Research

Methodology
Lecture 1
By Dr M. Almas Anjum
 Grading Policy
Mid Term Exam: 30%
Quizzes (2-4) : 5%
Assignments: 5%
Project & Research Paper: 10%
End Term Exam : 50%
_______
100%
 MEANING OF
RESEARCH:
Research in common refers
One can also define research as to a search for knowledge.
a scientific & systematic search
for pertinent information on a
specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of
scientific investigation.
 Research is an academic activity and as such the
term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 Over All Meaning of Research
❖Research is an endeavor to discover answers to intellectual and practical
problems through the application of scientific method.

❖“Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.

-Redman and Mory.
❖ “Is an organized enquiry designed and carried out to provide information for
solving a problem.” - Fred Kerlinger.

❖ “ Is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or

relationships and to expand and to verify existing knowledge”.
- Francis Rummel.
❖ “Is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidence for the
purpose of gaining knowledge. - Robert Rose
Common meaning of RM
• Research is an art of scientific investigation
• It is a movement from the known to unknown.
• It is a systematic method of finding solution to a
problem.
• Search for knowledge through objective.
• It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison & experiment.

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 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new

insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as
exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group(studies with this object in
view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else (studies
with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).
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TYPES OF RESEARCH
 Descriptive
Research
Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.

The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has

no control over the variables; It can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlation
methods.
Descriptive Research is a fact finding investigation which is
aimed at describing the characteristics of individual, situation or a
group (or) describing the state of affairs as it exists at present.
 Analytical
Research
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.

Analytical Research is primarily concerned with testing

hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships, by
analyzing the facts or information already available.
Fundamental (to basic or pure)
Research:
It is concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory.
Fundamental Research which is also known as basic or pure
research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any
intention to apply it in practice. It is undertaken out of
intellectual curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.

Applied (or action) Research

Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organizations

Applied Research or Action Research is carried out to find

solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy
decision.
Qualitative Research
It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.

Qualitative Research is a non-quantitative type of analysis

which is aimed at finding out the quality of a particular
phenomenon.
Quantitative Research
It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

Quantitative Research is employed for measuring the quantity

or amount of a particular phenomena by the use of statistical
analysis
Conceptual Research :
It is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.

Conceptual Research is generally used

by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.
Empirical Research :
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research.

Empirical Research is a data based research which

depends on experience or observation alone. It is aimed
at coming up with conclusions without due regard for
system and theory.
Some other types of research..
One-time Research – Research confined to a single time
period.
Longitudinal Research – Research carried on over several
time periods.
Diagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research
which aims at identifying the causes of a problem,
frequency with which it occurs and the possible
solutions for it.
Exploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of an
unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has
little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with
the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise
formulation of the problem. Hence it is also known as
formulative research.
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Historical Research – It is the study of past records
and other information sources, with a view to find the
origin and development of a phenomenon and to
discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand
the present and to anticipate the future.

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Utility of Research
• Research is an aid to decision making.
• Research facilitates the process of thinking, analysis, evaluation,
and interpretation of the business environment, and of the
various business situation.
• Research provides a basis for innovation.
• Research and developments helps to develop new products and
to modify the existing product.
• Research identifies problem areas.
• Research establishes the relationship not only between variables
in each functional area, but also between the various functional
areas.

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• Research is an aid to forecasting which is an
effective tool in the hands of manager.
• Research helps all the managerial functions.
• Research helps in the economic utilization of
resources.
• Research is an aid to management information
system.
• Research is helpful in the formulation of policy and
strategy.
• Market and marketing analysis may be based on
research.

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 Characteristics of Research
❖Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
❖Research is based upon observable experience or empirical
evidence.
❖Research demands accurate observation and description.
❖Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or
using existing data for a new purpose.
❖Research activities are characterized by carefully designed
procedures.

