TABLE OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW OF TOT ............................................................................................. 5  

Training of Trainers Goals and Behavioral Learning Objectives ................................. 6 
Learning and Training.......................................................................................... 7 
Seven Factors to Influence Behavior Change .......................................................... 9 
Thoughts about Learning ................................................................................... 10 
Rules for Being Human – Guidelines for Life ......................................................... 11 
ADULT LEARNING ............................................................................................. 13  
The Cone of Learning ........................................................................................ 14 
Focusing on the Needs of the Adult Learner ......................................................... 15 
Basic Principles about Adult Learning .................................................................. 17 
Principles of Brain-Based Learning...................................................................... 19 
General Indicators of What Should Be Taking Place during Brain-Based Learning: ..... 24 
Ten Tools that Help Transfer Learning ................................................................. 25 
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING ................................................................................. 27  
The Experiential Learning Cycle ......................................................................... 28 
Processing Questions ........................................................................................ 31 
Learning Styles – Honey & Mumford .................................................................... 32 
S i x P h a s e s o f D e b r i e f i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 3  
Some Reasons for Debriefing ............................................................................. 35 
Challenge and Support Grid ............................................................................... 36 
TRAINING DESIGN ............................................................................................ 39  
Recipe for Training ........................................................................................... 40 
Recipe for Training – Breakdown......................................................................... 41 
Generic Workshop Design .................................................................................. 43 
Guidelines for Design ........................................................................................ 44 
Nine Steps to Good Stand-Up Training ................................................................. 46 
What Makes a Good Training .............................................................................. 47 
S o m e N o t e s o n T r a i n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 8  
T r a i n i n g T e a m R e m i n d e r s a n d T i p s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 0  
Training Session Outline Template ...................................................................... 51 
Example Training Session .................................................................................. 52 
PROBLEMS, TOPICS AND NEEDS ....................................................................... 55  
U n d e r s t a n d i n g T r a i n i n g P r o b l e m s a n d T o p i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 6  
Needs Assessment Overview .............................................................................. 58 
S a m p l e N e e d s A s s e s s m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 9  
GROUPS ........................................................................................................... 61  
Group Needs. Issues, and Stages ....................................................................... 62 
Inclusion – Control – Affection: A Theory of Interpersonal Behavior ........................ 63 
Stages of Group Growth ..................................................................................... 66 
C l i m a t e S e t t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 7  
Facilitating Groups............................................................................................ 68 
A Team’s Stages of Development ........................................................................ 69 
Process Observation Sheet #1 “Entering a Group” Behavior: Comfort and Safety ....... 71 
Process Observation Sheet #2 Membership .......................................................... 72 
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 Process Observation Sheet #3 Leadership and Influence ....................................... 73 
What to Look for in Groups ................................................................................ 74 
GOALS & OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................... 79  
Goals and Behavioral Learning Objectives ............................................................ 80 
Verbs for Writing Goals ..................................................................................... 81 
Verbs for Writing Behavioral Learning Objectives .................................................. 81 
Guidelines for Writing Behavioral Learning Objectives .......................................... 82 
Understanding by Design ................................................................................... 84 
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES ............................................................................... 85  
Multiple Intelligence Inventory ............................................................................ 86 
Eight Ways of Knowing ...................................................................................... 89 
Multiple Intelligence Overview ............................................................................ 90 
Multiple Intelligence Activity Ideas ...................................................................... 92 
Instructional Menus ........................................................................................... 94 
TRAINING METHODOLOGIES AND ACTIVITIES .................................................... 97  
32 Options for Learning Activities ....................................................................... 98 
G u i d e l i n e s f o r S e l e c t i n g L e a r n i n g A c t i v i t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0 3  
Using Visual Aids.............................................................................................104 
GROUP FACILITATION AND TRAINER INTERVENTIONS .................................... 107  
Listening is More Than Merely Hearing ...............................................................108 
Become a Better Listener: Active Listening ..........................................................109 
Communication Blockers ...................................................................................110 
A c t i v e L i s t e n i n g T e c h n i q u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1 1  
Effective Group Facilitation Techniques ..............................................................112 
T a s k s o f t h e F a c i l i t a t o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1 3  
Suggestions to the Discussion Leader.................................................................119 
Coping with Challenging Group Participants ........................................................120 
Strategies for What to Do When Training Is Not Working ......................................123 
FEEDBACK ..................................................................................................... 125  
Johari Window .................................................................................................126 
Training Feedback ...........................................................................................128 
Good, Constructive, and Useful Feedback ...........................................................129 
P r e s e n t a t i o n F e e d b a c k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 3 0  
Guidelines for Constructive Feedback .................................................................131 
W h e n R e c e i v i n g F e e d b a c k … . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 3 5  
Tips on How to Get Useful Feedback ..................................................................136 
EVALUATION .................................................................................................. 137  
Evaluation Planning Questions ..........................................................................138 
E v a l u a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 3 9  
E v a l u a t i o n C o n s i d e r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 4 0  
Creative Approaches to Evaluation .....................................................................141 
Close of Training Evaluation Form......................................................................144 
HOW TO ORGANIZE A WORKSHOP .................................................................. 145  
Assessing Training Needs .................................................................................146 
Establishing the Workshop Parameters ...............................................................149 
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 Handling the Workshop Logistics........................................................................151 
Recruiting and Preparing the Participants ...........................................................156 
Evaluating the Workshop Organization ................................................................158 
POTPOURRI .................................................................................................... 159  
E t h i c s a n d R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 6 0  
Analyzing the Speaking Situation .......................................................................161 
Sample Seating ...............................................................................................162 
A u d i o V i s u a l E q u i p m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 6 3  
Ways to Sum it All Up .......................................................................................164 
Co-Facilitation/Co-Training Guide ......................................................................165 
C o - F a c i l i t a t i o n I n v e n t o r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 6 7  
Training and Managing Anxiety ..........................................................................171 
The Pedagogue’s Decalogue .............................................................................172 

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Overview of TOT

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 TRAINING OF TRAINERS
GOALS AND BEHAVIORAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Goals
 To improve the training and capacity of Staff , Alumni and Volunteer Trainers.
 To strengthen the impact and long term effectiveness of training by
improving the quantity and qualit y of that
training. Notes to Participants
Training is a structured process, a
Objectives: series of learning experiences
At the close of this TOT, participants will be able to: designed to help people change.

 Identify and describe eleven ess ential In this course, we will be viewing
training as a vehicle that helps
c o mponent s of ef f ec t iv e t rain in g d e sig n people improve their job
 Apply thos e eleven c omponents to the performance.
development of their own training and
Training is skill-based learning. It
demonstrate a piece of that training is the process of teaching skills to
 List three things that can help to establish a people, who in turn, will use those
positive training/lear ning climate skills in their work with others.
 Describe five principles of adult learning theory
that are particularly relevant to a raining environment
 Apply principles of adult lear n in g to th e ir tra in in g d e sig n
 Explain the experiential learning cycl e and apply the concepts of training
design
 Think through and/or begin drafting a needs assessment for that training
 Describe the difference between training goals and behavioral-learning
objectives
 Write at least one or two training goal s and one to three behavioral-learning
o b j ec t s f or t heir t raining
 List and describe at least five different training methodologies
 Define and differentiate among gr oup needs , group issues, and group stages
 Demonstrate and/or explain three stra tegies for addressing and dealing wit h
challenging group behaviors a n d / o r p a r t i c i p a n t s
 Think through and/or begin drafting an evaluation for their training design
 Develop a personal plan for integrati on of what was l earned during the TOT
into their on-going work

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 LEARNING AND TRAINING
Training is a series of structured l earning experiences designed to help people
change. Learning takes place at various levels. Learning experiences must be
planne d to fit the participants’ level of knowledg e, skills, and at titudes. Generally,
learning can be described as:

 t h e a m o u n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n , f a c t s , or concepts that a person knows,

 the skills that person is able to use, and
 the attitudes a person develops and imparts to others.
Training s hould focus on one or all of thes e areas according to the participants’
problems and needs.

These three levels of learning must be considered if we are to achieve and maintain
performance change as a result of a training and development activity. Those of us involved
in the educational process should have performance improvement as a goal, rather than the
mere acquisition of new words, gimmicks, or temporary responses that slip back into the
same routine because change was not “fully” learned or reinforced. This is the challenge for
all of us as we assess the needs of our organizations, design learning experiences, and
evaluate the effect of our efforts (Lippett, 1969).

Learning is a process that take s place within the indiv idual.

Learning involves change. It is concerned with the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and
attitudes. It enables the individual to make both personal and social adjustments. Since the
concept of change is inherent in the concept of learning, any change in behavior implies that
learning is taking place or has taken place. Learning that occurs during the process of change
can be referred to as the learning process (Crow and Crow, 1963).

Learning is shown by a change in behavior as a result of experience (Cronbach, 1963).

…Learning is precisely what training is all bout. Training exists to bring about learning.
Training is a…(structured process), a sequence of experiences, a series of opportunities to
learn, in which the trainee is exposed in some more or less systematic way to certain
materials or events. The trainee’s behavior is supposed to be modified by means of this
process so that after it is completed, he behaves in some way that is different from the way
he behaved before training. Training is what is done to the trainee (Folly, 1967).

Matthew Miles writes:

…The learner needs to experiment and explore, try things out for themselves, learn by doing,
until s/he can behave appropriately. S/he must learn that…problems are not caused solely by
the behavior of other people, and their own actions are a part of any problem situation…

Such learning requires a “not-for-keeps” setting, because the learner must be free to be
creative to think provisionally, to make missteps, and to try out new ways of behaving without
fear of the usual painful consequences or failure. When the usual constraints on the
individual are temporarily lifted, the results can be dramatic… the “not-for-keeps” behavior is
real – real enough to make for personal learning. Under these circumstances, a three-step
process can be said to take place:
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 1. The learner enters a safe situation and, in a sense, “unfreezes,” or relaxes, her/his
usual set ways of behaving.

2. In the unfrozen, fluid state s/he creatively explores and tries out new behaviors.

3. S/he refreezes, or makes firm, the new behaviors as s/he moves back to the usual
demands of the job situation.

Most of us stay frozen most of the time, and training’s biggest contribution is in making a
temporary thaw not only possible, but safe and desirable (Miles, 1973).

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 SEVEN FACTORS TO INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Adapted from a lecture by Joan Mogul Garrity

 Awareness of the need for change

 Belief that things will be better
 Knowledge about how to create the change
 Motivation t o i nit iat e t he c h a n g e
 Capab ility includ ing internal and external skills
 Willingnes s t o t ak e ri s k s
 S u p port from environment allows and supports change

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 THOUGHTS ABOUT LEARNING
John Heron, Feeling and Personhood,
Psychology in Another Key, London, Sage 1992

Learning is necessarily self-directed: no one else can do it fo r yo u . In te re st,

commitment, understanding, and retention are all autonomous, self-generated, and
self-sustaining. Learning als o involves th e whole person, either by including or
default. Either all of a person is explic itly involved in the learning process or only
part of the person is explic itly invo lved and what is excluded can be negatively
influential, undermining either t he content or the process.

 Education and training is a means to an end, not an end in itself.

 People learn most when they trust themselves to make decision s and whe n
t h e y t r u s t o t h e r s t o let them make their own.
 You can take responsibility for what you share – decide for yourself how
much you want to share and do not share until you are ready to do so.
 You will get the most out of learning by partici pating and least by playing t he
role of observer. If you want to benefit, get involv ed.
 Learning s ometimes involves discomfort and even pain. This is so especially
when you are asked to examine your es tablished ways of thinking and feeling.
Do not be surprised when this happens.
 Change does not always occur quickly and effortlessly. Some things are worth
persisting with.
 You may discover things about yourself that you did not know especially from
others when you ask for feedback and support.
 W h a t y ou do w it h w hat y ou learn is up to you.
 Sharing how you feel may be as important as what you think.
 Remember to take care of your own needs – whether you ar e a trainer or a
participant .
 Decide what to do with the feedback you get.
 Remember everyone else is as complex and delic ate as you.
 Learning is a change in an indiv i dual’s behavior.
 No learning takes place unless there is inv olvement.
 Motivation is the driving force; re -motivation is constantly needed.
 Learning is best achieved when an indiv idu al’s essent ial need s are fulfilled.

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 RULES FOR BEING HUMAN – GUIDELINES FOR LIFE
Dan Millman (www.peaefulwarrior.com) edited but did not create these “Rules.”
With Gratitude, we acknowledge the source, which remains unknown.

Y o u w i l l l ea r n l e s s o n s . You are enrolled in a full-time school called “life on planet

Earth.” Every person or in c i d e n t i s y o u r t e a c h e r .

There are no mistakes – only lessons. “Failures” are the stepping stone s to
“success.”

A lesson is repeated until learned. It is presented in various forms until you learn
it. If you are here, there ar e still lessons to be learned.

If you don’t learn the easy lessons, they get harder. Pain is one way the universe
gets your attention.

You’ll know when you’ve learned a lesson when your actions change. Only
action can transform knowledge to wisdom.

“There” is no better than “here.” When “there” becomes a “here,” you’ll n otice
another “there” that again lo ok s be tte r th a n “h e re .”

There is no right or wrong – but there are consequ ences. The universe never
judges us, it only gives opport unities to balance and learn.

Your life is up to you. Life provides the canvas; you do the painting.

Your answers lie inside you. All you need to do is look, listen, and trust.

Y o u ’ l l t e nd t o f o r g et a l l t h i s.

You can remember anytime you wish.

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Adult Learning

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 THE CONE OF LEARNING

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 FOCUSING ON THE NEEDS OF THE ADULT LEARNER
Author Unknown

Minimize Threats
Adults are anxious if participation reveal their real or perceived incompetence.

 Create a climate of respect in which a high value is plac ed on individuality

and a sense of caring prevails.
 Create a climate of acceptance in wh ich a person can be her/himself and hold
her/his beliefs.
 Create a climate of trust in whic h people end up feeling trust in themselves
and in others.
 Create a climate of openness in which personal conc erns, feelings, ideas,
and beliefs can be expressed and examined openly.
 Create a climate whic h recogniz es the right o f in d ivid u a ls to ma ke mista ke s
and error is accepted as a natural part of the learning process.

Create Connections
Adults need to see the relevanc e of the task. Adults are motivated by tasks or
p r o b l e m s t hat s eem meaningful.

 Create an experience in which the goals and objectiv es are considered

r e a l i s t i c a n d i m p o r t a n t t o the learner – job related and perceived as being
i m medi at ely us ef ul.
 Create a climate of self-discovery in which learners are helped to meet their
own needs rather than having t heir needs dictated to them.
 Create a context that expects and encour ages the transfer and applic ation of
new conce pts and skills into actual use by the participant.

Use Existing Wisdom

Adults pos sess a rich reservoir of experi ences. Structure participation to draw on
what adult s already know.

 Place an emphasis on the uniquely personal nature of learning in which each

indiv idual knows that her/his beliefs , feelings, and views are important and
signific ant.
 Create a climate that enc ourages individualization t hat builds o n the wide
range of previous exp eriences, knowle dge, skills, inte rests, and
competencies.

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Allow Self-Direction
Provide the adult with as much control and choice as possible.

 Create the opportunity for adults to be or iginators of their learning as they

are involved in the selection of objectives, content, activities, and
assessment.
 Create the opportunity for adults to se lf-assess their own need s. Adults will
often reject prescriptions by others especially when what is prescribed is
viewed as an attack on what they are presently doing.
 Create an atmosphere that tolerates ambi guity in which alternative solutions
can be explored.
 Create the opportunity for cooperative ev aluation and self-evaluation in which
people see themselves as they really a re , with th e h e lp o f th e ir p e e rs.

Provide Variety
Adults hav e a wide range of style preferenc es. Design multi-dimensional s essions.

 Create an environment of active people. A dults lear n best when they feel they
are personally inv olv ed in the learning process.
 Create a climate in which diffe rences are determined to be good and
desirable and differences in people are as acceptable as difference in ideas.
 Create a process that accommodat e s th e visu a l, a u d ito ry, a n d
tactile/kine sthetic lea r ner.
 C r e a t e a n e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t i s i nf o r m a l and provides for social interaction.

B e E f f i c i ent
Adults are impatient when their time is wasted.

 Create a balance bet ween efficiency and effectiveness. Honor announced

start and end times. Respect the in ve stme n t o f p e rso n a l time .
 Create an organized, well planned experienc e. Give careful consideration to
objectives, transition, amount of cont ent to be covered, and instructions.
 Create a comfortable but efficient setting with all needed equipment,
materials, and supplies – collec t ed and in place.

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 BASIC PRINCIPLES ABOUT ADULT LEARNING
Trainers are more successful when we understand adult learning. Here are some
basic princ iples and some questions to gui de trainers in putting the principles into
practice.

Adults Learn Best When… Trainer Question:

Treated as equals What are some ways you
can create a respectful
 Adults consider themselves to be mature, capable and learning environment?
responsible human beings and appreciate when they are
treated as equals.
 It is important that he trainer involve partic ipants in the identification of their
own learning needs within an atmosphere of mutual respect.

Learning incorporates thei r previous experiences, Trainer Question:

What are some ways you
knowledge and skills, and supports their existing values.
can use learners’
experiences as a resource
 Adults do not come to a training as empty vessels for learning?
waiting to be filled with wisdom.
 Adults come with varying amounts of knowledge, Are learners being exposed
to content in many ways
skills, and experience s. that link that content to
 Adults need to see the relevanc e to the task. Use their work lives?
illu strations and specific examples.
Actively involved

 Utilize tec hniques in which participants dis cover Trainer Question:

their own insights, practice new skills, or deliver What are some ways you can keep
new information. learners stimulated and involved?
 Ask questions more frequently than you give Is there clear evidence in the
answers. training of student creativity and
 Use a variety of learning modalities. enjoyment?

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T h e y a r e s e l f - d i r e c t ed; f e e l s e cu r e a n d s u p p o r t e d Trainer Question:
What are some ways you can
 Adults will often reject p r e s c r i p t io n s b y o t h e r s encourage learners to be more
especially when it is viewed as an attack on self-directed and continue
learning on the job?
what they are presently doing.
 Create the opportunity for adults to self-assess Do learners have opportunities to
their own needs, and for cooperative reorganize content in creative and
personally relevant ways?
evaluation.
The physi cal environment helps them focus their attention

 Physical discomfort can distract adults or create negative feelings.

 P r o vi de c lear w ri t t en/ v erbal in s t ructions, arrange for frequent breaks, and
minimize distractions.
Trainer Question:
What do the setting, decorations,
architecture, layout, music, and
other features of the environment
actually say to learners?

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 PRINCIPLES OF BRAIN-BASED LEARNING
Frank Smith, Insult to Intelligence, 1986

T h i s s u m m a r y a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n t a k e s t h e f o r m of twelve principles that can serve

as a general theoretical foundation for brai n-based learning. The principles also
provide guidelines for defining and selecting programs and methodologies.

Education as an Open Quest

The Brain is a Parallel Processor

The human brain is always doing many things at one time (Ornstein and Sobel
1987). Thoughts, emotions, imagi nation, and predispositions operate simultaneously
and interact with other modes of inform ation processing and wit h the expansion of
general social and cultural knowledge.

Teaching must be based on theories and me thodologies that guide the teacher to
make orchestration possible. No one method or technique can adequately
encompass the variations of the human br ain. Teachers need a frame of reference
t h a t e n a b l e s t hem t o s elec t f rom th e va st re p e rto ire o f me thods and approaches that
are available.

Learning Engages the Entire Physiology

Neuron growth, nourishment, and interacti ons are integrally related to the
perception and interpretation of experi ences (Diamond 1985). Stress and threat
affect the brain differently from peace, challenge, boredom, happiness, and
contentment (Ornstein and Sobel 1987).

Everything that affects our physiologic al fu nctioning affects our capacity to learn.
Stress management, nutrition, exercise, and rela xa tio n , a s we ll a s o th e r fa ce ts of
health management, must be fully incorporated in to the learning process. Habits and
b e l i e f s a r e al s o phy s i ologi c all y en tre n ch e d and therefore resistant or slow to change
once they become a part of the personalit y.

In addition, the timing of the learning is influenced by the natural development of

both body and brain, as well as by i ndiv idual and natural rhythms and cycles.

The Search for Meaning is Innate

The search for meaning (making sense of our experiences) and the consequential
need to act on our environment are automatic . The search for meaning is survival
oriented and basic to the human brain. Resear ch confirms the not ion that people are
meaning makers. The search for m eaning cannot be stopped, only channeled and
focused.

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The learning environ ment needs to provi de stability and familia rity. At the same
t i m e , p r o v is i o n m u s t b e m a d e t o s a t i sfy our curiosity and hunger for novelty,
discovery, and challenge. Lessons need to be generally exciting and meaningful and
offer students an abundance of choices. T he more positively lifelike such learning,
the better.

The Search for Meaning Occurs through Patterning

Patterning (Nummela and Rosengren 1986) refers to the meaningful organization
a n d c a t e g oriz at i on of i nf ormat i on. In a way, the brain attempts to discern and
u n d e r s t a n d pat t erns of it s ow n. The brain is designed to perceive and gene rate
patterns, and it resists having meaningless patterns im posed on it.

Learners are patterning, or perceiving a nd creating meanings, all the time in one
way or another. We cannot stop them, but we can influence the direction. Although
w e c h o o s e m u c h o f wh a t s t u d e n t s a r e t o l e a r n, the ideal proces s is to present the
information in a way that allows brains to e x t r a c t p a t t e r n s , r ath e r th a n a tte mp t to
impose them.

For teaching to be effective, a learner must be able to create meaningful and

personally relevant patterns. This type of teaching is most clearly recogniz ed by
those advocating a whole-language approach t o r e a d i n g , t h e m a t i c t e a c h i n g ,
integration of the curriculum, and lif e relev ant approaches to learning.

Emotions are Critical to Patterning

What we learn is influenced and organi zed by emotions and mind sets based on
expectanc y, personal biases and prej u d i c e s , d e g r e e o f s elf-esteem, and the need
for social interaction. Emotions and c ognition cannot be separated. Emotions are
crucial to memory because they facilitat e the storage and recall of information.
M o r e o v e r , many em ot i ons c annot simp ly be switched on and off. They are ongoing,
and the emotional impact of any lesson or life experience may continue to
reverberate long after the specific event.

Students’ feelin gs an d attitudes will be in v olved and will determine future learning.
Therefore, the entir e learning environment needs to be supportive and marked by
mutual respect and acceptance both within and beyond the classroom.

The Brain Processes Parts and Wholes Simultaneously

There is evidence of brain laterality, meani ng that there are significant dif f erences
between left and right hemispheres of the brain (Springer and Deutsch 1985). The
“ t w o b r a i n ” doc t rine is mos t v al uab le as a metaphor that helps educators
acknowledge two separate but simultaneou s tendencies in the brain for organizing

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information. One is to reduce informati on into parts; the other i s to perceive and
work with it as a whole or series of wholes.

People hav e enormous difficulty in learni ng when eit her parts or wholes are
overlooked . Good teaching nece ssarily builds understanding an d skills over time
because learning is c umulative and developmental.

