Physics 200 Lecture 2

Solving Ordinary Differential Equations

Lecture 2

Physics 200
Laboratory

Monday, February 7th, 2011

Physics (nature?) provides a plethora of ordinary differential equations (re-

lations involving a function of a single variable, its derivatives, and some
external function of time, say) – Newton’s second law, the time-independent
Schrödinger equation, and the equations governing the generation of spheri-
cally symmetric electromagnetic and gravitational fields, are a few examples.
While there are a variety of techniques for solving specific problems, and an
interesting class of techniques for characterizing the solutions to problems
in the absence of an explicit form, it always surprises (slash embarrasses)
me that a large number of physically relevant, interesting, and well-posed
problems have little in the way of complete solution.
Enter numerical methods. We will start by describing a few different classes
of problem that can be set up naturally using physics that you already
know, and then suggest that there is a straightforward way to solve these.
While giddy with delight, we have to exercise caution – a computer can
provide (in the best case) a relevant solution to a specific problem, but it
fails to generate insight into the general cases, and can fail miserably even
for simple, solvable problems. A panacea, it ain’t, and we will discuss ways
of analyzing and quantifying the errors that a computer can (and will) make.
What we have is a complementary tool, one to augment our analytic skills
and provide information that can extend our analysis. In this series of labs,
these numerical methods are meant to take their place, along with partial
exact solutions, perturbative observations, special cases, and all the other
bits and pieces you have studied, in your collective problem-solving toolbox.
One advantage of numerical solutions is that they are often fiendishly simple
to describe and understand, even as their deficiencies are profound.

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2.1. PHYSICAL PROBLEMS Lecture 2

2.1 Physical Problems

2.1.1 Newton’s Second Law

You have encountered a variety of ordinary differential equations already –

the first was probably Newton’s second law:
m ẍ(t) = F (t) (2.1)
governing the motion of a body of mass m under the influence of a force
F (t) (potentially depending on position, velocity, and time).
Many of the forces that you use in Newton’s second law yield linear second
order ODE’s, like the damped driven harmonic oscillator:
m ẍ = −k (x(t) − a) − b ẋ(t) + F (t). (2.2)
There are “exact solutions” to these1 , and we will use those to test our
numerical method.
Remember that the differential equation itself is only part of the physical
story – we must also provide initial conditions or boundary conditions. For
a second order differential equation like Newton’s second law, you must
give two constants, and we typically associate these with the position and
velocity at time t = 0, so we would agree to provide x(0) and ẋ(0). Or, our
observational input might be “the mass was at location a at time t = 0, and
at location b five seconds later,” which would amount to giving x(0) = a and
x(5 s) = b. This latter case is called a “boundary value” formulation of the
problem of motion. We can provide more exotic inputs, the position at time
t0 and velocity at time T . In the end, the general constants of integration
can be set with a variety of physical inputs – when we write a solution for
the simple harmonic oscillator:
x(t) = A cos(ω t) + B sin(ω t) (2.3)
we can set A and B however we like. You should try inputting a few different
flavors to see how the story goes.
1
Exact is an interesting term here – what we typically mean is “writeable in terms of
familiar functions”. Most ODEs that come from physical problems have solutions, and
then at the very least, can be written as an infinite (convergent) sum. But think about
what a familiar function like cosine really is – how would you find the value cos(.1984)?
What does a calculator or computer do when you input a radian argument
√ like .1984. My
point is that even functions that are easy to write down, like cos( 2 t), still require some
sort of numerical evaluation.

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2.1. PHYSICAL PROBLEMS Lecture 2

Aside from linear problems, there are a variety of forces that we can consider
that are more difficult, and for which only numerical solution will provide
trajectories – consider the following two dimensional example.

Example

A charged particle enters a region of magnetic field as shown in Fig-

ure 2.1. Let r(t) = x(t) x̂ + y(t) ŷ describe the location of the particle
with respect to the origin. Then the Lorentz force law tells us that the
magnetic field exerts a force of the form: F = q ṙ(t) × B. For the con-
figuration shown below (with a magnetic field pointing out of the page,
q
and the particle moving in the plane of the page), r̈(t) = m ṙ(t) × B
gives a pair of equations:
q
ẍ = ẏ B(r)
m (2.4)
q
ÿ = − ẋ B(r).
m
Looks simple enough, and yet . . .

