WATERWORKS, SEWER AND DAMS

Waterworks
Water supply is the process of providing water in a systematic way through installed pumps and
pipe lines. Before water is provided to a specific area, it undergoes a process
called sanitation to ensure that the quality of water received is safe for human consumption. The
Philippines’ water supply system dates back to 1946 after the country achieved its
independence. Government agencies, local institutions, non-government organizations, and
other corporations are primarily in charge in the operation and administration of water supply
and sanitation in the country.

 Water Resources
The Philippines’ main sources of water are rivers, lakes, river basins, and
groundwater reservoirs. The longest and largest river, Cagayan River, discharges approximately
53, 943 million cubic meters of water annually. Its groundwater reserves are 47, 895 million
cubic meters replenished by rainfall and seepage from rivers and lakes. The lakes are utilized
mainly for fish cultivation. The four major groundwater reservoirs are in Cagayan, Central
Luzon, Agusan, and Cotabato. There are 438 major dams and 423 smaller dams. Dams and
reservoirs are mainly used for: water storage, water supply, irrigation, regulation of flood, and
hydropower.

Levels of water systems

 According to a 2005 World Bank study, approximately 5,000 service providers exist in
the Philippines. Most of them only provide water, while sanitation is still expected to be a
private responsibility. The water infrastructure provided is classified into three levels.

Levels of water systems in the Philippines

Stand-alone water points (e.g. handpumps, shallow wells, rainwater collectors) serving
Level I
an average of 15 households within a 250-meter distance

Level Piped water with a communal water point (e.g. borewell, spring system) serving an
II average of 4-6 households within a 25-meter distance

Level Piped water supply with a private water point (e.g. house connection) based on a daily
III water demand of more than 100 liters per person

Level I
Hand pumps are manually operated pumps; they use human power and
mechanical advantage to move fluids or air from one place to another. They
are widely used in every country in the world for a variety of industrial,
marine, irrigation and leisure activities. There are many different
types of hand pump available, mainly operating on a piston,
diaphragm or rotary vane principle with a check valve on the entry and
exit ports to the chamber operating in opposing directions. Most hand
pumps are either piston pumps or plunger pumps, and
are positive displacement.

How Hand Pumps works?

Hand pump has its cylinder and plunger (or piston) located above the
water level, usually within the pump stand itself. These pumps must be
primed by pouring water on the plunger. On the up-stroke of the plunger, the pressure inside the
suction pipe is reduced and atmospheric pressure on the water outside pushes the water up into
the pipe. On the down-stroke, a check valve at the inlet of the suction pipe closes and water
passes the plunger through an opened plunger valve. With the next upstroke, the plunger valve
closes and the water is lifted up by the plunger and flows out at the top of the pump, while new
water flows into the suction pipe. The operational depth of this type of hand pump is limited by
barometric pressure and the effectiveness of the plunger seals to about 7 m at sea level, less at
higher altitudes

A deep well is an excavation or structure created

in the ground by digging, driving, or drilling to access
liquid resources, usually water. The oldest and most
common kind of well is a water well, to
access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well
water is drawn up by a pump, or using containers, such
as buckets, that are raised mechanically or by hand.
Water can also be injected back into the
aquifer through the well. Wells were first constructed at
least eight thousand years ago and historically vary in construction from a simple scoop in the
sediment of a dry watercourse to the qanats of Iran, and the stepwells and sakiehs of India.
Placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability, and linings of wood or wickerwork date
back at least as far as the Iron Age.