Learning Involves both Focused Attention and Peripheral

Perception
The brain absorbs information of which it is directly aware and to which it is paying
a t t e n t i o n . I t als o direc t l y abs orbs in fo rm ation and signals that lie beyond the field of
attention. These may be stim uli that one perceives “out of the side of the eyes,”
such as gray and unattractive w alls in a classroom.

Peripheral stimuli als o incl ude the subtle signals that are within the field of
attention but are still not con sciously notic ed (such as a hi nt of a smile or slight
changes in body posture). This means that the brain responds to the entire sensory
context in which teac hing or communi cation occurs (O’Keefe and Nadel 1978).

One of Lozanov’s fundamental principles is that every stimulus is coded, associated

and symbolized (Lozanov 1978 a, b). Thus, ever y sound, from a word to a siren, and
e v e r y v i s u al s ignal, f rom a bl ank scre e n to a raised finger, is packed with complex
meanings. Peripheral information can ther efore be purposely o r ganized to facilitate
learning.

Learning Always Involves Conscious and Unconscious

Processes
We learn so much more than we ever consciously understand. “What we are
discovering… is that beneath the surface of awareness, an enormous amount of
unconscious processing is going on” (Campbe ll 1989, p. 203). Most signals that are
peripherally perceived enter the brain wi thout the learner’s awareness and interact
at unconscious levels . “Having reached the br ain, this information emerges in the
conscious ness with some delay, or it influences the motives and decisions”
(Lozanov 1978b, p. 18). Thus we become our experiences and remember what we
e x p e r i e n c e , not jus t w hat w e are to ld .

Teaching therefore needs to be designed in such a way as to help students benefit

maximally from unconscious processing. Mu ch o f th e e ffo rt p u t into te a ch in g a n d
studying is wasted because students do not adequately process their experiences.

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We Have at Least Two Different Types of Memory: A Spatial
Memory System and a Set of Systems for Rote Learning.
We have a natural, spatial memory system that does not need r ehearsal and allows
f o r i n s t a n t m e m o r y o f e x p e r i e n c e s . W e have at least o ne memory system de signed
for registering our experiences in ordinar y three-dimensional space. It is enriched
o v e r t i m e as w e i nc reas e t he it ems, ca te gories, and procedures we take for granted.
Thus there was a time when we did not know what a tree or television was.

Facts and skills that are dealt with in isola tion are organized d ifferently by the brain
and need much more practice and rehearsal. The counterpart of the spati al memory
system is a set of systems designed for st oring relatively unrelated information.

W e c a n c o m p a r e t h i s m e m o r y system to the inventory of an automobile shop. The

more items are available, the more the shop can repair, build, and even design cars.
At the same time, if management becomes too enamored of the stocking of inventory
and mechanics and signers fail to see how to use the materials available, then an
imbalanc e has been created.

We Understand and Remember Best When Facts and Skills

are Embedded in Natural Spatial Memory
Our native language is learned through multip le interactive experiences inv olving
vocabulary and grammar. It is shaped both by internal processes and by social
interaction. That is an example of how specific items are given meaning when
embedded in ordinary experienc es. All edu cation can be enhanc ed when this type of
embedding is adopted.

Spatial memory is generally bes t invoked through experimental learning, an

approach that is valued more highly in so me cultures than others. Teachers need to
use a great deal of real-life activity, in c l u d i n g c l a s s r o o m d e m o n s t r a t i o n s ; p r o j e c t s ;
field trips; visual imagery of cert ain experiences; visual imager y of best
p e r f o r m a n c e s ; s t o r i e s ; m e t aphor; drama; and interaction of different subjects.

Success depends on using all of the sens es and immersing the learner in a
multitude of complex and interactive experiences.

Learning is Enhanced by Challenge and Inhibited by Threat

The brain downshifts under perceived threat (Hart 1983) and learns optimally when
appropriately challenged. The central f eature of down shifting is a sense of
helplessness. The learner becomes less flex i b l e a n d r e v e r t s t o automatic and often
more primit ive routine behavior s. Under perceived threat, portions of our brain
function suboptimally.

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Teachers and adminis trators need to create a state of rela xed ale r tness in students.
This combines general relaxation with an at mosphere that is low in threat and high
in challenge. This state must continuous ly pervade the lesson and must be present
in the teacher.

Each Brain is Unique

Although we all have the same set of system s, including our sense and basic
emotions, they are integrated differently in every brain. In addition, because
learning ac tually changes the structure of the brain, the mo re we le a rn , th e mo re
unique we become.

Teaching should be multifaceted to allo w all students to express visual, tactile,

emotional, and auditory preferences. Other indiv idual differences also need to be
considered . In sum, education n eeds to facilitate optimal brain functioning.

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GENERAL INDICATORS OF WHAT SHOULD BE TAKING PLACE
DURING BRAIN-BASED LEARNING:
Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain

 Are students involved and challenged?

 Is there clear evidence of student creativity and enjoyment? Are students
dealing appropriately with dissonance?
 Are students being exposed to content in many ways that link content to life?
 Are students’ life themes and metaphors being engaged?
 Are there “hooks” that tie the content together in a bi g picture that can make
sense to students?
 Is there some sort of continuity , such as through projects and ongoing
stories, so that content is tied t ogether and retains interest over time?
 Is there any sign of continuing motiva tion or student interest that expresses
itself abov e and beyond the di ctates of the class?
 Is the physical contex t being used optimally ?
 What do the setting, decorations, arch i t e c t u r e , l a y o u t , m u s i c , a n d o t h e r
features of the context actually say to students?
 What sort of group at mosphere is emerging?
 Are there any signs of positive collabor at ion, and do they continue after the
lesson and after school?
 Do students have opportunities to r eorganize content in creative and
personally relevant ways?
 Are there opportunities to reflec t in an open-ended way on what does and
does not make sense?
 Are students given the opportunity to appl y the material in very different
contexts?
 Do students consciously and deliberately examine their performances in those
different contexts and begin to appr eciate their own strengths and
weaknesses?

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 TEN TOOLS THAT HELP TRANSFER LEARNING
Adapted from How to Teach for Transfer
by Roving Fogarty, David Perkins, and John Barell. Skylight Publishing, 1992.

1. Setting Expectations: Simply alert learners to occasions where they can apply what
they are learning directly, without transformation or adjustment. Example: “We will be
using this model during our training this week.”

2. Matching: Adjust the learning to make it almost the same experience as the ultimate
applications. Example: Practice a piece of the training in front of peers.

3. Simulating: Use simulation, role-playing, acting out, to approximate the ultimate

applications. Example: Simulated trials, debates, and discussions as preparation for
using information in the job.

4. Modeling: Show, demonstrate rather than just describe or discuss. Example: “We will
take you through a train-back session.”

5. Problem-based learning: Have participants learn content they are supposed to use in
solving problems through solving analogous kinds of problems, pulling in the content
as they need it. Example: People work on goals and objectives for training for
teachers for medical assistants, using the information they have just received about
goals and objectives.

6. Anticipating applications: Ask participants to predict possible applications that differ

from the context of this training. Example: “Where might you use this or adapt it?” List
the ideas and discuss some.

7. Generalizing concepts: Ask individuals to generalize from this experience to produce

widely applicable principles, rules, and ideas. Example: After thinking about your own
experiences with learning, what big generalizations about adult learning does this
suggest?

8. Using analogies: Engage participants in finding and elaborating an analogy between

a topic under study and something rather different from it. Example: Ask trainees to
compare and contrast a cooking recipe with a recipe for training.

9. Parallel problem solving: Engage learners in solving problems with parallel structure
in two different areas, to gain an appreciation for the similarities and contrasts.
Example: Have people investigate a (nonsensitive) problem in their home environment
and a problem at work using the same problem solving strategy. Help them to draw out
the parallels and differences.

10. Metacognitive reflection: Prompt and support individuals in planning, monitoring, and
evaluating their own thinking. Example: After any thought-demanding activity, have
people ask themselves, “What went well, what was hard, and how could I handle what
was hard better next time?” Or “What did I find useful in this last exercise, what was
not useful?”

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Experiential Learning

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 THE EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE
Experiential learning provides activities t hat have the potential to involve the whole
person in the educational process. Each stage of the experient ial learning cycle has
objectives that move toward the ultimate goal of increasing the options av ailable to
a person in the face of new but similar situations.

Experiencing
The Activity
Phase

Applying
Planning Publishing
Effective Use Sharing
of Learning reactions and
observations

Now
What?

What?
Generalizing
Developing Processing
Real World Discussing
Principles Patterns and
Dynamics

So
What?

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The objectives of each phase of the cycle are as follows:

E x p e r i e n c i n g : To generate individual data from one or more of the sensing,

thinking, feeling, wanti ng, or doing modes.

 Experienc ing occurs naturally in all lif e situations. In the training setting,
participant s are exposed to a particular ty p e o f e x p e r i e n c e . I t is t h e s t e p t h a t
s o o f t e n i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h “ g a m e s ” o r fun. Obviously, if the process stops
a f t er t his s t age, al l le arning is le ft to chance, and the facilitato r has not
c o mplet ed t he t as k . Alm os t, a n y a ctivity t h a t i n v o l v e s e i t h e r s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t
or interpersonal inter action can be us ed as the “doing” part of experiential
learning.
 Sometimes facilitators spend an inor dinate time of energy planning the
activity but leave the examination of it unplanned. As a consequence learning
may not be facilitated .
Publishing: To report the data generated from the experience.

People hav e experienced an activity and now they presumably are ready to share
what they saw and/or how they felt duri ng the event. The intent here is to make
available t o the group the experience of each indiv idual. This s t ep involves
finding out what happened within and to indivi d u a l s – a t c o g n i t i v e , a f f e c t ive , a n d
behavioral levels – while the ac tivity was progressing. During the publishing
phase it is important to stick to sharing feelings and other reactions and
observations and not to allow some participants to skip ahead to generaliz ing
and inferring principles from what happened. Some group members’ energies
may be focused on staying ins ide the activity, and they need to be nudged into
s e p a r a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s f r o m it in order to learn.

P r o c e s s in g: To make sense of the data generat ed for both individuals and the
group.

This stage is the systematic examinat ion of commonly shared experience by

those persons involv ed. This is the “gr oup dynamic” phase of the cycle, in which
participant s essentially reconstruct the pat terns and interactions of the activity
from their individual r eports. This step should be thoroughly wor ked through
before going on to the next. The facilitat o r needs to make certain that the
processing has been adequate before moving on to generalizat ions.

Generalizing: To develop testable hypotheses and abstraction from the data.

A key concept in experiential learning is that of a pattern. Pattern implies that

there is an order to the elements of the situation and that these elements occur
w i th s o me regularit y . When t he a rr angement of elements is understood in one
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 situation, this understanding can be genera lized and applied to other situations.
The task in this step is to abstract from the processing phase some principles
that could be applied “outside”. Thus, the generaliz ations are to be made about
“ w h a t t e n d s t o h a p p e n ” , n o t “ w h a t happened in this particular group”.

Applying: To bridge the present and the futu re by understanding and/or planning
how these generaliz ations can be tested in a new place.

 The final s t ep is the purpose for whic h the whole structured experience is
designe d. The central question here is “N ow what?”. The facilit ator helps the
participant s to apply generaliz ations to actual situations in which they are
involv ed. Ignoring such discussion jeopardizes the probability that the
learning will be utiliz ed. It is critical that attention be given to designing ways
for individuals and/or groups to us e the learning generated during the
structured experience to plan more effective behavior.
 Individuals are more likely to implem ent their planned applic ations if they
share them with others.

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 PROCESSING QUESTIONS
1. (Publishing) Objective: Getting the facts. Get people to share their
experience – generate data, emotions, fee lings, associations from the group.
a. What were you thinking/feeling?
b. Anyone els e have the same experience, thoughts?
c. Who reacted differently?
d. What does this remind you of in your own experience?
e. How many felt the same?
f . How many felt differently?
g. What did you observe?
h. What were you aware of?
2. (Processing) Interpreting Phase – Making sense of that data by examining
values, meaning, purpose.
a. Why do you think that happened?
b. What does that mean for you?
c. How was that signific ant?
d. How was that good/bad?
e. What does that suggest about yourself/your group?
f . What do you understand better about yourself/your group?
3. Generalizing Phase – Participants work toward abstracting from the specific
knowledge they have gained about them selves and their group to formulate
principles. Questions are directed toward promoting generaliz ations.
a. What can we surmise from that?
b. What did you learn?
c. W h a t d o e s t h a t s u g g e s t t o y o u a b o u t (th e to p ic) in g e n e ra l?
d. S o w h a t ?
4. Applying Phase – Participants are concerned with utilizing lea r ning in their
r e a l -w orl d s i t uat i on. D irec t q u e stions towards applying the general knowledge
they have learned to their personal and professional lives.
a. How could you apply what you’v e learned here?
b. What are your options?
c. What do you need to change to carry this out?
d. Whom will you go to, to help you carry this out?
e. What could you imagine /fantasize about that?

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 LEARNING STYLES – HONEY & MUMFORD
Actual
Experience
(Activist)

Deliberate Observation &

Testing Reflection
(Pragmatist) (Reflector)

Forming a Rule
(Theorist)

Style Attribute Activities

Activist Activists are those people who learn by doing. Brainstorming, problem
Activists need to get thei r hands dirty, to dive solving, group
in with both feet first. Have an open-minded discussion, puzzles,
approach to learning, involving themselves competitio ns, role-play.
fully and without bias in new experiences.
Reflector These people learn by observing and thinking Paired dis cussions, self
about what happened. They may avoid leaping analys is questionna ires,
in and prefer to watch from the sidelines. personality
P ref er t o v i ew ex peri ences from a number of q u e stio n n a ire s, tim e
different perspectives, collecting data and out, observing
taking the time to work towards an appropriate activities, feedback
c o n c l u s io n . fro m o th e rs, co a ch in g.
Theorist These lear ners like to understand the theory Models, statistics,
behind the action. They need models, stories, quotes,
concepts and facts in order to engage in the background information,
learning pr ocess. Prefer to analyze and applying theories.
synthesize, drawing new information into a
systematic and logical “theory”.
P r a g m a t i s t These people need to be able to see how to Time to think about how
put the learning into practice in the real world. to apply learning in
Abstract concepts and games are of limited re a lity, ca se stu d ies ,
use unless they can see a way to put the problem solving,
ideas into action in their lives. Experimenters, discussion
trying out new ideas, theories and techniques
t o s e e i f t he y w o r k .

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 SIX PHASES OF DEBRIEFING
Reprinted with permission from Thiagi (aka Sivasailam Thiagarajan, Ph. D.)

People do n't learn from experience;

they l earn from r e f l ect i n g on their experience.

I firmly believe this principle and keep preaching it to everyone. To me, all
experiential learning activities (simulat io n s g a me s, ro le -p la ys, o u td o o r a d ve n tu re s ,
and other such things) merely provi de an excuse for debriefing sessions.

You must conduct a debriefing discussion to hel p your participants reflect on their
e x p e r i e n c e s , rel at e t hem t o the real world, discover usef ul insights, and share them
with each other. Debriefing als o helps you to wind down the learning activity, reduce
negative reactions among the participants , and increase insights.

A major dilemma in debriefing is maintain ing a balance between structure and free
flow. I suggest that you prepare severa l questions before the debriefing session.
During actual debrief ing, encourage and ex p lo it sp o n ta n e o u s co mme n ts fro m th e
participant s. If the conversation degenerat es into a stream-of-conscious ness
meandering, fall back on your prepared list of questions.

I use a six-phase model to structure debrie fing questions. Here are some guidelines
for each phase of this model.

Phase 1: How Do You Feel?

This phase gives the participant s an opportunity to get strong feelings and emotion
o f f t h e i r c he s t . I t m a k e s i t e a s i e r f o r t hem to be more objective during the later
phases.

Begin this phase with a broad question that in vites the participants to get in touch
with their feelings about the activity and its outcomes. Encourage them to share
these feelings, listening actively to one another in a nonjud g m e n t a l f a s h i o n .

Phase 2: What Happened?

In this phase, collect data about what happened during the activity. Encourage the
participant s to compare and contrast t heir recollections and to draw general
conclus ions during the next phase.

Begin this phase with a broad question that asks the participant s to recall important
events from the training activity . Create and post a chronologic al list of events. Ask
questions about specific events.

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Phase 3: What Did You Learn?
In this phase, encourage the participants to generate and test different hypotheses.
Ask the participants to come up with prin ciples based on the activity and discuss
them.

Begin this phase by presenting a principl e a n d a s k i n g t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r d a t a t h a t

supports or rejects it. Then invit e the participants to offer other principles based on
their experiences.

Phase 4: How Does This Relate To The Real World?

In this phase, discuss the relevance of the activity to the participants' real-world
experiences.

Begin with a broad question about the rela tionship between the ex periential learning
activity and events in the workplace. Sugges t that the activity is a metaphor and ask
participant s to offer real-world analogies.

Phase 5: What If?

In this phase, encourage the participants to apply their insights to new contexts.
Use alternative scenarios to speculate on how people's behav iors would change.

Begin this phase with a change scenario a nd ask the participant s to speculate on
how it would have affected the process and t he outcomes of the activity. Then invite
the participants to offer their own scenarios and dis cuss them.

Phase 6: What Next?

In this phase, ask the participants to undertake action planning. Ask them to apply
their insights from the experientia l a ctivity to th e re a l wo rld .

Begin this phase by asking the participants to suggest strategies for use in future
rounds of the activity. Then ask the par ticipants how they will c hange their real-
world behavior as a result of th e insights gained from the activity.

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 SOME REASONS FOR DEBRIEFING
A d d i n g V a l ue to the E xperi ence | The value gained from experiences depends very
much on how experiences are debriefed. D ebriefing is an opportunity to add value
and meaning to experiences however “small” or “large,” “negative” or “positive” they
may be.

Ge t t i n g Unstuck | Without debriefing, groups and indi viduals c an get stuck at a

particular stage of development. Reviewin g provides a range of strategies for
moving beyond this stage and for getting t he cycles of learning and development
turning again.

Opening New Perspectives | People may be in the habit of reviewing exper iences
f r o m t h e i r “ n o r m a l ” p e r s p e c t i v e . B y also “seeing” an experience from the
perspectiv es of others and by debriefing an experience through a variety of
“windows”, people can escape from tunnel (o r normal) vision and learn from the
bigger pict ure.

Developin g Observation and Awareness | The more involving an experience, the

harder it is to observe what is happeni ng. Debriefing can encourage observation,
perception, and general awareness both during and after experiences.

Caring | By reviewing activities we show that we care about what people

experience, that we value what they have to say, and that we are interested in the
progress of each individual’s learning and developm ent. When people feel cared for,
valued, and respected as individuals they will be better learners.

Encouragi ng Self-Expression | It is not always easy to talk about experiences. An

imaginativ e and sensitive approach to debriefing can help people to find the
medium, situation, symbol, or question thr ough whic h they can most readily express
themselves. This is where the expressi ve and creative arts can be particularly
helpful.

Providing Support | Debriefing can be a valuable safe ty net. The reassurance that
support will be available in the event of f ai l u r e e n c o u r a g e s p e o p l e t o t a k e r i s k s ( o f
the kind that will be s upport ed). Whether people expe rience failure or success, the
causes can be analy zed so that they learn how to avoid failure (or win from failure)
and how to achieve s uccess.

E m p o w e r i n g P e o p l e | Debriefing enhanc es people ’ s ability to learn from individual

or group experiences . Improved learning a bilit y, toge ther with increased confidence,
allows people to become more independent and more capable of self-develop ment,
and even… of self-actualizat ion!

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CHALLENGE AND SUPPORT GRID

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Training Design

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 RECIPE FOR TRAINING
Ingredients for a Good Tr aining Design Structure

Problem
• Perceived Need
• Interest
Follow-up:
• Retention
Topic: Perceived
• Integration Subject

Assessment
A p p l i c at ion : • Actual Need
I m p l e m ent at i o n • Interest

Evaluation: Goals
Measured • Why?
Achievement • Purpose, Intention

O b j e c t i v es :
Practice: Try/Do Behavioral
Results

Met h o dology:
Content: What?
How?

Time to… Develop trainin g Climate Setting…

Readiness:

Prepare for training For the entire training

Do the whole training For a particular activity
Do an activity
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 RECIPE FOR TRAINING – BREAKDOWN
The following eleven points des cribes the graphic on the previous page.

Problem
 What is the problem that has been ident if ied that training might help solve?
 What is the perceived need or perceived interest that exists?

Training Topic
What subject(s) do you want to trai n to help meet the need/help to fix the
problem/address the interests of the group?

Needs Assessment
 How do you know this is a problem/i s an actual need/is a real in terest?
 What questions can you ask (and of whom) to determine if the stated
problem/need/interest is actually something else?
 What information do you wish to know before the training? ( p a r t i c i p a n t n e e d s ,
knowle dge , attitudes, skills, etc.)?
 What method(s) will you use to get this information (observatio n,
questionnaire, interview, group discussions, etc.)?

Developin g Training Goal(s)

 Goals are the big pict ure; the long range, end result; the “why” or the purpose
of the training.
 Goals are statements that proved a broad, overarchin g framework for the key
points you want to address in each training session.
 Some verbs that might help you devel o p yo u r g o a l sta te me n ts in clu d e : to …
know, develop, learn, understand, impr ove, increase, knowhow to, know
relevant ways to, make.

Developin g Behavio r al Learning Objectives

 Objectives are your route to your goal. They are the roads you must take to
get to your end destination.
 Objectives are based on what you want participants to do better/differently;
they are measurable and r ea so n a b le . Th e y sta te the outcome(s) you want.
 What new behaviors do you want parti cipants to be able to engage in at the
close of the training that will de m onstrate you have reached yo ur goal(s)?
 A few verbs to consider as you writ e your objectives include: to… list,
display, identify, state, match, quote, solve, co mpare, order, write down,
translate, place, demonstrate, explain , u s e , d e s c r i b e , d r a f t , a p p l y .
 “Upon completion of this trainin g, participants will b e able to:…”

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Content
 W h a t s u b j e c t m a t t e r ( i n f o r m a t i o n , s k ills, awareness) are you going to train?
 Brainstorm 3 to 5 important subject matters you wish to address in your
training.

M e t h o d o logy
 How will y ou train what you want to train?
 What methods and activities will you use? How will y ou include adult learning
concepts? What activities will yo u use that encourage adult learn ing as we
u n d ers t and it ? H ow many of yo u r a ctivi ties are experiential? How will you
allow for diverse learning styles ?
 Develop an activity outline (list of met hods) that allows for as many of the
“intellig en ces” as possible (verbal/lin guist ic, logica l, spatial, kinesthetic,
musical, interpersonal, in t r a p e r s o n a l , n a t u r a l i s t i c ) .

Practice
What activities will yo u choose/create to a llow particip ants to try out new skills an d
a c t u a l l y “ d o ” s o m e o f t h e things you are training about?

Evaluation
 How will y ou know if you have met your goals/objectives?
 What questions can you ask or observati o ns can you make that will allow you
to measure what was achi eved during the training?

