CELLS |

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

- Micrographia , 1665
1665
- microscopical observation of thin slices of cork.
- first used the term “Cell”

The Royal Society of London was founded in 1616 during the reign of King James I
The Shelley Memorial is located on the site where the scientists
Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke performed experiments while
they were in Oxford, previously Cross Hall until the early
1800s. This is recorded on a plaque on the exterior wall of the
memorial.
Hooke’s Micrographia
The first use of the word “cell” with respect to biology
was made in Hookes’s Micrographia
“. . . I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all
perforated and porous. . . these pores, or cells, . . .
were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw,
and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met
with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention
of them before this.” - Robert Hooke
Microscope manufactured
by Christopher Cock of
London for Robert Hooke.
Hooke is believed to have
used this microscope for
the observations that
formed the basis of
Micrographia. (M-030
00276)
 CELLS
❖ Basic unit of life

❖ made up primarily of four elements:

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen

❖ are about 60% water

❖ constantly bathed in interstitial fluid,

which is derived from the blood
❖ size ranges from 2 micrometer to over a meter
or more (nerve cells of giraffe)

❖ Differs in shape: squamous, cuboidal and

columnar

❖ Cell is shaped according to the function it

plays in the body
 Cell Concept
ROBERT HOOKE
Discovered and gave the term “cells”

ROBERT BROWN
Said that cells have dark structure
near the center, which is now called as
“nucleus”

THEODOR SCHWANN
“Animals have cells too...”
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
“Cells came from division of
pre existing cells...”
 Cell Concept
THEODORE SCHWANN x MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
Zoologist Botanist

1. Cells are the basic unit of life

2. All living things are composed of cells

3. All cells arise/come from a pre-existing cell

CELL PARTS
❖ three (3) main regions:

✓ Nucleus

✓ Plasma/Cell membrane

✓ Cytoplasm
CELL PARTS
❖ Usually located near the center
of the cell
❖ Most often oval or spherical, but
its shape usually conforms with
the shape of the cell
❖ Control center of the cell
❖ Contains the genetic material,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Nucleus ❖ Has three recognizable regions:
nuclear membrane, nucleoli and
chromatin
CELL PARTS
Nuclear Membrane
❖ Double layered membrane
❖ Between the two membranes
is a fluid filled “moat” or
space
❖ Nuclear envelope encloses a
jelly-like fluid called
nucleoplasm in which other
nuclear elements are
Nucleus suspended
CELL PARTS
Nuclear Pores
❖ At various points, the two
layers of nuclear membrane
fuse and nuclear pores
penetrate through the fused
regions
❖ Allow certain dissolved
substances to move between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm
Nucleus
CELL PARTS
Nucleolus
❖ “little nucleus”
❖ One or more small dark-
staining round bodies in the
nucleus
❖ Composed largely of
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
proteins
❖ No surrounding membrane
Nucleus ❖ Produces ribosomes, which
eventually migrate into the
cytoplasm and serves as the
actual site of protein synthesis
CELL PARTS
Chromatin
❖ Consist of loosely coiled fibers
present in the nuclear fluid
❖ When a cell is dividing, the
chromatin threads coil and
condense to form a dense,
rodlike bodies called
chromosomes
❖ Chromatin fibers are composed
of protein (histone) and DNA
Nucleus molecules which in turn are
organized into tiny beadlike
particles called nucleosomes.
CELL PARTS
❖ Nuclear envelope/
membrane

❖ Nuclear pores

❖ Nucleolus

❖ Chromatin

Nucleus ❖ Chromosomes
 Plasma
membrane

❖ Outermost limit of the cell

❖ for support and protection
❖ A fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell
contents and separates them from the surrounding
environment
❖ Controls the entrance and exit of substances
✓ Selectively permeable membrane
✓ Permeable membrane
 Plasma
membrane

❖ Consist of two phospholipid layers (bilayer) arranged

“tail to tail” in which protein molecules float
❖ Arrangement:
✓ water soluble (hydrophilic) “heads” containing phosphate
groups form the surface of the membrane
✓ water insoluble (hydrophobic) “tails” consisting of fatty acid
chains make up the interior of the membrane
 Plasma
membrane