Level II
Deeper borewells are dug for groundwater abstraction.
Borewells & tubewells are very similar. Both are basically
vertical drilled wells, bored into an underground aquifer in
the earth surface, to extract water for various purposes.
The difference in the two lies in the type of casing used,
the depth of this casing and the type of soil where they
are drilled. Casing to support the external surfaces of the
borehole against collapse may be needed at certain
depths, and usually is made up of PVC pipes. Electrical
pumps are usually used to pump out the water from the
borewells, though the government is now giving subsidy for solar pumps. This convenience of
pumps may increase the depletion of the groundwater at an increased pace.
A spring may be the result of karst
topography where surface water has infiltrated
the Earth's surface (recharge area), becoming
part of the area groundwater. The groundwater
then travels through a network of cracks and
fissures—openings ranging from intergranular
spaces to large caves. The water eventually
emerges from below the surface, in the form of
a karst spring.
The forcing of the spring to the surface can be
the result of a confined aquifer in which the
recharge area of the spring water table rests at
a higher elevation than that of the outlet. Spring water forced to the surface by elevated sources
are artesian wells. This is possible even if the outlet is in the form of a 300-foot-deep (91 m)
cave. In this case the cave is used like a hose by the higher elevated recharge area of
groundwater to exit through the lower elevation opening.
Water content
Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground rocks. This may
give the water flavor and even dioxide bubbles, depending on the nature of the geology through
which it passes. This is why spring water is often bottled and sold as mineral water, although the
term is often the subject of deceptive advertising. Springs that contain significant amounts of
minerals are sometimes called 'mineral springs'. (Springs without such mineral content,
meanwhile, are sometimes distinguished as 'sweet springs'.) Springs that contain large amounts
of dissolved sodium salts, mostly sodium carbonate, are called 'soda springs'. Many resorts
have developed around mineral springs and are known as spa towns.
How to extract water from underground?
Except in areas where groundwater comes naturally to the surface at a spring (a place where
the water table intersects the ground surface), we have to construct wells in order to extract it. If
the water table is relatively close to the surface, a well can be dug by hand or with an excavator,
but in most cases we need to use a drill to go down deep enough. A well has to be drilled at
least as deep as the water table, but in fact must go much deeper; first, because the water table
may change from season to season and from year to year, and second, because
when water is being pumped, the water level will drop, at least temporarily. Where a well is
drilled in unconsolidated sediments or relatively weak rock, it has to be lined with casing (steel
pipe in most cases) in order to ensure that it doesn’t cave in. A specially designed well screen is
installed at the bottom of the casing. The size of the holes in the screen is carefully chosen to
make sure that it allows the water to move into the well freely, but prevents aquifer particles
from entering the well. A submersible pump is typically used to lift water from within the well up
to the where it is needed.

How to develop spring?

Springs occur wherever groundwater flows out from the earth’s surface. Springs typically
occur along hillsides, low-lying areas, or at the base of slopes. A spring is formed when
natural pressure forces groundwater above the land surface. This can occur at a distinct
point or over a large seepage area. Springs are sometimes used as water supplies and
can be a reliable and relatively inexpensive source of drinking water if they are developed
and maintained properly.
When considering using a spring as your source of drinking water, it is important to ensure
that the rate of flow is reliable during all seasons of the year. Spring flow that fluctuates
greatly throughout the year is an indication that the source is unreliable or may have the
potential for contamination. It may be possible to learn about historical spring flow from the
previous owner or a neighbor.

Water quality is also important to consider before using a spring as a water supply. Before
developing the spring, collect a sample of water and have it analyzed at a local water
testing laboratory to ensure that it can be efficiently and economically treated to make it
safe for human consumption (see Water Facts #10: Testing Your Drinking Water for a list
of tests to have run). Springs are highly susceptible to contamination since they are fed by
shallow groundwater, which usually flows through the ground for only a short period of
time and may interact with surface water. For this reason, most springs will need some
treatment before the water is considered a safe source of drinking water. Testing will help
determine exactly how much treatment will be necessary and may help determine if other
sources of water would be more economical.

Preparing for Spring Development

Since springs are usually fed by shallow groundwater, water quantity may be an issue
during certain times of the year. If possible, the flow rate for your spring should be
monitored for an entire year, but it is most critical to measure the flow rate during late
summer and fall when groundwater levels and spring flows are usually at their lowest.
Springs used for drinking water supplies should yield at least 2 gallons per minute
throughout the entire year unless water storage is going to be used. The amount of water
you will need from your spring depends entirely on your household's daily water needs.
Water needs for an individual home vary depending on water use, water storage, and
water-saving devices within the home. However, the average home will require
approximately 50 to 75 gallons of water a day per person. To determine your household
water needs, consult Water Facts #2: Water System Planning--Estimating Water Needs,
located at the Penn State Extension Water Quality website.