Application
 What can you do (if anything) to assist participants to implement what they
have learned when they return to their jobs?
 How can y ou get participants to focus “back-on-the-job”?
 How can y ou get participants to develop an “action plan” for integrating the
training int o their day-to-day work?

Follow-Up
 After a period of time has gone by is there anything you can do to find out
what participants hav e retained from the training?
 Can you find out what they hav e integrated into their work?

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 GENERIC WORKSHOP DESIGN
Adapted for PP by Caroline Haskell

Every workshop, no matter how long or short, should contain basic components.

Needs Assessment | Should be conducted prior to the preparation of the design,

but may be conducted (under difficult circumstances) at the beginning of the
training.

C l i m a t e Set t i n g | Introductory remarks and opening exercises should be carefully

designed to build trust, encourage people to talk, and establish ground rules and a
safe atmosphere for the workshop. It is her e that you should als o state your working
assumptio ns about the topic and establish cr edibility as a trainer/facilitator by
giving information about your s el f th a t is re le va n t.

Information Component | Should include historical, political, economic, medical,

and/or sociologic al inf ormation about the to pic and any related area. Definitions of
i m p o r t a n t w ork s or t erms should be given. Handouts and ma terials are important to
back up your didactic .

E x p e r ie n t ial C om ponent | This component should be included throughout the

workshops varied forms. Role plays, sm all group discussions, working pair s, fish
bowls, speak outs, and any other activities that involved people are included here. A
variety of experiential acti vities should be included in any design, mixed throughout
the workshop.

Action Component | Develop s omething concrete that people can actually do when
they leave the workshop. Preferably the “action plan” should be developed by the
participant near the end of the w orkshop. It may involve networking with others or it
may be any action the participant intends to take after the workshop is over. It is a
good practice to ask the participant to write the plan down on paper or tell another
person what they plan to do.

Closure Component | Design a short but precise, u p b e a t clo sin g fo r th e wo rksho p .

It is extremely important to send people a w a y f e e l i n g “ f i n i s h e d f o r t h e d a y ” a n d
hopeful.

Evaluation | It is crucial to get feedback (w ritten or verbal) before participants

leave the workshop. Be sure to explain t hat their feedback is im portant to you, and
that you learn from it.

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 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN
Adapted by Maggi Ruth P. Boyer

1. Training is about learning. Learning is about change. I t i s b e i n g f o r c e d b y

some experience into encountering t he world in a new way. A good design
should be sensitive to the wa ys in which people learn.
2. Changing is not al w ay s f un; So me time s resiste d , o cca sio n a lly d e sire d .
People are ambivalent about learning/change.
3. Learning happens faster if we can assu me that people already have driving
f o r c e s t o le a r n / c h a n g e , o t h e r w i s e they wouldn’t be here. Good designs foc us
on reducing restraints to learning/ change, rather than adding drivers.
4. People bring their own life experience with them. They are not blank slates . A
major task of a good design is t o help t h e m c o n v e r t e x p e r i e n c e i n t o l e a r n i n g .
5. People usually arrive with unresolved self- esteem issues; with anxieties and
c o n c erns , s ome about t he tra in in g , so me about the rest of their life. We need
to help people feel s afe and capable in t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f t h e d e s i g n .
6. People hav e different styles of learning. Some learn in their own silence,
some talk, some like a lot of struct ure, some don’t. A good design will provide
a range of different styles, not just t he ones the leader happens to like or feel
g o o d doing.
7. Breaks ar e important. Do a lot of planning for breaks. They are an important
part of the learning process. How will you use them? When? And why?
8. In the early parts of a training, people are taking care of the self; they are
working on inclusion and safety issues. Save high ris k activities until later.
9. Remember that we are working with w h o l e p e r s o n s ; t h a t t h i n k i n g , f e e l i n g , a n d
doing are all interconnected. Any activity which is directed at one aspect will
have effects on the other two. B e ready for the unexpected.
10. Help people integrate their learning into their work/lives by asking questions
which link what’s happening in the training with their work/lives, such as: How
is this similar to, different from, w hat happens…? What implications does this
have for your work/life?
11. People learn best when they feel they have some control over the pace and
depth of the learning process. Share c ontrol by making several suggestions,
offering choices and believ ing t hat parti cipants know what they need. (Don’t
do this if you have no intention of lis tening to what your group tells you!)

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12. People learn faster and better when t hey feel supported and not isolated, and
that other are struggling t oo. Try to offer activities which emphasize common
concerns, issues; build a sense of community.
13. How much people get out of a training depends on how well we establish t he
usefulness of what w e are doing “here and now” in the training to what they
do “back there” on the job. The more si milar the experiences are, the more
learning happens. As the trainer, lear n as much as you can about the
participant s and their work/lives. Plan with them if possible. Use roleplays, or
“ r e a l p l a y s ” ( s i t u a t i o n s t hat really happened to them).
14. People come with a whole bask etful of a ttitu d e s a b o u t a u th o rity. Yo u , th e
trainer, are the “authority.” Keep in mind the dependenc e/counterdependence,
independence/interdependenc e continuum. D on’t take it personally…you c ould
be Mom or Dad or fifth grade teacher. Help defuse the authority issue by
sharing some control (see #11).
15. Remember that “teachable moment s” happen. When something comes up
naturally and right now in your design that you had planned to cover later, or
that is a good learning opportunity, us e it. Be p re p a re d fo r th is to h a p p e n .
Spontaneity enlivens and enhan ces learning…especially when y ou’re awar e
that it might happen.
16. People do not learn if they are totally comfortable. Some stress is needed.
Your job is to see to it that there is just enough stress for learning to occur,
but not so much that l earning is inhibited.
17. People show the greatest enthusiasm when th e y a re me e tin g th e ir o wn n ee d s .
Early in your design, find out why people are coming to your training and
what they want. Make sure your design is to target; if not , you’ll be more
successful if you change your design and meet your group’s needs than if you
t r y t o f o r c e t h e m t o f ol l o w w h a t t o th e m is a n irre le va n t d e sig n .
18. Learn all y ou can about groups, this par ticular group, process and technique
a n d t h e n : t r u s t y o u r i ns t i n c t s . STAY IN TOUCH WITH YOUR GROUP!

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 NINE STEPS TO GOOD STAND-UP TRAINING
From: Craig Storti Associates, 410-346-7336

1. Use a presentational voice

2. Limit your content
3. Generate Participation: Whenever possible, ask rather than tell
4. Recycle key ideas
5. Stand and move
6. Include vis uals and handouts
7. T h i n k pac e
8. Think variety
9. S t a r t f a st

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 WHAT MAKES A GOOD TRAINING
Content
 Be relevant to participants
 Address sensitive iss ues
 Include skill-building
 Address cultural relevancy and diversity

Trainer
 Provide ac curate information
 Link/bridge lessons and concepts that are taught
 Give clear instructions
 Support and provide feedback to participants
 Encourage everyone to participate
 Use active listening s kills that incl ude clarifying comment s and validat ion of
d i f f erent point s of v i ew
 Use open- ended questions to guide disc ussions
 Lead discussions about sensitive i ssu e s in a n o b je ctive ma n n e r

Process
 Be interactive
 Provide models
 Provide skill building practice
 Provide ex periences that addre ss different learning st yles
 Use a variety of teaching stra tegies and training methods

Relationships
 Provide opportunities for group building
 Honor individual differences
 Validate participants ’ previous experience
 Attend to participants ’ needs during training
 Provide on-going support
 Build trust by maintain confidentiality

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 SOME NOTES ON TRAINING
Planning
Plan a variety of acti vities. Remember that people learn three ways – aurally,
visually, and tactilely . For each person one of these is a prim ary learning method.
To the extent possible, activities should in corporate all of these learning styles (e.g.
b r a i n s t o r m i ng, c as e hi s t ori es , s i mu la tio n s, ro le -p la yin g , d iscu ssio n s).

Timing is important. Never show a video or schedule a quiet, contemplative activity

for after a meal! Include small group as well as large group activities, alternating
m o r e a c t i ve w i t h l e s s a c t i v e s e g m e n t s .

Arrange packets of materials in order that they will b e used. Provide add itional
materials such as related reading, resources, annotate bibliography.

Find out as much as you can about your participants and plan accordingly. How was
their participation in this determined? W hat other classes/trainings have they
attended? Community-based, organizational workers have different needs than
classroom teachers.

Reaching Your Audience

Keep in touch with participants . Make eye contact all around the room. Check for
raised hands. Ask if anyone has any questions regularly – and make sure you give
them an opportunity to ask those question s. Check in while the r e is still time to
accomplish something – anonymous cards or paper toss are two ways. Complete the
sentence, “for this trainin g to be a su ccess for me something that still ne eds to
happen is …”

Let go. Give responsibility to the group w henever possible – be the facilita t or. Have
volunteers demonstrate, s hare, read what needs readi ng. If you demonstrate
something, let the group have a chance to at least touch it if they don’t have time to
practice the skill the m selves.

Give permission…to leave the room, to disagr e e , to a sk fo r cla ri f ica tio n , to e xp r e s s

their needs.

Make sure everyone who wants to has a ch ance to participate. Are some folks quiet
because they never get a chance to be heard? Plan how you will tactfully handle
indiv iduals who monopolize the group disc ussion.

Repeat ins t ructions twice. Be sure that participants understand what is expected of
them.

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Take the time when getting started for hous ekeeping – location of rest rooms time
line (inc lu ding wheth er or not there will b e breaks, how long f or l u n c h , e t c . ) .

Explain contents of packets, expectations. Set ground rules.

Additional Thoughts
We all respond more effectively to positive reinforcement. Prai se lavishly . Find your
own style and rhythm and stick with it. (T his doesn’t mean that we all can’t use
some improvement). What is style? For ex ample: low key or high energy, story teller
o r i m p e r s o n a l , f u n n y o r s e r i o u s , e t c . H o w e ver, if you like to tell stories as an
example, then you must allow time for par ticipants to share their stories, too.

As a trainer, your most effective t eaching tool can be you – as you model
appropriate group facilitatio n skills, use “I” statements, praise, correct, reinforce,
demonstrate, and include.

Important words in our voc abulary a re “I d o n ’t kn o w.” D on’t be embarrassed to admit

that you don’t have the answer to every question. You can ask if anyone in the
group knows the answer, assign the question as homework, or offer to find it out for
the group – be sure to follow up.

Activities to Have in Your Bag

(Listed in no particular order)

 Sentence s t ems – unfinished sentences

 Games
 Guest Speakers
 Warm-up and group building a ctivitie s a n d / o r g a me s
 P e n c i l and paper or c olored ma rke r g a me s

Remember – Don’t let good ideas or strategies go uncopied! An effective

t r a i n i n g w i l l r e s u l t i n t he production of real skills.

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 TRAINING TEAM REMINDERS AND TIPS
Developed by Carole Johnson, Deputy Director of Equity Institute

1. Don’t go overtime, but don’t rush.

2. Remember, it’s normal to be nervous before each session and it will pass.
3. Remember, you are working as part of a team. You’re not alone when you
p r e s ent or proc es s .
4. Watch/observe reactions of the group at all times – especially when you are
not talking .
5. I t ’ s y our job t o prot ec t ev ery me mb e r of the group – don’t allow anyone to be
verbally at tacked.
6. Tell yourself you’re a great traine r, and you know a great deal about the
t o p i c . (S ay i t of t en t o y ourse lf).
7. Never criticize participants. Helping to b u i l d s a f e t y a n d s e l f - e s t e e m i s p a r t o f
the facilita t or’s task. Model t h a t i t i s o k a y t o m a k e m i s t a k e s a n d t h a t ’ s h o w
we learn. Don’t allow people to laugh a t e a c h o t h e r . B e e n t h u s i a s t i c , i t ’ s
contagious .
8. Transitions should be provided from one part of the workshop to the next.
This can be accomplished by restati ng key points of what has gone before in
two or three sentences. It may be helpful to tie in a pertinent point from a
p r e v i o u s e x e r c i s e t h a t a l s o r e l a t e s . Sequencing of activities are designed so
that key concepts build upon one another.

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 TRAINING SESSION OUTLINE TEMPLATE
Session Title:

T i m e (in hours/minutes) :

Methodologies:



M a t e r i a l s N eeded:



B e h a v i o r a l L e a r n i n g O b j e c t i v es
By the end of this session participants will be able to…



Activity 1:

Time:

S te p 1 :

S te p 2 :

S te p 3 :

Activity 2:

Time:

S te p 1 :

S te p 2 :

S te p 3 :

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 EXAMPLE TRAINING SESSION
Session Title: Recipe for Training

T i m e : 45 minutes

Methodologies:

 Skit
 Process mapping
M a t e r i a l s N eeded:

 Cooking school props – pot, wooden spoons, chef hats

 Cards with training recipe steps on them
B e h a v i o r a l L e a r n i n g O b j e c t i v es
By the end of this session participants will be able to…

 Describe the components of effective training

A c t i v i t y 1 : Cooking school skit

T i m e : 20 minutes

Step 1: 4 trainers – 2 are c hefs and 2 are students. One chef demonstrates how to
make chicken soup from a linear very st ructure way, and the o t h e r m a k e s i t b y
intuition and tasting, not following a recipe very closely. The two students
demonstrate different needs – one for deta iled step-by-step instructions and the
other for more intuitiv e, arty approaches to cooking. The four trainers let these
competing styles play out for about 10 minutes

Step 2: The session moderator asks the participants what th e poin t o f th e skit wa s
and how it relates to training. They may come up with several ideas, but the main
point is that training is like cooking. There are ingredients t hat need to be included,
and new c ooks generally benefit from following an or der in putting those ingredients
together. As trainers evolve an d become mo re experienced, they are still using the
same ingredients, but may become more intu itive about how they put them together.

A c t i v i t y 2 : Recipe for training

T i m e : 25 minutes

Step 1: Ask for 11 volunteers to come to t he front of the room. Give each volunteer
one of the recipe cards. Instruct the vo lunteers to arrange the cards in the proper
order to create the recipe for training.

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Step 2: After the group has arranged the re cipe, ask the remaining participants to
critique the order of the ca rds. Give them permission to suggest changes. Let them
continue until the recipe is in the proper or der (the order is shown in Section 4 of
th e n o t e b ook ). Note: “Evaluation” may actually be pu t in several places in the latter
part of the recipe as it happens after pr actice, application, and implementation.

Step 3: Walk through and describe the step s of the final recipe. Discuss why one
step follows the next and the importance of each step in ensuring effective training
takes plac e. Reiterate the importance of going through the recipe in order when
starting as a trainer.

Step 4: Position the recipe as one of the cent e r p i e c e s o f t h e t r a i n i n g . T h e r e s t o f

the TOT will be structured using the reci pe. We will be hangin g the recipe on the
wall to keep it in front of participant s as a reminder for the next few days.

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Problems, Topics and Needs

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 UNDERSTANDING TRAINING PROBLEMS AND TOPICS
Designing a training starts with identifying the problem that the training will
address. If there is no problem, then there is no need for training. In most
organizations, however, there are plenty of problems that can be fairly easily
identified. There ar e t heref ore ma n y o p p o rtunities for training.

That said, training is not the only solu tion to the problems that exist in
organizations. Sometimes the problems are st ru ctu ra l o r with p ro ce sse s; so me time s
there are people iss u es that are not about lack of knowledg e or skills; and
sometimes there are problems that are external to the organization. These
problems are not resolved through training , but through other types of responses.

H e r e a r e s om e ex am ples of probl e ms t hat will probably not be resolved through

training or for which training is onl y one of several possible solutions:

 There is a financia l crisis in the country and not enough familie s can afford to
send their children on exchange programs.
 Volunteers are angry with a decis ion that has been made by the
organization’s leadership, so they stop volunteering.
 Alumni go to universit y after completing their exchange year and the
organization does not have updated contact information.
Problems that have training solutions are problems that can be addressed by
changin g people ’s kn owled ge, attitudes, and sk ills. By impacting any or all of these
things, training creates behavior change t hat ideally lessens the problem and
b e n e f i ts t he organi z at i on. H ere are so me examples of pr oblems that can be
addressed through training:

 Familie s and students need more money to afford the program, but lack an
u n d ers t andi ng of how t o f und ra ise .
 Volunteers do not understand why specif ic decisions have been made by the
organizations leaders and are resistant to implementing the decisions.
 Alumni want to be involved while they a r e a t u n i v e r s i t y , but do not understand
the options they have to become involv ed.
All of these topics have a training solution, which is the starting point of developing
a t o p i c. Very simply, a topic is the subject of the training. It tells the trainer and the
participant s what is going to be covered in t he training. It begins to indicate which
knowle dge , attitudes, and skills will be the fo cus of the training. The details of the
focus will be further refined wh en the tr ainer constructs specific goals an d
objectives that fit within the training t opic. Sample topics that could match the
training problems above are:

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  B e come a S uc c es s f ul Fundra ise r
 The ABCs of Organizational Success in the 21 s t C e n t u r y
 Volunteering as a University Student
In designing a training, the problem and topics that address the problem are the
f i r s t t h i n g s t h a t a t r a in e r o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n n e e d s t o c o n s i d e r . I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s ,
of training design, it is best to think of the problem and topics as tentative. Those
who are putting together the training are s peculating at this stage based o n their
e x p e r i e n c e and ex pert is e. I t i s be st to fre e l y brainstorm ideas and then test out the
ideas with your intended audience. Do your potential trai nees agree that the
problem you identified is an important item to address? Are they interested in
attending a training on the topic you are pr oposing? Is the topic the best way to
address the problem that it is intended to address? This next stage is referred to as
needs ass essment.

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 NEEDS ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW
What is a Needs Assessment?
A gathering of information about the know le d g e , n e e d s, wa n ts, a ttitu d e s, issu e s,
and background of the target group/audience and leadership of that group/audienc e
by formal and informal process.

Why do we do a Needs Assessment?

 Because time, money, effort can be wa sted if training is not based on valid
needs.
 To define the problem or need for which training is being requested –
determine if in fact trai n i n g i s t h e s o l u t i o n .
 To define the specific needs and w ants of the participants and their
organizations.
 To identify and assess the characteristi cs, knowledge, and skills of the group
which may influenc e the content or delivery of that content.
 To increas e optimum le vel of performance

What do we need to find out through Needs Assessment?

 What is the nature and ex tent of the problem?
 Is training the appr o p r i a t e s o l u t i o n ?
 What do the participants need to learn or be able to do as a result of
training? As perceived by the partic ipants , the organization, or other
stakeholders.
 What relevant knowle dge and skills will participants b r ing with them?
 What are the attitudes and motivations of the participants regarding this
training?

How do we conduct Needs Assessment?

 Gather information: read job descrip tions, policies, performance standards,
program reports, etc.
 T a l k w it h indi v i duals …pot entia l p a rticipants, the leader or person requesting
the training, others in the organiza tio n , o th e r sta ke h o ld e rs. Co n d u ct
indiv idual interviews. Keep in mind that wh a t a n a d min istra to r/le a d e r o r o t h e r
stakeholder thinks prospective trainees n e e d a n d th e y (th e tra in e e s) th in k
they need may be very different.
 Make observations of others engaged in the type of job or task for which
training has been requested. Or observe the group for whom training has
been requested.
 Distribute questionnaires direct ly to participants and others.
 Conduct Pre-Tests to determine spec ific sk ill le vels a nd attitudes.

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 SAMPLE NEEDS ASSESSMENT
Contributed to Planned Parenthood Training of Trainers
by Caroline Haskell

Team Building Wor k s hop

In order to design a workshop to best me et your needs, we would appreciate you

completing this questionnaire. Please feel free to continue your answers on the back
of the page. Thank you.

If you could get just one thing from t he upcoming workshop, what would it be?

What issues would you especially like addr essed?

What do you like about your job? What would you lik e to change?

What would help you do your job better?

Do you have any concerns about the work shop? Or what would you want to make
sure doesn’t happen?

Is there anything else you would like us to know?

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 Groups

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 GROUP NEEDS. ISSUES, AND STAGES
Groups have NEED S

Groups have ISSUES

Groups go through STAGES

Group Needs
 Purpose: Why are we here? What are our goals? What are we talking about /
working on?
 Structure: How we work together. Or group working agreements.
 S u m m a r y : Periodic review of progress. Tying things up.
 I n t e rpersonal M anagem en t: Getting Along

If group needs are being addressed:

 Task needs are met… the job gets done.
 Maintenance needs are met… peopl e get along and work together.
 Individual needs are met… individual s e n jo y/b e n e fit fro m th e g ro u p .

Group Issues:
 I n c l u s i o n : Do I want to be a part of this group? Do I feel inc luded or
excluded?
 C o n t r o l : Who is in charge? Do I feel I am part of the leadership…excluded
from the leadership… in co mp e titio n with le a d e rsh ip ?
 Affection: Do I feel people in the group care about each other? Do I feel they
care about me? Do I care about them?

Group issues play out in f i v e o v e r l a p p i n g a r e n a s :

 Individual/ I ndividual
 Individual/ G roup
 Individual/ Leaders(s)
 Group/Leader(s)
 L e a der(s )/ Leader(s )

Group Stages:
 Forming: Coming together.
 S t o rm i ng: Resisting leadersh ip and authority.
 Norming: Organizing ways or working together.
 P e r f o r m i n g : Working together.
 A d j ourni ng: Breaking up, ending, leaving, terminating.

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 INCLUSION – CONTROL – AFFECTION:
A THEORY OF INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOR
On the basis of his research, William Schut z of Esalen formulated a theory which is
one way of looking at what happens between people in groups.

T h i s t h e o r y as s ert s t hat our needs fro m and toward other people are three:

 Inclusion
 Control
 Affection
(NOTE: Schetz uses “affection” in the Old English meaning: “expression of strong
feeling” – any strong feeling.)

Inclusion
Since the inclusion area involv es the proc ess of forming relationships, it usually
occurs early in the life of the group. People must decide whether or not they want to
h a v e a l i f e t oget her. Theref or e, a group tends to focus first on concerns of
inclus ion.

When group members arrive, their fi rst questions are of inclusion:

 Who else is here?

 Who’s in the group?
 What does it take to be a member of the group?
 How much am I willin g to give?
 Can I trust my “real self” to them?
 Will they hold me up if I am falling?

Control
As these questions receive sufficient att ention and resolution, group members move
into the next phase where prim ary concerns are those of control.

The questions which are apt to be uppermost during this phase are:

 Who’s calling the shots here? Who’s in charge?

 How can I exert some control over what happens?
 How can I influenc e others in the group?
 C a n I s ay w hat I reall y t hin k?
 C a n I t ak e i t i f t hey s ay w ha t th e y re a lly th in k?

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Affection
As the questions above (regarding inclus ion and control) receive sufficient attention
a n d r e s o l u t i on, group members mo ve in to a phase where the concerns are those
related to affection.

