height of the granular flux blanket will tend to ~ stresses in the weld may also cause lamellet reduce this occurrence. Cleaning the work tearing in susceptible materials, surfaces, slowing the travel speed or using @ more Cracks in submerged arc welds may occur ” highly deoxidized electrode may cure internal when the material is hot ot cold. Crater cracks porosity. may be anticipated unless the operator has Slag inclusion§ are found in many perfected a crater-filling technique. Run-off tabs submerged arc welds. Convex bead profiles in are commonly used to put starts and stops outside multiple pass welds are frequently the cause. the weld joint area. Throat cracks in small root Convex beads leave nargow pockets against prior pass weld beads between heavy sections are beads and along the grdove faces in which slag typical in a highly restrained joint, In situations will cling or within which new slag will become where the- weld penetration is much greater than trapped under the next bed the width of the weld bead, centerline etacking Incomplete fusion may occur in attempting too may occur due to the undesirable solidification large a weld in one pas or in welding too fast. _pattern which results, Incomplete joint penetratjon also occurs when the Toe cracks and root cracks are often a for of welding arc is carelessly dligned with the joint. delayed cracking attributed-to hydrogen. Moisture Undercut is not uncommon in submerged arc in the flux is the prime suspect in these welding when high weldigg currents are used. occurrences. : Laminations, seams and laps in the base metal 3 may Iead to cracks in sumerged are welds. The Inspeétion Processes: .The inspection notch provided by these plate discontinuities tends’ processes used for submerged arc welding include to initiate cracks in the weld metal, The high visual, radiographic, wltrasonic, magnetic particle and penetrant testing. Electroslag Welding (ESYY) Electrosleg welding uses an electrically uA “4 melted metallurgical flux that melts the filler con, ee metal and the surfaces of the work, The heat is created by the electrical resistance of the flux. There is no arc except at the start of the weld before the granular flux melts and becomes conductive. The slag is then kept molten by its resistance to the flow of eleciric Toamonow See" Current passing between the electrode and the f ty work. = Us | Electroslag welding is purely a mechanized or automatic process, The melted base metzl, & electrode and guide tube (in consumable guide welding) collect at the bottom of the [Emee—] perm flux pool. Welding is done essentially in the fiat position with welding progressing from the bottom to top of a weld joint positioned eons vertically. Water-cooled backing shoes in a contict with the joint sides contain the SCUICICATION CRACKIIG B=CAUS OF WELD ERORmolten weld metal and th surface is molded by the ¢: vertical: progression directional solidification molten flux, The weld ntour of the shoes, The \f welding provides f the molten pool and ready flotation of all nonjnetallic impurities into the floating slag layer. slowly solidifies in upwak the plates together. Thi deposition rate, therefore base metal is melted to f this process. Welding Metallurg: factors are important in) symmetrical stress pate angular distortion and larg WATER WATER our iN Eiectroe IRS oes REET DS | As the molten metal cd progression, it joins is process has a high substantial amount of rm pact of the weld in : Two metallurgical electroslag welding: ns which result in no weld metal grain sizes Soy | contact (3: 9 PANEL WIRE FEED DRIVE consuMasLe GUIDE TUBE SOUDIFIED a Wetelng Equlp fixD METAL Safety goge! reamomenen being removed fram weld deposits TECEEES EE resulting from slow cooling. ‘The stresses induced during the slow cooling of the weld is symmetrical with no distortion, which is different from the result when groove welds are welded from one side of a joint using some other welding processes. The large grains associated with electroslag welding tend to reduce the mechanical properties of the weld metal and cracking may result, especially if the weld joint is highly restrained, Welding Chemistry: The welding composition is controlled by a combination of base metal, electrode and consumable guide tubes, if used, and the metal is protected from oxidation and refined by the molten slag. ‘The slag used: in this process is a metallurgical flux that refines both the fused base metal and the filler metal. As welding progresses, the slag also shields the weld pool along the full cross section of the joint. Limiting Factors: Electroslag welding now has the reputation for producing the cleanest weld metal, being comiparable to vacuum arc remelted steel. The only limiting factor of note is the skill level required to set up the machine. Due to the ex- tensive time required for this setup, only thicker sections can be economically joined using this process. ELECTRODE Preweld preparation is simple. Faces of the joint must be aligned, but this is not as critical as with some other processes. The plate edges must be smooth and fairly uniform in thickness for proper positioning of the backing shoes. For safety, the white-hot electroslag pool should act be watched without No. 5 filter lens protection (or dasker) les are needed when slag is| 918 Discontinuities: | All of the common discontinuities may appear in electroslag welds. Porosity is usually gross when it occurs, and in the form of piping porosity. This can be caused by moisture in the flux or by the “sweating” of the water-cooled backing shoes. Slag inclusions are uncommon but may exist. They normally result from improper. operating parameters that may allow solidified slag to become mechanically thapped. They may also result if the weld is néarly lost or is lost and restarted, The welding process depends on building up a pool of meen slag heated to about 3100" F. An inadequaid starting sump (joint ex- tension) will leave poorly melted metal and slag in the weld. Shallow run-gff tabs at the top of the joint may fail to allow the joint to be completely filled, resulting in underfll Incomplete fusion often occurs in welds with poor shape of the pool. |Welds in thick plates in which the heat is distributed by oscillating the electrode(s) may have incomplete fusion in the central portion, or near the shoes. The cooling effect of the shoe may prévent melting of the base metal out to the surface. |The resulting indication resembles an undercut. Overlap may occur if the shoes do not ride smoothly and closely on {the plates, allowing the pool to grow outward ftom the surface plane, Ukimately, this condition leads to a run-out of the pool unless the gap is patched with insulating material or another dam, Again, this does not occur as readily in consumable guide welding ‘because the shoes are fixed. Laminations and delaminations in the plate are not as great a concem in ah electroslag weld. The metallurgical slag floats out any inclusions in the lamination and seals such discontinuities alongside the weld. Lamellar tearing has|not been observed in electzoslag welding becaufe no through-thickness tensile stess is imposed om the base metal, 2t least not in butt joints. Tearing fnight occur in T-joiats, but its occurrence is minimpl. Cracking, often severe, may occur'diq eleciroslag welds made in a deep, narrow podt'as high welding speeds, due to the undesirable solidification patterns which result, Fissures are commonly found. This is a tem used to describe a discontinuity that particularly ‘occurs in'these welds. Itis a small or moderatelj: sized separation along grain boundaries, it ig readily formed here because of the large size of the grains. High restraint stresses caused by Solidification of the weld metal cause the = separation Inspection Processes: Inspection Processes commonly used for electroslag welding ate visuel and radiographié testing. Ultrasonic testing is difficult because of the large grains typically present in electroslag welds, Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) Oxyacetylene. welding is a chemical ‘welding process which rélies on the chemical reaction between the oxyacetylene flame and the base metal to produce the necessary heat for melting the base and filler metals, if filler metal is used. The oxyacetylene flame is produced by burning acetylene gas with pure oxygen fed through a torch, completing the combustion with oxygen in the air. Oxyacetylene welding is usually @ manual process, although it may be mechanized for machine or automatic operation. While other fuel gases are effective for cutting operations, only acetylene provides sufficient heat to produce a satisfactory weld, = ornsenow or reave, — Ton he ruznaon 7 PT, wo.renwt.o Ver. OXYACETYLENE WELOINGome conse Enncet OXvFUEL WELOING EQUIPMENT Welding Metallurgy: 1 e temperature of the oxyacetylene flame is about 5600° F, which is sufficient to melt the commonly used metals. The flame provides both the heat and the necessary shielding of the molten metal for most applications; however, fluxes are available to improve the cleaning action on some materials. Both the heat and shielding are provided by the chemical reaction of the flarhe with the base metal. ‘An important variable ig the size of the torch tip, which must be large enough to preheat the weldment and maintain a malten pool, Welding Chemistry: The main welding chemistry consideration is what effect the nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen in the air will have with the base metal and weld metal during the welding process. ‘The welder must regulate the torch flame to burn under neutral conditipns, with the primary reaction exactly balanced, yielding only carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The flame atmosphere is then neither carburizing not oxidizing, although it is chemically reducing. This flame adjustment must be learned from the appearance of the inner flame cone and the noise of the flame, The hot metel is then protected from the atmosphere by the combustion products in the neutral flame, end fluxes, ifused 9-19 Limiting Factors: ‘The primary limitation of oxyacetylene welding is the level of skill required to minimize discontinuities. Adjustment of the hheat source is totally controlled by the welder. He must set it for neutral conditions. There are no absolute guides; to secure the right flame, the welder must read the color and shape of the inner cone. He has pressure gages to set, but the size of the flame and the fuel ratio are set by judgment only. _ The primary combustion area at the center of the flame has an intense white color, while the. secondary combustion area varies from light orange to blue. ‘The welder must also control the application of heat to the work, the position and direction of the flame, and the manipuletion of the filler rod (if needed). For safety, the eyes must be protected from the brilliance of the hot weld pool with No. 4 or 5 filter lenses in goggles In pre-weld preparation, the joint opening must be sufficiently large for oxyacetylene weld penetration, Also, joints in the vertical and overhead positions require appropriate technique to overcome the effects of gravity. The joint must be cleaned properly to avoid contaminating the weld. Discontinuities: The most commonly found discontinuities ere porosity, incomplete fasion, incomplete joint penetration, undercut, underfill, overlap, and various forms of cracks. Proper welding technique will eliminate most of these problems. Uniformly scattered porosity generally betrays faulty welding technique, improper filler metal or contaminated base metal. Incomiplete fusion of the base metal edges frequent!y oscurs when they are inadvertently oxidized. I: occurs even with the best flame adjus:niext if improper senipulation is used. Uncereut, undervill end overtap are other weld faults ectituted directly tc the welder, ae nennmcca es EWE BES EEC R TEED PERE EE!9-20 Cracks stresses, are generally hot cracks in oxyacetylene welds. The process does not lead to cold cracking because the stow apalication of heat provides adequate preheat and mekes the weld cool slowly. Throat crgcks may result if the the weld deposit is too thin to resist weld shrinkage Inspection Processes: The inspection processes for