The flow rate of a spring can be tested by digging a 5-gallon bucket into the slope of the
spring and allowing the water to flow into the bucket. Determine the flow rate by timing
how long it takes the water to fill the bucket. Obtain a sample collection container from a
certified water lab and send a sample of the spring water to the lab for water quality
testing. A list of labs is available at the Penn State Extension Water Quality website or
from your local county extension office. You can start development of your spring once you
determine that the quantity and quality are acceptable.

Spring Development
A spring can be developed into a drinking water supply by collecting the discharged water
using tile or pipe and running the water into some type of sanitary storage tank.
 Protecting the spring from surface contamination is essential during all phases of spring
development. Springs can be developed in two different ways and the method you choose
will depend on whether it is a concentrated spring or a seepage spring.

Spring Development Procedures: Concentrated Springs

A concentrated spring typically occurs when groundwater emerges from one defined
discharge in the earth's surface. Concentrated springs are visible and are often found
along hillsides where groundwater is forced through openings in fractured bedrock. This
type of spring is relatively easy to develop (see Figure 1) and is usually less contaminated
than other types of springs.

Figure 1. Development of a concentrated spring. (Adapted from Safeguarding Wells and Springs
from Bacterial Contamination, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The
Pennsylvania State University.)

Steps for Developing a Concentrated Spring

 Excavate the land upslope from the spring discharge until three feet of water is
flowing.
 Install a rock bed to form an interception reservoir.
 Build a collecting wall of concrete or plastic down slope from the spring discharge.
 Install a pipe low in the collecting wall to direct the water from the interception
reservoir to a concrete or plastic spring box. (Note: problems with spring flow can occur
if water is permitted to back up behind the wall.)
 Remove potential sources of contamination and divert surface water away from the
spring box or collection area.
 Alternative types of interception reservoirs and collecting walls can be constructed
as shown in Figure 2 on the following page.
Figure 2. Alternative collecting system and cross sectional view of concentrated spring. (Adapted
from Safeguarding Wells and Springs from Bacterial Contamination, Department of Agricultural and
Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University.)

Concentrated Springs in Lowland Areas

Some concentrated springs emerge in valleys or lowland areas. A spring that forms in a
low area may be very difficult to safeguard from bacterial contamination since surface
water will tend to flow toward these valleys. For this reason, it is critical that water
collected from these areas is regularly tested and, if necessary, receives disinfection
treatment. To develop a lowland spring, follow the steps described above for the
development of a concentrated spring, but a collecting wall may not be needed.

Spring Development Procedures: Seepage Springs

Seepage springs occur when shallow groundwater oozes or "seeps" from the ground over
a large area and has no defined discharge point. This type of spring usually occurs when a
layer of impervious soil redirects groundwater to the surface. Seepage springs can be
difficult to develop (see Figure 3). They are also highly susceptible to contamination from
surface sources and they need to be monitored before development to ensure that they
will provide a dependable source of water during the entire year. Flow is often lower from
seepage springs, making them less dependable.
Figure 3. Spring development in a seep area. Note: Trench should be 18"-24" wide, extend 6" into
(but not through) the impervious layer, and reach 4'-6' beyond the seep area on each side.
(Adapted from Safeguarding Wells and Springs from Bacterial Contamination, Department of
Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University.)

LEVEL III
Piped Water Supply
A water pipe is any pipe or tube designed to transport drinking water to consumers. If the water
is treated before distribution or at the point of use (POU) depends on the context. In well
planned and designed water distribution networks, water is generally treated before distribution
and sometimes also chlorinated, in order to prevent recontamination on the way to the end user.
The varieties of water pipes include large diameter main pipes, which supply entire towns,
smaller branch lines that supply a street or group of buildings, or small diameter pipes located
within individual buildings. Water pipes can range in size from giant mains of up to 3.65 m in
diameter to small 12.7 mm pipes used to feed individual outlets within a building. Materials
commonly used to construct water pipes include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cast iron, copper,
steel and in older systems concrete or fired clay. Joining individual water pipe lengths to make
up extended runs is possible with flange, nipple, compression or soldered joints.