One by one, individual group members begin to ask:

 Am I willin g to care?
 Can I show my caring?
 What will h appen if I show carin g for one person before I begin to care for
others in the group?
 W h a t i f n o o n e c a r e s f o r me? What if they do?
 What if I don’t really ever ca re fo r o th e rs i n th e g ro u p ?
 What if I really express my feel i n g s ? ( A n g e r , s a d n e s s , e x c i t e m e n t ,
tenderness…)
 Will the group be able to live with me? Will I be able to live with the group?
I n o r d e r t o f urt her s harpen t he c o n tra st between these three phases, Schutz
highlights their differences. With respect to an interpersonal relationship, inclus ion
is concerned primarily with t he f orma tio n o f th e re la tionship, whereas control and
affection are concerned with relationships already formed. Basically, inclus ion is
always concerned with whether or not t he relationship exists. Within existing
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c o n t r o l issues are concerned with who gives orders and makes
d e c i s i o n s f or w hom, w hereas a f f e c t i o n is concerned with how emotionally close or
distant the relationship becomes. Thus, generally speaking:

 Inclusion is concerned with the problem of in or out

 Control is concerned with top or bottom
 Affection is concerned with clos e or far
As relationships develop people tend to focus on these concerns in turn, as one
might tighten the lugs on a wheel – adjusti ng all the lug bolts tightly enough to hold
the tire in place, then adjusting each lug a little tighter.

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When people are confronted by the end of thei r “life together,” the process tends to
reverse itself: Affection, Control, then Inclusion (ACI ).

ICA    ACI
 A: First we tend to pull back from t he open expression of strong feelings.
 C: Next we begin to get embroiled onc e more in a game of, “Who’s the boss
h e r e, any w ay ?”
 I : F inall y , w e s t art t o w onde r if we re a lly want to put in the time and effort to
stay with the group.

It is important to note that these thr ee phases overlap. The boundaries are seldom
sharp, and they are not really predictable in terms of time. The addition of a new
member, absence of a member, completion of task, and others ar e all factors which
interrupt and precipit ate the inclusion phase.

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 STAGES OF GROUP GROWTH
Contributed to PPTOT by Caroline Haskel

All teams will go through stages of developm ent as the indiv iduals who are part of
t h e t e a m le arn t o w ork t oget her. Te a m s are in constant motion back and forth
through these stages as individuals come and go, as personal dynamics changes,
and as external circumstances influence t he team. This model is one way for teams
and team leaders to understand h o w t h e i r t e a m s a r e f u n c t ioning and what they can
do to move their teams forward.

Forming
This stage is characterized by the reli ance of team member s on past behavior.
Members may be uncertain why they are there and will look to the team leader for
guidanc e and direction. They will avoid ser ious topics and expressions of feelings.
They try to avoid controversy, preferring to keep things safe. Team output at this
stage is typically low.

Storming
In this stage, conflic t and competition su rface within the team. Some members may
be hostile or defensive. The t eam is trying to find ways to achieve the task it was
assembled to accomplish, although ther e may be some disagreement about its goals
a n d o b j e c tiv es . C onf li c t res ul t s f rom so me members attempting to dominate the
group while others remain silent . In order to leave the stor ming phase, the team
needs to acquire a problem-solv ing mentality. Ou tp u t a t th is stage is still low.

Norming
During this stage, the team comes toget her. The goals and objectives are agreed to
and owned by the members. This stage is typ ifie d b y th e a ckn o wle d g e me n t o f
indiv idual members’ contribut i o n s , c o m m u n i t y b u i l d i n g , and cohesion. Play ers share
feelings, s olic it and give feedback, and ma intain the safe atmosphere that has been
c r e a t e d . Team c om pet enc e and pride develop. The major task of this stage is data
flow between members and explor ation of possible solutions. Output in this stage is
moderate to high.

Performing
At this point, the team identity is comple te and member morale is high. Members are
both task and relationship orient ed. Team members organize themselves in highly
flexible ways and innovate and experiment with solutions. If the team reaches this
stage – and not all do – their capacity, r ange, and depth of personal inter actions
make them truly independent. Output at this stage is very high.

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 CLIMATE SETTING
Caroline Haskell, Clinical & Training Consultant, 1997

Climate setting is part of what w e do to:

 Meet Group needs.

 M i n i m i z e dy s f unc t ional / ne g a t ive group dynamics / Maximize
functional/ positive gr oup dynamics around group issues.
 Build a cohesive/wor k ing group as quickly as possible.

Why? What?
 Build trust  Welcome
 Encourage participation  Introductions
 Establish working agreements  Agenda Review
 Create safe environment for learning  Go a ls/ Ob je ctive s Re vie w
 Create comfortable physical  Guidelines
environment  Working assumptions
 Establish c r edibility as a trainer with  Expectations
the group
 Opening Exercises/Icebreakers

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 FACILITATING GROUPS
The Community Team Training Institute – Partnerships within a Team

“Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice” – W. Shakespeare, Hamlet

Group needs: groups have four basic need s which must be fulfilled for the group to
function well and be productive. They are:

 Purpose: what we want to do.

 Structure: how we want to do it.
 Summary: periodic tidying up.
 Interpersonal Manag ement: communication skills.

The Facilitator…
 Encourages everyone to participate
 Protects all members of the group from attack
 Suggests alternate methods & procedures
 Helps the group seek win-win s olutions
 Coordinates logistics
 Helps group keep within time constraints
 Models co mmunication skills: p araphrasin g, reflective listenin g , open-ended
questions, open and neutral body language
 Models constructive feedback: focusing on what you see and h e a r , not how
you interpret it
 Helps a group summarize their accomplishments

Facilitator Actions…
 Clearly and briefly define y o u r r o l e a t t h e o u t s e t
 Periodic ally ask for feedback
 Promote group involv ement in small dec is io n s e a rly o n . Co me t to a g re e men t
on a time for closure, ground rules, etc.
 Use the group memory to remind t hem what you, as a group, have
accomplished, and what you are trying to accomplish.
 Focus the group on positive acc omplishm ents: “We’ve done a lot of good work
today. Let’s give ourselves a pat on the back.”
 Gi v e y ours elf perm i s s i on t o ma ke mista k es./ Reflect on your interactions with
the group and ask yourself, “is there anything I would do differently?”
 When you receive negative feedback, learn what you can from it. Then let it
go.

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 A TEAM’S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Task, Maintenance, and Individual
W h e n p e o p l e c o m e t o g e t h e r o n a t e a m , t he r e a r e t h r e e i m p o r t a n t n e e d s t o b e
addressed in interaction. These needs require balance in the team’s interaction.
They include (1) task needs, (2) team maintenance needs, and (3)
i n d i v id u a l n e e d s . O v e r l a p p i n g a r e a s i n t h e m o d e l b e l o w r e p r e s e n t t h e
interrelationship within the team’s basic needs. The relationship is T
not stationery, but flows among the three areas of need, depending
on the immediate focus of the team.

Identification and Description of Areas of

I M
Need
Task Need s
The task of a team includes all those activities in which team members engage
which address the achievement of the team’s vision, purpose, mission, goals, and
objectives. Typically, several categories of need arise. These are:

1. N e e d f o r c o n s e n s u s o n t h e v i s i o n , p u r p o s e , m i s s i o n , g o a l s , a n d o b j e c t i v e s o f
the team.
2. N e e d f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m t h e t e a m i s d e a l i n g w i t h .
3. N e e d f o r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , e n v i r o n m e n t , o r c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e
team works.
4. N e e d f o r d e c i s i o n s o n t h e t a s k s t h a t w i l l l e a d t o g o a l c o m p l e t i o n ; a l o n g w i t h
time lines, delegation, standards of excellence, and level of aspiration.
5. N e e d f o r n a v i g a t o r ’ s f i x . W h e r e w e a r e n o w r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t
and/or the ending point.
6. N e e d f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f p r o b l e m s o r b l o c k s t o p r o g r e s s i n m e e t i n g g o a l s o r
objectives.
7. N e e d f o r r e c o g n i t i o n o r m i l e s t o n e s a n d c l e a r o u t c o m e m e a s u r e s .

Maintenance Needs
Team members need to build, maintain, and enrich their shared life in terms of
cohesiveness and fullness. Team members need a socially-habitable environment
which satisfies their socio-emotional needs. Typically, the following maintenance
needs arise in teams:

1. N e e d f o r a d e q u a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n a c o m m o n l y s h a r e d l a n g u a g e ;
2. N e e d t o e x p r e s s e m o t i o n s a n d f e e l i n g s a s w e l l a s i d e a s , o p i n i o n s , a n d f a c t s ;
3. N e e d t o a g r e e a b o u t h o w t o p a y a t t e n t i o n t o r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d v al u e t h e m s o
that people come before task;
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 4. Need to build and maintain a climate which is supportive and safe and which
encourages opennes s and honesty in those speaking, and attentiveness and
responsiveness in those listening;
5. Need to be satisfied; to find realizat ion of purpose as individuals and as a
team;
6. Need to be engaged in a task that is important and worthwhile;
7. Need to be aware of, and belong to, the team;
8. Need to develop and maintain a fram ework of shared authority with an
acceptable balance of power among team members; and
9. Need to develop and enhance respect for diverse team members and the
i m p ort ant res ourc es eac h me mb e r b rin g s.

Individual Needs
Individuals make up a team. In the beginning, team mem bers are most conscious of
themselves and are oriented toward satisf action of their own needs. Each person
brings basic needs such as the n eed to feel included, import ant, and psychologic ally
safe on the team. These needs may emerge a s n e e d s to d e a l with a n xie ty, g u ilt,
e m p t i n e s s , o r i s o l a t i o n . Later, individuals may be conc erned with the amount of
influenc e each has, or lacks, with the team. These needs are for an appropriate
balance of power and authority in the team . They may emerge as dominanc e battles,
p o w e r s t r uggles , poli t ic al joc k ey i n g , o r wi thdrawal. Finally, indi viduals may express
n e e d s f o r w arm t h or c onc ern for others on the team.

The issue is not why people hav e needs. The point is to identify and focus on needs
and to provide for the satisfaction of t hose needs. All team members bring needs.

Need for Balance b etween the Three Areas of Need

A basic need for balance and fluidity among t hese three areas exists for al l teams.
If one area is focused on to the exclusi o n o f a n o th e r a re a , t he team risks not only
inefficienc y, but even the possibility of demise.

F o r e x a m p le, if a t eam f oc us es narrowly on task needs and ignores members’

maintenance needs, those maintenance needs tend to be taken care of at the
expense of task needs.

Conflicts which are present, but unaddres s ed, can corrode cohesiveness and create
apathy. Unacknowledged conflic t generally appears as a block to communication
and can lead to polarization of members. If attention is placed on the needs of
indiv iduals and an effort is made to prov ide for group maintenance, conflict must be
a d d r e s s e d f o r t h e t e a m t o progress toward its goals.

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 PROCESS OBSERVATION SHEET #1
“ENTERING A GROUP” BEHAVIOR: COMFORT AND SAFETY
Make comments about any or all of the follo wing; try to observe non-verbal as well
as verbal behaviors.

 What feelings did people have as they started their experience in the large
group? What did you observe that sugges ted these feelings were present?
What did people do with these feelings?

 What did you do to try to creat e comfort/safety for yourself?

 What did you see others do to cr eate their own comfort/safety?

 What did you see anyone (we trainers/st aff as well as other participants) do
to create comfort/safety for others?

 What, if anything, made you feel uncom fortable or les s than safe? What made
others feel uncomfortable or les s than safe?

 If you experience or saw anything that made anyone feel uncomfortable or

unsafe, how did you and others deal with these feelings?

 In general, how would you describe the “feel” (atmosphere/environment) of

the large group at the end of your observation time? Why?

 W h at ef f ec t does t hi s group “feeling” have on the group?

 What predictions can you make about t he “feel” of the large group over the
time we are going to be together? On what do you base your predictions ?

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 PROCESS OBSERVATION SHEET #2
MEMBERSHIP
Make comments about any or all of the follo wing; try to observe non-verbal as well
as verbal behaviors.

 What have you done to help yourself f eel included in the large group or to
feel that you belong here?

 What have others done to create t he same feeling for themselves?

 What behaviors have you seen participant s engage in that brought others i nto
a c t i v i t ies and/ or dis c us s ions (b e h a vio rs that made others feel welcome or a
part of the group)?

 What have trainers/staff done (or not done) to help individuals feel that they
belong her e/feel included?

 What kinds of behaviors have you seen t hat excluded others, intentionally or
u n i nt ent i onall y ?

 Has there been any sub-grouping? What kinds of alignments were formed?
What characteristics or factors l ead people to form these alig nments?

 What kinds of boundaries have formed between groups?

 What effect did noticeable sub- groups have on the atmosphere in the larger
group?

 To what extent do you feel that you “ b e l o n g ” ( o r n o t ) t o the larger group? Why
(or why not)?

 Do you think others feel that they belong? Why or why not?

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 PROCESS OBSERVATION SHEET #3
LEADERSHIP AND INFLUENCE
Make comments about any or all of the follo wing; try to observe non-verbal as well
as verbal behaviors.

 Have you been doing any leading or engaging in any behaviors that were
influential in the process of t he large group or a small group?

 Have you been tempted to do so but stopped yourself? If so, w hat stopped
you?

 How do you feel about your personal lead ership and influence within the large
group?

 What kinds of “leading” behavio rs (facilitating, influe ncing, formal leader ship,
informal leadership) have you obs erved in other group members?

 Were indiv iduals with a labeled or a ssumed leadership role (example. the
leader of a small task group) more or less influential than more “informal”
leaders (example, other participants in a small task group)?

 Have there been any rivalries, struggles f o r l e a d e r s h i p , b i d s f o r i n f l u e n c e ,

challenges to authority, etc.? (am ong participants, between participants and
t r a i n e r s / s t a f f , a n d / o r a m o n g t r ain e r s / s t aff?) If there have been, describe one
o r t w o of t hem .

 What have you seen the trainers/staff do to share leadership or to maintain

leadership amongst themselves and with the large group?

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 WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN GROUPS
Contributed to Planned Parenthood Training of Trainers
By Caroline Haskell
All human interactions have two major ingr edients – content and process. Process is
concerned with what is happening between and to group members while the group is
working. Sensitivity to group process will better enable trainers to diagnose group
p r o b l e m s earl y , deal w i t h t hem mo re e ffe ctively and will enable participants to be
more effective trainees. One of our main goals here is to become better observers.

T o l o o k a t proc es s reall y means to fo cus on what is going on in the group and try to
u n d e r s t a n d w hat i t m eans and how to in te rvene as a trainer to best serve the
training and the trainees. Below are some guidelines to help trainers analy ze group
behavior.

Participation
 Who participates more than others?
 Who participates less?
 Do you see any shift in participation throughout the training?
 How are those who remain silent treated? How is their silence interpreted – consent,
disagreement, disinterest, fear, etc.?
 Who keeps the ball rolling?
 Do you see any possible reason for these processes in the group’s interaction?

Communication
 Who talks? For how long? How often?
 Who talks to whom? Who talks after whom? Who interrupts whom?
 Who do people look at when they talk? (single person, potential supporter, scan the group, no
one?)
 What style of communication is used (assertions, questions, tone of voice, gestures, etc.)?
 Do you see any possible reason for these processes in the group’s interaction?

Influence
Influence can take many forms. It can be positive or negative; it can enlis t support
or cooperation of othe rs or alienate them.

 Which members are high in influence? Which members are low in influence?
 Is there any shifting in influence? What styles of influence are used (autocratic, peacemaker,
laissez-faire, democratic)?
o Autocratic – Does anyone attempt to impose his/her will or values on others? Do any
members block action when it is not moving in the direction they desire? Who pushes to
get the group organized?
o Peacemaker – Who eagerly supports other’s decisions? Does anyone consistently try to
avoid conflict? Is any member typically deferential toward other members (thus, giving
them power)?
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 o Laissez-faire – Are any group members getting attention because of their apparent lack
of involvement in the group? Who seems to be withdrawn and uninvolved?
o Democratic – Does anyone try to include everyone in a group discussion or decision?
When feelings run high and tensions mount, which members attempt to deal with the
conflict in a problem-solving way?
 Do you see any rivalry in the group? Is there a struggle for leadership? What effect does it have
on group members?
 Do you see any possible reason for these processes in the group’s interaction?

Decision-Making Process
 How are decisions made? Does anyone make a decision and carry it on without checking with
the group? Does anyone decide on the topic and immediately begin to talk about it? What effect
does decision making have on the group?
 Who supports other members’ suggestions? Does this support result in the two members
deciding the topic or activity for the group? How does this affect others?
 Is there any evidence of a majority pushing a decision through over other members’ objections?
Do they call for a vote?
 Is there any attempt to get all members participating in a decision? What effect does this have
on the group?
 Does anyone make contributions that receive no response or recognition? What effect does this
have on that member?
 Do you see any possible reasons for these processes in the group’s interactions?

Membership
 A major concern for group members is the degree to which they are accepted. Different patterns
of interaction may develop in the group that give clues to the degree and kind of membership.
 Are there any subgroups? How do group members include others?
 Do some people seem to be “outside” the group? Are some “in”? How those “outside” are
treated?
 Do you see any possible reasons for these processes in the group’s interactions?

Feelings
 What signs of feelings do you observe in group members? (anger, irritation, frustration, warmth,
affection, excitement, boredom, defensiveness, competitiveness)
 What nonverbal indicators can you observe? (tone of voice, facial expressions, body posture or
movement, etc.)
 Do you see any attempts by group members to block the expression of feelings? How is this
done? Does anyone do this consistently?
 Do you see any possible reasons for these processes in the group’s interaction?

The next two elements deal with group func tions. There are certain functions that
need to be carried out in any group. How these functions are accomplished and by
w h o m a r e of im port anc e t o t r ainers in understanding process.
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Task Functions
 Does anyone ask for or make suggestions as to the best way to proceed or tackle a problem?
 Does anyone attempt to summarize what has been covered or what has been going on in the
group?
 Is there any giving or asking for facts, ideas, opinions, feelings, feedback or searching for
alternatives?
 Who keeps the group on target? Who prevents topic jumping or going off on tangents?

Maintenance Functions
 These functions are important to the morale of the group.
 Who helps others get into the discussion (gate openers)?
 Who cuts off others or interrupts them (gate closers)?
 How well are members getting their ideas across? Are some members preoccupied and not
listening? Are there attempts by group members to help others clarify their ideas?
 How are ideas rejected? How do members react when their ideas are not accepted? Do
members attempt to support others when they reject their ideas?

Group Atmosphere
 Trying to capture in words the overall impression of the way a group works will give trainers
some insight into what members do and do not like about the training.
 Who seems to prefer a friendly congenial atmosphere? Is there any attempt to suppress conflict
or unpleasant feelings?
 Who seems to prefer an atmosphere of conflict and disagreement? Do any members provoke or
annoy others?
 Do people seem involved or interested? What is the atmosphere like?
 Are certain topics avoided in the group (e.g. talk about immediate feelings in the group,
discussing the leader’s behavior, etc)?
 Who seems to reinforce this avoidance? How?
 Are group members overly nice or polite to each other? Are only pleasurable feelings
expressed? Do members agree with each other too readily? What happens when members
disagree?
 Do you see norms operating about participation or the kinds of questions that are allowed (e.g.
“If I talk, you must talk, or “If I tell my problems, you have to tell yours”)? Do members feel free
to ask each other about their feelings? Do questions tend to be restricted to intellectual topics
or events outside of the group?

Emotional Issues: Causes of Self-Oriented Emotional

Behavior
The processes described so far deal with th e g ro u p ’s a tte mp ts to wo rk to g e th e r.
There can be underlying emotional issues which produce a variety of emotional
behaviors which can interfere with or are destructive of group functioning.
Recognizing them and understandi ng their causes can assist trainers in e ffectively
intervening and channeling these emot ional energies to benefit the group:

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 What are these issues or basic causes?
 The problem or identity: Who am I in this group? Where do I fit in? What kind of behavior is
acceptable here?
 The problem of goals and needs: What do I want from the group? Can the group goals be made
consistent with my goals? What have I to offer to the group?
 The problem of power, control, and influence: Who will control what we do? How much can we
trust each other and how can we achieve a greater level of trust?
 What kinds of behaviors are produced in response to these problems?
 Dependency-counterdependency: Who either leans on or resists anyone in the group who
represents authority, especially the trainer?
 Fighting and Controlling: Who asserts their personal dominance, attempting to get their own way
regardless of others?
 Withdrawing: Who tries to remove themselves from the sources of uncomfortable feelings by
psychologically leaving the group?
 Pairing up: Who seeks out one or two supporters and forms a kind of emotional sub-group in
which the members protect each other?
 These are just some of the elements which can be observed in a group. The main point is that
improving our skills in observing what is going on in training groups will provide us with
important information for understanding these groups and increasing our effectiveness as
trainers in managing group process.

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Goals & Objectives

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 GOALS AND BEHAVIORAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Developing and writing goals and behavior al learning objectives is an essential step
in designing a training. Goals and behavioral learning objectives are distinct entities
and are defined below.

Goals
Goals are the purpose or the in tention of your training:

 The “why” underlying the training

 The big pic t ure
 The end destination
 The problem being addressed
Goals grow out of needs that organi z a t i o n s , g r o u p s , a n d individuals have.

Goals guide your behavioral learning objec tives.

Behavioral Learning Objectives

Behavioral learning objectives are the desir ed results or outcomes of the training:

 The steps trainees need to be able to take in order to achieve the goals
 The statements of what trainees will be ab le to do at the end of a given
segment of training
 The goals made specific, m easurable, and achievable
Behavioral learning objectives grow out of your goals.

Behavioral learning objectives guide your training agenda and design.

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 VERBS FOR WRITING GOALS

U n d e r s t a nd IMPROVE Appreciat e

Learn Make Develop

Know how to Increase Kn o w r elev a nt

ways to
Know

VERBS FOR WRITING BEHAVIORAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES

List S olve Explain

Describe Diagram Ma tch

Place Name DRAFT

Share Use Order

Identify Apply Classify

Select Quote   De monstrate

Clarify Write down Compare

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 GUIDELINES FOR WRITING
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When writing behavioral learning objective s, use the following phrase and format:

At the end of this training, the participants will be able to:





The following questio ns will gu ide you in t he develop ment of specific beha vioral
learning objectives:

 Is the objective clear?

 I s t he obj ec t i v e relev ant t o the needs of the participants?
 Is the objective measurable?
 Can the participants accomplish the objective?
 Does the objective lead to improved performance?
 Does the objective state the desired outcome in behavioral terms?
A well-writ ten behavioral learning objecti v e satisfies the following criteria:

 It states only one purpose or outcome

 It focuses on a participant-centered outcome
 It specifies the time frame for achievement
 It utilizes realistic an d specific measures
 It contains a strong action verb
 It provides a useful guide in planning training activities
 It mov es t he part i c i pant c lo se r to achieving the stated goals

If you follow these guidelines, you will be able to use the behavioral learning
objectives to both develop and evaluate y our training.

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Verbs
I n w r i t i n g o b j e c t i v e s , i t i s v e r y i m p o r ta n t t o s e l e c t v e r b s w h i c h w i l l m e a s u r e a
t r a i n e e ’ s p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e m o s t c o m m o n m is t a k e i s t o w r i t e a n o b j e c t i v e w i t h a
verb which is too general or difficult to measure. Listed below are the types of verbs
t o b e a v o i d e d a n d t h e t y p e s o f v e r b s t o b e u s e d i n w r i t i n g o b j e c t iv e s .