oxyacetylene welding include visual, penetrant, magnetic particle, radiographic and ultrasonic testing. Stud Welding (SW) Stud welding is a twd-step process used to join attachments to metal sirfaces. It heats a metal stud or similar part and a workpiece by drawing an are between them, and] then rapidly forces the Cuero PLUNGE Ke de® | aul epee eee [saunas CA esting the fini heated surfaces together under pressure until they have united, ‘The process may be fully automatic or semiautomatic. A stud gun holds the tip of the stud against the workpiece. It then applies heat by creating an electrical arc between the stud and the underlying spot on the work surface. A timer in the control circuit then cuts off the curvent, and the stud-holding mechanism in the gun plunges the stud into the molten pool to make a weld Freezing is almost instantaneous, as the weld is chilled by the surrounding base metal. When the weld is complete, the gun is removed and the ceramic ferrule is removed. Studs may be welded in all positions. Stud welding is widely used in shipbuilding, bri automobiles, railroads, boi equipment. , and industrial Welding Chemistry: Partial shielding may be provided by a ceramic ferrule surcounding the stud or by a shielding gas. A flux may also be present on the stud tip. Limiting Factors: The welding operator must correctly adjust the stud arc equipment Defective gua action, improper current levels, in incomplete fusion oF undercut, Fer safety, goggles must be worn whenever welding operators are knocking fercu‘e: ftom completed stud welds and when ed stud welds.Discontinuities: ‘Th discontinuities which m: this process. Incomplete stud is not joined to the bz cross section. Under excessive welding cure weld is not considered cc small reinforcing fillet ( ze are only three main yy be encountered with fusion could occur if the je metal across its entire ut may also occur if t is used. Finally, the implete unless there is a r flash) present around the entire circumference of the stud base. Inspection Process given to stud welds are uniform build-up, and hammer blows to bend th s:_ The examinations \visua} examination for mechanical testing by stud and restraighten it Studs with defective welds break off or give a “dead” sound. Brazing (B) Brazing is a group of Joining processes that produces coalescence of materials by heating them to the brazing temperat filler metal having a mel and below the melting pj The filler metal is distrib fited faying surfaces o| action. The major differ brazing methods is the m: ire in the presence of a ing point above 840° F int of the base metals. ted between the closely the joint by capillary ce between the various ner in Which the heat is applied to the joint. Brazing methods currently of industrial significance include the following: Torch brazing (TB) Furnace brazing ( + Induction brazing + Dip brazing (DB) + Infrared brazing (1 Diffusion brazing Torch Brazing ((B) Torch brazing is accon a gas torch or torches, propane, natural g2s, etc.) compzessed air of oxygs may be presleerd in the scrips, elt gs, pewder, 1B) 1B) Resistance brazing (RB) B) (DFB) nplished by heating with 2 fal gas (acetylene, may be bemned with air, it. Brazing filler metal forms of ring 9-21 sir vers eset Brazing Process that is, fed from hand-held filler metal, usually in the form of wire or red. Proper cleaning and fluxing before brazing are essential. ‘This process may be performed manually, by machine or automatically. Manual torch brazing is particularly useful on assemblies involving sections of unequal mass. ‘Machine operations are set up when the rate of production warrants, using one or more torches equipped with single- or multiple-flame tips. The machine may move either the work or the torches, or both Torch brazing should be a reliable process ‘The flux, by its melting, indicates when the work is at a temperature suitable for brazing. The filler metal then flows into the joint by capillary action and should be visible at all exposed edges of the joint. Furnace Brazing (FB) Furnace brazing is preferred when the parts to be brazed can be assembled with the filler metal ed near or in the joint. The preplaced filler metel may be in the form of wire, foil, powder, paste, or tape. Most high production brazing is done in a reducing gas atmosphere, such as hydiogen, but much furnace brezing is done in a veca , which prevents exditicn, Brazing ina oa oe een eee tEvacuum assures the clean surfaces needed for good ‘wetting and flow of filler metals without the use of fluxes. However, several base metals and filler metals are harmed by vacuum brazing because the constituent may evaponte Induction Brazing (1B) Induction brazing is|an automatic process thet uses an induction coil t heat the metal. The parts are placed in or near a coil carrying alternating current. They become heated by-an electric current induced in the|parts to be joined. The brazing filler metal is ubually prepleced, Careful design of the joint and the coil setup axe necessary to assure that all shrfaces reach brazing temperature at the same time. Resistance Brazing (RB) Resistance brazing is an automatic or semiautomatic process that uses the electrical resistance in the joint being welded as the heating device. The brazing filler metal is preplaced or added in some convenient form. Fluxing must take into account the donductivity of the flux Most fluxes ate electrical insulators. when solid. The parts being brazed are held between two electrodes, and proper pressure and current are applied. The pressure is|maintained until the joint solidifies Dip Brazing (DB) Dip brazing is perfortned in @ chemical bath or a molten metal bath. In chemical bath dip brazing, the brazing filler metal is preplaced and the assemblies are then immersed in a molten salt, The salt bath furnishes the heat necessary for brazing and usually protects against oxidation; if not, suitable flux should be used. In molten metal dip brazing, the parts are immersed in a bath of molien brazing filler metal. A cover of flux is mainteined over the moltea bath. Infrared Brazing (IRB) Infrared brazing uses the high intensity quarty lamp to provide radiant heat to bring the work to brazing temperature, Assemblies o be brazed ae. supported so that the energy impinges on the joints to be brazed. Diffusion Brazing (DFB) Diffusion brazing uses a filler metal which witl diffuse into the base metal to create joint properties approaching those of the base metal Migration of atoms (in the solid state) away from their home positions in the crystal lattice results in interdiffusion of the filler metal and base metal This results in partielly oz completely eliminating any trace of filler metal as a layer in the joint, Such a braze develops increased mechanical properties and a higher remelt temperature, In some joints, a diffusion of atoms is planned that will create a liquid pliase, which may be distributed by capillary action as in other brazing methods, Brazing Chemistry: Brazing compounds are complex alloys with carefully adjusted melting points and flow characteristics. The work must be cleaned of oxides and films, which explains the reason for fluxes used in every type of brazing except furnace brazing. Furnace brazing clean the surfaces by using reducing type gases or a vacuum Limiting Factors: Preparation for brazing requires proper cleaning of each joint and jigging to hold correct joint alignment during capillary flow of the brazing filler metal For safety, all personnel must guard against toxic furnes of volatilized cadmium (from parts and fil'er metals) end fluorides (from fluxes). Eye protectin is essential. Discontinuities: Typical discontinuities foun in brazed joints include voids, erosion ond incomplete join: penetration. Voids are9-23 Methods of Preplacing Brazing Filler Metal In Wire Form incomplete joint penetration are commonly caused ‘The three primary thermal cutting processes by underheating or by improper fluxing (or both). _ere the following: 4 Erosion is a discontinuity tesembling undercut. Tt + Oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC) | results from overheating during brazing. * Air carbon are cutting (CAC-A) | + Plasma arc cutting (PAC) Inspection Processes: Inspection processes for detecting internal defects in brazed joints Oxyfuel Gas Cutting (OFC) include torsion or mechanical testing, radiography Oxyfuel gas cutting was at one time and leak testing, exclusively oxyacetylene cutting (OFC-A), but today oxyfuel cutting may be with oxygen and Cutting Processes natural gas (OFC-N), propane (OFC-P), hydrogen So far this discussion] has dealt exclusively’ (OFC-H), a proprietary mixture such as stabilized with those methods used {o join metals together. _Miethylacetylene and propadiene, or metal powder However, in the welding environment, there are cures also needs for metal removal or severing. ‘There aera are numerous methods available, including both. Giga? thermal and mechanical tyges. aS Thermal cutting is the standard method of preparing base metal joints for welding, of cutting out defects for weld repair, and of backgouging, The area cut is confined td a narrow, well-defined zone of controlled width chlled the kerf. Metal is removed by combustion (okidation) in oxyfuel gas cutting, by simple melting in the plasma jet, or by PROCESS OAGRAM OXYGEN CUTTING arc melting in a blast of air The cutting process may be manual, semiautomatic or automatit. Standards for quality = of cut surfaces vary with the requirements of the structure being welded| If the resulting ir- regularities are excessive, they can be chipped with a blunt tool or ground back with an abrasive wheel. For safety, filter lenses are required for observing thermal cutting| operations, end safety goggles with side shields afe needed for protection and spatter. (POA TIS GRYFUSL GAS CUTTING nn re9-24 cutting (POC). Metal powder cutting is used for stainless steel, aluminum and copper alloys. Torch modifications required, suit each fuel gas are Oxyfuel gas cutting|severs ferrous metals by oxidizing the iron in o: yygen to form iron oxide. Above the oxidation temperature of about 1700° F, the familiar oxidation of iron (rusting) becomes combustion which is cont fined to a narrow zone. The metal to be cut is|heated to the oxidation temperature by preheat flames disposed eround the oxygen cutting jet, The quality of the cut surface varies over wide limits. ‘The skill of the lcutter or operator affects all operations, since th manually adjusted even ‘The major limitation cutting flame must be r automatic cutting: f this method is the fact that it will only effectively cut those materials which oxidize at a temperatare below their melting point. Consequently, it|i s difficult to produce a quality cut in stainless steels using this method. om Air Carbon Arc Cutting (CAC-A) Air carbon arc cutting melts the metal with anv 3° electric carbon arc and then blows it out with high velocity air jet, traveling parallel to the electrode and striking the weld pool just behing the are. Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC) Plasma arc cutting uses the greater heat of the plasma are (27,000° F) to cut through any metal, ferrous or nonferrous. It removes the molten material with a high velocity jet of hot ionized gas, The process uses a constricted arc between a water-cooled electrode (direct current electrode negative) and the workpiece. The orifice which constricts the arc is also water-cooled The quality of plasma are cutting is superior to other types of thermal cutting because of the high temperature of the jet. The kerf is normally slightly unsquare; however, use of water: torches will tend to minimize this effect. esc once eas: cousratcrna NOue wonenece ‘TYPICAL PLASMA ARC CUTTING TORCHMechanical Cutting Joints are also prepared for welding by mechanical means such as milling, grinding, shaping, sawing, sheacing, and chipping. The major concern after mechanical cutting is the removal of sulfurized cutting oils used to lubricate Mechentcal[outing 9-25 Summary ‘The welding inspector is primarily responsible for judging the quality of welds produced by numerous processes. Knowledge of the various processes will be extremely helpfel in deciding what types of welding problems might be anticipated. Actual welding experience is also quite helpful for the welding inspector; however, this is not a requirement for qualification as a cwl.Introduction Discontinvities are itnperfections in welds or base metals. Ideally, a sound weld should have no discontinuities at all, but welds are not perfect; imperfections do exist in varying degrees, There is a temptatida to call discontinuities defects, but as a matter df terminology the terms discontinuity and defeft should be carefully distinguished by all ingpectors. A defect is rejectable. Some discontinuities are acceptable, A discontinuity becomes & defect when it exceeds acceptable limits imposed by acceptance standards. An imperfectjon of lesser magnitude than that is still a.discomtinuity, but it is not a defect. The welding.inspector’s primary job is to inspect the fabricator’s work to see that it meets the requirements of the copiract, To be able to do this, one must be familiar with acceptance standards, which spell out the acceptable limits for discontinuities. If a particular type’ of discontinuity is permissible in the welds to be inspected, the acceptanke sianderds, code or specification must specify the criteria used to discriminate between acgeptable, imperfections and defects The criteria used to discriminate between acceptable imperfections and defects are described in the following terms: + Type of discontinuity + Size of discontinuity + Location of discontinuity All three criteria must be considered to judge whether a discontinuity is severe enough to be considered a defect. ‘Types of Discontinuities Discontinuities have been categorized under - the followi g twelve types: + Porosity . + Inclusions, both metallic and nonmetallic + Underfill + Incomplete fusion + Incomplete joint penetration + Overlep + Undercut + Lamination and delamination + Scams and laps + Lamellar tearing + Crack + Are strikeSe Dilantin -- 19 :Seim an ape ation Bswat wat 2.92" BMW oe S 2 BM 2.184 WH Ha But me, gerry sat mbes otc IAZ “ed eed or Base ea ‘Adjacent to weld tbe or veld rect in base Wild face of roi site. ‘Weld tne or rook surface Base meu, generally neat midihickness ef seu Bast meal seihce sims! alas aligned ‘rolling direction. * Base meal netr HAZ.ANE CS eal ise eored SO EWE Flash welding? EUW Unter welding Osyfuel Gas 2 SEOAVL Oxyacetylene welding “LOHWEOxshydrogen welding} “RON —Prewece wes, sldig HESW2Elestosiog welding Vinton well EBWe lctrgn bears Welding Porosity Porosity results whi solidifying metal, This wil respect to welds (alth commonly scen in castin; comes from either the g: process or the gas rel reactions occurring durin Proper welding techniqu: -n gas is entrapped i be discussed only with wgh porosity is also s). The entrapped gas s used in the welding zsed from chemical the welding process. avoids gas formation and entrepment. Favlty or dirty materials may produce ges. ‘The gas becomes trepped in the form of porous discontinuities in the weld. Porosity usually occurs in the form of rounded discontinuities, but in a severe case the porosity is cylindrical. These large cylindrical pores are called piping porosity (or “wormholes"). ‘The presence of porosity is a sign that the welding process is not being properly controled or that the base metal and welding fluxes are contaminatedPIPING OF WORMHOLE POROSITY (EXTENDING FROM THE FOOT) UNIFORMLY SCATTERED POROSITY POROSITY Porosity Illustrated 0-4 z ge 2 & ge10-5 with gas producing elembnis. Generally speating, A cluster of Porosity in small amouts does not significentiy ‘Improper inition or termination ofthe weld. intensify stress, making it a less critics} Linear porosity aligned along a Joint discontinuity compared t9 those with sharp ends, Poundary would suggest that contaminainne ‘The distribution of porosity cen be helpful in ‘iggered a chemical reaction, which produced ¢ptermining what type of fault caused the porosity. imitated ges. Such contamination could have Ir the porosity is uniformly scattered, the cause ban climinated by preparing the joint properly. could either be faulty materials or poor technique Piping porosity is an elongated ges used throughout the weld, discontinuity extending from the weld root tonend the surface and is elso evidence of the presence of surface contamination, Porosity is likely to result from RADIOGRAPH OF CLUSTER POROSITYRU FRAO REAR rn RADIOGRAPH OF SCATTERED POROSITY10-710-8 ‘SURFACE APPEARANCE OF PIPING POROSITY Inclusions an open root pipe joint and fails to adequately Inclusions result|when solid materials ace clean the'slag on either side of this weld pass. entrapped in solidifying metal. Inclusions interrupt the contiruity| of the weld, and some loss Metallic Inclusions: These inclusions ere in structural integrity fwill result where they ae usually tungsten particles trapped in weld metal They most often occur in gas tungsten arc : welding but may also result if the plasma ere Nonmetallic (Slag and Oxides) Inclusions: Welding process is improperly applied. These These types of inclusions result from faulty tungsten inclusions appear as light areas on welding or cleaning terhniques anc/or the failure _rediographs because tungsten is highly opeque 0 of the designer to piovide proper access for radiation, This is just the opposite from most welding within the joint. Molten slag and oxides other discontinuities, which will show up as dark will flow to the top of {he weld if allowed. Sharp regions on the radiographic film. notches in joint bounllaries or between passes Copper inclusions result if copper backing often cause slag to be¢ome entrapped under the bars or backing shoes are used, such as in molten weld metal. Parallel lines of elongated _¢lectrosleg welding. Improper application of the slag inclusions, sometimes celled “wagon tracks” plasma ‘are welding process could result in because of their radiographic appearance, often overheating of the copper constricting nozzle result if the welder prodhices a convex root pass in which could also cause copper inclusions in the weld. present.ae a3 eessesseceenenessSEP SURFACE SLAG INCLUSIONS10-10 RADIQGRAPH OF ELONGATED SLAG LINES (WAGON TRACKS)10-11 ‘Underfill - is a depression on the face or root surface of a groove weld below the surface plane of the adjacent base metal] In other words, the welder or welding operator has failed to completely fill the groove, resulting in an undersize weld. On pipe welds, undecfill at the weld root may also be reffrted to as “internal concavity” or “suck-back” Incomplete Fusion - is the failure of the liquid weld metal to fuse into the Entire groove face of the joint or to adjacent weld beads. Incomplete fusion is usually caused by irfsufficient application of heat to ell faces of the joint. However, incomplete fusion can elsp be caused by the Presence of oxides which inhibit fusion by tly secured to the base metal RADIOGRAPH OF TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS Incomplete Joint Penetration - resuits when the weld metal fails to extend completely through the joint thickness. The amount of joint penetration required in any joint should be specified on drawings. Whether that amount of joint peneiration can be obtained depends upon the accessibility of the heat source and filler rod to the face area. This discontinuity can also result from. improper joint designs. The presence of incomplete joint penetration in a joint requiring complete joint penetration could also be referred to as inadequate joint penetration, of joint penetration which is less then thet spocifiae. Many codes require the use of joint backing fer single-groove welds or backgouging of double-groove welds to assure thet complete Joint penetration can be azti10-1210-13 INCOMPLETE FUSION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL WELD BEADS10-14 INCOMPLETE FUSION BETWEEN THE WELD AND BASE METALINCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION [RADIOGRAPH OF INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION10-16 Overlap Overlap is the beyond the toe or ¥ without fusion, The severe mechanical nj discontinuity is simil the difference being ti failed to take place. Overlap is cause: metal to fuse with u tightly adhering oxi Overlap results from lack of control of the welds protiusion of weld metal process in the form of insufficient heat (cuirent eld root of the weld joint low), inadequate travel speed, improper sei resulting discontinuity is a of welding materials (lack of deoxidizer, tch on the surface. This improper preparation of the joint (Failurg to incomplete fusion with Temove mill seale or other surfece coatings} ¢ location where the fusion _Excessive weld metal buildup on a groove weld jg: referred to as “excess weld reinforcement”, by the inability of the weld le surface, especially when jes cover the base metal, [2 UNDERCUT UnoencuT overtar ‘OveRtar: WELD FLAWS. OVERLAP.Indercut - is a surface (discontinuity resulting ‘om melting of the base metal at either the weld ye or weld root. It takes tHe form of a mechanical ‘otch at the these locations. Undercut is caused ry the application of excessive heat (excessive 10-17 weld current) or improper electrode manipulation, which melts away the base metal. Use of excessive travel speeds will also cause undercut. [AADIOGRAPH OF EXTERNAL (SURFACE UNDERCUT)10-18 Lamination and Delamination Laminations afe flat, generally elongated, planar base metal discontinuities found near the center of rolled products. ‘Laminations are formed when gas voids in the shrinkage cavity in the ingot are rolled flat but are not subsequently welded under the pressure of hot rolling.” ‘They generally run parallel to the surface of the rolled product and are most commonly found in structural shapes and plates. LLaminatioh and Delamination They most often|appear near the centerline of the material thicknes§. Since it would open as a sandwich, metal containing Jaminations cannot reliably carry stres$ in the through-thickness direction, A delamination is the Separation of a lamination under stress. The stress may be a result of distortion during|flame cutting; it may be residual stress ftom Welding, or it may be applied stress Laminations Ultrsonie testing isthe only effective nieste of locating laminations unless they extend ia aay exposed edge of the material. They will nor revealed by radiographic testing. Seams and Laps Be Seams and laps are linear base meta] discontin: cl result from improper steelmaking practic Scams and laps differ from laminatio: they always appear on the rolled surfaces, Whe they are parallel to the principal stress, they are generally not considered to be @ critical defect. When perpendicular to the applied or residual‘: stress, they will often propagate as a crack, Welding over seams and laps can cause cracking, Lamellar Tearing Lamellar Tearing is a fracture separation in heavy weldments, found within or just beneath the heat affected zone of thick plates which were not adequately refined by the steel mill. Heavy plates and structural shapes receive limited working from their ingot stage to the final thickness, which may. not remove all traces of ingotism, Rolling and forging impert good properties in the direction of 17 metal flow (the "X" direction) but the strength and ductility perpendicular to the rolled surface (the through-thickness or “Z" direction) remain péor.Massive welds poor! thick plate will transmit {ANELLAR TEARING located adjacent to a eld shrinkage stresses into the plate in its weakest direction, creating tears parallel to the surfaci together by shear frac connected by risers perpe The phenomenon is cal because the plate opens up| of stacked sheets or lamell which then are linked lures, forming steps dicular to the surface. Jed lamellar tearing, fas though it were made fe. The engineer should change the joint design to bring the shrinkage stresses more in line with tl \¢ rolling direction. ‘A reduction in the amount of weld required will also reduce the ten: discontintuity. Jency for this type of Lamellar tears may extend over long distances and are locat d more deeply than underbead cracks, which differ in shape, cause and location, Cracks Cracks may occur in or both, when localize strength of the material associated with discontinul the weld or base meial, stresses exceed the Cracking is generelly ities in welds and base metals, with notches, with high residual stresses, and often with hydrogen e1 related cracks often look a: brittle.