ŷ

B = B(r) ẑ

q, m

r = x(t) x̂ + y(t) ŷ

x̂

Figure 2.1: A particle enters a region with non-uniform magnetic field

(pointing into the page).

So we see that adding multiple dimensions can make our problem more

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2.1. PHYSICAL PROBLEMS Lecture 2

difficult (read “interesting”), which brings us to.

2.1.2 Multiple Particles

Think of the electrostatic force acting on a particle (particle 1, with mass

m1 and charge q1 ) due to a second particle (particle 2, with mass m2 and
charge q2 ):
q1 q2
F12 = 2 r̂12 with r12 = r1 − r2 . (2.5)
4 π 0 r12
Now if both particles are free to move, we have a six-dimensional problem
to solve – three coordinates for the first particle, three for the second:
q1 q2
r̈1 = 2 r̂12
4 π 0 m1 r12
(2.6)
1
r̈2 = − F12 .
m2

For a realistic problem involving a configuration of n charges, we would write

the equation of motion for the ith particle as:
n
1 X qi qj
r̈i = 2 r̂ij , (2.7)
mi 4 π 0 rij
j6=i
j=1

and each particle has three components to fully determine its motion, for a
total of 3 n “degrees of freedom”.

Example

We can pose the multiple-particle problem in terms of a pair potential:

U (r), provided by the physical problem of interest. Many interactions
can be described through such a function, electrostatics and gravity
being the most famous (and, tantalizingly, identical in form). Given
U (r), we can write the force on particle 1 due to particle 2 as:

F12 = −U 0 (r) r̂12 with r12 = r1 − r2 (2.8)

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2.1. PHYSICAL PROBLEMS Lecture 2

for separation vector r12 pointing from particle 2 to particle 1. Then

the equations of motion, from Newton’s second law, are
n
1 X 0
r̈i = − U (rij ) r̂ij for i = 1, 2, . . . n. (2.9)
mi
j6=i
j=1

2.1.3 Problems that are Coming Up

Aside from the problems we have discussed already, there is a lot of ad-
ditional physics to be had from second order ODEs – in one-dimension
(either because of intrinsic interest, or because of symmetry reduction),
Schrödinger’s equation governing the quantum mechanical wave-function
ψ(x) can be written as:

~2 d2 ψ(x)
− + V (x) ψ(x) = E ψ(x) (2.10)
2 m dx2
where ~ = 1.05 × 10−34 Js (note its size), m is the mass of the particle,
V (x) is the one-dimensional potential governing the classical motion of the
particle, and E is the energy of the particle. Now the quantum mechanical
interpretation of ψ(x) is in terms of spatial probabilities. In words: “The
probability of finding a particle of mass m, moving under the influence of
V (x), within dx ofR the point x is ψ ∗ (x) ψ(x) dx.” That means, incidentally,
∞
that the integral: −∞ ψ ∗ (x) ψ(x) dx = ?.

Example

As an example that we can use immediately, we’ll develop the one-

dimensional form of Newton’s second law for special relativistic dynam-
ics. You know, in classical mechanics, that total energy is conserved for
a particle moving with speed v:
1
E= m v 2 + U (x) (2.11)
2

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where m is the mass of the particle, U (x) is the potential in which

the particle is moving, 12 is half, and E is the total energy. By taking
the time-derivative of both sides of this equation, we recover Newton’s
second law for “conservative” forces:

0 = m v v̇ + U 0 (x) v −→ m ẍ = −U 0 (x) ≡ F (x). (2.12)

In special relativity, you will learn that the kinetic energy combines with
the “rest energy” (m c2 ), to form a term replacing the kinetic energy
2
in (2.11) that looks like: qm c v2 , so that in special relativity, conserva-
1−
c2
tion of energy reads:

m c2
E=q + U (x). (2.13)
2
1 − vc2

You should check (by Taylor expansion) that this conservation statement
reduces to the usual one when v  c. If we differentiate both sides of
this equation with respect to time, we get a relativistically-correct form
of Newton’s second law that reads:
3/2
ẋ2

0
m ẍ = −U 1 − 2 , (2.14)
c

and this can be used to solve problems in which particles move very
quickly (compared to c, which in its usual units is c ≈ 3 × 108 m/s – a
large number). It is also, even for simple U 0 (x), much more difficult to
solve than the usual, classical expression.