Types of pipes
Pipes come in several types and sizes. They can be divided into three main categories:
metallic pipes, cement pipes and plastic pipes. Metallic pipes include steel pipes,
galvanised iron pipes and cast iron pipes. Cement pipes include concrete cement pipes
and asbestos cement pipes. Plastic pipes include plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
pipes (LEE n.y.).

Steel pipes

Steel pipes are comparatively expensive, but they are the

strongest and most durable of all water supply pipes. They can
withstand high water pressure, come in convenient (longer)
lengths than most other pipes and thus incur lower
installation/transportation costs. They can also be easily
welded.

Galvanised steel or iron pipes

Galvanised steel or iron is the traditional piping material in

the plumbing industry for the conveyance of water and
wastewater. Although still used throughout the world, its
popularity is declining. The use of galvanised steel or iron as
a conveyer for drinking water is problematic where water flow
is slow or static for periods of time because it causes rust
from internal corrosion. Galvanised steel or iron piping may
also give an unpalatable taste and smell to the water
conveyed under corrosive conditions (WHO 2006).

Cast iron pipes

Cast iron pipes are quite stable and well suited for high
water pressure. However, cast iron pipes are heavy, which
makes them unsuitable for inaccessible places due to
transportation problems. In addition, due to their weight
they generally come in short lengths increasing costs for
layout and jointing.
A water supply system or water supply network is a system of
engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply
system typically includes:

1. A drainage basin

2. A raw water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such
as a lake, a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer. Raw water may be
transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or
underground water pipes to water purification facilities.

3. Water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes (usually
underground).

4. Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water
systems may store the water in cisternsor pressure vessels. Tall buildings may also
need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper
floors.

5. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be

situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity
flow is impractical).

6. A pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private houses
or industrial, commercial or institution establishments) and other usage points (such
as fire hydrants).

7. Connections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground ditches in some

developing countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the
sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water
supply system.
Water supply networks are often run by public utilities of the water industry.
Water treatment
Virtually all large systems must treat the water; a fact that is tightly regulated by global, state
and federal agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) or the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Water treatment must occur before the product
reaches the consumer and afterwards (when it is discharged again). Water purification usually
occurs close to the final delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water
becoming contaminated after treatment.

Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps: clarification, filtration
and disinfection. Clarification refers to the separation of particles (dirt, organic matter, etc.) from
the water stream. Chemical addition (i.e. alum, ferric chloride) destabilizes the particle charges
and prepares them for clarification either by settling or floating out of the water stream. Sand,
anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, removing smaller particulate
matter. While other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition.
Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the water
supply through the supply network.

Water distribution network

The product, delivered to the point of
consumption, is called potable water if it
meets the water quality standards required
for human consumption.
The water in the supply network is
maintained at positive pressure to ensure
that water reaches all parts of the network,
that a sufficient flow is available at every
take-off point and to ensure that untreated
water in the ground cannot enter the
network. The water is typically pressurised by pumps that pump water into storage tanks
constructed at the highest local point in the network. One network may have several
such service reservoirs.
In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or even by
an underground cistern (the latter however does need additional pressurizing). This eliminates
the need of a water-tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure.
These systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other
public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise (see water
privatization). Water supply networks are part of the master planning of communities, counties,
and municipalities. Their planning and design requires the expertise of city planners and civil
engineers, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth,
leakage, pressure, pipe size, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc. — using pipe network
analysis and other tools.
As water passes through the distribution system, the water quality can degrade by chemical
reactions and biological processes. Corrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system
can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects.
Release of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of "red water" at the tap.
Release of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of "blue water" and/or a
metallic taste. Release of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or
from brass fixtures. Copper and lead levels at the consumer's tap are regulated to protect
consumer health.
Utilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimize its
corrosiveness. The simplest adjustment involves control of pH and alkalinity to produce a water
that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of calcium carbonate. Corrosion
inhibitors are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. Common corrosion
inhibitors added to the water are phosphates and silicates.
Maintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution. Typically,
a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochlorite or monochloramine is added to the
water as it leaves the treatment plant. Booster stations can be placed within the distribution
system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have adequate sustained levels
of disinfection.