- There is little boundaries that the met cracked. Cracks can be cracks or cold cracks. Hot eracks develop at ‘They commonly form on pi of alloys of the metal near, cracks propagate betwee britilement, Welding- though the metal were. Wvidence at the crack 1 deformed before it assified as either hor at high temperatures. ferential solidification ithe melting point. Hot the grains when the 10-19 AY Redesigned Corner Jolt to Prevent Lameliar Tearing preferential solidification occurs. Cold cracks develop after solidification is complete and are often service-related. Delayed cracks are commonly caused by the presence of hydrogen in a crack-susceptible microstructure subjected to some applied stress. Cold cracks may propagate either through or between grains. Longitudinal eracks lie paralle! to the weld axis. They are called longitudinal cracks, whether they are centerline cracks in the weld metal or toe cracks in the heat affected zone of the base metal. ‘Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the weld axis. They may remain within the weld metal or extend from the weld metal into the adjacent heat affected zone and the remainder of the base metal. In some weldments, transverse cracks will form in the heat affected zone of the base metal and not in the weld. Crater cracks occur in the crater formed by improper termination of 2 weld pass. They are considered hot cracks and are sometimes referred to as “star cracks" because they often radiate in several directions from the center of the crater. However, they also have other shapes. Crater cracks are usually shallow, allowing for their removal with minimel grinding. A throat crack is a longitudinal crack in the ‘weld face of either a groove or fillet weld, Toe cracks are generally cold cracks. They begin and grow from the weld toe where residualCRACK TYPES LEGEND: Crater crack Face crack Heat affected zone crack Lemeliar tear Longitudinal crack Root crack Root surface crack ‘Throat crack Toe crack 10 Transverse crack 11. Underbead crack 12 Weld interface crack 13 Weld metal crack eavourens10-21 LONGITUDINAL CRACK AND LINEAR POROSITY RADIOGRAPH OF LONGITUDINAL CRACK10-22 CRATER CRACK NGITUDINAL CRACK PROPAGATING FROM CRATER CRACK10-23 THROAT CRACK |10-24 stresses are high, es exhibits excessive reinf Toe cracks i perpendicular to the mei curve and follow the w Root cracks are I weld root. The are g1 cracking. Underbead and h are usually cold crack: affected zone of the ba: often short, but they may! cially whea the weld cement or coavexity, itiate approximately 1) surface, but may tend to Id heat affected zone. or eancK ngitudinal cracks in the nerally a form of hot fat-affected zone cracks that form in the heat ¢ metal. They are most join to form 2 continuous —. S “OwOERBERD CRACKS crack, especially when three simultancous conditions are present: (I) hydrogen, (2) high strength material (Rockwell “C” hardness of 30 of higher), and (3) high residual stress. Underbead ° and heat affected zone cracks can be either -2 longitudinal or transverse. ie Fissures are small or moderate size separations along grain boundaries. Thi discontinuity is easiest to see in electroslag weld because of the large grains commonly present ‘The separations may be either hot or cold cracks. The term microfissure is used if they are so smal! that magnification must be used to detect th separation. They are termed macrofissure if separation is large enough to be seen with tl uneided ey. Ace Strike unintentional melti wed weld deposit se used by the welding # ath an iinpropely $2! The can be produced be work connection durin M fraraThe result is a small, re lted area thet can be the source of undercutting, hardening or localized cracking, depending upon the metal composition, For that reescn, they represent a dangerous condition which could result in catastrophic failure of the wel Size of Discontinuity The size of the disco considered when evaluating the of the entire weld. Acceptan the allowable size of disconti: linear dimensions. CRATER eps se THROAT <1) iment. tinuity must be structural integrity Some discontinuities are acceptable as long as their size does not exceed specified limits, However, other types, such as cracks, are normally unacceptable regardless of length. In general, nonlinear discontinuities are permitted to be larger than linear types. Location of Discontinuity ‘The location of a discontinuity may suggest the cause of the problem as well as its seriousness. The location of porosity can identify where contamination exists. The welding inspector must consider the location and orientation of some discontinuities to determine how much the load- cartying capacity of the structure will be degraded. For structures which will be subjected to fatigue, or cyclic, types of loads, those discontinuities exposed to the surface are generally considered to be more severe, In fact, small surface discontinuities may be more damaging than, subsurface ones, even though the size of those subsurface discontinuities, is much greater. Summary The welding inspector will be asked to examine welds to determine their acceptability in accordance with various codes and specifications. One of the aspects of this activity will be the visual identification of weld discontinuities. The inspector must be cepable of identIntroduction The knowledgeable welding inspector will have the authority under some specifications to accept welds by visual eksmination alone, but cannot certify some of the jvelds in a weldment or structure so easily. The Welding inspector will need help in collecting the necessary evidence of specification compliance, To collect the necessary evidence, the welding inspector can uge one or more of the following methods: + Nondestructive examination performed by technicians qualifigd in accordance with the guidelines of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing Recommended Practice No. SNT-TIC-1A, when required + Chemical analysis quelified © ASTM standards + Metallurgical analy! + Mechanical testing is ‘This chapter will help the welding inspector + Know the printipal features to be considered when choosing 2 nondestructive examination method + Understand how this examination differs in Gifferent applicatiohs of welding. + Understand fundamental aspects of the various techniques of nondestructive examination « Relate the proper examination technique to a given weld joint design end welding process. + Know the responsibilities in regard to sample selection, examination methods, retests, repairs, and evaluation of data. Selection of Examination Method ‘There are three principal features to be considered when choosing an examination method: + Limitations of the examination method + Acceptance standards + Economies Limitations of the Examination Method ‘The limitations of the examination method are a consideration in determining which method will provide the best results for a pertioular test. For example, radiography can detect cracks thet are aligned parallel io the radiation beam; such cracks ere usually normel to the plate surfaces. However, radiography usually cannot detect Jaminations in the plate; ultrasonic examination cen detect Jaminations in the plate end, with the proper choice of technique, can usvelly be relied upon to detect cracks normal to the plate surfaces. ‘Acceptance Standards The statement, “The weld sball be radiographically examined,” hes no meaning unless acceptance standards are stated. The 4 ‘i iiacceptance standards must state each type of discontinuity and whether or act such a discontinuity is permissible. fa perticular type of discontinuity is permissible, then ths acceptance standards must specify tHe maximum size at which the discontinuity is a¢ceptable. Acceptance standards are an integral part of almost all of the codes and standards listed in Appendix A and are commonly used as references in purchase specifications. Economics (Cost) Each examination method hes a different cost in a particular situation. Two basic cost factors to bbe’ considered in the seléction of a nondestructive examination method afe the initial equipment availability and cost, and the cost of performing the tests. Visual examingtion is almost always the cheapest, but is also limited to the detection of surface discontinuities. In general, costs. of radiographic, ultrasonic, and eddy current ex- aminations are greater than those of ‘visual, magnetic particle, and liquid penetrant methods of examination. Selection of the proper examination method can be quite complex. In many cases, a single test may not be adequate. It may be necessary to apply two or more tests to assure complete coverage, For example, the exemination of a large carbon steel weldment might include radiography for subsurface evaluation and magnetic particle testing for an examination of the sutface. For critical applications or large volumes of testing, it is sug- gested that help be obtained from a competent laboratory or consultant, Examination Methods and Limitations ‘Visual Examination As the welding insgector gains experience, it ‘will be noted that a weld displays its pedigree to a large degree in its surfage appearance. When the welding inspector’has seen that the preparation of the joint was good, and knows that the welder had the requisite ebility, the odds favor a good-looking weld being sound and within specification. Remember: The evidence needed by the ” inspector is provided by the governing code, engineering standards, job- specifications, oz job requizements, The welding inspector canact accept less nor ask for more than is required by these documents, Visual examination is limited to the detection of surface discontinuities. However, visual examination, when conscientiously applied before, during and after welding, can prevent the vast majority of those discontinuities that would be detected by other examination methods. In fect, the ability to prevent many discontinuities before the weld is complete is perhaps the most important feature of visual examination. Visual Examination Practice: Any good visual weld examination program requires that the inspector have a working knowledge of: + Applicable codes, standards and speci- fications, including weld acceptence criteria + Workmanship standards + Welding processes being used + Good weld fabrication practices ‘The welding inspector's responsibilities commence before welding begins. In fact, theseoccur, or at least as soon as possible efter they 4 occur, so they can be corrected in the most : economic and effective way. Below are some of the items which should be checked during the actual welding operation: + Check welding variables for compliance with welding procedure + Check quality of individual weld passes + Check interpass cleaning + Check interpass temperature + Check placement and sequencing of individual weld passes + Check back-gouged surfaces + Arrange for in-process NDE, when required steps are critical enough to set the tone for the resulting quality of the eftie project. If these preliminary duties are thoroughly attended to, the aitainment of quality welding will be more aecuted, Some of the items Which may be checked a rter the welding has been completed, the include: role of visual examination is simply. the Verification that all of the preceding steps have i beaks ‘plicable Cociptubenaaeenl been successfully completed and the resulting ; ee Nee te Pee are weldment is acceptable. Some of the items to be i} + Check individual welder qualifications E i i checked include: + Establish hold points + Develop an inspection plan q + Cheek finished weld appearance + Develop a plan for recording inspection seeceananeeestn : results and maintainiag those records Hite ciaicig \ + Develop a system for idemtfication of + Check dimensional accuracy of weldment ! ee + Arrange for additional NDE, when + Check condition of welding equipment required io + Verify base metel end filler metal + Monitor postweld heat treatment, when identifications aiid © Check quality and condition of base and P: ei a «Prepare inspection reports filler metals eae 7 + Check weld preparations ‘There are numerous advantages of visual nae : examination, including: low cost t9 apply, litle econ eee SE need for expensive equipment, and the ability t0 eck weld joint clepnliness find problems when they occur to allow for eee eeeeot ee economical and expedient comection. Once welding begins, the welding inspector's Guties are primarily related to the assurance that the welding is being done in accordance with the welding procedures end any applicable standards Here, the goal is to identify problems before they ee114 Penetrant Testing (P Penetrant testing is for locating discentinuit} porosity, in nonporo} discontinuities must be| surface. The method em which is applied to the su which enters the disc penetrant is then cleaned ) sensitive methed used jes, such as cracks and s materials. The clean and open to the loys a penetcating liquid face to be examined and intinuity. The excess from the surface. Any penetrant which subsdquently exudes from openings and causes dist powder on the surface in discontinuity. There are two gen penetrants: visible dye differ in that the visible normal white light, whi requires an ulaviolet (0 an indigation. There ai effective application o| dipping, brushing, floodi: fluorescent penetrants re test, simply because ou! detect a fluorescent indic: critical applications w discontinuities must be penetrant method would bf coloration of developer cates the location of a ral classifications of land fluorescent. They 2 can be observed under fe the fluorescent type black) light to produce fe several methods for i penetrants, such as, 1g, OF spraying. Use of ulis in a more sensitive eyes can more readily tion. Consequently, for ere even the smallest letected, the fluorescent desirable, simple steps, including: precleaning the test. c= surface, application of the penetrant which 1274 remains for some prescribed time (called the “dwell time”), removal of excess penetrant from the test surface, and application of the developer. Following the application and drying of the developer, all indications are evaluated in accor: dance with applicable standards. For a detailed explanation of these steps, please refer to ASTM E-165. Uses This method is applicable to magnetic materials; however, it is particularly useful on nonmagnetic materials such as aluminum, magnesium and austenitic stainless steels, w cannot be examined by magnetic particle testing Advantages Penetrant testing is relatively inexpensive end reasonably rapid. The process is simple end operators find little difficulty in learning co apply it properly, There are few, if any, false or nonrelevant indications on reasonably smooth surfaces. Limitations The mein limitation of penetrant testing is that discontinuities must be clean and open to the surface to be detected, Some substances used as penetranis can have a deleterious effect on welds and base metals and can affect the service life of the weldment or end use of the product. Penetrants are difficult to remove completely from discontinuities and if they are corrosive to thematerial or other’ wise rot compatible with the use of the product, they should be avoided. he contove of the surface being examined should not contain sharp depressions between beads or weld ripples thet whuld interfere with complete cleaning and excess|penetrant removal. Otherwise, you may observe|false or irrelevant indications. If these conditions do exist, the weld surface should be groun smooth before inspection. Interpretations tis important that the technician not reduce the recommended dwell tims for penetrant or developer. Large cracks ant’ voids will reveal themselves quickly, but thase’ might be found without this aid, Tightly closed cracks absorb the penetrant slowly and resposd to the developer equally slowly. Inadequate removal pf the superficial penetrant will give many false indications, such 2s a general glow under the bled penetrant testing, or a pink coloration of the developer with visible dy¢ penetrant testing, Precleaning the surface without adding more penetrant will give a cleareg indication, showing only seepage from surface discontinuities, Indica: tions which repeat at the same location throughout several cleanings undoubtedly reveal open discontinuities. Care must also be taken to avoid spraying cleaner directly on the t@st surface between application of the penetrant and developer, Magnetic Particle Testing (IT) Magnetic particle testing is used for locating surface or near surfacq discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials, This method involves the establishment of a magnetic field within the material and may be exarpined with the aid of prods, yokes, or coils, The pattern of iscontinvities is revealed by the buildup of iron powder particles which aze|applied to the surface, either as a dry powder or suspended in aliquid, 145 ie you ste: IWoKeaTION YOUNAVE: [AGONCENTRATION. Ob Reo sors PITS AND POROSITY. ‘AconTINUOUS STREAK. LARGE CRACK sien EUEEDS UP RAPIOLY. onerenna [A BROKEN UNE OF ODS Sinton Takes SEVERAL ight for fluorescent nutes 10 cone UP ‘cAncK oR COLD SHUT Asenies oF #€0 07S Ponta RH IRAEGULAR FATIGUE CRACK, ne PARTIAL WEU9 GR LAP The particles may be dyed for greater visibility or coated with fluorescent dye to be viewed under ultraviolet light with the seme Improved sensitivity associated with fluorescent penetrant testing. The type of surface and the type Of discontinuity suspected should determine the material selected. ‘A test material or component can be magnetized either by passing electric current through it or by placing it in a magnetic field, The telectric current used to generate the magnetic field may be alternating current (ac), direct current (6c) or half-wave rectified direct current (hwdc). “Alternating current is generally limited to the detection of surface discontinuities; however, its characteristically changing magnetic field tends to increase the particle mobility on the surface to result in en improvernent of the test sensitivity when examining rough surfaces. "A de magnetic field differs from the ac field in that it tends to penetrate more deeply into the test piece, which results in the ability to detect14-6 discontinuities sligh However, the magneti move as readily on the wave rectified de com types of magnetizing particle mobility of ac of de. Uses ly below the surface. particles do not tend to urface as with ac. Half- ines the benefits of both current: the enhanced ind the deeper penetration ‘Magnetic particle testing can provide a great deal of information weldments. This meth welds, plate edges pri repairs, This method is crew about the quality of xi may be used to inspect or to welding and weld apable of detecting: imu CTH Leakage esse eat) minor oe Magneto base metal ‘+ Laminations or other discontinuit prepared edge of the base metal + Incomplete fusion (if at or near the surface), + Undercut at + Subsurface cracks (if it occurs near enough; to the surface to cause an interruption of. the magnetic field at the surface) 5 | Advantages ‘The basic equipment for magnetic particle testing is relatively simple. It includes devices for creating a magnetic field of the proper strength and direction. ‘There might also be controls for adjusting the current and an ammeter to indicate the amount of magnetizing current for each examination : Yoke Method sme Prod Method prCompared to penetr has certain other adv iat testing, this pntages, It rex discontinuities thet are nok open to the surface oF filled with some substa carbon, slag or other cof detectable using penetr particle testing is also ge economical than pen extremely large test 5 Another advantage is th cleaning required prior to magnetic particle testing, Limitations ‘The magnetic particl is applicable only to fer which the deposited ferromagnetic. This m examine nonferromag: aluminum, magnesium of steels. Difficulties may weldments where the m: the deposited weld metal ce (cracks filled with taminants mey not be int testing). Magnetic erally faster and more trant testing, unless faces are involved. fact that there is less ‘examining the part with method of examination romagnetic materials in weld metal is also hod cannot be used to etic materials such 2s the austenitic stainless rise when exemini jgnetic characteristics of differ appreciably from HAGNAFLUX COFP. 117 those of the base metel or where the magnetic field is not properly oriented, Joints between metals of dissimilar magnetic characteristics may create magnetic particle indications even though the Joints themselves are sound. I's important that the technician not expect the magnetic particle method to find deep-seated discontinuities. They are more readily discovered using other examination methods such as radiography or ultrasonic testing. These methods, and the visual examination of sectioned test samples, can be used to qualify the magnetic particle procedure for subsurface ‘examination. For discovery of discontinuities lying in all orientations the magnetic particle test must be applied in at least two directions, approximately 90° apart. Only then can the tester be assured that all discontinuities will be revealed. Radiographic Testing (RT) Radiographic testing is suitable for all materials, However, the applicability of radiography for weld examination depends a great deal upon the weld joint location, joint con- figuration and material thickness. Almost any. SURFACE CRACKS GIVE PONDER PATTERNS THAT ARE SHARPLY DEFINED. TIGHTLY HELD, ANO USUALLY BUILT UP MEAVILY. THE DEEPER THE CRACK, THE HEAVIER THE BUIO.UP OF POWDER. SUBSURFACE CRACKS PRODUGE A LESS SHARPLY DEFINED, Fuzzy PATTERN, THE POWDER IS ALSO LESS TIGHTLY ADHERENT.weld thickness ca insufficient joint ace the method. The wel this limitation in radiographic exeminati Radiography uses} penetrates through the ona film or plate. Th discontinuity (air incomplete fusion or the solid metal. Di attenvate the radiation consequently produce ‘on the film or plate Material densit material itself (For ¢ denser than steel or atu effective at preventing through, resulting in the film.) or by the th (The thicker the materi stopping the radiation film image.). The sele (energy of the emit thickness of weld is a of the source is 100 fh thickness of material, radiographic sensi variable light intensi viewing and analyzing There must al determining the film This is usually accom; device referred to as the acquired sensitivit device referred to 2s #1 penetrameter, is plac interest. This pene! thickness, based on th and contains a series diameters, The sens therefore determined b visible on the radiogray be radiographed, but is may prevent best use of ing inspector should keep nind when asking for as, [X- or gamma radiation that art and produces en image density of the material in a p the case of a crack, rosity) is less than that of erent density materials in different amounts and loptical density differences can be affected by the ample, tungsten is much minum, so tungsten is more the radiation from passing Jow density indication on ickness of a given material , the more effective it is at ind thus producing a lighter tion of the radiation source d rays) for a particular ritical factor. If the energy jgh or too low for a given hen low contrast and poor ity result, The use of @ yy viewer is helpful when Fediogrephs. o be some means of ldensity at various points. lished through the use of a densitometer, To indicate of a given radiograph, a image quality indicator, or adjacent to the area of trameter is @ particular thickness of the test part, of holes having different ty of the radiograph is which of the three holes is h Advantages Radiography can detect: + Surface discontinvities such as undercut, incomplete joint penetration, excessive weld reinforcement, underfill, etc. + Subsurface discontinuities, that cannot be detected with visual, magnetic particle or” penetrant methods and may not be detected by the ultrasonic method. Limitations The cost of radiography usually goes up as the joint becomes more complex, and the amount of information that can be obtained becomes more limited Discontinuities must be more or less aligned with the radiation beam. This is not a problem for slag or porosity because these are usually round in cross section and are aligned with the beam from any direction. However, cracks, incomplete fusion and incomplete