
shell junction and one ‐ third the depth of head on
P/S s E 1 0.04 0.08 0.10 0.125 0.15
the other end of the large shell if no other stiffen- Δ , deg 21 29 33 37 40
ing rings are used.
L s = design length of a vessel section taken as the lar- P/S s E 1 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 [Note (1)]
gest of the following: Δ , deg 47 52 57 60

(a) the center‐ to ‐ center distance between the NOTE:

cone ‐ to ‐ small ‐ shell junction and adjacent stiffen- (1) Δ = 60 deg for greater values of P /S s E 1
ing ring on the small shell;
(b) the distance between the cone ‐ to ‐ small ‐
shell junction and one ‐ third the depth of head on (1 ) For cones attached to a cylinder having a mini-
the other end of the small shell if no other stiffen-
mum length of 2.0 , reinforcement shall be provided
ing rings are used.
at the junction of the cone with the large cylinder for con-
NOTE: If the stiffeners should be so located that the maxi-
mum permissible effective shell sections overlap on either ical heads and reducers without knuckles when the value
or both sides of a stiffener, the effective shell section for that of Δ obtained from Table 1-8.1 using the appropriate ratio
stiffener shall be shortened by one ‐ half of each overlap. P/SsE1 is less than α . Interpolation may be made in the
P = external design pressure Table.
QL = algebraical sum of PRL /2 and f1 The required area of reinforcement shall be at least
Qs = algebraical sum of PRs/2 and f2 equal to that indicated by the following formula when
RL = outside radius of large cylinder QL is in compression:
Rs = outside radius of small cylinder
Sc = a l l o wa b l e s tre s s o f c o n e m a te ri a l a t d e s i gn
ð1 Þ
temperature
Sr = allowable stress of stiffening ring material at de-
sign temperature
Ss = allowable stress of cylinder material at design At the large end of the cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder juncture, the
temperature PRL /2 term is in compression. When f1 is in tension and
t = minimum required thickness of cylinder at cone ‐ the quantity is larger than the PRL /2 term, the design shall
to ‐ cylinder junction [see UG-28(c)] be in accordance with U-2 (g) . The calculated localized
tc = nominal thickness of cone at cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder stresses at the discontinuity shall not exceed the stress
junction values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and 1-5(g)(2).
tr = minimum required thickness of cone at cone ‐ to ‐
The effective area of reinforcement can be deter-
cylinder junction
mined in accordance with the following formula:
ts = nominal thickness of cylinder at cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder
junction ð2 Þ
y = cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder factor
= SsEs for stiffening ring on shell
= ScEc for stiffening ring on cone Any additional area of stiffening which is required
α = one ‐ half the included (apex) angle of the cone at
shall be situated within a distance of from the junc-
the centerline of the head
Δ = value to indicate need for reinforcement at cone ‐ tion of the reducer and the cylinder. The centroid of the
to ‐ cylinder intersection having a half‐ apex angle added area shall be within a distance of
α ≤ 60 deg. When Δ ≥ α , no reinforcement is re- from the junction.
quired at the junction (see Table 1-8.1) . (2) For cones attached to flat covers, flanges, or other
(b) Reinforcement shall be provided at the large end of components where the length of cylinder, if present, is
the cone when required by (1) or (2). When the large end less than 2.0 , the required reinforcement shall be
of the cone is considered a line of support, the moment of at least equal to that indicated by the following formula:
inertia for a stiffening ring shall be determined in accor-
dance with (3).

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1-8 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017

The effective area of reinforcement can be deter- Step 6. Compute the value of the required moment of
mined in accordance with the following formula: inertia from the equations for Is or I ′ s . For the circumfer-
ential stiffening ring only,

Any additional area of reinforcement that is required

shall be added to the cone.
(3) When the cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder or knuckle ‐ to ‐ cylinder For the shell ‐ cone or ring‐ shell ‐ cone section,
juncture is a line of support, the moment of inertia for a
stiffening ring at the large end shall be determined by
the procedure in Steps 1 through 8 below.
For cones attached to flat covers, flanges, or other
components where the length of the cylinder, if present,
Step 7. Determine the available moment of inertia of the
is less than , length L L in the formulas for A T L ring only I or the shell ‐ cone or ring‐ shell ‐ cone I ′ .
and M shall be zero. Step 8. When the ring only is used,
Step 1 . Assuming that the shell has been designed and
D L , L L , and t are known, select a member to be used for
the stiffening ring and determine cross ‐ sectional area
and when the shell ‐ cone or ring‐ shell ‐ cone is used,
A TL . Then calculate factor B using the following formula.
If FL is a negative number, the design shall be in accor-
dance with U-2(g):

If the equation is not satisfied, a new section with a

larger moment of inertia must be selected, and the calcu-
lation shall be done again until the equation is met.
where The requirements of UG-29(b), UG-29(c), UG-29(d),
UG-29(e), and UG-29(f) and UG-30 are to be met in attach-
FL = PM + f1 tan α ing stiffening rings to the shell.
M = (c) Reinforcement shall be provided at the small end of
the cone when required by (1) or (2). When the small end
of the cone is considered a line of support, the moment of
Step 2 . Enter the right‐ hand side of the applicable mate-
inertia for a stiffening ring shall be determined in accor-
rial chart in Section II, Part D, Subpart 3 for the material
dance with (3).
under consideration at the value of B determined by Step
1. If different materials are used for the shell and stiffen- (1 ) For cones attached to a cylinder having a mini-
ing ring, use the material chart resulting in the larger val- mum length of 1.4 , reinforcement shall be provided
ue of A in Step 4 below. at the junction of the conical shell of a reducer without a
Step 3. Move horizontally to the left to the material/ flare and the small cylinder. The required area of rein-
temperature line for the design metal temperature. For forcement shall be at least equal to that indicated by the
values of B falling below the left end of the material/tem- following formula when Qs is in compression:
perature line, see Step 5 below.
Step 4. Move vertically to the bottom of the chart and ð3 Þ

read the value of A .