❖ Contains proteins
✓ Glycoproteins
✓ Integral proteins
✓ Peripheal proteins

❖ Functions:
✓ maintains the shape of the cell
✓ contains cell content, and the entrance and exit of materials
✓ prevents the contents of one cell from mixing with other cells
 Plasma
membrane

Glycoproteins

❖ Consist of tightly coiled , rodlike molecules embedded

in the bilayer of phospholipids
❖ May extend outward from its surface on one side, while
its opposite end communicate s with the cell’s interior
❖ Function as receptors that are specialized to combine
with specific kinds of molecules such as hormones
 Plasma
membrane

Integral Proteins

❖ More compacts molecules and globular in shape

❖ Some are imbedded in the interior of the phospholipid
layer
❖ Form narrow passageways or channels through which
various molecules and ions can cross the bilayered
membrane
 Plasma
membrane

Peripheral Proteins

❖ Globular in shape
❖ Associated with the inside surface of the cell
membrane
❖ Function as enzymes that promote specific chemical
reactions
 Plasma
membrane

❖ Phospholipid bilayer ❖ Contains proteins

✓ water soluble (hydrophilic) ✓ Glycoproteins
“heads” ✓ Integral proteins
✓ water insoluble (hydrophobic) ✓ Peripheal proteins
“tails”
Membrane Junction
Membrane Junction
Tight Junction
❖ Close intercellular
space between cells
by fusing cell
membranes together

❖ Impermeable junction
that bind cells
together into leak-
proof sheets that
prevent substance
from passing through
the extracellular
space between cells
Membrane Junction
Desmosomes
❖ Bind cells together by
forming “spot welds”
between adjacent
cells

❖ Prevents cells
subjected to
mechanical stress
from being pulled
apart
Membrane Junction
Gap Junction
❖ Form tubular channels
(connexons) between
cells that allow
substances to be
exchanged

❖ Functions mainly to
allow communication
Membrane Junction
Microvilli
❖ Tiny fingerlike
projections that
greatly increase the
cell’s surface area for
absorption so that the
process occurs more
quickly
Membrane Junction
CELL PARTS
❖ Living substance of the cell

❖ Cellular material outside

the nucleus and inside the
plasma membrane

❖ Site of most cellular

activities – “factory area”

❖ Three major elements

✓ Cytosol
✓ Organelles
✓ Inclusions
Cytoplasm
CELL PARTS
Cytosol
❖ Semitransparent fluid
that suspends the other
elements

❖ Composed largely water

and nutrients and a
variety of other solutes
(dissolved substances)

Cytoplasm
CELL PARTS
Inclusions
❖ Chemical substance that
may or may not be
present, depending on
the specific cell type

❖ Are stored nutrients or

cell products: lipids,
glycogen, pigments and
secretory products

Cytoplasm
CELL PARTS
Organelles
❖ “little organs”

❖ The metabolic machinery

of the cell

❖ Each type is specialized

to carry out a specific
function for the cell as a
whole

Cytoplasm
CELL PARTS
❖ Cytosol

❖ Inclusions

❖ Organelles

Cytoplasm
ORGANELLES
Mitochondria
❖ Elongated, fluid-filled sacs
about 2-5µm long that
moves about slowly in the
cytoplasm

❖ With 2 layers
✓ Smooth and featureless
outer membrane
✓ Inner membrane has shelf-
like protrusions called
cristae

❖ “power house of the cell”

– provides most of the ATP
needed for all cellular
work
ORGANELLES
Endoplasmic Reticulum ❖ A system of fluid-filled
cisterns that coil and twist
through the cytoplasm
❖ Accounts for about half of
a cell’s membrane
❖ Provides a network for
channels for carrying
substance from one part of
the cell to another
❖ 2 forms of endoplasmic
reticulum:
✓ Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER)
✓ Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER)
ORGANELLES
Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum Endoplasmic Reticulum
❖ Studded with ribosomes
✓ Tiny, bilobed, dark bodies
made of proteins and one
variety of RNA called
ribosomal RNA
✓ Actual site of protein
synthesis

❖ Cell’s membrane factory –

all of the building
materials of cellular
membranes are formed
either in it or on it.
❖ Abundant in cells that
make and export protein
products
ORGANELLES
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum
❖ Functions in lipid
metabolism and
manufacture of steroid
hormones
ORGANELLES
Golgi Apparatus ❖ A stack of flattened
membranous sacs called
cisternae.