joint penetration must be aligned with the beam to be detécted. Laminations end lamellar tearing are almost never detected w Making » Radiogv=phNOTE: ner enna Feat Niacin ncnee sense Typlest Pat radiography due to their respect to the radiation. ‘The high cost of radi equipment and facilitie limitations of this method. capital expense to initial testing. The use of rediog aspect not associated wil methods, and that is Excessive exposure to 1 machine or a radioact} detected by any of the cause disease, permane: states require that radio} have special training, of however, a safe operati accordance with establish ears O28 plese on inherent orfentation with tion sources and related tends to be one of the There must be a high set up for this type of phy has one negative the other nondestructive the radiation hazard. . diation from an X-ray ve isotope cannot be uman senses but may t injury or death. All sraphers be licensed or both, Radiography is, n when conducted in d procedures. & iced ath Selatnaecantie reat ans Detection of planar defect at various fo‘lentaions by radiography Ultrasonic Testing (UT) The ultrasonic method is applicable to almost all materials. The ultrasonic method uses the transmission of mechanical energy in wave form et frequencies above the audible range. Reflections of this energy by discontinuities in metals are detected in a manner somewhat similar to the detection of reflected light waves in trensparent media, Uses In the pulse-echo technigue, @ transducer. transmits a pulse of high frequency sound into and through the materiel and the reflected sound is received from 2 discontinuity, the opposite surface or other surfaces of the part, The reflected sound is received as an echo which, together with the original pulse, is displayed on the screen of 2 cathode ray tube (CRT),14-40 WELD RAY : \ y yttn GRAY UNIT = ae | =n ar = | SOURCE X-RAY UNIT] RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING (RT) X-RAY FILM.: vt rs mee ro ar 38 c | sansa eeiifog a LJ mea a %) Bs if Lucene (ese Wa sD Et \ ala fore TRANSDUCER ovate 7 ona, z Sebeeuasenaet Cd = Ty pen E A oraaes 7 Ultrasonic Inspection Calibration Sequence fer Longitudinal Beam Transducer Before testing is begun, the instrument is Advantages calibrated ageinst a reference standard. When the sound beam intercepts the plane of discontinuity at + UT can be used to detect both surface and or near 90°, a maximum reflected signal will subsurface discontinuities. retum to thé transducer. In scanning welds, this is + For pulse-echo testing, access is nécessary achieved by beams angled into the work, through a to only one side of the work. lucite wedge and into the| work through water, oil + The size-of flaws and their interface or similar couplant materiel. location may be determined quantitatively. ‘When examining groove welds which require +: The method is generally more sensitive for ultrasonic testing undér the AWS Structural the discovery of planar type discoftinvities Welding Code, the technician will find the (which are generally considered more procedures tightly specified in AWS D1.1, The critical) than is radiography. amount of testing to be ddne and the equipment to + Laminations and lamellar tearing can be be used are specified, THe equipment itself must readily detected using ultrasonic testing be calibrated using some type of standard reference block, such 2s the IIWY (Internationel Limitations Institute of Welding) calijration block. ‘The setup used by technicians (magnitude and location of + Welds in some materials are very difficult indications on horizontal tnd verticel scales of the to examine ultrasonically. For example, CRT) are prescribed for both straight beam and welds involving materials and processes angle beam testing. which produce large grain size tend to scatter and disperse the sound beam; penetration of the sound beam into these materials is limited and interpretation of the results can be difficult. IE IES1412 + Personnel must be quelified and, in general, they require more training and experience for most of the 0 methods. }trasonic testing than for ther more commen NDE + The scan patter must be suificient to pass the projected ound beam through the entire volume of the weld and heat affected zone to permit detection of possible discontinuities. + For contact testing, the test surface used for scanning with t smooth enough|s obtained. Of transducer.must be iquid coupling may be jerwise, the part may be placed in wajer and the sound wave transmitted through some length of water path, This is called immersion testing. Eddy Current (El (ET) tromagnetic) Testing Eddy current testing requires the part under test to be subjecte! to the influence of an alternating electromagnetic field, The tests detect surface or subsurfa ie discontinuities in any material that is an efectricel conductor. The electromagnetic field ihduces eddy currents in the pert and also establish is magnetic. ‘A complete sepa s magnetic fields if the part fation of these two effects in magnetic materials is|not readily accomplished. However, a high degree of differenti obtained by specializ jon can be d techniques. Information gathered by probe coils is transmitted to a test cir- cuit and analyzed electronicelly. Electromagnetic field frequencies are He (hertz, or cycles pet Uses Since eddy curr electrical conductor employed on magnetic In eddy current) direction of the eddy svally in the range of 500 second) to 5000 Hz. is may be induced in any , eddy current testing is or nonmagnetic materials. tests, the magnitude and surrents aré detected by the GONDUGTIVE MATERIAL Ineveed dey Cursents In Test Objects coil, or by a separate coil, which acts through electronic cizeuitry to register the discontinuity. In testing of magnetic materials, the distribution of magnetic flux is affected by magnetic variables. If the variation in.flux is associated with discontinuities in the materiel, the discontinuities are detected Advantages The four most significant advantages that electromagnetic testing has over other methods are: + It can, in many cases, be completely automated; thus it provides automatic examination at high speeds and at 2 relatively low cost + Under certain circumstances, the indications produced are proportional to the actual size of the discontinuity. ‘Thus, the tests can be useful for grading and clessifying. + Actual contact of probes with the work is not necessary; close proximity is satisfactory. + Eddy current testing is capable of detecting many different material characteristics, including: electrical conductivity,priate for the shape of ted and the type of ht. On welded tubular 1s) is commonly built 10 The practical limit for penetration of eddy currents in most nonmagnetic metals is approximately 1/4 in, (6 mm) below the surface. The depth of examination beneath the surface of the part depends upon the frequency chosen to excite the electromagnetic field Costing Thickness Typical CAT Displey: for Eddy Cuscont Testing1414 AREA OF DISCONTINUITY 1S AUTOMATICALLY MARKED, io poy CURRENT INSPECTION DEVICE (AUTOMATIC) ia PROCESS. ‘ypleal Eddy Curreht inspection Arrangement Acoustic Emission|Testing (AET) Atomic movements leading to crackiiig are accompanied by sound bursts which may be detected by suitable jnicrophones (piezoelectric ceramnic elements). These sounds are emitted in all directions and may be detected from any surface of the vessel. By monitoring the emissions, the weld|quality may be assessed during welding-and dbring cooling. Weldments having incomplete joint penetration, incomplete fusion, cracking, poros|ty, or various imperfections can be detected, and the regions emitting the sound can be loceted by triangulation fiom several sensors (using a compiler). After the weldmént has cooled, the sounds will cease, and a stimblus (mechanical loading or thermel stress) must be applied to cause further acoustic emission. Sttss exceeding the maximum stress previously expetienced by the metal causes plastic deformation at|the tip of any crack and 2 tell-tele acoustic burst is emitted. If the ciscontinuities in the Weldment are not effected by loading, they will not|be active emitters, and the part will be recognized as structurally “sound” (soundless).. ‘Acoustic emission testing can be a valuable adjunct to hydrostatic|pressure testing, Acoustic emissions from @ growing crack increase in number and intensity as a function of thy z variable (displacement, lead, pressure, ‘or Leak Tests (LT) One further indignity may be inflicted upon well examined weldment: a test for leaks ‘Test methods may be as unsophisticzted &s the pneumatic or gas and soap bubble test. By lightly pressurizing the component and immersing” the vessel in water or brushing a soap film over the surface, the formation of bubbles can be observed | at any leak, Open tanks are frequently tested by filling them with water containing fluorescein, which. permits ready detection’ of any seepage un ultraviolet illumination. The hydrostatic (or head) pressure causes the fluorescein to escape through any leeks and be detected. ‘Another leak test applied to storage tenks (principelly floor joints) is referred to as the vacuum box test. Here, the weld surface is LEAK TESTS Gas LEAK Berecte>” PRESSURE By: SOURCE Hatin Mess ‘Specirometercovered with a scap solution and a transparent box with soft robber cealis placed over a portion pf the weld length, Using a vayuum pump or compressed cit, & vacuum is ereated in the box and any leaks will be indicated by the presence of bubbles. The leak test may use af organic halide ges on one side of the vessel and a halide toi th on the other. The torch flame changes color in the presence of halogens. The vltimate leak test is considered to be the helius Jeak test which uses helium as a tracer gas. Due to their extremely small size, helium atoms pass through even the smallest leaks. These ver} small leaks are then detected using special instruments capable of sensing any leakage of the helium gas. (helium spectrometer leak testing) Details of the moge complex tests are available from manufacturers of the equipment used. Once again, the.riles for acceptance and rejection must be spelled obit ia the specifications. Pressure Tests A pressure test js one of the family of tests referred to a5 proof tests (PRT). A pressure test is the “final test” which. sme of the weldments previously examined must pes to eam a certificate Pr fitness. Details of howlthe pressure testis to be conducted should be given in the documents ‘governing each assembly pr subassembly. Here ig an important| word of caution: In any hydrostatic test of 2 cloged vessel, meke certain that the technicians have vented all eit trapped within the, container before permitting the pressurization to begin.