2.2 Nondimensionalization

Before we generate the method, let’s think about some actual numbers in
the equations we have set up. On a computer, the smallest number that can
be represented is called “machine epsilon”, and is generally around 10−13
(meaning thirteen digits, you can represent large exponents, like 10−400 ,
but you don’t get to specify all four hundred digits). That means you
have a finite resolution for “0”, and anything smaller than machine epsilon

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2.2. NONDIMENSIONALIZATION Lecture 2

is indistinguishable from zero. Given the awkward numerical values set

by our choice of units, Newton’s second law can involve computationally
unwieldy numerical values – for example, the force between two equal, one
kilogram masses separated by one meter, from the gravitational force law,
is: F ∼ 10−11 N, which is too small for safe use. The other direction (large
numbers) is similarly limited, you get around thirteen digits there as well,
so the force associated with two equal one Coulomb charges separated by
one meter, F ∼ 1010 N, is unacceptable in the other direction. In both of
these cases, the problem is our choice of Newtons as the unit of force – and
the associated physical constants G and 0 .
So it is important to soak up as many irrelevant physical constants into your
variables as possible prior to putting the problem on a computer. In the
case of Newton’s second law, you have objects with dimensions of length,
time, and force (mass-times-length-over-time-squared). What you ideally
would like to do is identify natural length, time, and force scales in the
problem and re-define dimensionless quantities in terms of them, so that,
for example: r = r0 q with r0 a length, and q dimensionless, t = t0 s for
dimensionless s and fixed t0 , and perhaps U = U0 V for dimensionless V
and a natural energy scale U0 .
As a concrete example of this process, take two particles in one dimension
that interact gravitationally: they start from an initial separation r0 at
rest, and move under the influence of the potential U = − G mr12 1 m2
for G =
6.67 × 10−11 2 2
N m /kg . There is a natural length, r0 , the initial separation,
and a natural energy scale, U0 ≡ G mr10 m2 , the total energy of the system, at
that separation. Then we could write:

d2 G m1 m2 t0 U0 t20
q(s) = − 2 r = − 2 r , (2.15)
ds2 r0 q12 0 q12 0
q
and require that t0 = Ur00 , then our equation of motion becomes:

1
q 00 (s) = − 2 (2.16)
q12

and we have a procedure for re-introducing the dimensions as needed (at the
end). Notice that all quantities are now “of order one”, since q12 is initially
just 1, and therefore q 00 (s), the dimensionless acceleration, is also of order
1 at s = 0. We want a concrete, dimensionless way to talk about small
numbers, and in this case, we know that q(s)  1 is small, and q(s)  1

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2.3. THE VERLET METHOD Lecture 2

is large. If we did not form these ratios from the start, our work would
be plagued by peanut gallery questions of the form: “Is one meter large or
small?”.

2.3 The Verlet Method

Without further adieu, we go through the steps required to generate our

first numerical method. We’ll do this in the concrete context of Newton’s
second law, but the expressions end up being relevant to any second order
ODE, so keep your eye out for the generalization.

