UNIX INTERNALS –

INTRODUCTION TO KERNEL

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

After this Lecture ;

1. The student shall be able to “draw & brief” UNIX Kernel Architecture

2. The student shall be able to list the CHARACTERS of File & Process Sub-
system

3. The student shall be able to brief the File Sub System - Buffering
mechanism

4. The student shall be able to narrate on Programs, Libraries & System calls
& its interaction

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

After this Lecture 2;

1. The student shall be able to explain the working of File Sub-system &
inodes

2. The student shall be able to list the CHARACTERS of File & Process Sub-
system

3. The student shall be able to “draw & brief” File Sub-system Layout & its
entities

4. The student shall be able to “brief” Process Sub-system.

5. The student shall be able to “draw & brief” Kernel & User Stacks..

6. The student shall be able to list & explain Process states & its transitions

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

 INTRODUCTION TO KERNEL

1. Architecture Of The Unix Operating System

2. Introduction To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

 Introduction To Kernel

UNIX system has TWO major Entities

 Files and Processes.

UNIX kernel has TWO major Components

 Process Control Subsystem & File Subsystem

UNIX system has THREE System levels

 user, kernel, and hardware.

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Student Copy – JUNE 2015
UNIX Kernel Architecture – PROGRAMS & LIBRARIES

System calls (used in Programs) looks like ordinary function

calls in C programs, libraries map these function calls to
primitives of OS.

Yet, Assembly language programs may invoke system calls

directly without a system call library

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 UNIX Kernel Architecture – PROGRAMS & LIBRARIES

During Compilation,
what happens to System calls & Libraries ?

HINT : Last lecture

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UNIX Kernel Architecture – SYSTEM CALLS

The set of SYSTEM CALLS is partitioned into those that

interact with the file subsystem and those that interact with
the process control subsystem.

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UNIX Kernel Architecture - FILE SUBSYSTEM

THE FILE SUBSYSTEM

1. Manages files
2. Allocating file space
3. Administering free space
4. Controlling access to files
5. Retrieving data for users

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UNIX Kernel Architecture - FILE SUBSYSTEM

THE FILE SUBSYSTEM

The file subsystem accesses file
data using a buffering mechanism

Buffering Mechanism
Regulates data flow between the kernel and secondary storage devices.
Interacts with block I/O device drivers to initiate data transfer to and
from the kernel.

where, Block I/O devices are random access storage devices.

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UNIX Kernel Architecture - FILE SUBSYSTEM

THE FILE SUBSYSTEM

It interacts directly with "raw" I/0 device drivers without the
intervention of a buffering mechanism

Raw devices  character devices

More info on Block & Char Dev -Refer :

http://unix.stackexchange.com/questions/60034/what-are-character-special-and-
block-special-files-in-a-unix-system
Student Copy – JUNE 2015
UNIX Kernel Architecture - FILE SUBSYSTEM

THE FILE SUBSYSTEM

More info on Block & Char Dev -Refer :

http://unix.stackexchange.com/questions/60034/what-are-
character-special-and-block-special-files-in-a-unix-system

GOOGLE : unix stackexchange 60034

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UNIX Kernel Architecture - THE PROCESS CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

THE PROCESS CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

Its responsible for;

1. Process Synchronization
2. Inter Process Communication
3. Memory Management
4. Process Scheduling.

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Student Copy – JUNE 2015
UNIX Kernel Architecture - THE PROCESS CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

THE PROCESS CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

The process subsystem read executable files into memory before

executing them.
The system calls for controlling processes are:

 fork (create a new process)

 exec (overlay the image of a program onto the running process)
 exit (finish executing a process)
 wait (synchronize process execiition)
 brk (control the size of memory allocated to a process)
 signal

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UNIX Kernel Architecture – INTERACTION
FILE SUBSYSTEM & PROCESS CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

FILE SUBSYSTEM & PROCESS CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

Processes interact with the file subsystem via a specific set of system
calls;

 open
 close
 Read
 write
 stat
 chown
 chmod

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

 UNIX Kernel Architecture –
THE PROCESS CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

MEMORY MANAGEMENT MODULE

It Controls the allocation of memory of a Process.

If system does not have enough physical memory for all processes, the
kernel moves them between main memory and secondary memory
called as swapping

The swapper process is sometimes called the scheduler, because it

"schedules" the allocation of memory for processes and influences the
operation of the CPU scheduler.