SEWER
Sewerage is the infrastructure that conveys
sewage or surface
runoff (stormwater, meltwater, rainwater)
using sewers. It encompasses components
such as
receiving drains, manholes, pumping
stations, storm overflows, and screening
chambers of the combined sewer or sanitary
sewer. Sewerage ends at the entry to
a sewage treatment plant or at the point of
discharge into the environment. It is the
system of pipes, chambers, manholes, etc.
that conveys the sewage or storm water.

Construction of Sewer
Sewer construction is a complex process that involves connecting pipelines and sewer
appurtenances to transport waste to sewage treatment centers. It is vital to work with
experienced sewer contractors to ensure system sustainability and minimize risks of release of
environmental toxins.

Sewer construction encompasses multiple types of projects including residential and

commercial construction, as well as municipal, industrial, and institutional applications. Pipeline
networks are designed by engineers and installed by sewer contractors in accordance with
federal and state regulations.

Sewer systems are also referred to as "sewerage" and can be comprised of storm sewers,
sanitary sewers, or a combination of both. Sewerage starts at the building's drainage system
and is transported through sewer pipeline until it reaches a sewage treatment plant.

The type of sewer installed depends upon the uses and terrain where it is placed. Sanitary
sewers are the most common type of system used to transport wastewater and industrial waste.
Storm sewers are required to transport storm water runoff from roofs, parking lots, streets, and
highways to a point of discharge. Storm drainage systems help to minimize flooding and soil
erosion.
Combined sewer systems are no longer installed due to the water pollution problems they
present. However, these sewer systems are still used by older cities located primarily in the
Northwest, Northeast, and Great Lakes regions.

Considerable planning is needed when designing sewer networks. One of the most essential
factors is calculating wastewater flow for the community where the system will be installed.
Engineers have to determine how much water will be conveyed through the pipeline and the
type and size of pipes required. Long before sewer construction commences, the land has to be
surveyed and subsurface utility engineering is typically performed.
Sewage waste is transported and discharged to a pumping station where is treated or disposed.
Several treatment options are used, but the most common is sedimentation. This process skims
and removes solid waste before it moves into wastewater filtration systems.

Another sewer wastewater treatment process is a biological treatment known as activated-

sludge. Wastewater is agitated and aerated to remove solids and introduce oxidation methods
to activate decomposition.

Although not every sewer construction job is as involved as designing and installing a system to
service an entire community, it's important to work with sewer construction companies that are
experienced professionals that know the importance of proper installation.
Regardless of whether one needs to convert a septic tank to public sewer system or replace
pipeline for an entire city, good construction is essential for longevity and public health.

COMMON PROBLEMS
 Tree roots – If roots have infiltrated your sewer line, they can quickly damage the line
and cause further damage in no time.

 Broken, collapsed, cracked, or misaligned pipes – These are commonly due to shifting
soil or frozen ground.

 Blockage – This can result when grease or some other object is restricting proper water
flow.

 Pipe corrosion or deterioration – If your pipe is older or is made of anything other than
PVC piping, then you are likely at risk of having your pipes deteriorate, which can
cause collapses in the line and a restriction of proper flow.

 Bellied pipe – This is when a section of the pipe has sunk into the ground, creating an
area for waste to converge.

 Leaking joints – If the seals between the pipes have broken, then water can escape into
the area surrounding the pipe.

Determining the location of a sewer problem defect is vital

The main and most important issue with attempting a sewer repair is determining the exact
location of the defective pipe and it’s location. If the point of the defect is just outside the
foundation wall, then the location of the pipe defect is not an issue. If the break is at the point of
connection to the public sewer, then city sewer records would have to be obtained. Always
remember that house sewer lines do not necessarily go in a straight run.
How to Prevent the Problem

There are various other problems that can also affect a typical sewer line, which is why it is
important to remain alert and proactive about checking for signs of blockage. To prevent future
problems from occurring, make sure to have your septic tank inspected at least every three to
five years. This will allow a licensed and insured plumber to carefully inspect your septic system
for signs of breaks or cracks. Typically, this allows the professional to correct the problem with a
small repair service and can help to prevent costly replacements.

Simply cleaning out the sewer line, or completing spot repairs, can usually take care of the
problem. However, if the problem is too far along, then your plumber may need to recommend a
costly replacement. They will likely complete a camera inspection to detect the source of the
problem and can then advise you of your service options.