2.3.1 Taylor Expansion

The key observation is that, in the vicinity of t, the value of x(t + ∆t) (for
small ∆t2 ) can be estimated to arbitrary accuracy by Taylor expansion:
1 1 ... 1 ....
x(t + ∆t) = x(t) + ẋ(t) ∆t + ẍ(t) ∆t2 + x (t) ∆t3 + x (t) ∆t4 + . . . ,
2 6 24
(2.17)
and similarly for x(t − ∆t) (just swap the sign of all odd ∆t terms):
1 1 ... 1 ....
x(t − ∆t) = x(t) − ẋ(t) ∆t + ẍ(t) ∆t2 − x (t) ∆t3 + x (t) ∆t4 + . . . ,
2 6 24
(2.18)
and then adding these two together gives:
1 ....
x(t + ∆t) + x(t − ∆t) = 2 x(t) + ẍ(t) ∆t2 + x (t) ∆t4 . (2.19)
12
From Newton’s second law, we know that ẍ(t) is given, that’s just F (t)/m,
so that we could write this equation (once a force has been provided) as

F (t) 2
x(t + ∆t) = 2 x(t) − x(t − ∆t) + ∆t + O(∆t4 ). (2.20)
m
Here, we use O(∆t4 ) to indicate that the next order corrective term scales
like ∆t4 . How might we use this observation? Well, suppose we had a value
for position at times t and t − ∆t, and we knew the force at time t, then
we could estimate (very well) the position at time t + ∆t. Given a pair of
starting positions, we could even chain together successive estimates.
2
Small compared to what?

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2.3.2 Grid

Define an equally spaced grid of temporal values, tj = j ∆t, for j = 1 −→ N ,

∆t fixed. Given a function of t, say f (t), we can “project” the function
onto our grid by evaluating the function at the gridpoints, and we typically
define a special notation: fj ≡ f (tj ) for this process. So f (t) is a continuous
function, and {fj }N
j=1 the values of that function on the temporal grid. What
we’re going to do is use (2.20) to take a pair of given values, for x0 and x−1
(the value of position at times 0 and −∆t, respectively), and generate x1
from them – then with x1 and x0 , we’ll generate x2 , and so on, out to some
given ending time. We can write (2.20), applied to a function on the grid,
as:
Fj
xj+1 = 2 xj − xj−1 + ∆t2 . (2.21)
m
We make an error in this approximation, since we are not including the
additional ∆t4 term. But it’s clear that given two starting values, we can
generate a string of approximations to x(t) at the temporal gridpoints.

2.3.3 Method

There is a slightly subtle point, and I don’t want to make too much of it
beyond mentioning it – given some sort of starting values and a force, we
can march a sequence of xj forward in “time” (i.e. on the temporal grid),
and while we will refer to that solution as the set {xj }N j=1 , how do these
values compare to the projection of the true solution (which we don’t even
have, in most cases), which is also denoted {xj }N j=1 – this is a subtle and
tricky question, requiring careful analysis on a case-by-case basis – its answer
depends both on the force, and the type of numerical method we have in
mind. As I say, though, it is a problem for later on.
Now, given two “initial values”, x−1 and x0 , and a continuous function,
the force, F (t) (and remember, F (t) is shorthand for F (x, t)), we have the
following algorithm:
for j = 0, j ≤ N − 1, j = j + 1
F
xj+1 = 2 xj − xj−1 + mj ∆t2 (2.22)
end
This will do it, as long as we understand Fj ≡ F (xj , tj ), so that we evaluate
the force at a known value of x (remember, coming into each step of the
loop, we have access to all position approximations up to and including xj ).

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The only issue to work out is the initial conditions – the most typical physical
specification is x(0) and v(0), the initial position and velocity. How do we
turn this into values for x(−∆t) and x(0)? The easy one is x0 = x(0), and
for v(0), think of a grid approximation to v(0):
x0 − x−1
v0 = −→ x−1 = x0 − ∆t v0 . (2.23)
∆t
This setup will work, and we can use the equality on the left to generate
x −x
values of vj = j ∆tj−1 if our force depends on the velocity at time level
j. The initial condition is sub-optimal, since we are using a less accurate
approximation to the velocity than our approximation to the acceleration
(see (2.19)), but again, pragmatism is our guide – after all, we only make
this inaccurate approximation once3 .

