1.

Metallic Crystals

 made of atoms that readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations),
but no atoms in the crystal would readily gain electrons.
 The crystal is held together by electrostatic interactions between the
cations and delocalized electron.
 These interactions are called metallic bonds. This model of metallic
bonding is called the “sea of electrons” model.

2. Ionic Crystals

 made of ions (cations and anions).

 These ions form strong electrostatic interactions that hold the crystal
lattice together.

3. Molecular Crystals

 made of atoms, such as in noble gases, or molecules, such as in sugar

C12H22O11, iodine, I2, and naphthalene, C10H8.
 The atoms or molecules are held together by a mix of hydrogen bonding
dipole-dipole and dispersion forces, and these are the attractive forces
that are broken when the crystal melts.
 Hence, most molecular crystals have relatively low melting points.

Phase changes are transformations of

matter from one physical state to
another. They occur when energy
(usually in the form of heat) is added or
removed from a substance. They are
characterized by changes in
molecular order.
 MELTING AND FREEZING: SOLID- LIQUID
EQUILIBRIUM
When a solid is heated, its temperature
increases until it reaches its melting point. At this
temperature, the average kinetic energy of the
molecules has become sufficiently large to begin
overcoming the intermolecular forces that hold
the molecules of a solid state together.

• During the transition, the average kinetic

energy of the molecules does not change, so the
temperature stays constant.
How does a change in energy affect phase
• Melting points are distinct for each substance.
changes?
It is dependent on the strength of attractive
Phase changes occur when heat is
forces that hold the particles in the solid. The
added or removed from a substance.
stronger the attractive forces that hold the
When a substance is heated, the particles in the solid, the higher is the melting
added energy is used by the substance in point of the substance.
either of two ways: • The melting (or freezing) point of a substance
a. The added heat increases the kinetic when the external pressure is 1 atm pressure is
energy of the particles and the particles move called its normal melting (or freezing) point. For
faster. The increase in kinetic energy is water, this is 0oC.
accompanied by an increase in temperature. • At 0OC and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for
b. The added heat is used to break attractive water and ice is represented by: ice ⇋ water
forces between particles. There is no • When heat is added to this system at
observed increase in temperature when this equilibrium, ice will continue to melt until all
happens. have been transformed to the liquid state. The
amount of heat needed to convert the solid to
the liquid state at the melting point is called the
heat of fusion of the substance.
 MOLAR HEAT OF FUSION AND
Conversely, the removal or release of
heat results in two ways: MELTING POINT
a. A decrease in kinetic energy of the particles.  Heat of fusion is an extensive property.
The motion of the particles slow down. A  The actual amount of energy involved in the
decrease in temperature is observed. transformation of a substance from solid to
b. Forces of attraction are formed, and a phase liquid is dependent on the amount of sample
change may occur. No change in temperature is used. Thus, this property is often expressed in
observed. terms of molar quantities of sample.

change is called sublimation.

energetic particles may move into the gaseous state. This phase
energy to break attractive forces with adjacent particles, the
temperature increases. When particles are able to acquire enough
are able to vibrate in place and with increasing intensity as
BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM
In the liquid phase, there are still attractions among its

In a solid, the particles may be in fixed positions, but they

particles. The particles are still in contact with each other but are not
locked into fixed positions and are free to move past each other.
Although they lack the total freedom of gaseous molecules, these
molecules are in constant motion.

SOLID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM
• When a liquid is heated, its temperature increases as the kinetic
energy of the molecules increases.
• When the molecules have sufficient energy to escape from the
surface, a phase change occurs.
• Evaporation or vaporization is the process in which a liquid is
transformed into a gas. The temperature at which this occurs is the
boiling point of the substance. While the liquid vaporizes, the
temperature remains constant.
• The reverse of vaporization or boiling is called condensation, the
change from the gas phase to the liquid phase. Condensation occurs
because a molecule strikes the liquid surface and becomes trapped
by intermolecular forces in the liquid. This process occurs at the
same temperature when the liquid vaporizes into the gaseous state.
The boiling point can thus be also called condensation point (dew
point), and occur at the same temperature.
• At 100 OC and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for water and steam
is represented by: water ⇋ steam

MOLAR HEAT OF SUBLIMATION

 Molar heat of sublimation (ΔHsub) of a substance is the
amount of energy that must be added to a mole of solid at
constant pressure to turn it directly into a gas, without passing
through the liquid phase.
 This enthalpy change associated with sublimation is always
greater than that of vaporization even if both sublimation and
evaporation involve changing a substance into its gaseous
state.
 Because in sublimation, the starting physical state of the
substance is the solid state, which is lower in energy than the
liquid state where vaporization starts.