A B
Avoid using… Consider using…
to know to write to solve
to understand to list to plan
to appreciate to define to compare
to like to describe to estimate
to enjoy to i n t e r p r et
to believe

The following chart may be helpful to show verbs for different higher orders of
objectives. Using these verbs does not guarantee a higher-order objective – but it
may help.

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 UNDERSTANDING BY DESIGN
Jay McTighe and Grant Wiggins
Thanks to Carole Miller and Judith McKoy, Planned Parenthood of Western Washington
January 12, 2004

Enduring Understanding
 This is the big picture I want my trainees to have, beyond my time with them.
 This is what I want them to understand and be able to use several years from now, after they
have forgotten the details. This is the end of a long road.
 If I bump into my trainees in 5 or 10 years, what would I want them to tell me they remember
from my training.
 …think GOALS!

Essential Questions
 These are the road signs along the way to the enduring understanding.
 They are the questions trainees have to be able to answer/understand in order to get to the
enduring understanding.
 These questions tell me and my trainees that they are heading towards the big picture, towards
the enduring understanding.
 These are questions that don’t necessarily have easy or pat answers.
 They are intended to stimulate discussion, provide direction and guide trainees to get and stay
on the right road.
 …think OBJECTIVES!

Assessments
 Look at each Essential Question.
 For each one, describe how you will know that students can answer these questions, or are
thinking about them.
 These are your assessments.
 You should have one for each Essntial Question.
 These are activities we design and implement during the training that give us information about
the extent to which participants “get it.”
 …think METHODS!

Now Plan
 Now you write up your training design for the topic at hand being guided by your work above.
 The assessments you have created may be some of the learning activities for the training or you
may have other training/learning activities, in addition to your assessments.
 Hold your EU and EQs in your mind as you create your design. Everything you do should point
toward them.
 …think TOTAL TRAINING DESIGN!

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Multiple Intelligences

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 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE INVENTORY
Research shows that people ha ve at least 8 different types of i ntellig ence .
Depending on your background and age, some intelligences are more developed
than others. This inventory will help you fi n d o u t w h a t y o u r s t r engths are. Knowing
this, you can work to develop the other inte lligences that you do not use as often.

Verbal - Linguistic
I get more out of listening to the radio or spoken word than from TV or films
I enjoy games like Scrabble, Anagrams, and Password.
I enjoy entertaining myself with tongue twisters, nonsense rhymes, or puns
Other people sometimes stop and ask me the meaning of the words I use
I like talking and writing about my ideas
When I drive down the freeway, I pay more attention to the words written than scenery
If something breaks and won’t work, I read the instruction book first
I have written something I am particularly proud of that earned me recognition from others
I read books just for fun
If I have to memorize something, I create a rhyme or saying to help me remember.

Total

Logical – Mathematical
I enjoy playing games or solving brainteasers that require logical thinking.
I like to set up “what if” experiments.
My mind searches for patterns, regularities, or logical sequences of things.
I am interested in new developments in science.
I believe most everything has a rational explanation.
If something breaks and won’t work, I look at the pieces and try to figure out how it works.
Sometimes I think in clear, abstract, wordless, images and concepts.
I find logical flaws in things people say and do at home, work, or school.
I feel more comfortable when something is measured, categorized, analyzed, or quantified.
I like playing chess, checkers, or Monopoly

Total

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 Visual – Spatial
I frequently use a camera or video camera to record what I see around me.
I enjoy doing jigsaw puzzles, mazes, and other visual puzzles.
I daydream.
I like to draw or doodle.
Geometry was easier than algebra in school.
I can generally find my way in unfamiliar territory and prefer a map to written directions.
I prefer looking at reading material that is heavily illustrated.
I can easily imagine how something may appear if it were looked down upon from a bird’s eye view.
If I have to memorize something I draw a diagram to help me remember.
If something breaks and won’t work, I tend to study the diagram of how it works.

Total

Musical
I frequently listen to the radio, MP3’s, CDs.
I play a musical instrument.
My life would be poorer if there were no music in it.
I sometimes catch myself walking down the street with a TV jingle or other tune in mind
I can easily keep time with a drum or tambourine
I know tunes to many different songs or musical pieces.
I can hear a tune once or twice and usually am able to hum or sing it back fairly accurately.
I often make tapping sounds, or sing melodies when working, studying, or learning something new.
In an argument I tend to shout or punch or move in some sort of rhythm.
If I have to memorize something, I try to create a rhyme about the event.

Total

Kinesthetic
I like working with my hands at concrete activities such as sewing, weaving, carving, and carpentry.
My best ideas come to me when I’m out for a long walk or jog, or when engaged in physical activity.
I frequently use hand gestures or other forms of body language when conversing with someone.
I enjoy daredevil amusement rides or similar physical experiences.
I need to practice a new skill rather than reading or seeing a video that describes it.
I describe myself as well-coordinated.
If I have to memorize something, I write it out a number of times until I know it.
If something breaks and won’t work, I tend to play with the pieces to try to fit them together.
I have trouble sitting still for any length of time.
I am involved in physical activity on a regular basis.

Total

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 Naturalist
I am keenly aware of my surroundings and of what goes on around me.
I like to collect things like rocks, shells, insects.
I often like to spend my free time outdoors.
I enjoy fishing, hunting, gardening, or growing plants.
I have one or more pets
I enjoy learning the names of living things in our environment, such as flowers and trees.
I check the weather reports for changing conditions regularly.
If something breaks down, I look around me to try and see what I can find to fix the problem
If I have to memorize something I tend to organize it into categories
I am concerned about the environment

Total

Intrapersonal
I am able to respond to set backs with resilience.
I have a special hobby that I keep pretty much to myself.
I have some important goals for my life that I think about on a regular basis.
I have a realistic view of my strengths and weaknesses (from feedback from other sources).
I keep a diary or journal.
I consider myself strong-willed and independent minded.
If I have to memorize something, I tend to close my eyes and feel the situation.
If something breaks and won’t work, I wonder if it’s worth fixing.
I tend to not like crowds.
When I have a problem, I tend to work it out on my own.

Total

Interpersonal
When I have a problem, I am more likely to seek out another person for help than attempt to work it
out on my own.
I have at least three close friends.
I favor social past times over individual recreations.
I enjoy the challenge of teaching another person, or group of people, what I know how to do.
Friends ask my advice because I seem to be a natural leader.
I feel comfortable I the midst of a crowd.
I get involved in social activities connected with work, school, or my community.
I like working with others in groups.
If something breaks and won’t work, I try to find someone who can help me.
If I have to memorize something, I ask someone to quiz me to see if I know it.

Total

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 EIGHT WAYS OF KNOWING

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 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE OVERVIEW

Intelligence Description Awakened by Work with it Through

Verbal – Linguistic The ability to use words -Spoken Word -Reading
“Words” – both spoken & written -Reading someone’s -Writing, journaling
and all of the complex ideas or poetry -Speaking, debating,
possibilities of language -Writing one’s own discussion
ideas, thoughts, or -Listening
poetry
Logical- The ability to use -Situations involving -Use of patterns for thinking
Mathematical inductive & deductive numbers (prediction, intuitive &
“Questions” thinking/reasoning, -Problem solving deductive thinking)
numbers and the -Analytical thinking -Use of numbers
recognition of abstract (compare/contrast two -Metacognition
patterns. items for example) -Categorizing
-Recognition of
patterns
Visual – Spatial The ability to use the -Presenting the mind -Use of pictures & colors
“Visualize” visual arts (painting, with designs, patterns, -Use of paint, markers, clay
drawing, sculpting); shapes, and pictures -Drawing
visualization and design -Engaging our -Visualization, guided
with space, visualizing imagination imagery, pretending
objects from different exercises.
perspectives & angles.
Bodily/Kinesthetic The ability to use the -Physical movement -Use of gestures & body
“Do” body to express -Physical exercise movement
emotions or ideas, to -Expression through -Role play, drama, mime,
play a game, or to the body (dance, charades
create a new product. drama, body lang.) -Use of hands
M u s i c a l /R hy t hmi c The ability to recognize -Music -Use of rhythm
& use rhythmic & tonal -Rhythms -Melodies
patterns, sounds from -Sound -Background Music
the environment, the -Instruments -Rap, songs
human voice, & musical -Dance
instruments.
Naturalist The ability to recognize -Natural world: flowers, -Communion with nature
& appreciate the natural animals, out-of-doors -Interacting w/ living
world. creatures or things
-Recognizing & classifying
-Growing natural things.

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 Intelligence Description Awakened by Work with it Through
Interpersonal The ability to work in -Person-to-person -Reflective listening
“Socialize” cooperative groups, encounters -Teams & cooperative
communicate verbally & -Working together learning groups
nonverbally with other towards a common -Giving & receiving
people, notice mood, goal feedback
motivations, & -Interviewing
intentions.
Intrapersonal The ability to -Introspection -Metacognition
“Individual” understand the internal -Awareness of our -Journaling
aspects of oneself, ones feelings, thinking -Working alone
feelings and emotions, processes, self- -Mindfulness exercises
thought processes reflection, and
(metacognition), and spirituality.
spiritual intuitions.
Gardiner feels this is
the most private
intelligence and
requires all other
intelligence forms to
express itself

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 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE ACTIVITY IDEAS
Verbal/Linguistic Visual/Spatial cont’d
 Make an audiotape  Use visualization or guided
 U s e Word Games / P uz z les imagery
 Write a newsletter/booklet  Make a collage or montage
 Lead a dis c ussion  Draw, paint, sculpt
 Use humor/Jokes/Puns  Cartoons
 Journal/Diary Keeping  Play Pictionary
 C o nduc t an I nt erv i ew
 Use storytelling Musical/Rhythmic
 Debate  Write song lyrics that explain
 Summarize the topic
 Develop slogans  Use backg round music for
 Give a presentation transitions
 Explain or teach something just  Set mood with music
learned  Develo p a rap or song that
 Use of oral debate/Creative explains the topic
writing/Poetry  Singing or humming to find a
partner
L o g ic a l / M athem ati cal  Create a musical collage to
 Use analogies to explain depict the topic
 Categorize facts about the topic  Use rhythmic patterns to
 Play logic/ pattern games illu strate
(Jeopardy)  Use environmental sounds
 Analyze st atistics  Create melodies and rhythms to
 Create a timetable emphasize points.
 Problem solve
 Make syllogisms to demonstrate Body/Kinesthetic
 C o nduc t an ex perim ent  Role play or simulate
 Brainstorm  Create movement to explain
 Invent a game
Visual/Spatial  Make task or puzzle cards
 C h art , m ap, graph  Build or construct
 Imagine a scene or situation  Plan and attend a field trip
 Look for patterns  Use a people find or scavenger
 Mindmap hunt
 Use visual diagrams/pictures  Make a model
 Create videotapes or photos  Use hands -on material to
 Use color to code demonstrate

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Body/Kinesthetic cont’d Intrapersonal cont’d
 Design a product  Self-assess
 E x e rc is e  Keep a journal
 P l a y c harades or ot her phy sica l
games Interpersonal
 Graffiti boards  Conduct a meeting
 Human graph  Use small groups
 Make up a dance or drama  Partners
about the topic  Each one teach one
 Coach
Naturalist  Use teams
 See natural patterns  Give/receive feedback
 Use of natural materials  Develo p an advisory council
 Use flower s or plants in the  Group projects
room  Collaborate
 Use seed packets as a way to  Play communication games
group (telephone)
 Use sensory stimulation
exercises
 Hands-on labs
 Environmental awareness
 U s e pi c t ures of nat ural w or ld
 Play games that require you to
be outside
 Explore nature, animals, and
artificial things
 D r a w , paint , or phot ograph
natural objects
 Make an observation notebook

Intrapersonal
 Imagine doing a skill
 Use self-directed learning
 Independent study
 Focusing attention
 Metacognate
 F i n d pers onal im pli c at i ons o r
applic ations
 Move from memorizing to
synthesizing, integrating and
a p p ly i ng
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 INSTRUCTIONAL MENUS
Kinesthetic Menu cont’d
Linguistic Menu  Plan and attend a field trip that will…
 Use storytelling to explain…  Use the qualities of a physically-
 Conduct a debate on… educated person to demonstrate…
 Write a poem, myth, legend, short play,  Devise a scavenger hunt to…
or news article about…  Make a model of…
 Relate a story or novel to…  Use hands-on materials to
 Give presentations on… demonstrate…
 Lead a class discussion on…  Design a product for..
 Create a talk show/radio program  Select and use technology to…
about…
 Write a newsletter, booklet, or Visual Menu
dictionary about…  Chart, map, cluster, or graph…
 Invent slogans for…  Create a slide show, videotape, or
 Make an audiotape of… photo album of…
 Conduct an interview of…  Design a poster, bulletin board, or
 Write a letter to…about… mural of…
 Use technology to write…  Use a memory system to learn…
 Create artwork that…
L o g ic a l - Mathem ati cal Menu  Develop architectural drawings that…
 Create story problems for…  Make advertisements for…
 Translate…into a mathematical  Vary the size and shape of…
formula…  Color-code the process of…
 Create a timeline of…  Invent a board or card game to
 Design and conduct an experiment on… demonstrate…
 Make a strategy game that…  Illustrate, draw, paint, sketch, sculpt or
 Use a Venn Diagram to explain… construct…
 Make up syllogisms to demonstrate  Use the overheard projector to teach…
 Mae of analogies to explain…  Use technology to…
 Use…thinking skill to…
 Design a code for… Musical Menu
 Categorize facts about…  Give a presentation with appropriate
 Describe patterns or symmetry in… musical accompaniment on…
 Select and use technology to…  Write song lyrics for…
 Sing a rap or song that explains…
Kinesthetic Menu  Indicate the rhythmical patterns in…
 Role play or simulate…  Explain how the lyrics of a song relate
 Create a movement or sequence of to…
movements to explain…  Explain how the music of a song is
 Choreograph a dance of… similar to…
 Invent a board or floor fame off…  Present a short class musical on…
 Make a task or puzzle cards for…  Make an instrument and use it to
 Build or construct a… demonstrate…
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Musical Menu cont’d Inte r pe r s ona l Me nu c ont’d
 Use music to enhance the learning of…  Using one of your strengths, assume a
 Collect and present a song about… role in a group to accomplish…
 Write a new ending to a song or musical  Use a telecommunication program to
composition so that it explains… reach…to...
 Create a musical collage to depict…
 Use musical technology to… Intr a pe r s ona l Me nu
 Describe qualities you possess that will
I n t e r p e r s onal Menu help you successfully complete…
 Conduct a meeting to address…  Create a personal analogy for…
 With a partner, use “out loud problem  Set and pursue a goal to…
solving” to…  Describe how you feel about…
 Role-play multiple perspectives on…  Explain your personal philosophy
 Organize or participate in a group to… about…
 Intentionally use…social skills to learn  Describe one of your personal values
about… about…
 Participate in a service project to…  Use self-directed learning to…
 Teach someone else about…  Write a journal entry on…
 With a small group, collaboratively plan  Explain the purpose you perceive in
rules or procedures to accomplish… studying…
 Help resolve a local or global problem  Conduct a project of your choice on…
by…  Receive feedback from another person
 Practice giving and receiving feedback on yoru efforts to…
on…  Self-assess your work in…
 Use technology to…

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Training Methodologies and

Activities

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 32 OPTIONS FOR LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Brainstorming/brainwr iting 17. Panel Pres entations
2. Buzz groups 18. Problem-solving
3. Case Method 19. Process mapping/flowcharts
4. Computer-assisted/based learning 20. Projects
5. Contracting 21. Q u i z z e s / t e s t s
6. Debates 22. Questioning
7. Demonstrations 23. Reports
8. Distance learning 24. Revie ws
9. Field trips 25. Role Playing
10. G a m e s 26. Scripted role play ing
11. Group exercises/discussions 27. Self-paced learning
12. Guest presenters 28. Sim u lat io n s
13. Individual exercises 29. Skill teaching
14. L e c t u r e / l e c t u r e t t e 30. Storytellin g
15. Mentoring 31. Task analy s is
16. Models 32. Write to learn

1. B r a i nstorm i ng/ brai nwri ti ng

Individuals or groups take the opportunity to generate ideas on a given theme
or problem. Often uses the principl e s o f : d e f e r j u d g m e n t , q u a n t i t y b r e e d s
quality, the wilder the idea the bette r, combine and improve ideas [VanGundy.
1988]
2. Buzz Groups
Small groups of 3-5 people assemble to discuss, decide, or answer questions,
topics, or problems, present ed verbally or in writing.
3. Case Method
Realistic situations are presented from which a group analyzes , makes
decisions solves problems, empathizes with the experience of others. Also
known as case studies or situati on studies. [Owensby (1992), Elderman
(1991), McWilliam & Bailey ( 1991), Hurley et al (1990)]
4. Computer-assisted/com puter-based learning
I n t erac t iv e l earner/ c om put er p ro g ra ms a llow indiv idual learners , with minimal
or no trainer assistance to progress at their own pace, in a step-by-step
program to realize learning objectives. Multimedia programs that integrate
video, sound, photography, graphics and te xtual elements are currently being
used to a great extent in certain fields.
5. Contracting
Learners work individually or wit h tra in e rs, o th e r le a rn e rs, co -wo rke rs,
supervisors, or consumers to identify learning goa ls, activities,
r e s o u r c e s / s u p p o r t s , t i m e f r a m es, and evaluation criteria.
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6. Debates Everything should be made as
Individuals or groups choose, or are simple as possible, but not simpler.
assigned, positions r elative to a
– Albert Einstein
controversial topic. Given time to prepare,
they present arguments, and debate positions . V a r i a t i o n : a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t o f
debating, each side is asked to reve rse positions and resume the debate.
7. Demonstrations
Learners are shown and told how somethi ng works, or how to do something.
Demonstration is usually followed by givi ng the learners the opportunity to try
or practice the skill with coachin g and feedback.
8. Distance Learning
Distance learning generally refers to va rio u s fo rms o f vid e o te le co n fe re n ci n g –
using electronics to link two or more peopl e in different locations for learning
interaction s.
9. Field Trips
Learners leave the structured envir onment of a training classroom and
venture out in the world to observe, tr y new things; search for i nformation,
interview people, etc.
10. Games
Learners play games that are construct ed to address the learning objectives.
Games can be used as icebreak ers, for a change-of-pace, to illu strate
m a teri al, f or a f un w ay t o revie w in formation, to liven up a session, to add a
spark of friendly com petition. [Renner, Rin ke , Ne wstro m, Sca n n e ll, Gre e n,
Cross (1990)]
11. Group exercises/discussions
Small groups of learners assemble to cooperatively complete a task or
process or discuss a given topic . Gr oups then reconvene in the larger group
to report, compare resu lts, and articulate what can be learned from the
e x e rc i s e. \
12. Guest Presenters
Guest subject matter experts attend t he session to present their perspective,
demonstrate techniques, answer questions, etc.
13. Individual exercises
Learners spend time individually to comple te a task, develop plans, develop a
position, brainwrite, reflect on the information and their response, etc.
14. L e c ture/ l ecturette
A formal discourse in which a subjec t m a t t e r e x p e r t d e v e l o p s a n d d e l i v e r s a
presentation that conveys information related to the learning objectives.
Lectures can be combined with other methods to help keep learners actively
engaged.

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15. M e n t o r i n g Questions are eternal, answers are for the
day. And when you find a way of genuinely
M e n t ori ng of t en ref ers t o a fo rma l, rephrasing the question, you allow far more
long-term apprenticeship thought. They way you conceptualize the
relationship. A limited version of question already determines the range of
mentoring in a training session answers you can conceive.
would hav e learners who are – Edwin Friedman
r e l a t i v e l y n e w t o t he s ubj ect ma tte r,
paired with more experienced practi tioners who can serve as teachers,
advisors, and coaches.
16. M o del s
A small scale replic a is used so learners can analyze a complex or large
s c a le s ubj ec t in i t s ent iret y.
17. P a n el P resentati ons
People wit h valuable perspectiv es on the training topic are invited to attend
the session to present their viewpoints, answer questions, and discuss the
issues.
18. Problem-solving
A problem is identified and an appropr iate structured problem-solving
m e thod(s ) is int roduc ed. I ndividuals or groups are given the opportunity to
solve the problem. [VanGundy (1988), deBono, E. (1992), Quinlan-Hall, D., &
Renner, P. (1990)]
19. Process m apping/flowcharts
I n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y , understand, or improve proc edures or protocol, the
sequence of operations and key decisi ons are mapped out and reviewe d or
analyzed.
20. Projects
Learners are given projects to comp lete that require understanding and
applic ation of the principles, skills, k n o w l e d g e , o r a t t it u d e s r e l a t e d t o t h e
training topic. Projec ts can be presented for in-session use or as “homework.”
21. Quizzes/tests
Quizzes or tests can be used in a variet y o f wa ys: a s p re - o r p o st-co u rse
evaluation tools, as a method of review, as competitive games, etc.
22. Questioning
Qu es t ions t hat are c aref ull y co n str ucted and artfully presented lead to
l e a r ner-c ent ered, rat her t han co n te n t-c entered, learning. Questioning is used
as an activity in its own right, and as an essential component of many of the
other methods. The effective use of questions is an essential sk ill for every
f a c i l i t at or and t rainer t o m a ste r. [Fri end, F. & Cook, L. ( 1 9 9 2 ) , C r a p e , R .
( 1 9 88), V arney , G. (1991)]

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23. Reports There are two ways of spreading
Learners or facilitators can present detaile d light: to be the candle or the
mirror that reflects it.
accounts of situations or issues that are
relevant to the training topic for the group to – Edith Wharton
consider, discuss, problem-solve, etc.
24. Reviews
Training s essions often cover an abundance o f m a t e r i a l . F o r m al review time
in a session can incorporate many of t he training methods suggested in this
section to review the material in order to facilitate comprehension and
retention of the material.
25. Role Playing
Situations that typify real-world ex periences are presented. Learners act out
their assigned roles, applying realistic behavior to the contrived situations .
Variations: multiple role plays t hroughout the room, asking players to reverse
r o l e s ; l et more t han one l earn e r p la y any given char acter; scripted role
playing.
26. Scripted role playing
The learners watch a story that dramatizes a situat ions or theme that is
central to the training topic. The “s tory” is presented by participants who
assume the roles of characters in a situation and read from previous ly
developed scripts. The entire group t hen discusses, analyzes, and problem-
solves around the situation that wa s presented. Variations: small groups
develop and present scripted role plays in the session; scripts might include
the revelation of characters’ thoughts as well as dialogue.
27. Self-paced learning
Materials and processes can be designed to allow individual learners, with
minimal or no trainer assistance, to pr ogress at their own pace, in a step-by-
step program to realize l earning objectives . Comput er-based learning is one
example, but self-paced learning can be accomplished with lower-tech
m e thods s uc h as w rit t en ma te ri a ls/workbooks, audio, and/or video materials.
28. Simulations
A n env ironm ent i s c reat ed that models a real or anticipated sit uation.
Combine this method with others listed in this section for introducing or
practicing new material or troubleshoot ing situations. [McAteer, P. (1991),
S h i rt s , R . (1992)]
29. S k i l l t e a ch i n g
F o r m a l p r o c e d u r e s a r e e m p l o y e d t o explain and demonstrate a new skill, and
allow adequate time for learners to practice the technique with ongoing
coaching and feedbac k.