Remember !!!
swap device -- swapping system -- paging system
Student Copy – JUNE 2015
UNIX Kernel Architecture –
THE PROCESS CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

SCHEDULER

The scheduler module allocates the CPU to processes

It schedules them to run in-turn until;
1. Voluntarily exit or
2. Kernel preempts them when their recent run time exceeds a time
quantum

INTER-PROCESS COMMUNICATION
Inter-process communication, ranging from asynchronous signaling of
events to synchronous transmission of messages between processes

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Student Copy – JUNE 2015
 Thus we have discussed,

Introduction To Kernel

Programs, Libraries & System calls & its interaction

Programs,

The File Sub System - Responsibilities & Working

The File Sub System - Buffering mechanism

The

The Process Control Sub System - Responsibilities & Working

Interaction <--> File Sub System & Process Control Sub System

The Process Control Sub System - IPC, Scheduler & Memory Mgmt

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

After this Lecture 2;

1. The student shall be able to explain the working of File Sub-system &
inodes

2. The student shall be able to list the CHARACTERS of File & Process Sub-
system

3. The student shall be able to “draw & brief” File Sub-system Layout & its
entities

4. The student shall be able to “brief” Process Sub-system.

5. The student shall be able to “draw & brief” Kernel & User Stacks..

6. The student shall be able to list & explain Process states & its transitions

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

 INTRODUCTION TO KERNEL

1. Architecture Of The Unix Operating System

2. Introduction To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures

1. Overview of File Sub-system

2. PROCESSES

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM
About inode :

inode  it gives INTERNAL REPRESENTATION of a file.

INTERNAL REPRESENTATION ?

• Description of Disk Layout of a FILE.

• FILE Owner
• Access Permissions
• Access Times

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

About inode :

Inodes are stored in the file system

Every file has one inode.

But it(file) may have several names, all of which map into
the inode, Each name is called a link .

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

When a PROCESS refers to a FILE by “name”, the kernel does

the following:

1. Parses the FILE NAME.

2. Checks if the PROCESS has permission to search the
directories in the path.
3. Retrieves the inode for the file.

open ("/fs2/mjb/study/sourcefile", 1);

(The first parameter path in specifies the file name to be opened)

(The second parameter (flags) specifies how the file may be used)
REFER - http://www.cs.uofs.edu/~bi/2008f-html/cs352/syscalls-file.htm#open
Student Copy – JUNE 2015
Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

When a PROCESS “creates” a new file, the kernel assigns it

an unused inode.

The kernel contains two other data structures,

1.File Table
2.User File Descriptor Table

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

When a process opens or creats a file, the kernel allocates an

entry to each table (file descriptor table, file table, and inode
table)

all 3 tables maintain the “State Of The File” and “User's

Access To It”

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

FILE TABLE
It keeps track of the Byte Offset in the file
(where the user's next read or write will start)

Access Rights allowed to the “opening process”.

USER FILE DESCRIPTOR TABLE

It identifies all “open files” for a process

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

The kernel returns a file descriptor for the open and creat
system calls, which is an index into the user file
descriptor table.

When executing read and write system calls, the kernel

uses the file descriptor to access the user file descriptor
table.
(follows pointers to the file table and inode table entries, and, from the
inode, finds the data in the file)

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

About File Sub-System & Disks

In Unix a disk is Partitioned into several File Systems.

(makes it easier for administrators to manage the data stored)

The kernel deals on a LOGICAL LEVEL with File Systems

rather than with disks.

Treating each one as a LOGICAL DEVICE identified by a

LOGICAL DEVICE NUMBER.

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

About File Sub-System & Disks

The logical device (file system) addresses and physical

device (disk) addresses conversion is done by the DISK
DRIVER.

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

About File Sub-System & Disks

A File System consists of a sequence of logical blocks -

containing 512, 1024, 2048 Bytes.

Large logical blocks increases the effective data transfer rate

between disk and memory.

Coz, kernel can transfer more data per disk operation.

However, If Logical block is too large, effective storage capacity may

drop
Student Copy – JUNE 2015
Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
OVERVIEW OF FILE SUB-SYSTEM

boot block typically the first sector, and may contain the
bootstrap code

super block describes the “state of a file system” –

• how large it is,
• how many files it can store,
• About free space on the file system, and other information.

inode list is a list of inodes, One inode is the root inode of the
file system

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures

1. Overview of File Sub-system

2. PROCESSES

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES

We will see process subsystem more closely

1. Structure of a process
2. Process data structures used for memory management.

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

Every process (is an Entity) is created by the fork system

call. (execpt process 0 – created on boot)

Invoked process is Parent

Created process is Child

Every process has one parent process, but a process can have
many child processes.

Every process has a PID

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

A user compiles the source code of a program to create an

executable file, which consists of several parts:

= A set of "HEADERS" (that describe the attributes of the file)

= The program TEXT

(pattern of bytes during execution of a program that the CPU interprets as
machine instructions)

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

A user compiles the source code of a program to create an

executable file, which consists of several parts:

== The DATA(machine language representation) that has

initial values when the program starts execution,
and How much space the kernel should allocate for
uninitialized data called BSS

== Symbol table information.

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

The kernel loads an executable file into memory

(during an exec system call)

The loaded process consists of at least three parts, called

REGIONS.

1. Text Regions
2. Data Regions
3. Stack Regions

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

The loaded process consists of at least three parts, called

REGIONS.