TYPES OF SEWER

1. Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewer Types of

sewer like Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewers are
manufactured from a mixture of cement and asbestos
fiber. Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewers are suitable for
carrying domestic sanitary sewage. Asbestos cement
sewer is best as vertical pipe for carrying sullage from
upper floors of multistory buildings (in two pipe system of
plumbing).

Advantages of Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewer

1. Smooth
2. Light in weight
3. Can easily be cut, fitted and drilled
4. Durable against soil corrosion

Disadvantages of Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewer

1. Brittle cannot withstand heavy loads
2. They are easily broken in handling and transport.

2. Brick Sewers These types of sewer (Brick

Sewers) are made at site and used for
construction large size sewer. Brick Sewers are
very useful for construction of storm sewer or
combined sewer. Nowadays brick sewers are
replaced by concrete sewer. Brick sewers my
get deformed and leakage may take place. A lot
of labour work is required.
Note: To avoid leakage the brick sewer should be plastered.

3. Cement Concrete i. PCC - for dia upto 60 cm Suitable for small storm drains. Not
durable . ii. RCC - for dia > 60 cm They may be cast in situ or precast, resistant to heavy loads,
corrosion and high pressure. These are very heavy and difficult to transport.

4. Cast Iron (CI) Sewers. These types of sewer are

High strength and durability water tight. Cast Iron sewers
can withstand high internal pressure and can bear external
load. Cast Iron sewers are suitable for the following
conditions. When the sewage is conveyed under high
pressure When the sewer line is subject to heavy external
load e.g. under railway line, foundation wall etc, below
highways When there is considerable difference in
temperature.

5. Steel Sewers. These types of sewer (steel sewers)

are Impervious, light, resistant to high pressure, flexible,
suitable when; The sewage is carried under pressure The
sewage has to be carried across a river under water The
sewer has to cross under a railway track They are generally
used for outfall and trunk sewers.

6. Plastic Sewers. Nowadays PVC sewers are

used for carrying sewage. Plastic sewers are
resistant to corrosion. Such types of sewer are light
in weight, smooth and can be bent easily. But these
types of sewer (Plastic sewers) are having high co-
efficient of thermal expansion and cannot be used in
very hot areas. Other types of Sewer materials
Wooden Sewers (Rare now) Stoneware Sewers.

Purpose of Sewer
The main function of a sanitary sewer system is to protect water quality and public health. A
series of underground pipes and manholes, pumping stations, and other appurtenances convey
sewage from homes, businesses and industries to wastewater treatment plants where it is
cleaned and returned to the environment.
The storm sewer system collects rain and melting snow, referred to as runoff. The water flows
through pipes and manholes, ditches, swales, and other conveyance methods. Most
stormwater is diverted directly to local streams and waterways without treatment.
 DAMS

A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of water or underground

streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for
activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture,
and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A
dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed
between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other
structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent
water flow into specific land regions. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, dating
to 3,000 BC.
The word dam can be traced back to Middle English,[1] and before that, from Middle Dutch, as
seen in the names of many old cities. The first known appearance of dam occurs in 1165.
However, there is one village, Obdam, that is already mentioned in 1120. The word seems to be
related to the Greek word taphos, meaning "grave" or "grave hill". So the word should be
understood as "dike from dug out earth". The names of more than 40 places (with minor
changes) from the Middle Dutch era (1150–1500 CE) such as Amsterdam (founded as
'Amstelredam' in the late 12th century) and Rotterdam, also bear testimony to the use of the
word in Middle Dutch at that time.
TYPES OF DAMS

Arch dams

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and

gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of
the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the
distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between
vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of
the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream
face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal
component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch
action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as
described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at
the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more
important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow
canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety
of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall
abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the
side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.
Gravity dams
In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place
against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling
down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally
(downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by
rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side
of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force,
tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The
designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the
dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is
true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the
dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.
Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam
above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by
gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down.
The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material
essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.
Arch-gravity dams
A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into
an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of
water flow but less material available for a purely gravity
dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water
reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam.
Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is
lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive.
This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

Barrages
A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line
of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the
amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between
flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water
load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for
irrigation systems. An example of this type of dam is the now-
decommissioned Red Bluff Diversion Dam on the Sacramento
River near Red Bluff, California.

