THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

MME 3303 “Fluid Mechanics II”

Dynamic Similarity and Scaling Laws

1. Introduction
Scaling Laws
Scaling laws provide a way to study the performance of the real, large and expensive objects or
systems prior to building them through sufficient testing on inexpensive and small-size models.

Model: A model is a representation of a physical system that may be used to predict the behavior
of the system in some desired respect.

Prototype: It is the physical system for which the predictions are to be made.

Once the variables are selected and the dimensional analysis is performed, the experimenter
seeks to achieve similarity between the model tested and the prototype to be designed.

With sufficient testing, the model data will reveal the desired dimensionless function between
variables,
Π1 = 𝑓𝑓 (Π2 , Π2 , … Π𝑘𝑘 ) (1)

“Flow conditions for a model test are completely similar if all relevant dimensionless parameters
have the same corresponding values for the model and prototype”

That is, if Π2𝑀𝑀 = Π2𝑃𝑃 , Π3𝑀𝑀 = Π3𝑃𝑃 , …. Π𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = Π𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 , then the above equation guarantees that the
desired output,
Π1𝑀𝑀 = Π1𝑃𝑃 (2)

Types of Similarity

Instead of complete similarity, we seek for particular types of similarity mainly consists of,

• Geometric Similarity

• Kinematic Similarity

• Dynamic Similarity

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Geometric Similarity

Geometric similarity concerns the length dimension [L] and must be ensured before any sensible
model testing can proceed

It is defined as, “A model and prototype are geometrically similar if and only if all body
dimensions in all three coordinates have the same linear ratio”. That is, a model must be a
scaled version of prototype.

For example, if the model is to be made one-tenth the prototype size, its length, width and height
must each be one-tenth as large, and the entire shape must be one-tenth as large.

The geometric similarity applies to model geometry as well as fluid geometry, i.e., “All angles
are preserved in geometric similarity. All flow directions are preserved. The orientation of model
and prototype with respect to the surroundings must be identical”

Kinematic Similarity

Kinematic similarity requires that the model and prototype have the same length scale ratio and
the same time scale ratio. That is, the velocity scale ratio will be the same for both (model and
prototype).

Recall that homologous points are defined as points on the model and prototype that have same
relative location.

Thus, the kinematic similarity is defined as,

“The motion of two systems are kinematically similar if homologous particles lie at homologous
points at homologous times”

Dynamic Similarity

Dynamic similarity exists when the model and the prototype have the same length scale ratio,
time scale ratio and force scale (or mass scale) ratio.

The geometric similarity is the first requirement, without it, proceed no further. Then dynamic
similarity exists simultaneously with kinematic similarity.

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For dynamic similarity, model and prototype force and pressure coefficients are identical. This is
ensured if,

o For compressible flow:

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃 (Mach Number)
𝑘𝑘𝑀𝑀 = 𝑘𝑘𝑃𝑃 (Specific heats ratio)

o For incompressible flow (with no free surface):

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃

o For compressible flow (with free surface):

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑀𝑀 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃

Drag Force
Whenever there is a relative motion between a solid body and the viscous fluid surrounding it,
the body will experience a net force. The main factors on which the magnitude of this force
depends on are, the relative velocity, shape and size of the body and fluid properties such as,
density, viscosity, etc. Except for the simplest body shapes, it is extremely difficult to get an
analytical expression for this net force. Due to unavailability of the analytical solution, we have
to rely heavily on the experimental data to determine the net force experience by the body.
Conventionally, the net force, F, is resolved into two components; the drag force (FD) and lift
force (FL). The drag force is the component of force parallel to the direction of motion and the
lift force is the component of the force perpendicular to the direction of motion (see Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Lift and drag forces on an object subjected to a free stream flow.
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Through dimensional analysis, it is found that for a given body,
CD = f (Re) (3)

where, CD is the dimensionless drag force coefficient, which is also simply called the drag
coefficient and is given as,
2𝐹𝐹
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 (4)

where, ρ is the fluid density, V is the velocity and A is the frontal cross-sectional area of the
body. Higher the drag coefficient, higher would be the drag force on the object for the given flow
conditions and the object size. In a large number of engineering applications, higher drag force is
not desirable. For example, the wind load on the building is due to the drag. Similarly, the drag
force resists the movement of objects in the fluid such as automobile, aircraft, submarine, etc.
Hence, by reducing the drag force, the fuel efficiency of these objects can be increased.

Wind tunnel tests are often carried out with smaller objects (models) in order to predict the drag
force on the larger objects of similar shape (prototypes). In these experiments the model scale
Reynolds numbers and drag coefficients are similar to those of prototype scales.

2. Objectives

(i) To measure the drag force on a model object of a particular geometry and predict the
drag force on the prototype by applying the similarity principles.
(ii) To measure the drag force on the prototype and match with the results obtained from
(i).
(iii) To compare the experimentally obtained drag coefficients with that available in the
literature for the given geometric shape.