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30. S t o r y t e l l i ng
Learners share concrete experiences related to the training topic. These
stories help provide a personal connection in the material and help learners
clarify their interest, values, opinions , and stake in the topic. Listeners have
the opportunity to reflect on a diverse wealth of experiences.
31. Task anal ysis
Individuals , small groups, or large groups, break down the sequential proc ess
of a technique or procedure in order to understand the subtleties and
interrelatedness of all the components.
32. W r i t e t o l ea r n
Learners are given a provocativ e t heme/question/problem/task and asked to
write down their thoughts before the group deals wit h the topic verbally. This
technique helps people gain acc ess to their thinking processes so they can
more confidently and clearly proceed to the next stage of learning. (Hile,
1992)

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 GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Source: Trainer Development Program Manual, Planned Parenthood, Alameda-San
Francisco, and Process West Trainers Workshop Manual, David Larry, Austin, Texas.

1. Many educators belie ve that trainers s hould never utilize a lear ning activit y
with participants that they have not participated in themselves. Have I
participate d in the activity (or observed another trainer utilizing the activity)?
2. Am I clear about why I am using this activi ty and how it fits in with the course
objectives ?
3. Do I feel comfortable using the activity?
4. Do I feel competent using the activity?
5. Some activities require a greater amount of group rappor t than others. Has
sufficient group rapport been established fo r participants to feel comfortable
in the activity?
6. Is the activity one which parent/community might question? Have I checked
this out with the appropriate people?
7. D o I hav e enough t im e f or th e cla ss to “p rocess” the activity effectively?
8. Do I have the facilitie s and materi als required by the activity?
9. I f i t “ b o m bs, ” c a n I t ur n i t into a learning experience?

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 USING VISUAL AIDS
Visual aids can help clarify verbal inform a tio n , e mp h a size ke y p o in ts, ma ke a b str a c t
material more concrete, and add inte rest and vitality to presentations.

Handouts are useful when you want informat ion to be saved and used again by the
audienc e, when you are presenting complex data, and when y ou want to be clear
about assignments during and afte r the training ses sion.

 Be sure that handouts correctly reflect the information or task that you want to present or assign
to the audience.
 Limit your handouts to those that are truly necessary and helpful. Avoid overloading your
audience with irrelevant material.
 Use consistent format that is easy-to-read and appealing to the eye.
 Proofread handouts for incorrect information, spelling and grammatical errors, and layout
mistakes.
 Consider using different colored paper to help audience distinguish handouts easily.
 Make sure to refer to handouts that you have passed out so that the audience is aware of why
they have received them and how they will be useful.

Flip Charts are an excellent way to present ideas that you would lik e to keep before
the audience or refer back to at a later point.

 Prepare flip charts prior to your session or during your presentation.

 Introduce material verbally prior to using a flip chart.
 Print clearly, using a combination of capital and lower case letters.
 Write large enough that the words can be read in the back of the room.
 Use a variety of colored markers.
 Position the easel so that everyone can see it.
 Stand next to the easel when writing rather than turning your back to the audience.
 If hanging flip charts after writing them, do so in a logical order to minimize confusion among
the audience.
 After using a flip chart for one topic, flip the paper to reveal a blank page. This will prevent the
audience from lingering behind or getting ahead of you.

Dry Erase Boards an d Chalkbo ards are also an excellent way to present key points
to the audience. In using either type of board, you will follow most of the same
guidelines discussed above for flipcharts. There are a few additional suggestions.

 Use dry erase boards and chalkboards to record information that is only needed temporarily
since you may need to erase it to make space for new information.
 When you do erase, make sure you erase complete blocks or related information to avoid
confusion between topics.
 Use writing and erasing implements specifically designed for the boards.

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P o we r p o int P resentati ons can be used to reinforce the overall outline of a training,
to emphasize critical points, and to provide complex data.

 Use an attractive and easy-to-read layout that is consistent throughout the session.
 Use type that is large enough to be read from a distance.
 Use just enough words to reinforce the point that you are making verbally. Avoid cluttering the
screen with too much information.
 Use some graphic techniques to “jazz up” the presentation, but remember that sophisticated
graphics are not the main point of the training and cannot replace an effective trainer or training
activity.
 Do not read what you are projecting on the screen. It is not a script, but a visual aid that
supports the training activity or session.
 Test the projector in advance to be sure it is working and that you know how to work it.
 Make sure everyone in the room can see the screen and that the focus is sharp.
 Adjust the room lighting to enhance readability, but not so dark that the audience cannot see
you or each other.
 Use a pointer when referring to a specific place on the screen.
 Consider making hard copies of the individual screens that can be used as handouts.

Photographs and Video Clips can add lif e and color to a presentation. They can
also put the audience straight to sleep if inappropriately used.

 Insert pictures and video clips to illustrate and support your points.
 Use pictures and video clips which are visible from a distance.
 Put pictures in the proper order and number them in case they get mixed up during the
presentation.
 Know the exact starting place for each video clip and queue up tapes if necessary.
 Test the projection system in advance to be sure it is working and that you know how to work it.
 Make sure everyone in the room can see the screen and that the focus is sharp.
 Adjust the room lighting to enhance readability, but not so dark that the audience cannot see
you or each other.
 Talk to the audience and not to the screen.

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Group Facilitation and

Trainer Interventions

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 LISTENING IS MORE THAN MERELY HEARING
From: People Skills by Robert Bolton, Ph.D.
Touchstone Book by Simonn and Schuster 1986

I often ponder over the nature of true human sincerity, true transparency… It is a rare and
difficult thing; and how much it depends on the person who is listening to us! There are those
who pull down the barriers and make the way smooth; there are those who force the doors
and enter our territory like invaders; there are those who barricade us in, shut us in upon
ourselves, dig ditches and throw up walls around us; there are those who set us out of tune
and listen only to our false notes; there are those for whom we always remain strangers,
speaking an unknown tongue. And when it is our turn to listen, which of these are we…?

– Anonymous

I want to hear you accurately, so I’ll need to check out what I hear at crucial points to be as
sure as I can that my meanings match your meanings. I get an inkling of what your meanings
are from your words, your tone of voice, your face, gestures, and body movements. But it is
only an inkling. I must check it out at times by replaying what I heard for your approval, until
you agree that you have been heard.

I want to hear deeply, clearly, accurately enough that I am able – to some real extent – to
feel what you feel, hurt a bit where you hurt, and want for you the freedom to be all you are
becoming.

– David Augsburger

Listening in dialogue is listening more to meanings than to words… In true listening, we reach
behind the words, see through them, to find the person who is being revealed. Listening is a
search to find the treasure of the true person as revealed verbally and nonverbally. There is
the semantic problem, of course. The words hear a different connotation for you than they do
for me. Consequently, I can never tell you what you said¸ but only what I heard. I will have to
rephrase what you have said, and check it out with you to make sure that what left your mind
and heart arrived in my mind and heart intact and without distortion.

– John Powell, theologian

We all, in one way or another, send our little messages out to the world… And rarely do we
send our messages consciously. We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language.
We lift one eyebrow from disbelief. We rub our noses for puzzlement. We clasp our arms to
isolate ourselves or to protect ourselves. We shrug our shoulders for indifference, wink one
eye for intimacy, tap our fingers for impatience, slap our foreheads for forgetfulness. The
gestures are numerous, and while some are deliberate… there are some, such as rubbing our
noses for puzzlement or clasping our arms to protect ourselves, that are mostly unconscious.

– Julius Fast

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 BECOME A BETTER LISTENER: ACTIVE LISTENING
By: John M. Grohol. PSY D 2007

Active list ening is all about building rappo rt, understanding, and trust. By learning
the skills b elow, you will become a better listener and actually h e a r wh a t th e o the r
person is saying, not just what you think they are saying or what you want to hear.

1. Restating – To show you are listening, repeat every so often what you think the person said –
not by parroting, but by paraphrasing what you heard in your own words. For example, “Let me
see if I’m clear about this…”
2. Summarizing – Bring together the facts and pieces of the problem to check understanding – for
example, “So it sounds to me as if…”
3. Minimal encouragers – Use brief, positive prompts to keep the conversation going and show
you are listening – for example, “umm-hmm,” “I understand,” “And?”
4. Reflecting – Instead of just repeating, reflect the speaker’s words in terms of feelings – for
example, “This seems really important to you…”
5. Giving feedback – Let the person know what your initial thoughts are on the situation. Share
pertinent information, observations, insights, and experiences. Then listen carefully to confirm.
6. Emotion labeling – Putting feelings into words will often help a person to see things more
objectively. To help the person begin, use “door openers” – for example, “I’m sensing that
you’re feeling frustrated… worried…anxious”
7. Probing – Ask questions to draw the person out and get deeper and more meaningful
information – for example, “What do you think happened to you…”
8. Validation – Acknowledge the individual’s problems, issues, and feelings. Listen openly and
with empathy, and respond in an interested way – for example, “I appreciate your willingness to
talk about such a difficult issue…”
9. Effective pause – Deliberately pause at key points for emphasis. This will tell the person you
are saying something that is very important to them.
10. Silence – Allow for comfortable silences to slow down the exchange. Give a person time to
think as well as talk. Silence can also be very helpful in diffusing an unproductive interaction.
11. “I” messages – By using “I” in your statements; you focus on the problem not the person. An I-
message lets the person know what you feel and why – for example, “I know you have a lot to
say, but I need to…”
12. Redirecting – If someone is showing signs of being overly aggressive, agitated, or angry, this is
the time to shift the discussion to another topic.
13. Consequences – Part of the feedback may involve talking about the possible consequences of
inaction. Take your cues from what the person is saying – for example, “What happened the last
time you stopped taking the medicine your doctor prescribed?”

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 COMMUNICATION BLOCKERS
http://psychcentral.com/lib/2007/become-a-better-listener-active-listening/

 Why” questions. They tend to make people defensive.

 Quick reassurance, saying things like, “Don’t worry about that.”

 Advising – “I think the best thing for you is to move to assisted living.”

 Digging for information and forcing someone to talk about something they would rather not talk
about.

 Patronizing – “You poor thing, I know just how you feel.”

 Preaching – “You should…” or, “You shouldn’t…”

 Interrupting – Shows you aren’t interested in what someone is saying

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 ACTIVE LISTENING TECHNIQUES
Table adapted from The Poynter Institute, 2002

Type of Action P u r p o s e o f A c t ion Implement Action Examples

Encouraging 1. To convey what Don’t agree or 1. “I see…”
the speaker is disagree. Use 2. “Yes…”
discussing. noncommittal words
2. To keep the with positive tone
pers on t alk i n g o f vo ice .
Restating or 1. To s how th a t yo u Restate the other’s 1. “If I understand,
Clarificatio n are listening and basic ide a s, yo u r id e a is… ”
understand. emphasizing the 2. “In other words,
2. To check the facts. this is…”
listener’s
perception of the
speaker’s message.
Reflecting or 1. To s how th a t yo u Restate the other’s 1. “You feel that…”
paraphrasing are listening and b a sic fe e lin g s. 2. “You must feel
understand. angry that…”
2. To s how yo u r
understanding of
their feelings.
Summarizing 1. To pull important Restate, reflect, 1. “These seem to
ideas, facts, etc. and summarize be the key ideas…”
together. major ideas and 2. “If I understand
2. To establish a feelings. you, you feel
basis for further that…”
discussion.
3. To review
progress

When engaging in act ive listening, or in any fo rm o f co mmu n ica tio n , it is imp o rtan t
t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e r e i s m o r e t o i t t h a n jus t t h e spoken part. There are many non-
verbal behaviors to listening and communicating.

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 EFFECTIVE GROUP FACILITATION TECHNIQUES
Pamela M. Wilson, Program Consultant & Trainer, 1996

 Speak in an interesting voic e with a lo t o f e xp re ssio n .

 Maintain eye contact with the w hole group. Pick up on group members’
nonverbal communication – signs of boredom, confusion, etc.
 Call participants by name and make references to their earlier comments.
 Use humor – but never at a participant’s expense.
 Keep a liv ely pace. Dead time encourages boredom and acting out.
 Keep the group on task but don’t control it.
 B e y ours el f . A ll ow y our r eal personality to emerge.
 Ask open-ended questions (rather than yes/no questions).
 Share appropriate personal stories and anecdotes to demonstrate a point.
 Use “I” language and encourage ot hers to do the same.
 Listen carefully and learn from participant s.
 Be a role model (attitudes, knowledg e, and skills).
 Know your own limitat ions. You’r e running an informal education group not
group counseling. If someone needs couns eling, please make an appropriate
referral.
 Share the leadership. Avoid the urge to maintain cont rol of everything that
happens. Communic ation should be multi-directional.
 Respond appropriately to challenging gr oup dynamic s – monopolizers, silent
members, hidden agendas, etc.
 Be nonjudgmental and unshock able. You want to know what participants
r e a l l y t h i n k . A s k t h em t o g i v e y o u the “real answers” not the “right answers’.

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 TASKS OF THE FACILITATOR
In most training s ituations, the role of the facilitator is twofold: (1) maintaining the
group itself and (2) ensuring the in te n d e d co n te n t is co ve re d .

Group Maintenance (Supportive) Behavior

Here you will be concerned with building and maintaining the group’s identity. At the
beginning, you will focus on establishi ng an atmosphere of trust. Trust – the
reliance on the integrity and sense of justice and sensitivity of people – is
necessary to have but not always easy to attain. A trusting atmosphere is warm,
accepting, and non-threatening. It supports and encourages the disclos ure of ideas,
attitudes, and behaviors. It facilitates lear ning within the secu rity of the group.
Particularly in the beginning, you are the key factor in whether or not trust will
develop. Your behavior and attitudes as facilitat or will be critical in establishing this
a t m o s p h e r e . L e t p a r t ic i p a n t s f e e l y o u r e n t h u si a s m , f r ie n d l i n e s s , i n t e r e s t , s i n c e r i t y ,
and suppor t. The beginning of the trainings is the time when yo u will ne ed to focus
on introducing partic ipants to each other and on establishing t he norm of active
participation in learning. This c an be most easily acc omplished through the use of
non-threatening structured “ice breaker” activities.

You will need to pay attent ion to group maintenance thr oughout the training. This
may require you to:

 Support and provide feedback to participan ts. (“That’s a good way to involve
s t u dent s . ”)
 Building and protecting their sense of belonging (“How many of you have
wondered about that same question?”)
 Maintain their confidentiality. (“Let’s all remember the confidentiality ground
rule that we established on t he first day of the training.”)
 E n courage more ret ic ent particip a n ts to participate. (“I noticed a puzzled look
on your face, John. What are you wondering about?”)
 Discourage more enthusiastic participant s from monopoliz ing. (“Thanks for all
your interesting comments and now I’d lik e to hear from some other people.”)
 Respond t o criticism. (“I’m glad you brough t that to my attention. I’d like to
check out your perception with the rest of the group.”)
 Clarify comments (“Did you s a y t h a t y o u f e l t t h e young woman in the film
wasn’t facing up to the mixed messages s he was sending her boyfriend?”)
 Recall feelings, ideas or opinions, or questions. (“Earlier several of you felt
that…”)

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Topic Maintenance (Task or Content-Oriented) Behavior
These are the functions required in accomplishing training objectives. To keep the
group on task you may:

 Introduce a new topic and bridge it to the topic that preceded it. (“This
morning we reviewed reproductive anatomy and physiology. This afternoon
we’ll have the opportunity to use the information we covered in answering
common participant questions …”)
 Provide necessary information. (“Al though many people believed at one time
that sexuality begins at puberty, most now concur that sexuality is a part of
our personality from birth to death.”)
 Gi v e i ns t ruc t i ons f or an ac tivity. (“Aft er the film, please go back to the groups
you were in this morning and discuss the questions that are written on the
handout.”)
 Stimulate discussion. (“What did you learn about yourself from doing that
activity?”)
 Bring the discussion back to the topic at hand. (“Your question is not quite
r e l e v ant t o t he pres ent t opic. May I answer it during the break?” T h e n : D o n ’ t
f o r g e t t o a n s w e r i t !)
 Bring clos ure to an activity or a section of the training. (“If there are no more
questions or comments about this a c t i v i t y , l e t ’ s m o v e o n … ” )
As facilitat or, you will be functioning on tw o levels at all times – overseeing the
subject content while monitoring the process that is occurring. For example:
during small group discussions, you will n eed to circulate among the various groups
to discover whether participants are discussing the questions you wish disc ussed
(content) as well as if all participants are involved (process) in the discus sions. In
doing this, it is important to concentrate on w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g a n d h o w i t i s
h a p p e n i n g r a t h e r t h an j u d g i n g o r f o r m i n g o p i n i o n s a b o u t i t .

Try to accept the fact that the outcome of any activity may not be exactly what was
planned and realize that many valuable learning can come out of the same activity.
Your responsibility as facilitator is to provide the experience an d then help
participant s identify, analyze, and generaliz e fro m wh a t h a p p e n e d – wh a te ve r tha t
might be.

Modeling Effective Facilitation Skills

I n a d d i ti o n t o t he roles of f ac il i t ato r mentioned abov e, trainers have a third role –
that of modelin g effective facilit ation skill s . Since trainers facilitate learnin g by
actively involving participants in thei r own learning, the communication and
discussion leader skills utiliz ed by both will be identical. It seems logical, then, to
discuss an d demonstrate important facilita t ion skills and point out at the beginn ing
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of training those skills that will be used an d modeled over the course of the training
p r o g r a m . T h i s m e a n s t h a t a s t r a i n e r , you will need to be operating on not two but
three levels (content, process, and skills). Because of the difficulty of operating on
all of these levels at the same time, us e two facilitat ors whene ver possible – one to
focus on group process and facilitate beha vior and one to present the information or
lead the group discus sion. Since different fa cilitators have different styles, using
two facilita t ors has the added ad vantage of presenting participa nts with two models
t o o b s e r v e and ev al uat e.

1. Facilitatio n Skills: E ncouraging Discussio n

Perhaps the most basic skill that an effective facilitator should possess is the
a b i l it y t o enc ourage di s c ussio n . This can be accomplished by:
a. Asking open-ended questions which al low for any possible response.
(“How did you feel about that statement?”)
b. Asking open-ended questions which guide the discus sion in a particular
direction. (“What alternatives are ava ilab le to the couple in the film?”)
c. Using activ e or reflective listening. This technique inv olves
paraphrasing a person’s comments (wit hout inserting opinions and/or
judgments) so that the person k nows that they have been heard. For
example:
Participant: “I think the woman in the story acted like a spoiled child.”

Trainer: “So you feel some of her behavior was immature.”

Paraphrasing allows the t r a i n e r t o c l a r i f y h e r / h is u n d e rsta n d in g o f t h e

speaker’s words. If the paraphrasing is incorrect, the participant has
the opportunity to restate what he/ sh e me a n t; if t he paraphrasing is
correct, the speaker will feel enc ouraged to elaborate on her/his initial
c o m m e n t . I n e i t h e r c a s e , p a r a p h r a sing shows the speaker that the
trainer cares enough to listen.
This type of listening takes time and a special effort in attending to the
speaker and the communication proce ss. It is necessary that the
facilitator put aside preoccupation and con cern with what he/she is
going to say next. Active listening conveys to the speaker that her/his
point of view has been communica ted and understood. This requires
the facilita t or to:
i. Listen for the total meaning of t he message, i.e., the content of
the message and the feeling or a ttitu d e u n d e rlyin g th is co n te n t .
ii. Respond t o feelings. In some instances, the content is far less
important than the feeling whic h underlies it. To catch the full
meaning of the message, you must respond particularly to the
feeling component.
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 iii. Reflect back on her/his own words what the speaker seems to
mean by her/his words or actions. The speaker’s response to
this will de monstrate whether he/she feels understood . An
example of a reflective question is , “What I heard you say is that
you are concerned about the amount of material to be covered?
Is that what you said?”
iv. Listen to and support every participant ’s contribution. This does
not mean you agree or disagree wi t h t h e i r i d e a s . I t m e a n s t h a t
you listen carefully and accurately and respect the feelings of
others.
v. Use body language which engages parti cip a n ts. (Ma ke d ire ct e y e
contact; if you are sitting, lean in the direction of the group; if
you are standing, cir culate so as to increase contact with
participant s.)
2. The Facilitator Avoids…
a. Using clos e-ended questions; questions which can be answered with
y es or no. (“D id y ou like the film?”)
b. Making judgments about the right ness or wrongness of participants’
opinions. (“I couldn’t disagree with you more!”)
c. I n t e r p r e t i ng p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ r e m a r k s . (“That’s a very uptight comment.
You must really be uncomfor table with that topic!”)
3. Other Facilitation Skills
a. Speak in a loud and clear voice. Send only one message at a ti me. Use
s hort c onc i s e i ns t ructio n s fo r a ctivitie s. No rma lly, it w orks to d ire ct
activity with quiet authority; however , so metime s it is n e ce ssa ry to u s e
a more commanding tone of voice.
b. Use “I” messages and encourage ot hers to do the same. Words like
“people,” “you,” and “everyone,” are sometimes used so that the
speaker will not have to take res p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e statement that
he/she makes. Ask participants to speak for themselves and not for the
group. Be accurate in what you sa y. If you are personally stating
s o m e t h i n g ; m a k e s u r e t h a t i s h ow the statement is delivered. For
e x a m p l e : “ I f e e l t o o w a r m i n here now” as opposed to “Does anyone
else think it’s too warm?”
c. Use language that members can underst a n d . Do n ’t u se “ja rg o n ize ” t h a t
would exc l ude others or be condesc e n d in g o r “sla n g ” th a t wo u ld
possibly offend a group member. You also need to be able to
communicate with people even when they use language with whic h you
personally are not comfortable. Re me mb e r, “o b sce n e ” la n g u a g e is
really a function of each pers on’s experience of that word.