❖ Generally found near the

nucleus

❖ Involved in refining,
packaging and delivering
proteins in specific ways,
depending on their final
destination
ORGANELLES
Lysosomes ❖ “suicide bags”

❖ Appears in different sizes

❖ Are membranous “bags”

containing powerful
digestive enzymes

❖ Abundant in phagocytes

❖ Contain enzymes formed

by ribosomes and
packaged by the golgi
apparatus
ORGANELLES ❖ Membranous sacs
Peroxisomes containing powerful
oxidase enzymes that use
O2 to detoxify a number of
harmful or poisonous
substances
❖ Disarm dangerous free
radicals
✓ Highly reactive chemicals
with unpaired electrons that
can scramble the structure
of proteins and nucleic acids

❖ Converts free radicals to

H2O2. Enzyme catalase
converts excess H2O2 to
H2O
ORGANELLES ❖ Membranous sacs
Peroxisomes containing powerful
oxidase enzymes that use
O2 to detoxify a number of
harmful or poisonous
substances
❖ Disarm dangerous free
radicals
✓ Highly reactive chemicals
with unpaired electrons that
can scramble the structure
of proteins and nucleic acids

❖ Converts free radicals to

H2O2. Enzyme catalase
converts excess H2O2 to
H2O
ORGANELLES
Vacuole
❖ Spherical empty sacs for
storage of FOOD (food
vacuole in animals), Water
(plants) and nitrogenous
wastes (contractile
vacuole in amoeba)
ORGANELLES
Ribosomes
❖ Site of protein synthesis
❖ Free - synthesise most proteins
❖ Bound - synthesise proteins for
export or enzyme for lysosomes
 Cytoskeleton
❖ Elaborate network of protein structures extending
throughout the cytoplasm
❖ Internal framework that determines cell shape, supports
other organelles, and provides the machinery needed for
intracellular transport and other cellular movements
❖ 3 types: microtubules, intermediate filaments
and microfilaments
 Intermediate
filaments

❖ Help form desmosomes

❖ Provide internal support to resist pulling
forces on the cell
 Microtubules

❖ Determines the overall shape of the cell and

the distribution of organelles
❖ Very important during cell division
 Microfilaments

❖ Most involved in cell motility and in producing

changes in cell shape
Cytoskeleton
 ❖ Lie close to the nucleus

❖ A pair of rod shaped

bodies that lie at right
angle to each other

❖ Made up of microtubules

❖ Generate microtubules

❖ Direct the formation of

the mitotic spindle during
cell division
Centrioles
 Cilia
❖ Whip-like cellular
extensions that move
substances along the cell
surface

❖ Cilia formation:
✓ Centrioles multiply and line
up beneath the plasma
membrane at the free cell
surface
✓ Microtubules then begin to
‘sprout” from the
centrioles and put pressure
on the membrane, forming
projections
 Flagella
❖ Longer projections formed by centrioles

❖ The only example of a flagellated cell in the human

body is the sperm which has a single propulsive
flagellum called its “tail”

❖ Used to propel the cell

Cell Organelles
❖ Mitochondria
❖ Endoplasmic reticulum
✓ RER
✓ SER
❖ Golgi apparatus
❖ Lysosome
❖ Peroxisome
❖ Vacuole
❖ Ribosomes
❖ Cytoskeleton
❖ Centrioles

❖ Other features:
❖ Cilia
❖ Flagella
 Cell Classification
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Plant Cells Animal Cells

 Prokaryotic Cells
Have their nuclear materials (nucleoid)
mixed with the protoplasm

Cells without true nucleus

The cytoplasm only contains ribosomes,

thylakoid, and enzymes

Reproduce by Binary Fission

(Duplication/Splitting)
 Eukaryotic Cells
Has variety of structure and parts

Cells with Nucleus

Can be either Plant Cells or

Animal Cells