| Liquids are essentially noneompressible, If tha vessel is entirely filled with liquid, should ruptufe begin, the first leakage will reduce the pressuse dramatically and the fracture will stop. However, if air has been ‘complete Sompting Is Commonly Applied To Proc Tete or Final Inspection rapped, its energy of compression will continue to extend the fracture explosively, with great damage and danger to observers. It is 2lso very important to remember to vent any vessel after the hydrostatic test is completed. When draining test fluids, a vacuum may be created which may be adequate to damage the component, Magnetic Test for Delta Ferrite Delta ferrite is an effective crack deterrent in austenitic stainless steels. This phase is magnetic, ‘whereas austenite is nonmagnetic. That property js now used to measure the emount of ferrite in the weld metal, which marks a major edvance for weld examination. The alternate methods of sneasurement are laborious and inaccurate: + Microscopic examination checks one tiny spot at a time which may not be typical, since ferrite is not distributed uniformly: etching the phase to identify it may distort ins size. + Computations bssed on chemicel composition ignore the treatment effects ‘and are subject to analytical errors. ‘The American Welding Society recommends that delta ferrite be reported in Fersite Numbers, & standard measurement based on comparison withmagnetic chips obtain Bureau of Standards ( explained in AWS Ad. Calibrating Magnetic Delta Ferrite Content Weld Meal Magnetic instru Gage and other comm The seme instrument desired weld metal. The observed approximately equal would be found by ott advantage of being 7¢ eround the world The NBS wafers Numbers depending determines their magn! curve is drawn showij plotted against FN interpret readings teke In the course of i inspector will no di specifying delta ferri some specifying per FERRITE INDICATOR (SEVERN GACE) -d from the U. S, National FBS). The testing method is, 22, Standard Procedures for instruments to Measure the of Austenitic Stainless Steel ents such as the Mi cial devices ponse to the NBS wafers. is then used to measure the errite Number (FN) is Io the percent ferrite that 7 techniques, but it has the foducable in any Ieboretory Ihave been assigned Ferrite a their thickness, which tic response. A calibration g the Instrument readings The curve is then used to con actual weld specimens. spection work, the welding bt find some contracts je in Ferrite Numbers and ent ferrite, One shoulé endeavor to ive Ee readings measured sadie reported in Numbers, because they! can be verified by the’ NBS standards. “Hoy ever, FN readings could’ be labeled “percent: with less error than. Ai would arise from a: | micrographic count or from estimating the ferrite using the reported chemical analysis. Note one difference in the ferrite indications given by the Sevem gage. This is a balance beem instrument which pre- sents the opposite ends of a bar magnet simultaneously to a known ferrite standard end to the unknown ferrite content of the weld, The operator notes which of the two metals is magnetically stronger. The test tells only that the weld had more ferrite or less ferrite then the standard, There is no indication of how much the two differed. Other instruments indicate the ctuel Ferrite Number of the weld, but the Severn gage merely gives an upper or Lower liniit to the FX. That will be sufficient for most inspections if the contract calls for, for example, “over 4 FN,” of “over 4 percent ferrite.” All portions of thet weld should pull the magnet away from the 4 FN button. If the contract requires “4 to 10 FN,” the welding inspector must also search with 10 FN bution, which should always pull the magnet eWay from the weld. iu here If delta ferrite prevents cracks, why is th concern about an upper limit to the Ferrite Number? The answer: High ferrite content ning a brittle sigm= rable in increases the probability of for phase afier heat treatment. Sigma is undesi stainless steel welds. aeQualification of ‘ondestructive Examination Personnel Nondestructive examination personnel also require qualification pnd certification. Nondestructive tests are based on indirect indications: typically, | the “density of @ photographic film is interpreted to indicate @ discontinuity at the center) of the weld, and an adhering line of magnetized iron powder is interpreted to reveal a subsurface crack. These may not be direct revelations of the supposed discontinuity. Some of them may be artifacts extraneous to the subject. The individual interpreting such information must be qualified to accurately interpret test results. ‘The qualification procedure usually specified js that recommended by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing’s (ASNT) Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. Since this is considered 2 recommended practice, jit only has relevance when e company develops a quality control ‘manual which refers to these recommendations. ‘This standard provides for three levels of competence and responsibility, 2s shown in the following table: NDT Level ! permits the individvel to operate NDT equipment and interpret results under direct supervision of a person ctrtified for Level IT or Level IIT. NDT Level I clears the individual for Wz all testing end interprétetion of indications. NDT Level III qualifies the individual to conduct, qualification examinations of persons epplying for Levels I and II. Notice that individuals are not permitted to examine AWS D1.1 Code weldments by NDE methods other than visual unless they hold SNT- TC-1A certification papers. Also, do not mistakenly assume that a Level III individval (able to train and examine personnel at the other levels) would be permitted to make these tests. That person would not be acceptable without Level I or Level II qualification in addition to his Level III certification. Under the ASME Code rules, the Authorized Inspector verifies the certification of NDE personnel in accordance with the applicable "ASME requirements, which most likely reference SNT-TC-1A. When the Authorized Inspector ‘questions the performance of en NDE technician, he has the further authority to audit the program and require requalification. . Summary ‘Although the CWI will not necessarily be qualified to perform nondestructive examinations other than visual, it is important thet that individual at least understands the besic principles of the more common methods. This will assist in developing an understanding of dual ape es ieee a ae pes NDT LEVER Teac did Beit sina afd evslusterultc ha M Pet iipee penton te waren ‘i eae cat OR SUTTOIALEVELSSE AC (CauieNeel aoe ee Seo isftestea and "specie: evpluaugas, jap towmnntten ins jons’and § ae eee ae 1 GS : the results reported by those performing the necessary tests. In addition to review of nondestructive examination results, the CWI may also be responsible for determining NDE technicians ere properly qualified to perform various tests jn accordance with contract sete rromarcert requirements. eapurabie ain peewee iedIntroduction Reporting obs: are waiting for them employer, but the ei many related organi febricator or erector. Report Contents A good report keeping. Good re welding inspector; th The inspection concise so that othe| later, Though concise, to be clear to a reader inspected The report must have the appropriate si and data forms require should be noted that er these legal documents through with a single 1 accompanied ‘by the i date of the change. In | Question as to who ma occurred. Bo teports thet the welding such corrections arel = Reports must include res vations and decisions is the final step"for a welding inspector. Many people The welding inspector may feel that he/she is only responsible to his/her ployer has responsibilities to ations, be they the customer, begins with good record ‘ords not only protect the ¥Y also help hirwher follow a Policy of uniform standards, report must be clear and 8 will have no difficulty understanding the decisions reached, even monthe it must be complete enough lunfamilige with the product complete, accurate and atures. All formal reports by the governing standard ot code should be completed in ink. Again, it sures are not permitted in Errors are to be crossed ine and not erased, When made, they should be Ispector’s initials and the hat way, there will be no le the change and when it ences to the many other inspector sees and uses as . be separated into various files, tools in his own inspection process. Among those more commonly used are the following: + Surveillance Reports * Certified Material Test Reports * Quality Reports * Qualification Records + Progress Reports + Production Schedules ‘The welding inspector of any category should keep a set of records for each contract under surveillance, detailing every inspection made and every joint in the vessel or assembly. For a small Job. these records may be contained in a single file, while larger jobs may require that the records This selection is often a matter of personal preferenc: jowever, some codes will stipulate how this information should be organized and maintained. The important feature is to assure that the system used is casily understood by all appropriate individual, not just the inspector. Report Format The inspectér, working in accordance with « national code or standard, monitors the quali assurance program of the fabrication through hi review of quality reports, qualification records, certificates of compliance, and records of examinations and tests, The inspector for the febricator is part of the quality control organization and thus assists direcily in preparing reports required by the quality assurance program, The governing code or standard will suggest a format for an inspection report,12-2 Structural Welding Code (AWS D1.1) Suggested forms for an in-house inspector's reports ere printed|in the Appendix E of AWS DIA, Structural Welding Code- Steel. Copies of these forms are included in the Appendix. They include forms for recording procedure qualifications and Welder and welding operator qualifications. Also included are laboratory report forms for three categories of nondestructive examination data. Variations in| the suggested forms are permissible, as long as all of the necessary information is provided. The AWS procedure qualification forms include versions for prequalified welding procedures, welding procedures qualified by actual testing and welding procedures for electrpslag and electrogas welding. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code ‘The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code contains a number of Data Report Forms required of the designer, the bwner, the manufacturer and the fabricator of any| vesse! covered by this code. Under this code, each of these parties must have a quality assurance program (documented in a Quality Assurance Manual) thet details manufacturing processes, job titles and responsibilities for inspection, The designated inspector may be expected to complete a Data Report Form for an employer, but will not be able to sign them unless authorized. The ASME Code places all responsibility on the manufacturer or ipstaller. Only the authorized inspector may sign or initial and date check lists of items personally witnessed on Data Reports. In practice, however, the in-house inspector assembles ail of these reports and verifies compliance by the manufacturer. Form N-1 for nuclear vessels is a typical ASME report. It| lists the names of the manufacturer and the purchaser; the type and kind of vessel; dimensions pf sheli, seams, heads, jacket closure, tube sheets, and tubes; dimensions of any inner chambers (shells, seams, heads); the design pressure of jackets and inner chambers, with te data on impact resistance and pressure tests; dat: when applicable, on safety valve outlets, nozzle inspection manholes, other openings and support Temarks-, and a certification of design covering th | design specifications and stress analysis repo: (each certified by a professional engineer). Th Certificate of Field Inspection (or Field Assembt Inspection) completes this form. In addition to these data report forms, th welding inspector will also be asked to review an. verify information contained on the various form related to welding procedure and welde qualification. These include: the Weldin; Procedure Specification (WPS), the Procedur Qualification Record (PQR) andthe Performanc, Qualification Record API Report Forms A typical API form for reporting qualificatio: of provedures or welders for pipeline welding cat be found in the Appendix. Although different thet those for AWS or ASME, much of the informaticr fequired is similar, if not identical. ‘Multiple Inspection: One inspector's repoits may well duplicate reports by some of the othei inspectors, but that is the nature of the surveillance of major weldments. An illustrative example is the multiple reporting given to the radiograph of ¢ weld. Many radiographs are evaluated by up to five different people. Each individual records their contribution to the inspection. ‘The report form for radiographic examination might well be used by each of them, Those individuals who might become involved in the radiographic evaluation for a typical scenario are listed below: 1)The technician exposes the film and develops it, and records the identification of the weld and the exposure details.2) The examiner of te chnictan Level J or IT in the radiographi¢ department examines the film and reports|his interpretation. 