2.3.4 Testing

We have a method, and we will check it against the exact solutions that we
can generate4 . But what should we do for numerical solutions that have no
corresponding x(t)? That will, presumably, be the primary utility of the
Verlet integrator – what guiding principles can we use to ensure that the
method works, and the results are physically relevant?
For conservative systems, forces derivable from a potential, one good check
is energy conservation. We construct, at each time level, the energy:

xj+1 − xj−1 2
 
1
Ej = m + U (xj ), (2.24)
2 2 ∆t

and we can track this quantity (which should be constant). Note that we are
using a more accurate approximation to the speed in this expression, that’s
to keep the energy value itself accurate. The gross behavior of this quantity
should be relatively constant, at the very least, bounded. If it is not, that
could be an indication that, for example, the time step is too large.

3
But don’t say I didn’t warn you. It is possible to make a more accurate initial
approximation, I’ll leave that to you.
4
To ensure that it is correctly implemented.

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Lab

In this lab, we will solve a few different ODEs numerically – the first problem
ensures that your solver is working correctly – check with the lab instructor
early to verify that the solver is correct. Use the spaces provided to answer any
questions, and make any relevant observations.

Problem 2.1

For the simple oscillator, take ω = 2 π 1/s, and solve ẍ = −ω 2 x with x(0) = 1,
ẋ(0) = 0. Use a time step of ∆t = 1/100 s, and plot your result together with
the correct answer for t = 0 −→ 1 s (have your instructor check this plot).
Using m = 1 kg, calculate the energy at each point, and compute the following
measure of error:
max(Ej ) − min(Ej )
∆E = (2.25)
E
where max/min(Ej ) refers to the maximum/minimum numerical value of the
energy (over a 1 s inteval), and E is the theoretical energy (compute it sepa-
rately, and write its value below)

Problem 2.2

For a particle in two dimensions, we need a Verlet solver for x and y sepa-
rately. Write one that takes a force function, and returns a list of the form
{{x1 , y1 }, {x2 , y2 }, . . . , {xN , yN }}.

a. Solve the pair (2.4) using q = 1 C, m = 2 kg, and B(r) = 1 T. We know

that there exists circular motion associated with a constant magnetic field –
starting at x(0) = 0, y(0) = 1 m, ẏ(0) = 0, find the correct initial component
of velocity in the x-direction to sustain motion at radius 1 m – write your initial
condition below. Solve for the motion of the particle using ∆t = 1/100 s – your
solution should be circular (this provides a check of your method).

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b. Using q = 1 C, m = 1 kg, and B(r) = (1 T) e−r with x(0) = 1 m,

y(0) = 0 m, ẋ(0) = −.1 m/s, ẏ(0) = 0 m/s, sketch the motion of the test
particle for ∆t = 1/100 s, and N = 10000 steps below (you can use the built-in
function ListLinePlot to plot the pairs {x, y} directly from the output of your
function):

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Problem 2.3

Using the conversion between {x, y, z} and {r, θ, φ}, make a table of particle
locations placed on a sphere of radius r = 1 – use a step size of ∆θ = π/20,
and ∆φ = 2π/10. Omit the particles at θ = 0, π, and take φ = 2 π, but not
zero (otherwise, you’re putting two particles at the same location, and that’s
a Coulomb’s law no-no). Use the provided function ViewParticles to ensure
that your particles are correctly located on a sphere. How many particles are
there?

Problem 2.4

The particles in your sphere will interact electrically according to the potential:
U = 4 πq10q2r12 . Write a function Force that takes as input the list of particles
PList, and outputs a table of the three-dimensional forces felt by each particle.
Using 0 = 1, and q = 1 C for all charges, use your configuration from the
previous problem to find the force on particle number 14 (write the vector
position of particle 14 as well):

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Problem 2.5

Put it all together, write a Verlet routine that loops through a list of particles,
updating each one’s location – use 0 = 1, m = 1 kg, q = 1 C for all particles,
and a time step ∆t = 1/100. For output, (call it output) give a table of
position tables (so that output[[1]] returns a table of particle positions for
t = ∆t). Use the provided function ViewParticles to generate a movie of
the motion and get your lab instructor to take a look. Roughly how many time
steps does it take for the sphere’s radius to double?

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