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d. Be aware of non-verbal messages. When appropriate, you may wish to
call attention to it. Y ou need to be sensitive to hidden feelings not
expressed and hidde n statements behind q uestions. As facilitat or, you
need to use clear body language – body messages that are congruent
with the verbal message you are sending and also are supportive of
interaction between yourself and the group. An example of an
incongruent message if you told som eone that her/his idea was really
exciting and you did this in a tone of voice that clearly indicated you
were bored with the whole thing. Positive non-verbal communication
i nc ludes :
i. Facial ex pressions; e.g., smiling,
ii. Direct eye contact, and
iii. Body language; e.g., leaning forward towards the person who is
speaking.
e. Silence can be positive. Learn to relax with it. You don’t need to rush
in to fill up the silenc e. A certain amount of silence is actually a
stimulus for the group. It may be an indicat ion that they are seriously
considering a question or topic you just covered. Your being
comfortable with the silenc e can allow group members to take
responsibility for what occurs in the group.
f . Help the group make necessary decisions. Make sure each suggestion
is heard and considered. Help group members relate their contribution
to what other members have alr eady shared. This will keep the
discussion building. Keep the group wo rking towards that stated goal.
Help the group to problem-solve and evaluate.
g. Cope with conflict when it arises. Al so, demonstrate your willin gness to
elic it a hidden conflic t when the group is avoiding it. You can do this
by stating, “I noticed that a num ber of the participant s have been upset
about something that occurred earlier today. I’d like to get this clear
up. What would help us to do that?” By doing this, you show the group
that you are open to disagreem ent and are able to work out
differences. It may be necessary to deal with feelings and put aside the
“task” when the maintenance of the group’s life is the priority.
h. Assist participants in under standing what occurs within the group. Help
them to look at their “process” and l earn from it. Recognize yourself as
a learner as well. Be able to respond to situations and later review
them for your own learning.
i. Be aware of your own values a nd feelings . Distinguish between
personal needs and the needs of the group. Do not impose your own
values and opinions. This requir es that you be aware of what is going

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 on within y ourself as well as what is happening in the group. When it is
appropriate, feel comfortable to express your opinion and feelings.
(You do have them and sometimes it is quite alright to share them with
the group). Be clear on why you are doing this, howev er.
j. Respect the confidentiality of al l group members. Realize that
disclos ure is the responsibility of each group member. This is critical in
maintaining a trusting environment. If you think something might be a
breach of confidentiality, don’t say it. Check it out with the person.
They will let you know what is okay to say and respect you for your
concern and caution.
k. Be capable of a wide range of genui n e h u ma n e mo tio n s. Be p a tie n t ,
trusting, empathetic, non-judgm ent al, enthusiastic, and humorous.
Many serious subject s can be handled with respect and a touch of
a p p r o p r i a t e h u m o r . Hum o r u s e d c o r r ectly can help ease tension and
a s s i s t p e o p l e i n f e e l i n g m o r e comfortable in discussions.
4. Above All:
a. Provide a warm, non-threatening, fri endly atmosphere that is conduciv e
t o learning, grow t h, an d me a n in g fu l interactions between all people in
the group (yourself included).
b. Serve as a model for the group in both your attitude and behavior. Be
consistent in what you say and what you do. This will reinforce
learning.
With all these neces sary skills, you may be feeling a little overwhelmed. That’s
understandable. Skills and confidence are gai ned over a period of time and through
practice. Experience (even whe n it looks like a disas t er) will help all thes e
guidelines to fall into place and become more meaningful to you.

One final basic skill of group facilitators is the ability to utilize e ffectively structured
learning ac tivities.

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 SUGGESTIONS TO THE DISCUSSION LEADER
Excerpt from Activities for Trainers – 50 Useful Designs, By Cy Mills (1980)

1. Your job is to encourage interaction among the group members, not interaction with you.
Therefore:
a. When someone is speaking, look at the other members of the group, rather than at the
speaker.
b. Do not make a reply to each comment by a group member. Wait for someone else to do
so. If necessary, ask the group, “Any reaction to that?”
2. If someone talks overly long, interrupt by saying, “I’m losing the point you are trying to make.
Can you state it in twenty words or less?”
3. Encourage interaction by moving away from center stage. After identifying the topic, throw out a
general question and then sit down or move to the back of the room.
4. If someone disrupts with too much humor, jokes, and wisecracks, enjoy it for awhile and then
say, “Now let’s get down to business.”
5. When questions are asked directly of you, refer them back to the group; say, “Someone here
must have a response to that.”
6. Use a flipchart or blackboard as “group memory.” As points are well taken, or agreed on, jot
them down on a list. This gives a group the sense of progress.
7. If you think you have grasped a complex point someone has tried to express, clarify it for the
group by saying, “Let’s see, if I understand you, you are saying…”
8. Avoid making personal comments that may be taken as disapproval, condescension, sarcasm,
personal cross-examination, or self-approval.
9. Insist that people take personal ownership of opinions. Train the group members to say, “I
think…,” not “We think…”
10. Watch for platitudes or generalizations that sound good but do not further an understanding of
the topic. They show a lack of discriminating thought. Ask, “Can you go further into that?” or
“What do you mean?”
11. If there is a debate about the meaning of words, probe for the feelings behind them.
12. Summarize periodically, or ask someone else to do so. Sometimes this can be done by saying,
“Where are we at this point?”
13. Do not allow an inference or conjecture to pass as a fact. Always look for the hidden assumption
in another statement and ask about it.
14. Do not insist on having the last word.
15. Do not show approval or disapproval of someone’s contribution. You are not there to reward or
punish.

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 COPING WITH CHALLENGING GROUP PARTICIPANTS
Reference: Julius Eitington, The Winning Trainer,
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. 1989.

Challenging Characteristic W h a t t o Do…

Inquisitor - Again, turn it over to the group, “I’m more
May put you on the spot by asking your interested in what others might have to say, who
opinion. May want you to take sides. has a comment?”
- If appropriate, give your opinion in a diplomatic
way without taking sides.
Griper - Acknowledge that the person has an issue. Point
Likes to stand on soap box and gripe out that solving the issue is well beyond the scope
about one’s own pet peeve. of this group session.
- Offer to talk during a break.
Quiet - Address this person by name and ask
I s s i l e n t b e c aus e of boredom , intermittently if there is anything he or she would
indifferenc e, timid, etc.? like to add or comment on.
- Structure the discussion in round-robin fashion.
Ask the question and state, “I’d like to hear from
everyone, so let’s start with Mark on my left and go
around.”
Gr o u p i e - Initiate discussion that encourages divergent
Agrees wit h everything that is said and viewpoints.
doesn’t voice her/his own opinions.
A t t a c k i n g the Faci l i tator / Traine r a s - Listen to the criticisms of your facilitators and
Expert remember them for future consideration. Accept the
feedback gracefully and not defensively. You
decide what is true for you. The feedback can be
valuable.
Misstatement Stater - Turn it over to the group, “Would anyone like to
Makes an obvious incorrect statement comment about what was just said?”
- If no one chooses to respond, then state that
while some people have said or believed so and
so¸(correct statement)
Overly Talkative - Acknowledge the person’s comments and interject
An “eager beaver” or a showoff. Is alway s with, “That’s an interesting point… now let’s hear
the first to respond to a question and has what other people have to say.”
lots to say. If allowe d, will mon opoliz e - “I’d like to hear more about that at the break, who
else would like to share?”
the conversation.

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 Challenging Characteristic W h a t t o Do…
Argumentative - Keep calm and turn it over to the group. “Would
Combative person, always disagrees with anyone like to comment about what was just said?”
something. - After enough debate, state the importance of
moving on and if necessary, agree to disagree.
- As a last resort, talk to the person privately during
the break. Try to find out if there is an immediate
problem that can be worked out. Negotiate a
standard of group conduct.
Rambler - When an opportunity arises, politely interject with,
Lacks focus on the subject. Basically not “I’m sure that is interesting, how does it connect
on the same page and likes to talk with (agenda topic)?”
regardless of the lack of relevancy to the - Attempt to make some connection of what was
said with the group’s discussion and ask if there is
c u r r e n t to pic of dis c us s ion.
anyone else who would like to comment.
- Re-emphasize issue or topic at hand.
Distractor -Stop the group discussion and simply remark that
Distracts by having a side conversation it is difficult to hear when more than one person is
while someone else is talking. talking.
-Ask the distractor if he/she would like to comment
on the last comment made by someone else.
Highly Defended Group -Use low threat exercises to begin process of
Group members have er ected barriers to talking and sharing.
protect their personal or professional - Allow the group work to proceed slowly and
images. without pressure.
- Focus on facts and intellectual work for a time,
gradually introducing a small amount of attitude
and feeling work. Avoid role playing.
- Use journaling activities or other activities that
allow for personal reflection.
- Review the agenda and check in with the group if
this is what they want to do, or if they have
different needs. Ask the group’s advice and opinion
on plans, gain consent for each step.
- Ask them if there is information about yourself
that would help them feel more comfortable about
participating in the training.
- Take a break and speak with a couple of the
individuals who seem to be leaders. Find out what
is happening. Sometimes it is an event that
happened before you arrived, or a previous training
or trainer.
- Do an activity that allows the group members to
show their credentials. This could be in the opening
introductions, forming a panel of “experts” or
learning partners who will recap the discussion or
develop questions for the facilitator.

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Some challenges may not be with people s pecifically but with conditions:

Challenging Characteristic W h a t t o Do…

Not Enough Time - Start on time, remember to account for the time
when people come in late, or longer breaks.
- Give clear instructions. Do not Start if all
participants are confused. If the directions are
complicated, put them in writing.
- Ask someone in the group to help you keep track
of time on particular exercises when you know you
will be too involved to do this yourself.
- Prioritze items on you agenda so you deal with
the most important ones first.
- Remind the group when time limits are being
approached. Renegotiate the agenda if they with to
spend more time on that area.
- If halfway into the training you realize you will not
have enough time, discuss alternatives with the
group.
- Change the pace from time to time and don’t let
the discussion drag out.
Too Much Time - Conclude early, people usually prefer this to
having a session run over its time limit.
- Don’t try to cover up the extra time with “filler”. If
there is something valuable to do in the time, do it.
Beware especially of discussions which can drag
on interminable, long past the point where real
information has been exchanged.
- Have a couple of evaluation type exercises in
mind that fit different time periods.

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 STRATEGIES FOR WHAT TO DO
WHEN TRAINING IS NOT WORKING
Contributed to Planned Parenthood by Caroline Haskell

Trainer Tools & Strategies

 Establish r elated rules upfront
 Take a break
 Form an alliance with your most difficu l t p a r t i c i p a n t s ( t h e m ost mad or mean)
 Do a participant chec k-in; get input from participants
 Use humor
 Acknowledge that the training is not working (“The ship is sinking!”)
 Deal direct ly with mandatory trainees
 Flexibility to change
 Switch methods

Participant Tools & Strategies

 Say something to the trainer
 Seek clarif ication
 Repeat what you think has been said to build a bridge
 Communic ate that your needs are not being met
 Ask questions
 Assess other participants to see if y our viewpoint is s hared by others

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 Feedback

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 JOHARI WINDOW
Source: www.trainerbubble.com

What is Johari Window?

 N a m e d a f t e r t h e f i r s t n a m e s o f i t s i n v e n t o r s – Jos e p h L u f t & Har r y I n g h a m
 C o m m u n i c at i o n w i n d o w r e l a t i n g t o g i v i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
 A useful model describing the process of human interaction

Purpose
Helps you to gain an understanding and appreciation of how effective feedback and
self-disclosure can improve communication skills.

Description
This model suggests that a person’s self is composed of several parts, which are
represented by the four panes of a window. Through the window we can look at
different parts of our self.

Luft and Ingham observed that there are aspects of our personality that we are open
about and other elements that we keep to ourselves. At the same time, there are
things that others see in us that we’re not aware of. As a result, you can draw up a
four-box grid, which includes a fourth group of traits that are unknown to anyone.
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Goal: To Expand the Open Self
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e J o h a r i W i n d o w c o m es i n o p e n i n g u p t h e p u b l i c a r e a , s o
making the other three areas as small as possible. This is done by regular and
honest exchange of feedback, and a willingness to disclose personal information.
People around you will understand what “makes you tick” and what you find easy or
difficult to do, and can provide appropriate support. And of course you can then do
the same for them.

Following this, we will explore many ways to give feedback and then how to receive
feedback.

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 TRAINING FEEDBACK
Contributed to Planned Parenthood Training of Trainers By Caroline Haskell

 Let it be a mutual group discuss ion.

 Have participants giv e honest and sensitiv e statements.
 Allow time for sharing techniques

Examples of Process and Content Feedback

1. Process
a. Provides c omfortable physical s e tting that facilitates learning.
b. D e m o n s t r a t e s v e r b a l s k i l l s : p r o j e c t ion, tone, coherence, word choice.
c. Uses audio-visual materials skillfully and carefully.
d. Uses body language and gestures congruent with content and
message.
e. D e m o n s t r a t e s f l e x i b i l i t y : a d j u s t s c o n t e n t , t i m i n g , p r o c e s s a s n e c e s s a r y .
f . Times & paces presentation comf ortably and in a measured way.
2. Content
a. Clearly states goals and/or objectives.
b. Provides c ontent free of value j udgment and identifies personal biases
as such.
c. Provides c ontent appropriate for audience.
d. Handouts are organized, useful, r eadable, relevant, and reproducible.
3. Presentation
a. Meets stated objectiv es and goals.
b. Begins and ends on time.
c. Demonstrates preparedness (needs assess ment, goal setting, agenda,
timeline, rehearsal, materials, etc.)
d. D emons t rat es f l ex ibility.
e. Incorporates a summary of ke y concepts, facts, and skills.

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 GOOD, CONSTRUCTIVE, AND USEFUL FEEDBACK
Effective feedback is …

 Requested (or understood to be)

 Descriptiv e vs. evaluative/judgmental
 Specific vs . general
 Considerate of the feelings of the presenter… it doesn’t “zap”
 About what was asked for
 A b o ut behav i or t hat can be changed/modified
 Timely (as soon as possible)
 Real and genuine
 S ta rt s w it h a s el f -as s es s me n t
 B e g ins w it h t he pos it iv e

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 PRESENTATION FEEDBACK

Professionalism Visual and Non-verbal

 Positive attitude, energetic Behaviors
 Neat in appearance  Uses “speaker” voice – audible, clear
 Cooperative, tactful  Varies rate, pitch, emphasis
 Identifies personal values, biases as  Makes eye contact
such, and not as fact  Varies facial expressions
 Language level appropriate for group  Gestures appropriately, not distractingly
 Addresses participant biases  Uses silence

Knowledge of Subject Organization

 Well-informed and seems interested in  Explains agenda to audience
subject  Uses time effectively to cover each
 Understands and can explain topic completely and clearly
complicated aspects of the subject  Has all necessary handouts, equipment,
 Selects and uses helpful material and and visual aids readily available
resources  Keeps program on track
 Articulates basic points simply and  Gives clear, concise and simple
clearly instructions for exercises
 Responds to questions appropriately  Bring closure to presentation during the
conclusion
Presentation
 Uses visual aids effectively Relationship with Audience
 Is patient and encourages audience to  Uses open-ended questions.
ask questions  Reflects feelings.
 Uses practical and relevant examples,  Checks for understanding.
anecdotes  Uses validation (“good question,” etc.)
 Works to keep audience engaged and  Seeks opinions.
involved  Encourages group to learn from one
 Displays confidence with minimal or no another.
distracting mannerisms  Controls disruptions.
 Draws out quiet participants.

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 GUIDELINES FOR CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK
Taken from: The Team Handbook, Peter R. Scholtes, Joiner, 1993
Useful feedback comes in several forms. Statistical data provide feedback from a
process, measurements that tell you how well a process is running, whether
changes y ou tried were effective, and so forth. Market research provides feedback
fr o m c u s t om ers , t ell i ng y ou how well your organization is doing and whether your
product or service meets customers’ needs . The most common form of feedback
(and our focus here) is simply one person talking to another.

Many people know that to get good data or us eful market information you must plan
carefully and follow established rules and guidelines. Few people know that the
same ideas apply to person-to-person feedba ck. Thinking ahead of time about what
you are going to say and how y ou are going to say it, and following the guidelines
given be lo w, will incr ease the value of wh at you say to another person.

To make personal feedback constructive, you must:

Acknowledge the need for feedback

The first thing to recognize is the va lue of giving feedba ck, both positive and
negative. Feedback is vital to any organiz ation committed to im proving itself, for it
is the only way to know what needs to be improved. Giving and receiving feedback
should be more than just a par t of a team member’s behav ior: it should be part of
the whole organization’s culture.

You will need good feedback skills to impr ove your team meetings, and more
generally, interaction s between team mem bers. These skills will also help you
c o m m u n i c a t e m ore ef f ec t i v ely w i t h cu stomers and suppliers (both internal and
external). In fact, you will find many opport unities to apply thes e skills in your work.
First, however, your team should agree t hat giving and receiving feedback is an
acceptable part of how you will improve the way you work together. This agreement
is necessary so that no one is surpri sed when he or she receiv es feedback.

Give both positive and negative feedback

Many people take good work for granted and give feedback only when there are
problems. This is a bad policy: people wi ll mo re like ly p a y a tte n tio n to yo u r
complaints if they have also received your c o m p l i m e n t s . I t i s i mp o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r
to tell people when t hey have done something well.

Understand the context

T h e m o s t im port ant c harac t eri s t ic o f fe e d b a ck is that it always has a context: where
it happened, why it happened, what led up to the event. You never simply walk up to

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a person, deliver a feedback statement, and then leave. Before you give feedback,
r e v i e w t h e ac t ions and dec is i ons that led up to the moment.

Know when to give feedback

B e fo r e g i vi ng f eedbac k , det ermine wh e th e r t h e mo me n t is rig h t. You must consider
more than your own need to give feedba ck. Constructive feedback can happen only
within a context of listening to and caring about the person.

Do not g i v e f e e d b a c k w h e n :
 You don’t know much about the ci rcu msta n ce s o f th e b e h a vio r.
 You don’t care about the person or will n ot be around long en ough to follow
up on the aftermath of your feedba ck. Hit and run feedback is not fair.
 The feedback, positive or negative, is about something the person has no
power to change.
 You, or the person receiving the feedback, are low in self-esteem.
 Your purpose is not really improvem ent, but to put someone on the spot
( “ g o t c h a ! ” ) , o r d e m o n s t r a t e how smart or how much more responsible you are.
 T h e t i m e, pl ac e, or c i rc umsta n ce s a r e inappropriate (for example, in the
presence of outsider).

Know how to give feedback

I f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f or giving feedback, use the following
guidelines for compliments as w ell a s co mp la in ts. It ma y fe e l a wkwa rd b u t, yo u w i l l
soon get more comfortable and be able to give constructive feedback without having
to refer to the guidelines.

Be Descriptive
Relate, as objectively as possible, what you saw the other person do or what you
heard the other person say. Give specific e xa mp le s, th e mo re re ce n t, th e b e tte r .
E x a m p l e s f rom t he dis t ant pas t are mo re like l y t o l e a d t o d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r “ f a c t s . ”

Don’t use labels

B e c l e a r , s pec i f ic and unam biguous. Words “immature,” “unprofessional,”
“irresponsible,” and “prejudiced,” are labels we attach to sets of behaviors. Describe
the behavior and drop levels. F or example, say, “You missed the deadline we had all
a g r e e d t o meet , ” rat her t han, “You’re being irresponsible and I want to know what
you’re going to do about it!”

Don’t exaggerate
Be exact: To say “You’re alway s late for deadlines,” is probably untrue and,
t h e r e f o r e , u n f a i r . I t i n v ites the feedback receiver to argue with the exaggeration
rather than respond to the real issue.

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D o n ’ t b e judgm ental
O r a t l e a s t d o n ’ t u s e t h e r h e t o r i c o f judgment. Words like “good , ” “ b e t t e r , ” “ b a d , ”
“worst,” and “should,” place you in the role of a controllin g paren t. This invites the
person receiving your comments to res pond as a child. When that happens , and it
will most of the time, the possibilit y of constructive feedback is lost.

Speak for yourself

Don’t refer to absent, anonymous people. Avoi d such references as “A lot of people
here don’t like it when you…” Don’t allow yourself to be a conduit for other people’s
complaints . Instead, encourage other s to speak for themselves.

T a l k f i r s t a b o u t y o u r s e l f , not about the other person

Use a statement with the word “I” as the subject, not the word “you.” This guideline
is one of the most important and one of the most surprising. Consider the following
examples regarding lateness:

1. “You are frequently late for meetings.”

2. “ Y o u are v ery prom pt f or m e e tin g s.”
3. “I feel annoyed when you are late for meetings.”
4. “I appreciate your coming to meetings on time.”
Statements 1 and 2 are “you” statements. People beco me defensive around “you”
statements and are less likely to hear what you say when it is phrased this way.
Statements 3 and 4 are “I” messages and cr eate an adult/peer relationship. People
are more likely to remain open to your message when an “I” statement is used. Even
if your rank is higher than the feedback recipient, strive for an adult/peer
relationship. Use “I” statements so the e ffectiveness of your comments is not lost.

Phrase the issue as a stat ement, not a question

Contrast “When are you going to stop being la te fo r me e tin g s? ” with “I fe e l a n n o y e d
when you are late for meetings.” The question is controlling a nd manipulative
because it implies. “You, the responder, are expected to adjust your behavior to
accommodate me, the questioner.” Most people become defensive and ang ry when
spoken to this way. On the other hand, the “I” statement implies “I think we have an
issue we must resolve together.” The “I” st atement allows the receiver to see what
effect the behavior had on you.

R e s t r ic t y our feedback to things you know for certain

Don’t present your opinions as facts. Speak only of what you saw and heard and
what you feel and want.

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Help peop le hear and accept your compliments when giving positive feedback
Many people feel awk ward when told good th ings about themselves and will fend off
the compliment (“Oh, it wasn’t that bi g a deal. Others worked on it as much as I
did.”). Sometimes they will chan ge the subj ect. It may be important to reinforce the
positive feedback and help the person hear it, acknowledge it, and accept it.

K n o w h o w to recei ve feedback
There may be a time when you receive fe edback from someone who does not know
feedback guidelines. In these cases, help your critic refashion the criticism so that
i t c o n f o r m s t o t he rules f or c ons t ru ctive feedback (“What did I say or do to dissatisfy
you?”). When reacting to feedback:

 Breathe
This is sim ple but effective advice. Our bodies are conditioned to react to
stressful situations as though they were physical assaults. Our muscles
tense. We start breathing rapidly and shallowly. Taking full, deep breaths
forces your body to relax and allows your brain to maintain greater alertness.
 Listen Carefully
Don’t interrupt. Don’t discourage the feedback-giver.
 Ask questions for clarity
You have a right to receive clear feedba ck. Ask for specific ex amples (“Can
you describe what I do or say that makes me appear aggressiv e to you?”).
 Acknowledge the Feedback
Paraphras e the message in your own word s to let the person know you have
hard and understood what was said.
 Acknowledge valid points
Agree with what is true. Agree with what is possible. Acknowledge the other
person’s point of view (“I understand how you might get that impression”) and
try to understand their reaction.
Agreeing with what’s true or possi ble does not mean you agree to change
your behavior. You can agree, for inst ance, that sometime you jump too
quickly to a conclusion-making process. Agreeing wit h what’s true or possible
does not mean agreeing with any value judgment about you. You can agree
that your reports have been late wi thout thereby agreeing that you are
i r r e spons ible.
 Take time to sort out what you heard
You may need time for sorting out or checking with others before responding
t o t he f eedbac k . I t i s reas on a b le to a s k t h e f e e d b a c k - g i v e r f o r t im e t o t h i n k
about what was said and how y ou feel a b o u t it. Ma ke a sp e cific a p p o in tme n t
f o r g e t t i n g b a c k t o h i m o r h e r. Don’t use this time as an excuse to avoid the
issue.
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 WHEN RECEIVING FEEDBACK…
 Breathe
 Listen
 C l a r i f y t o U nders t and
 D o n’t def end/ ex plain… li s t en
 Separate self from behavior
 Check the “fit”…immediately and over time

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 TIPS ON HOW TO GET USEFUL FEEDBACK

 Construct the evaluations the participant s will complete to give you the
information you want. Change the evaluat i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s , g r o u p s ,
topics, etc.
 T a ke t he t i m e t o reall y read and analyze the evaluations.
 Ask someone else to review and analyze the evaluations.
 Use a cassette recorder to hear yourself training. (Make sure to tell the group
the purpose of the recording and check to be sure no one objects)
 Video tape your training event and review i t y o u r s e l f . B e s u r e t o n o t e t h e
things you do well, in addition to what you may discover you want to
strengthen.
 Keep a training journal for six mont hs. Use it in two ways. Jot down
reflections on your own training : list skills done well, newly acqu ired skills,
techniques or activities you want to work on. Pat yourself on the back for
progress and for things “bravely attempted.”
 Be an astute observer of other trainers or teachers, wherev er you are that
learning is happening: a continuing education course, a hobby class, on a
sports team. When you are a participant, pay attention to the process. Make
s o m e n o t e s a b o u t s t y l e , a c t i v i t i e s , and exercises. When you are excited and
engaged in your own learning, see if you can figure out what the trainer or
teacher is doing to help that happen.
 Write contracts with yourself. Identify a technique or area of training you want
to improve. Write a contract with yourse lf to committing yourself to using the
technique a set number of times by a ce rtain date. Analyze why you did or
didn’t fulfill your self-contract.
 Be sure to pause now and then to congr atulate yourself on your strengths,
newly acqu ired or honed skills, e xpandin g repertoire of approaches. You
deserve a part on the back – even if it is self adminis tered!
 Trust yourself. Most of us know ourselves pretty well. If your perception of a
training is radically di fferent from the percept ion of someone giving you
feedback, take it all with a grain of salt. Decide whether you’re being
defensive or tired or bored. Get what you can from the feedbac k. Then treat
yourself to something nice for you: flowers, special coffee, a walk, a ball
game, whatever!