Barrages that are built at the mouths of rivers or lagoons to

prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal
power are known as tidal barrages.[42]

Embankment dams
Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and
have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams.
Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the
force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.
Rock-fill dams
Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious
zone. The earth utilized often contains a high
percentage of large particles, hence the term "rock-
fill". The impervious zone may be on the upstream
face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic
membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material.
The impervious zone may also be within the
embankment in which case it is referred to as a core.
In the instances where clay is utilized as the
impervious material the dam is referred to as
a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay
into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is
separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of
fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to
cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes.
However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand
in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake.
Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and
by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New
Melones Dam in California or the Fierza Dam in Albania.

Concrete-face rock-fill dams

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face.
This design provides the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a
structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for
topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD concept
originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill
timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design
was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the
1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with
improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.
Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m-tall (764 ft) Shuibuya Dam in China which
was completed in 2008.
Earth-fill dams
Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are
constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth
dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep
water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally
plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and
drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell
zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a
watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of
a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is
the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is
circulated through pipes inside the dam to
maintain a watertight region of permafrost within
it.
Fixed-crest dams
A fixed-crest dam is a concrete barrier across a
river. Fixed-crest dams are designed to maintain
depth in the channel for navigation. They pose
risks to boaters who may travel over them, as
they are hard to spot from the water and create
induced current that are difficult to escape.
A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow
velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is
a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a
faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.
Dry dam
A dry dam, also known as a flood retarding structure, is a
dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no
water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during
periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding
downstream.
Diversionary dam
A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a
portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water
may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or
hydroelectric power production.

Underground dam
Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for
extended use in a localized area. In some cases they
are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into
a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically
constructed in areas where water resources are
minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in
deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato
Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common
in northeastern Africa and the arid areas
of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern
United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece,
France and Japan.
There are two types of underground dams: a sub-
surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam
is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up
to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks,
stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water
table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a
stream or wadi. It must be strong, as floods will wash over its crest. Over time, sand
accumulates in layers behind the dam, which helps store water and, most importantly,
prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by
means of a drain pipe.
Tailings dam
A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment
dam used to store tailings, which are produced
during mining operations after separating the
valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of
an ore. Conventional water retention dams can
serve this purpose, but due to cost, a tailings dam
is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a
tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the
life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or
starter dam is constructed, and as it fills with a
mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material
used to raise the dam can include the tailings
(depending on their size) along with dirt.
There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named
according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used is dependent
upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings, and cost. An upstream tailings dam
consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another,
moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged
upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream
design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further
downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of
another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream
side.
Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an
impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed
for stability and environmental purposes as well.
Steel dams
A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with
around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating
(at an angle) and load-bearing beams as the structure.
Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an
(arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction
technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry,
concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.
Timber dams
Timber dams were widely used in the early part of
the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due
to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in
modern times because of their relatively short
lifespan and the limited height to which they can
be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet
in order to maintain their water retention
properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to
a barrel. The locations where timber dams are
most economical to build are those where timber
is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to
transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber
dams were once numerous, especially in the North American West, but most have failed, been
hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common
variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.
Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log
house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's
face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs
downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction
methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.
Cofferdams
A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary,
constructed to exclude water from an area that is
normally submerged. Made commonly of
wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are
used to allow construction on the foundation of
permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures.
When the project is completed, the cofferdam will
usually be demolished or removed unless the area
requires continuous maintenance.
Common uses for cofferdams include construction
and repair of offshore oil platforms. In such cases the
cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into
the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.
Natural dams
Dams can also be created by natural geological
forces. Lava dams are formed when lava flows,
often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake
outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural
impoundment. An example would be the eruptions
of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–
10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on
the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United
States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 km (500 mi) in length before the failure of its
dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark
Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2(3,000 sq mi) Glacial
Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can
also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana.
Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in
mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi
Damin Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m (1,840 ft)
high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more
recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza
River.
Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The
resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause
even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in
1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.
Beaver dams
Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood
a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land,
beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain
relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The
flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially
during the winter.