3)The SNT-TC. contractor reviews 4)The customer's [A examiner for the the film for acceptance. welding inspector examines the film and makes his own evaluation, 5)The ASME Authorized Inspector (in the employ of one of the insurance companies, or a jurisdiction] such as a state) reviews the film and the feport for concurrence and acceptance, Unstructured Reports Up to now the major emphasis has been on the more formal reports standard or specification, required by the code, However, unstructured Fepotts will be often required of a welding inspector. This is especial ly true of workmanship opinions. Comments on she vivel examination and repair of plate cut dges, on shrinkage and distortion, on dimensional tolerances such as straightness and flatness, camber, warpage and tit, on the fit and straightness of intermediate stiffeners and bearing stiffeners, on weld profiles, and on the repair of unacceptable welds and difficulties that occurred - all require individual Teporting. Such notes ate not readily tabulated unless you keep accurate and complete records. The formality of an unstructured rep: will vary with the welding inspector's responsibility, An inspector in a small company will be more * informal in reporting than ll a state inspector. Copies of the reports andlattached records should 80 to all who are entitle inspector should keep a © Even while performing i to receive them, The opy for his own files. spections on non-code ;_ Work, an inspector should keep a proper record of = his work, At a minimum, this could be in the form of a complete set of notes, Report Check List 7 + After writing the report, the following questions should be asked 2s a check on the quality of the report: * Ate all the report date forms required by the governing code, standard or specification complete? Accurate? Signed? * Are all supporting forms, reports and data included or properly referenced? * Are the facts stated clearly and concisely? + Can the reader reach the same logical conclusions or make sound decisions from. the facts and data in the report today. In two months? In six months? + Does the overall organization of the report present a total picture to the reader? + Does the report maintain a logical sequence? For example, dogs it follow the fabrication process? Procedure inspection? Acceptance process? + Have the purpose and objectives of the reports been attained? Conclusion One should be commended for undertaking a career in the field of inspection. Welding inspection is an important field. It is exciting and demanding. It takes a special kind of person to select this kind of work. Good luck in these future activities,Addresses of Major Associations of the Welding Fabricating Industry American Welding Society (AWS)! S50N.W. LeJeune Rd. P.O. Box 351040 Miami, FL 33135 (805)-443-9353 Aluminum Association (AA) 900 19th St., NW. Suite 300 Washington, DC 20006 (202) 862.5100 American Petroleum Institute (API) 1220 Street, NW. Washington, D.C. 20005 (202) 682.8000 American Association of Stale Highway Officials (AASHTO) 444 N. Capital St, NAV. Washington, D.C. 20001 (202) 624-5800 Association of American Railrpads (AAR) SOF Street, NW. Washington, D.C. 20001 (202) 635-2100 Abrasive Engineering Society (AES) 1700 Painters Run Road Piusburgh, PA 15243 (412) 221.0909 American Gas Associetion (AGA) 1515 Wilson Blvd, Arlington, VA 22209 (703) 641-8400, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineering (AIME) 345 East 47th St. New York, NY 10017 (21) 705-7695, ‘American Institute of Plant Engineers (APE) 3975 Erie Ave, Cincinnati, OH 45208 (513)561-6000 American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 400 N. Michigan Ave. Chicago, Hiinois 60611 812) 670-2400 Association of Iron and Steel Engineers (AISE) ‘Three Gateway Center Suite 2350 Pittsburg, PA 15222 (412) 281-6323 American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)1 1000 16th St., NW, ‘Washington, D, C, 20036 (202) 452-7236 ‘American Nuclear Society (ANS) 555 North Kensington Ave La Grange Park, IL 60525 612) 352-6611 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 1430 Broadway New York, New York 10018 (212) 642-4900 American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) 50 F Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20001 (202) 639-2190 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 345 East 47th Street New York, NY 10017 (212) 705-7496Major Association Adétesses continued: ASM Intemational (ASM) Rovte 87 Metals Park, OH 44073 (216) 338-5151 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) 345 East 47th Street New York, New York 10017 (212) 705-7722 ‘American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) 4153 Axtingate Plaza Columbus, Ohio 43228, (614) 274-6003 American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) 310 W. Wisconsin Ave, Milwaukee, WI'53203 (414) 272-8575 ‘American Society of Saffty Engineers (ASSE) 1800 East Oakton Des Plaines, I. 60018-2187 (312) 692-4121 American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)! 1916 Race Street Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103 (215) 299-5400 American Welding Instghte (AWD) Knoxville Leb" Route 4, Box 90 Louisville, TN 37777 American Water Works Association (AWIVA) 6666 W. Quincy Avenve! Denver, Colorado 80235 (203) 794-7711 American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) 45 Eisenhower Drive Paramus, New Jersey 07662 (201) 368-9100 Canadian Standards Assofiation (CSA) 178 Rexdale Boulevard Rexdale, Ontario Ceneda MOW 1R3 (416) 744-4000 Canadian Welding Bureav (CWB) | 254 Merion Street Toroato, Ontario M4S 1A9 Canada | (416) 487-5415 ‘Canadian Welding Development Institute (CWDI) | 391 Bumhamthorpe Rd. East Oakville, Ontario L6) 422 Canada (416) 845-9881 | Copper Development Association] (203) 625-8210 conpeset x pce CCA) | 1235 Jeff Davis Highay / Alington Virginia 22202 (703) 979-0900, Cryogenic Society of America CSA) 1033 South Blvd, | ‘Osk Park, IL 60302 (312) 383-7053 Edison Welding Institute (EW!) 1100 Kinnear Rd, Columbus, OH 43212 (614) 486-9400 Fabricators & Manufacturers’ Association Internation (PMA) 7811 N. Alpine Rd. Rockford, IL 61111 (815) 654-1902 Grinding Wheel Institute (GWWI) 712 Lakewood Center North 14600 Detroit Ave Cleveland, OH 44107 216-226-7700 Industrial Accident Prevention Association (IAPA) 100 Front Street West Royal York Hotel Arcade Toronto, Ontario M5J1R3 Conada i (415) 366-3711 >sone Major Association Addresses continued: Industrial Safety Equip 1901 N. Mobre St Aslington, VA 22209 (703) 525-1695 Association (SE) Intemational Institute Of Welding (IW) $50N. W. LeJeune Road P.O. Box 351040 Mian, FL 23135 (G05) 443.9353 Intemational Organization fr Standardization (ISO) (See American National Stajdards Institute) International Oxygen Manufacturers" Association (IOMA) P.O. Box 16248 Cleveland, OH 44116 (216) 228-2166 Material Handling Institute (MHI) 8720 Red Oak Blvd. Suite 201 Charlotte, NC 28210 (704) 522-8644 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) Box 218340 Housion, TX 77218 (713) 492-0535 Nationat Board of Boiler ad Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) 1055 Crupper Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43229 (614) 888-8320 National Electrical Mamufectiers’ Association (NEMA) 2IOLL, St, N.W. Weshington, DC 20037 (202) 457-8400 Nitional Fie Protection Asso¢iation (NEPA) Batterymarch Pack Quincy, Massackusens 02269) (617) 770-3000 Navel Publication and Forms 5801 Teber Avenue Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19420 (215) 697-2000 enter Steel Tank Instivute (STI) P.O. Box 4020 North Brook, IL. 60065 (312) 498-1980 ‘Superintendent of Documents 3 U.S. Government Printing Office | Washington, DC 20402 (202) 783-3238, | ‘Titanium Development Association P.O. Box 2307 Dayton, OH 45401 | (513) 223-8432 Uhtrasonic Industry Association (UIA) P.O. Box 5126 Old Bridge, NJ 08857 (201) 521-4441 Underwriters Laboratories, Ine. (UL) 333 Pfingsten Road Northbrook, llinois 60062 (312) 272-8800 Uniform Boiler and Pressure Vessel Laws Society (UBPVLS) 2838 Long Beach Road | Oceanside, New York 11572 + (516) 536-5485 | Welding Research Council (WRC) 345 East 47th St. Suite 1301 New York, NY 10017 (212) 705-7956 Welded Steel Tube Institute (WSTD) 522 Westgate Tower Cleveland, OH 44116 (216) 333-4550 ‘Note: Fora detslled explanation ofthe agences listed heren refer to AWS. Welding Handbock, Voll, Chapter 13, "Codes and Stancars 1 Number Assigner for "UNS" 2 Millay Specifieatons| 13 Federal Specifications> NDI Selection Guide Equipment Neecs prejectors, ether measurement tgeipment, Le, Clee, mierdre fers, pial compacaiors, Opht Applications Advantages Visuat Welds wien nave ciconsnultes Ecoromica|, expedient, re-quros teiaivey Bo ahing 29d velatve Limitations Linited to extemal or sutace eine ‘ine only. Lined to he vce) acaty el cbeerer or inseocs fluorescent or ye pansies, fevlapers, leeners (overs, frulom. te). Souda oes fear, Utiavile ight eoursy Roresen aye use Prods, yokes, eo¥s suitable for indizing magnesem into te wel Power source (electrical Magnesle ponders. - sone applications. veaulle “special ‘aes and ravilet Fons Wy ite equipment tor many ‘paca, Tiguid Penetrant Weld ciscontinuities open to Portable, reltively inexpensive ute, Le, cracks preety. fequipmest. Expediont inepecton fesults. Results ace easily Intepretes. Requles no wlciiet energy excep fright sours, Magnetic Particle Most weld Gscontinatos open to the surlace » some large voids siphty subsutoce. Most sulle Relatively economical and ex- pester. Inspection equpment Is ansidred ported. Unie oye Denewani, magnets prtate can Gotect some disconnutze stghty below me eudace ‘Surface fms tuch as coatings, Seale, emearud metal mask or hs Imjsclable Selec. Seepage tom weld poresty at the surface con also mask indications, Pare most be cleaned before and after Inspection. Applicable ony to teromagnetic | mates, Part must be cleaned belo and ater spection. Trek coatings may mask relectasie continues, Sore applctsone require parts to be demagnetizes ater inspection. Wagnete pertce ingpacton vequies use a elecincal nergy for most apie, Gamma ray sources, gamma ‘hy camera projectors, him netdets, fim, ead sreons, tim process ‘quipmen im viewers, exposure icles, radiation moritori¢ eaupment ‘eray sources (machires, ect ower sauce, same general equ ‘sed wi pamera sour Puse-scho instment eepabie ‘exciting a plezoeleciie materi ana generaing utssonie ener Wilhin-a welg, and an auiteny fattece ray We scope eapabie Radiography Wiatas whien hava voluminous ‘iscortinaties such a5 poraaliy, Incomplete. Joint penetration, corrosion, ele, Lamevar type such es racks rd May atee b0 used in cartel applications to. evaluate Ciersiea!tequerests such a8 litup, roet conditions, ane wall Nowe, Radiography Sem sppheation as above (Gamma) Gores nt seetictad by type of materi graineveure, Surace Enetecterving clsconfnuties Provides 8 permanent recerd for era) ‘Adjustable ere'y avle.Geretaty Produces higher quality radio {rophe than gamma eoures, Alo, Fame aharlegor ae above, Ultrasonic Most weld ésconinuies easing c7azks, 899, ane reerplsis fasion an sise Be vtew to venty weld Most sensitive to pisnar type aconsnultes. Test esus town Inmedately, Ponatla, Most uae soni fom deletes do nol rege an electrical power evtet, High Planar discontinuties must be | fevorably aligned wih recietion boom 1 be relably cetectec, Radiation poses a potenti hazard to personnal. Cet ol ralogreane equipment, factities, eatety programs, and relsted teensing © ‘elatvely hgh, A telatvey tong tine Between expesure process and avaitebiliy ol results. Accessibilty to bob sides of the aid reaules High intial cost of Xray equip [Nat generoy consteved portebe ‘Also, sane Hriatons as above. Sutace constlon mest be sutabie for coupling. of Lansducet Gouplant Giga) esuied. Seal thin welds may bo aifficul 18 inspec eternee eandarcs ere fequired.” Requires a relaively Sispaying the magniiuges ot onaten past tte sun nap. Cabri f Sehed opearer pect Savarese coopane Eady Curent me ‘a batument capable of inducing ‘ecvomagnele ice within a mo End soning the resting elected] furans (e)) so Indues wih Sulabe probe or eoecton Celt Ton standards. Weld diezoninvives open to the surtace, (ie. cracks, poresty. Incomplete fein) as wel as come subsulace davontinue, Alloy onl, heal Westmont vaaons Equipment used with surface brcbes Is genera Hghtight and Potable. Pend or coated wells peed, elathlynoxpancivo etavely shalow espinal: epeslo aay teal ari fae sec tet a