3. Experimental Apparatus

Experiments will be conducted in a wind tunnel located in the wind tunnel in the Gas Dynamics
Laboratory (SEB-1072). It is a closed-circuit wind tunnel with a test section, where the objects
will be tested. Figure 2 shows the general configuration of the lab apparatus. Four models and
corresponding prototypes (cube, sphere, triangular prism and rectangular prism) will be used in
this lab. Each of the lab groups will test one object at four different free stream velocities. The
object will be placed in the test section of the wind tunnel and exposed to free stream air
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velocities considered. The drag force exerted by the wind on the object will be recorded via load
cell located underneath the object mounting structure. To obtain the drag coefficient of a given
geometric shape, two parameters will be measured; drag force and wind speed in the test section
of the tunnel. The load cell for drag measurements has the ability to record forces in three axes.
However, as only the drag force is of interest, only the axis that is parallel to the freestream is
recorded. To measure the speed of the wind inside the tunnel, a pitot tube is used. A pitot tube
operates based on Bernoulli’s equation, by comparing the stagnation pressure to the static
pressure. The load cell measurement is read from a LabVIEW program.

Figure 2: Schematic of the wind tunnel showing the test section and test object mounted to the
load cell

4. Test objects

1. Prototype:
a. Rectangular Prism: 20cm × 12cm × 8cm
b. Cube: 7.5cm × 7.5cm × 7.5cm
c. Triangular Prism: Sides - 8cm, length – 20cm
d. Sphere: Diameter – 10cm

2. Model: (1/4th scale i.e., λ = 1/4)

a. Rectangular Prism: 5cm × 3cm × 2cm
b. Cube: 3cm × 3cm × 3cm
c. Triangular Prism: Sides - 2cm, length – 5cm
d. Sphere: Diameter – 2.5cm

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5. Procedure

I. Free run without object to estimate the drag force due to the mounting system

a) Place the mounting rod onto the load cell and close the test section access panel (done
by TA).
b) Zero offset the load cell. This is done by clicking “Bias” in the LabVIEW program. All
forces and torques will be zero.
c) Start the wind tunnel (done by TA).
d) Choose four freestream velocities to run the wind tunnel with the model.
e) Set wind tunnel fan frequency to the desired wind tunnel speed. The relation between
the wind tunnel speed and frequency of the fan can be found from Figure 3.
f) Measure the drag force.
g) Repeat steps (e) and (f) for three other model freestream velocities.
h) Estimate the four freestream velocities for the prototype testing based on Reynolds
number (Dynamic) similarity between the model and prototype.
i) Repeat steps (e) and (f) for four prototype freestream velocities.
j) Stop the wind tunnel (done by TA).

y = 0.8356x - 1.9219
Frequency Vs Velocity R² = 0.9989
45
40
35
Velocity (m/s)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency, Hz

Figure 3: Relation between wind tunnel fan frequency and freestream velocity

II. Drag force measurements on model

a) Place the model on the mounting rod and close the test section access panel.
b) Zero offset the load cell. This is done by clicking “Bias” in the LabVIEW program. All
forces and torques will be zero.
c) Start the wind tunnel (done by TA).
d) Record the drag force measured by the load cell for four model scale velocities. In the
LabVIEW program, set a file location for the data to be saved. Record the data over a
short amount of time (~8 seconds).
e) Stop the wind tunnel (done by TA).

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III. Drag force measurements on prototype

a) Place the prototype on the mounting rod and close the test section access panel.
b) Zero offset the load cell. This is done by clicking “Bias” in the LabVIEW program. All
forces and torques will be zero.
c) Start the wind tunnel (done by TA).
d) Record the drag force measured by the load cell for four prototype scale velocities. In
the LabVIEW program, set a file location for the data to be saved. Record the data over
a short amount of time (~8 seconds).
e) Stop the wind tunnel (done by TA).

Data Table:

Object: (Model) …………………………………..

Wind Wind Tunnel Reynolds Drag Force (N) Drag
Tunnel fan Speed (m/s) number Coefficient
frequency (Re)

Object: (Prototype) …………………………………..

Wind Wind Tunnel Reynolds Drag Force (N) Drag
Tunnel fan Speed (m/s) number Coefficient
frequency (Re)

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6. Data Analysis and Discussion

1. For each model drag force measurement, subtract the background drag force associated
with the mounting system at the corresponding freestream velocity (measured in
procedure I).

2. Calculate the drag coefficient for the model using eqn. (4) and the corrected drag force
from step 1.

3. Using the measured model data and by applying the scaling law (Dynamic similarity),
compute the expected drag force to be exerted on the object at the prototype scale, at each
freestream velocity – (Calculated drag force).

4. Calculate the measured drag force on the prototype, subtracting the background drag
force associated with the mounting system at the corresponding freestream velocity
(measured in procedure I) – (Measured drag force)

5. Estimate the total uncertainty in the drag force values (both calculated and measured) for
the prototype at each wind speed.

6. Compare the measured and calculated (plus uncertainty) drag force on the prototype at
each condition.

7. Compare the results with the available literature (finding drag coefficients) for the given
geometry of the object.

8. Discuss the results, specifically the discrepancies in the results if there are any.

7. Laboratory Safety

The wind tunnel should only be operated under the supervision of the laboratory TA. No
attempts should be made to start or stop the wind tunnel except under the supervision of the
laboratory TA.