Construction of Dams

Foundations

The foundation is built below the original ground level, with weaker soils or rock removed and
replaced with stronger materials if necessary. Cracks and fissures in the rock foundations must
be filled with grout to stop water leakage. Holes are drilled into the rock and grout pumped into
them, spreading outwards and filling the cracks.

Building the dam

Concrete dams will need a large quantity of ready concrete, so a concrete batching plant is
often built on site. Concrete is then transferred to the dam either using a system of conveyor
belts or using trucks and cranes.
The traditional method of placing the concrete is to pour it into a formwork mould made in the
required shape of the dam. The dam is built upwards 1-2 m at a time, and the concrete left to
cure before the next section is formed on top.

An alternative method is to spread a concrete mix and compact it down using rollers. The dam
is raised in steps of around 600 mm at a time. Low concrete walls on the upstream and
downstream faces are formed first, with concrete then spread in thin layers in between
the walls, before being compacted using rollers.

Embankment dams are constructed in a series of thin layers from the bottom
upwards. Bulldozers spread fill material in a thin layer, usually 300 mm thick if using earth, or up
to 1 m thick for rock-fill. The core of the dam is also constructed in layers so that it maintains the
same height as the rest of the dam. A protective layer is formed on the upstream face once the
full height has been achieved. This protects against wave damage and often provides
waterproofing.

Post-construction

Once the dam has been constructed the reservoir can then be filled, if it has not been
during construction (in the case of high flow rivers). Valves and floodgates must be extensively
tested, and the behaviour of the dam must be monitored.
Common Problems in Dams
HOW WATER IS BEING DIVERTED
Diverting water permanently or temporarily for construction purposes, e.g., in river or stream
beds, to install sediment control, stormwater devices or when realigning a waterway, can
significantly affect the natural character of a waterway and the surrounding habitat. Water is
diverted using instream barriers such as dams , weirs, culverts, canals, and pipes that are
used in the construction process.
Water may either be diverted into or away from a waterway. This can significantly change
flow and water levels. For example stormwater drains and pipes discharge water and its
associated contaminants into a waterway, thereby increasing flow and turbidity.
Alternatively, realignment of a waterway may direct water away from its natural flow which
may reduce water levels and significantly alter a waterways natural characteristics.
Diverting water can permanently impact on water quality and mahinga kai and requires a
resource consent.

PURPOSE OF DAMS
A dam is built to control water through placement of a blockage of earth, rock and/or concrete
across a stream or river. Dams are usually constructed to store water in a reservoir, which is
then used for a variety of applications such as irrigation and municipal water supplies.
Dams provide a range of economic, environmental, and social benefits, including
recreation, flood control, water supply, hydroelectric power, waste management,
river navigation, and wildlife habitat.

 Recreation
Dams provide prime
recreational facilities throughout
the United States. Boating,
skiing, camping, picnic areas,
and boat launch facilities are all
supported by dams.

 Flood Control
In addition to helping farmers,
dams help prevent the loss of
life and property caused by flooding. Flood control dams impound
floodwaters and then either release them under control to the river below
the dam or store or divert the water for other uses. For centuries, people
have built dams to help control devastating floods.

 Water Storage (Fire & Farm Ponds)

Dams create reservoirs throughout the United States that supply water for
 many uses, including industrial, municipal, and agricultural.

 Irrigation
Ten percent of American cropland is irrigated using water stored behind
dams. Thousands of jobs are tied to producing crops grown with irrigated
water.

 Mine Tailings
There are more than 1,300 mine tailings impoundments in the United
States that allow the mining and processing of coal and other vital minerals
while protecting the environment.

 Electrical Generation
The United States is one of the largest producers of hydropower in the
world, second only to Canada. Dams produce over 103,800 megawatts of
renewable electricity and meet 8 to 12 percent of the Nation's power
needs. Hydropower is considered clean because it does not contribute to
global warming, air pollution, acid rain, or ozone depletion.

 Debris Control
In some instances, dams provide enhanced environmental protection, such
as the retention of hazardous materials and detrimental sedimentation.

 Navigation
Dams and locks provide for a stable system of inland river transportation
throughout the heartland of the Nation.