Step 5. For value of B falling below the left end of the At the small end of the cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder juncture, the
material/temperature line for the design temperature, PRs/2 term is in compression. When f2 is in tension and
the value of A can be calculated using the formula A = the quantity is larger than the PRs/2 term, the design shall
2 B/Ex. For value of B above the material/ temperature be in accordance with U-2(g) . The calculated localized
line for the design temperature, the design shall be either stresses at the discontinuity shall not exceed the stress
per U-2(g) or by changing the cone or cylinder configura- values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and 1-5(g)(2).
tion, stiffening ring location on the shell, and/or reducing The effective area of reinforcement can be deter-
the axial compressive force to reduce the B value to below mined in accordance with the following formula:
or at the material/temperature line for the design tem-
perature. For values of B having multiple values of A, such ð4 Þ
as when B falls on a horizontal portion of the curve, the
smallest value of A shall be used.

372
 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017 1-8

Any additional area of stiffener which is required Step 5. For values of B falling below the left end of the
shall be situated within a distance of from the junc- material/temperature line for the design temperature,
tion, and the centroid of the added area shall be within a the value of A can be calculated using the formula A =
2 B/Ex. For value of B above the material/ temperature
distance of from the junction. line for the design temperature, the design shall be either
(2) For cones attached to flat covers, flanges, or other per U-2(g) or by changing the cone or cylinder configura-
components where the length of cylinder, if present, is tion, stiffening ring location on the shell, and/or reducing
less than 1.4 , the required reinforcement shall be the axial compressive force to reduce the B value to below
or at the material/ temperature line for the design tem-
at least equal to that indicated by the following formula: perature. For values of B having multiple values of A, such
as when B falls on a horizontal portion of the curve, the
smallest value of A shall be used.
Step 6. Compute the value of the required moment of
The effective area of reinforcement can be deter- inertia from the equations for Is or I ′ s .
mined in accordance with the following formula: For the circumferential stiffening ring only,

Any additional area of reinforcement that is required

shall be added to the cone or the flange.
For the shell ‐ cone or ring‐ shell ‐ cone section,
(3) When the cone ‐ to ‐ cylinder or knuckle ‐ to ‐ cylinder
juncture is a line of support, the moment of inertia for a
stiffening ring at the small end shall be determined by
the procedure in Steps 1 through 8 below.
For cones attached to flat covers, flanges, or other
components where the length of the cylinder, if present, Step 7. Determine the available moment of inertia of the
ring only I or the shell ‐ cone or ring‐ shell ‐ cone I .
is less than 1.4 , length L s in the formulas for A T S
′

Step 8. When the ring only is used,

and N shall be zero.
Step 1 . Assuming that the shell has been designed and
D s, L s, and t are known, select a member to be used for
and when the shell cone or ring shell cone is used:
the stiffening ring and determine cross ‐ sectional area
‐ ‐ ‐

A TS . Then calculate factor B using the following formula.

If Fs is a negative number, the design shall be in accor-
dance with U-2(g):
If the equation is not satisfied, a new section with a
larger moment of inertia must be selected, and the calcu-
lation shall be done again until the equation is met.
The requirements of UG-29(b), UG-29(c), UG-29(d),
where UG-29(e), and UG-29(f) and UG-30 are to be met in attach-
ing stiffening rings to the shell.
F s = PN + f2 tan α (d) Reducers not described in UG-36(e) (5), such as
N = those made up of two or more conical frustums having
different slopes, may be designed in accordance with (e).
(e) When the half apex angle α is greater than 60 deg
Step 2 . Enter the right‐ hand side of the applicable mate-
‐

(1.1 rad), cone to cylinder junctions without a knuckle

rial chart in Section II, Part D, Subpart 3 for the material
‐ ‐

may be used, with or without reinforcing rings, if the de-

under consideration at the value of B determined by Step sign is based on special analysis, such as the beam on
1. If different materials are used for the shell and stiffen-
‐ ‐

elastic foundation analysis of Timoshenko, Hetenyi, or

ing ring, use the material chart resulting in the larger val-
‐

Watts and Lang. See U-2(g). The effect of shell and cone
ue of A in Step 4 below. buckling on the required area and moment of inertia at
Step 3 . Move horizontally to the left to the material/ the joint is to be taken into consideration in the analysis.
temperature line for the design metal temperature. For When such an analysis is made, the calculated localized
values of B falling below the left end of the material/tem- stresses at the discontinuity shall not exceed the follow-
perature line, see Step 5 below. ing values:
Step 4. Move vertically to the bottom of the chart and (1 ) Membrane hoop stress plus average discontinu-
read the value of A . ity hoop stress shall not be greater than 1.5 S.

373
 1-8 – 1-10 ASME BPVC.VIII.1-2017

(2) Membrane longitudinal stress plus discontinuity 1-10 ALTERNATIVE METHOD FOR DESIGN ð 17Þ
longitudinal stress due to bending shall not be greater OF REINFORCEMENT FOR OPENINGS
than SPS [see UG-23(e)], where the “average discontinuity IN CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL
hoop stress ” is the average hoop stress across the wall SHELLS UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
thickness due to the discontinuity at the junction, disre-
garding the effect of Poisson’ s ratio times the longitudinal
stress at the surfaces. DELETED

ð 17Þ 1-9 ALTERNATIVE RULES FOR

REINFORCEMENT OF OPENINGS UNDER
INTERNAL PRESSURE

DELETED

374