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 Characteristics of Research

❖Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout

investigation, search the related literature and to understand and
analyze the data gathered.
❖Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to
validate the data collected and conclusions reached.
❖Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
❖Research requires courage.
❖Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
❖Research is carefully recorded and reported.
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 Deductive Research Approach

@ Deductive reasoning work THEORY

From the more general to the

More specific. HYPOTHESIS

@ Sometime this is
Informally called a Ex- reason- 1.John is a OBSERVATION
regular employee.
“Top-down” approach.
reason- 2. All regular
employees can be CONFIRMATION
trusted.
@ Conclusion follows
Conclusion – John can be
Logically from available trusted.
Facts. 22
 INDUCTIVE THEORY

• Inductive argument is radically different. There is no such

strength of relationship between reasons and conclusions
in induction. To induce is to draw a conclusion from one or
more particular facts or pieces of evidence. The conclusion
explains the facts, and the facts support the conclusion.

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 Inductive Research
Approach THEORY

@ Moving from specific observations

to broader generalizations and TENTATIVE
theories. ex- Conclusion- Light bulb has HYPOTHESIS
burned out.
Reason 1.- The light should go
@ Conclusion is likely based on on when you push the switch.
Reason 2.- If the bulb is burned PATTERN
facts.
out, the light will not function.

@ Involves a degree of uncertainty.

OBSERVATION

@ This is like “Bottom up” approach.

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 Deductive VS Inductive

• Induction is usually described as moving from the specific to the

general, while deduction begins with the general and ends with the
specific.
• Arguments based on laws, rules and accepted principles are generally
used for Deductive reasoning, observation tend to be used for
inductive Arguments.

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 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

‘Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organized

knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire
knowledge in a particular field of enquiry.

Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts)

and their theoretical treatment through proper observation,
experimentation and interpretation.

Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic

interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation, and
logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination
of these three in varying proportions.

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 CHARACTERISTIC OF SCIENTIFIC
METHOD

☞ It relies on empirical evidence.

☞ It utilizes relevant concepts.
☞ It is committed to only objective considerations.
☞ It results into probabilistic predictions.
☞ The methodology is made known.
☞ Aims at formulating scientific theories.

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 Concepts
It is an idea that is expressed in
words.
It consist of both a word and a
definition.
Concept are the symbols that sciences works
with.
Concepts are logical constructions or abstractions
created from sense impressions, and experiences.

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 Concepts
• A concept is a word which is so constructed and defined that
observation become possible.
• Concept name possible or imagined properties of things, people
or event.
• The role of concept is to establish some kind of link with the
social world.
• Concept is a word or a set of words that express a general idea
concerning the nature of something or the relations between
things, often providing a category for the classification of
phenomena.

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 Concepts
• Concept ‘group’ refers to plurality of persons having direct
or indirect communication, standardized patterns of
interactions, common goals, shared norms and some
degree of interdependence.
• Concept are regarded very important in the theoretical
framework that sets a context for the research, as being
involved in the statement of research problem, as
determining the data that will be collected and how they
will be categorized, and as being essential in describing the
findings.

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 Sources of concept
According to Norman B. concept come from four sources.
1. A theoretical perspective that is dominant within a
discipline or social scientific community.
2. A specific research problem.
3. Commonly used theoretical concepts that are given a
new definition
4. Everyday concept that are given precise meanings

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 The Construct
• A construct is a concept devised to aid an scientific analysis and
generalizations.
• A construct is generally inferred from an observable phenomenon.
• It is an abstraction from reality, selecting & focusing on certain
aspects of reality and ignoring others.
• A construct is also a concept with the added meaning of having been
deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special
scientific purpose.
Ex- Intelligence is a concept &
Intelligence quotient (IQ) is a scientific construct which enables a
behavioral scientist to measure the intelligence of a person.

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 The Construct
• As a scientific construct, the concept enters into
theoretical schemes and is related in various ways to
other constructs.
• In sociology a few ex of constructs are-
Status, Role, Modernization, System, Structure.
Ex- social class- if defined in terms of social status is
defined by using indices like occupation, income &
education or by combination of all three. This is
measured variable.

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 RESEARCH PROCESS

Review the literature

Analyse
Review Design
Collect Data
Define Theories Formula Research Interpre
Data (Test
Birth Researc te (Includin t
(Executi Hypothe
of h hypothes g and
on) sis
Concept Proble Review is Sample report
if any)
m Previous Design)
Researc
I h III IV V VI VII
findings

II

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