The text and data regions correspond to the text and data-bss
sections of the executable file.

The stack region is automatically created and its size is

dynamically adjusted by the kernel at run time

Eg:

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

The stack consists of FRAMES (logical stack).

Frames that are PUSHED when calling a function

Frames that are POPPED while returning a function

STACK POINTER (special register) indicates the current stack

depth.

So, What does Stack frame contains?

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Student Copy – JUNE 2015
Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

The Stack frame contains;

• Function parameters/arguments

• Local variables

• Value of the program counter and stack pointer

• Data necessary to recover the previous stack frame

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Student Copy – JUNE 2015
Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

Every Process has an entry in the kernel process table.

Each Process is allocated a U AREA

(contains private data manipulated only by the kernel)

The Process table contains/maps to a per process region

table, whose entries point to entries in a region table.

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

What's a REGION?

Region is Process Address Space, such as text, data, and stack.

Region table entries  the attributes of the region.

• whether it contains text or data

• whether it is shared or private
• Memory location of "data”

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

The mapping between “per process region table” to the

“region table” allows independent processes to share
regions.

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

We know, When a process invokes the exec system Call (Loads

a executable to memory)
The kernel allocates regions for its text, data, and stack.

When a process invokes fork, it duplicates the address space

of the old process.

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

The process table entry and the u area contain control and
status information about the process.

Fields in the process table are;

1. a state field,
2. identifiers-UID indicating the user who owns the
process
3. an event descriptor set when a process is suspended

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

The u area contains information describing the process that

needs to be accessible only when the process is executing.

1. a pointer to the process table slot

2. file descriptors for all open files
3. current directory and current root
4. process and file size limits.
5. parameters of the current system call, return values and
error codes

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

1. Context of a process

2. Process states

3. State transitions

4. Sleep and wakeup

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

CONTEXT OF A PROCESS

The context of a process is its state, as defined by:

• Text
• Values of its global user variables and data structures
• Contents of its user and kernel stacks.
• Values stored in its process table slot and u area
• Values of machine registers it uses

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Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

CONTEXT OF A PROCESS
When executing a process, the system is said to be
executing in the context of the process

So When the kernel decides that it should execute another

process, it does a CONTEXT SWITCH

Kernel allows a context switch only under specific

conditions

When doing a context switch, the kernel saves enough information so

that it can later switch back to the first process and resume its
execution Student Copy – JUNE 2015
Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

1. Context of a process

2. Process states

3. State transitions

4. Sleep and wakeup

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

PROCESS STATES

The lifetime of a process can be divided into a set of states.

• The process is currently executing in user mode.

• The process is currently executing in kernel mode.
• The process is not executing, but it is ready to run as soon
as the scheduler chooses it.
• The process is sleeping. A process puts itself to sleep when
it can no longer continue executing

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

1. Context of a process

2. Process states

3. State transitions

4. Sleep and wakeup

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

STATE TRANSITIONS

Nodes represent the states a process can enter.

Edges represent the events that cause a process to move

from one state to another.

State transitions are legal between two states if there

exists an edge

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

STATE TRANSITIONS

The kernel allows a context switch only when a process

moves from the state "kernel running" to the state "asleep
in memory."

Processes running in kernel mode cannot be preempted by

other processes.

Therefore the kernel is sometimes said to be non-

preemptive,

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

1. Context of a process

2. Process states

3. State transitions

4. Sleep and wakeup

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

SLEEP AND WAKEUP

Processes go to sleep because they are awaiting the

occurrence of some event.

When an event occurs, at which time they wake up and

enter the state "ready to run”

Many processes can simultaneously sleep on an event;

when an event occurs, all processes sleeping on the event
wake up & where it is eligible for later scheduling; it does
not execute immediately.
Student Copy – JUNE 2015
Intro To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures –
PROCESSES on UNIX System

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

 INTRODUCTION TO KERNEL &
KERNEL DATA STRUCTURES

Architecture Of The Unix Operating System

Introduction To System Concepts & Kernel Data Structures

That’s it.

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

After this Lecture ;

1. The student shall be able to “draw & brief” UNIX Kernel Architecture

2. The student shall be able to list the CHARACTERS of File & Process Sub-
system

3. The student shall be able to brief the File Sub System - Buffering
mechanism

4. The student shall be able to narrate on Programs, Libraries & System calls
& its interaction

Student Copy – JUNE 2015

After this Lecture 2;

1. The student shall be able to explain the working of File Sub-system &
inodes

2. The student shall be able to list the CHARACTERS of File & Process Sub-
system

3. The student shall be able to “draw & brief” File Sub-system Layout & its
entities

4. The student shall be able to “brief” Process Sub-system.

5. The student shall be able to “draw & brief” Kernel & User Stacks..

6. The student shall be able to list & explain Process states & its transitions

Student Copy – JUNE 2015