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 Evaluation

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EVALUATION PLANNING QUESTIONS

Why are you doing it ?

What do you really want/need to know?

Why do you want to know it?

How will y ou get it?

What will y ou do with it?

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 EVALUATIONS

Before Training

Needs: What is the

training about?

Process: How did the

training feel? How did
it go?

Outcome: Did the

training meet the
objectives? Did the
trainees do it?

Impact: Did it
positively change
work performance?
Behavior?
After Training

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 EVALUATION CONSIDERATIONS
Silberman, Active Training, Lexington Books
Focus: What elements are being evaluated? Data can be gathered concerning any
of the following:

 Program content and design

 Trainer’s competence
 Participant s’ knowle d ge, skills, attitudes
 Training fa cilities
 Organizational result s
T o o ls : What means are used to collect evaluat ive dat a? Any of the following can be
utilize d:

 Questionnaires
 Observation
 Tests
 Reports
 Interviews
T i m i n g : When is data collected? Any of these times is possible:

 Pretraining (Needs)
 During training (Process)
 En d of t raining (Out c om e)
 Follow-up period (Impact)

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 CREATIVE APPROACHES TO EVALUATION
Telegraph Home
Ask participants singly, in pairs, or small groups, to compose a ten word telegram
summarizing their training experience.

Feeling Words
Ask participants to select th ree adjectives to describe how they felt about their
training ex perience (or the trainer, or themselves).

Make-Your-Own Rating
Ask participants to decide on 2 or 3 dimensions they would like to use to rate the
w o r k s h o p , e. g. , f ac t ual learning, fu n , re le vance to job, attitude changes, the trainer,
etc. Each person then designs her own ques t i o n s o r r a t i n g s c a l e f o r t h e f a c t o r s
chosen, and indicates her personal rating. A l l o w g r o u p m e m b e r t o share their scales
and ratings with one another and with the trainer.

The Front Page

Ask participants singly, in pairs, or small groups to pretend they are reporters for
the evening paper, with a deadline to meet in 30 minutes. Ask them to prepare an
article for the paper highl i ght ing th e e ve n ts o f t he training ses s ion.

Evaluation Line
Ask group members to form a line (or circ le). Person #1 tell #2 something she
learned during the training. Then #2 does the same to #3, and so on around the
group. Remind the group that the learnin g can be factual, attitudinal, or skill relate d
and small things can be menti oned as well as big things.

Evaluation Questions
A few different kinds of questions that can be included on an evaluation form are
l i s te d h e r e, t o s t im ulat e ot her i dea s:

 Tell or write (a) one thing I learned that I can use immediately; (b) one thing I plan to use in the
future; (c) one thing I can’t use because…
 What benefits would there be to you in sharing with others what you learned today? What
benefits to others? To your agency?
 What obstacles exist to sharing what you’ve learned?
 Describe one way you will use the material on your job.
 If you had to leave out on part of this workshop, which would you choose to omit? Explain.
 What kinds of people do you think would profit most from this kind of training?
 Which parts of the training seemed too long? Too short? Just Right?
 What was the most important learning that occurred for you?
 Would you recommend this training to others? Why or why not?
 What would be a good “next step” in training for you?
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Evaluating the Trainer
Rate the trainer on the following items as (1) excellent; (2) good; (3) fair; (4) poor:

____ Understanding of subject matter

____ Responsiveness to group needs

____ Ener gy and vitality

____ Clarit y of presentation

____ Skill at group management

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Daily Feedback
Day ______

A new insight or discovery I made I valued…

today…

A take home message I have from I am confused about…

today…

I a m fe e lin g …

This training would be An idea/skill I will use

stronger next time if… imme d ia t e l y …

I w a n t t h e f ac il i t at ors t o k now …

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 CLOSE OF TRAINING EVALUATION FORM
What skills did you learn or refine during this training?

What skills do you want/need to continue to refine or develop in the future?

Two or three concepts I learned during this training are…

Two or three concepts I want to explore further/learn more about are…

My major take home message is…

Two or three things that helped or enhanced my learning – what I liked about this training is…

Two or three things that would have made this training more effective…

Did this training meet your expectations? Why or why not?

I just want to say…

Name (optional) ________________________

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How to Organize a Workshop

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Putting together a successful training workshop has many steps. As a facilitator, you will be
involved with important organizational tasks that set the stage for the workshop itself. In
some situations, you may handle these tasks yourself. In others, you may share the duties
with other AFS volunteers and staff. Either way, laying the proper groundwork is essential for
any workshop that you are facilitating.

We will cover all of the necessary steps in organizing a training workshop - assessing the
need for a workshop, establishing the parameters for the workshop, handling logistical
concerns, recruiting and preparing participants for the workshop, and evaluating the final
product. Each section of this guide provides detailed information about undertaking specified
tasks. At the end of each section, you will find a checklist which summarizes the tasks that
have been covered and which can be used as a tool for organizing a workshop.  

ASSESSING TRAINING NEEDS

When asked to identify their most pr essing needs, AF S volunteers and staff
frequently mention trainin g. Most volunt eers and staff will say they have at some
point expe rienced a lack of knowledg e or skills nec e ssary for handling a situation.
Training is usually es sential to people understanding and succeeding in the roles
t h e y h a v e a s s u m e d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t r aining is not something to be rushed into
without a full assess ment of what type of training is t r uly needed.

Discuss training needs with knowledgeable volunteers and staff. When training
is mentioned as an option or a solution to a n i s s u e , i t i s h e l p f u l t o t a k e t h e
discussion through a process of clarification. You will achi eve the best results if this
process includes input from key people in the unit of the organization where training
is being co nsidered. In this way, we ll-found ed opinion s will be in cluded from the
start. People who hav e been included will also be more supportive of the
conclus ions and the real training outcomes.

Once you have decided whom to involve in the clarification process, you will want to
lead or take part in detailed dis cussions that analyz e the stated desire for training.
Since training usually involves a signifi cant investment of resources, time
determining the specific needs and considering a variety of solutions is time well
spent. The following are useful questions:

 Who needs to be trained?

 Who is voicing the need for training?
 What is the current state of knowledge and skills among the potential trainees?
 How detrimental is the lack of certain skills or knowledge to the welfare of AFS and its
participants?
 Do different people need different levels of training?
 How accessible and available are the people who need training?
 When does the training need to take place?
 What training has been attempted in the past and how well did it succeed?

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  Are there other potential desirable outcomes from training other than the acquisition of skills
and knowledge?
 How important is training in this area relative to other matters that need to be addressed?

C o n s i d e r i n p u t f r o m prospective trainees. Though volunteer and staff l eaders

may have a better overview of the trai ning needs within AFS and may already
r e p r e s e n t t he v i ew s of pros pec t iv e tra in e e s, you might also want to survey directly
those people who are the intended beneficiaries of training. This process will be
more time consuming, but it can help furthe r clarify the needs and goals of training.

There are two methods of collecting informat ion from prospectiv e trainees. The first
option is distributing a written survey and collecting the information by mail or e-
mail. The second option is talking to pros pective trainees by phone or in person.
The first option will require less time and a l l o w p e o p l e m o r e t im e t o r e f l e c t , b u t i t
w i l l h a v e a l ow er rat e of return. The secon d option wi ll take more time, but will
u s u a l l y p r ov i de more des c ript i v e in fo rma ti on. Both options will begin the process of
engaging people in their own trai ning, whic h is an important step in the success of
any training program.

In surveying prospective trainees, do make i t clear that you are not guaranteeing
training for every need that is expressed. Rather, you are surveying a number of
people to determine which needs are most widely shared. The following a r e some
questions which are worth asking:

 What role or roles do you have within AFS?

 What role or roles would you like to consider in the future?
 What training, if any, have you already received?
 What training would you like to receive to help you handle the functions of your current or future
AFS roles?
 Based on your experience with other volunteers and staff, what training needs are most
prevalent?

Determine the trai ning method that best matches the need. Once you achieve
consensus on the both the need for and the subj ect of training, the next step is to
decide what sort of training is most appropriate to address the issue at hand.
There are several types of training to cons i d e r - m e n t o r i n g , coaching, shadowing,
reading, and organizing a workshop are all possi ble options. There are also several
m e th o d s o f del i v ering t hes e dif f er e n t tra i ning options – in person, by phone, online,
and by mail. Face-to-face workshops are therefore just one of several pos sible
options av ailable for training. Though a full discuss ion of all training methods is
outside the scope of this guid e, it will be h elpful to lo ok at how different options can
lead to the learning outcomes that you want and the trainees need.

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The advantages and disadvant ages of workshops. Workshops do have some
definite advantages over other forms of training that s hould be considered. In an
organization like AFS that is built on relationships, workshops provide an
opportunity for participants to get together and get to know other people filling the
same roles. The camaraderie and feelings of personal support t h a t r e s u l t f r o m
workshops cannot be underestimated. Workshops also provide people an
o p p o r t u n i ty f or t rainees t o learn i n g r oups, which can enhance the learnin g that
takes plac e. Group settings ideally encour age interaction, multiple perspectives,
and questioning, all of which may be more mu ted in other types of training. Group
settings also allow m ore people to participate in training at the same time, which
maximizes the impact of the trainer’s time . F i n a l l y , w o r k s h o p s are the form most
people expect formal training to take, whic h means people often take this form of
training more seriously.

There are some drawbacks to workshops, too. In an o r ganization as decentralized

and disper sed as AFS, it is difficult to find a time and place where a significant
number of people can participate in a works hop. The impact of a workshop therefore
might be far less than some “distance learni ng” alternatives that can potentially
reach a larger audience. Another drawback is that a workshop usually requires more
organizing time on the part of the trainer and others who are helping with the event.
There are several steps to organizing a s u c c e s s f u l w o r k s h o p . Finally, workshops
tend to have greater financial c o s t s t h a n m o s t o t h e r f o r m s of training, a n d th e se
m u s t b e weighed agai ns t t he bene fits.

The remainder of thi s guide will help desc r ibe the process of organizing a workshop
if this is the training method you choose.

Assessing Training Needs – Checklist

 Ensure that key volunteers and staff are included in the process of assessing the needs of the
affected AFS organizational unit.

 Survey prospective trainees about their perceived needs, if appropriate.

 Determine what the primary needs are in the organizational unit.

 Decide whether training is the best solution to address the needs.

 Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different training methods.

 Decide if a face-to-face workshop is the best training option.

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 ESTABLISHING THE WORKSHOP PARAMETERS
Once you are firmly committed to setting up a workshop, you will be enter ing into a
new phase of discussion. Fortunately, you will have already begun discuss ing many
of the issues that now need resolution. In establishing the parameters of the
workshop, you will need to confirm the following:

 what information will be covered,

 who will be invited, where and when the event or events will take place,
 and how much will be spent.

Determine the content of the training. What information will be covered in the
workshop depends on the perceived and real needs in the organization, whether at
the local, area, regional, or national lev el. As a rule of thum b, there will always be
more information that you and others want to cover than there are resources and
time available. Since the people in the organization have various levels of
knowle dge and skills, there are always goo d r easons to cover a multitude of training
topics, and it can be difficult to decide wh ich ones are most important. The process
of deciding can be made simpler by creati ng a hierarchy of topics and covering the
topic or topics at the top of the list. This does not mean that other topics
cannot be covered, but they will need to be sa ve d fo r fu tu re wo rksh o p s o r fo r o th e r
methods of training. Taking a u t ilitarian a pproach may help if the decisio n is
difficult – choose wo rkshop topics that w ill have the most benefit to the greatest
number of people within the organization. Pay particular attention to how the
training will ultimately impact the quality of the AFS experience for the
organization’s student, family, and school clients.

Decide who will be invited to participate in the training. After deciding what the
subject of the workshop will be, the next st ep is to decide who the ideal participants
are. There are several questions to cons ider when refining the list of people you
would like to attend the workshop:

 Which people have the greatest need for training?

 Which people have the most impact on the experience of students, families, and schools?
 How many people need to be trained?
 How many people can be trained in one workshop?
 Are there certain natural geographic clusters where the people need more training than in other
areas?

The answers to all of these questions will help determine whic h people are the
primary candidates for attending a training workshop. This does not mean that other
people cannot be considered for training. As with training topic s, however, there are
usually lim ited resources to reach all of the people who might benefit from the

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training. It is important therefore to dev elop a hierarchy of potential trainees for
each workshop so that the most appropr iate people are invited to attend.

Determine the best time and place for the training. Choosing a geographic
location and a time for the workshop can o ften be the most challenging dec isions to
make. Some participants may need to s pend much more time commuting than others
and perhaps more than seems reasonable. There are always competing events to
consider, such as work schedules, holidays , school schedules, and other AFS
e v e n t s . I n bot h c as es , t he same utilitarian standard app lies: the workshop should be
planne d for a place and time that will acc ommodate the great e s t n u m b e r o f t h e
selected invitees. This outcome enta ils some guesswork because you cannot be
sure of people’s schedules, willingness to travel to the workshop, or desire to
participate . However, you will h ave the greatest potential of achieving success if
consult wit h other key volunteers and staf f, each of w hom may have a piec e of
information which helps determine the i deal location and time for the workshop.

Another time issue that you will need to dec ide is the length of the workshop. Some
workshops last a few hours, some for a full day, and some for a weekend. Some
workshops are one-time events and others ar e scheduled as a series. The length of
a workshop is another of the factors that will inf luenc e participa nts’ decisions to
attend, so it is an important decision. For example, if you need three hours to
deliver the content, you may choose to do it all together on a Saturday afternoon, or
in one-hour segments over a three-week period, depending on what works best for
your group of trainees.

S e t a b u d g et for the workshop. The final issue to be decided is how much will be
spent on the workshop. Several potentia l costs need to be considered, including
correspondence with participant s, phone calls , p h o t o c o p y i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , r o o m
rental, food and drinks, audio-visual equi p m e n t , a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n g i f t s . T h e s e c o s t s
then need to be considered in the larger c ontext of the overa ll budget that the
p a r t i c u l a r A F S u n i t h a s f o r t h e y e a r . I f m ore training workshops are to follow this
one, then the cost of each workshop needs to be calculated so that a long-range
training budget can be formulated. This will help determine how much any single
w o r k s h o p c an c os t . A s w it h al l of th e o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s , t here should be a common
agreement on the budget before proceeding.  

Establishing the Workshop Parameters – Checklist

 Discuss the list of potential training topics and determine the priorities.
 Discuss potential participants for the workshop and determine the target group
 Decide where geographically the workshop will be held.
 Decide when the workshop will be held and how long it will be.
 Establish an overall budget for the workshop.

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 HANDLING THE WORKSHOP LOGISTICS
Organizing a workshop involves several lo gistical piec es that emerge from the
parameters you have established. If you are working as part of an organizing team,
this is an area where other team mem bers can contribute greatly by taking
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r making arrangements. As the workshop facilit ator, however, it is
important to be involv ed in the logistics, whether or not you take pri m a r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e m . Part of organizing a works hop is ensuring that all of the
p i e c e s c o m e t o g e t h e r s m o o t h l y so that the participants are able to learn in a
comfortable and problem-free environment.

Selecting, reserving, and familiarizi ng yourself with the training site. Th e fi r s t

major task is finding a site where the wor kshop can be held. Once you know where
and when you want to hold the workshop, how long it will be, ho w many people will
ideally be in attendance, and how much money is in your budget, you can begin the
process of finding an appropriate site. There are many options to consider, including
c o m m u n i t y c e n t e r s , c h u r c h e s , s c h o o l s , c a m p s, office conference rooms, and hotel
conference rooms. Each option should be c onsidered in light of other logistical
arrangements. Consider the following questions:

 How much training space will you need?

 Will you need overnight rooms? How many?
 Will you need common areas for eating and socializing?
 Does the site allow you to bring your own food?
 What facilities do you need to prepare food?
 How accessible is the site to the workshop participants?
 Will you need to arrange group transportation to the site because of location or distance?
 Is adequate and affordable parking available?
 Does the site have the audio-visual equipment that you need or will they allow you to bring your
own?

You may have other specific training needs fr o m t he s i t e , s o i t i s h e l p f u l t o w r i t e

down a list of requirements befor e beginning the search process.

Once you have locat ed a site, you will ne ed to reserve it. Some sites are quite
popular and may need to be reserved months in advance, so plan as far ahead as
possible. Reserving a site can sometimes be a simple process involving no money
or contract. In most situations, the arrangements will be more formal. Always
consult wit h the volunteer leaders in your area and/or with AFS training staff if you
are asked to sign a contract, make a dow n payment, and provide proof of liability
insurance because y ou are committing not only yourself but the organization when
you take these steps.

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After reserving the site, you will want seve ral pieces of information for yourself and
your participants - directions and a map fo r re a ch in g th e site , in stru ctio n s fo r
parking, and important phone numbers. Y ou will als o want to familiariz e yourself
with the layout of the site so that y ou are comfortable with the environment and can
help familiarize the participants in your workshop. Know about restrooms, public
phones, smoking policies, other events taki ng plac e at the same time, and local
community services such as gas stations and photocopying cent ers. Finally, you
will want to know ho w you gain access to the facility on the day of the workshop,
since you will most likely be traini ng outs i de of regular busines s hours.

A r r a n g i n g overni ght l odgi ng. For most workshops, lodging is unnecessar y. In

some cases though, you may want to have your group stay overnight, or you may
want to offer lodging to those participant s who must travel several hours to attend
the workshop.

There are a variety of options to cons ider, including room s in private homes,
hostels, camps, and hotels. You will want to weigh the following factors if you intend
to provide lodging:

 where do you want your participants located?

 how important is comfort, do you want participants to have privacy or group camaraderie?
 and how much will it cost?

Except wh en you are using priv ate homes, your lodging and training site will most
likely be the same location, so you can build rooms into the contract. AFS
volunteers and staff are used to sharing rooms to save costs, though participants
should not be asked to share beds.

I n a n y s i tuat ion inv ol v i ng a c ont ra ct fo r lodging, find out when you must firmly
commit to the number of rooms you will ne ed. Even if you do not fill all of the
spaces in the workshop, you will typically have to pay for all of the rooms or beds
you have reserved.

If you are using rooms with amenities lik e private phones and pay-television, make
arrangements with the facility to have parti cipants p ay their own costs for their use
of these services.

Finally, find out when participants can arri ve a n d b y wh a t time th e y mu st le a ve .

Most facilities will make arrangements such as extended check-out and luggage
storage if the times do not coincide neatly with the workshop times.

Serving food and drinks. For a workshop of any lengt h, it is highly recommended
to provide refreshments and/or meals. The amount and frequency will var y with the

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time of day and length of the wo rkshop itself. While snacks and canned drinks may
be sufficient for a three-hour workshop on a

Saturday afternoon, you may want to prov ide a meal for the same workshop held on
a weekday evening after most people have been working all day . In short, the food
and drink arrangements can help ent i c e i n v i t e e s t o a t t e n d , can provide opportunities
for socializ ing during a workshop, and c an provide the boost of energy participants
need to stay alert after a couple of hours of tr aining. Given the relatively low cost of
providing f ood and drinks, it is better to be generous because satiated participants
are happier participants.

Handling food and drink arrangements and prepar ation is time-consuming. As the
workshop facilitator, you will probably hav e difficulty focusing on the training if you
also have to worry about snacks and meals. It is especially helpf ul to get a ssistance
in this area, and even better to turn all of the arrangements over to someone else
involv ed in organizing the training. If you are using professional food services such
as the hotel caterer or a restaurant, the arrangements ar e simpler, but can still be a
d i s tr a c t i o n . I f y our group is prepa rin g yo u r own food, it is im perative that someone
else take the lead in handling these prepar ations. Keep in mind that many AFS
volunteers love the opportunity to take charge of the kitchen an d will g ladly help
out.

In handling food and drink arrangements, it is i m p o r t a n t t o b e thorough. In addition

to the food and drinks, make sure to have plates, utensils, cups , napkins, cutting
k n i v e s , s a l t and pepper, c ondi m ents, ice, trash bags, and other standard
accompaniments that you would readily have at home. If you ar e using professional
food services, make sure you have budgeted carefully , including taxes and
gratuities. Given the diversity of eating habi ts, it is also important to account for
different tastes by offering a variety of options, including a v egetarian option. A
variety of drinks is also im p o r t a n t a s d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e p r e f e r w a t e r , j u i c e , s o d a s ,
coffee, and tea.

Organizing workshop equipment and supplies. While preparing the modules you
are going to use in the workshop, make a list of equipment and supplies that you
will need. The following items are commonly used for workshops:

 Computer equipment  Masking tape

 VCR and television  Thumbtacks
 Flipchart  Stapler
 Dry erase boards and/or chalkboards  Paper clips
 Marking pens  Table toys
 Chalk  Pens and pencils

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Depending on the training site, you may be able to bring in your own equipment, you
may be able to use the facility’s equipment free of charge, or you may have to pay
for the use of the facility’s equ ip ment. In selecting yo ur site, it is best to ask ahead
of time about their equipment use policy because it can be a major expens e if you
are required to use and pay for their equipment, something which is common for
hotels as an example.

If you plan to use more sophisticated high -tech equipment, test using it before the
workshop begins. The equipm ent can be confusing to use when you are in the midst
of facilitating a workshop and the technol o gy does occasiona lly fail. Though high-
tech equipment can help you make snazzier presentations, the content rather than
the technology should be the central focus of the workshop. As a backup to
equipment failure, do have some low-tech options that you can rely on.

I t i s a l s o i mport ant t o m ak e a li s t o f t he handouts you will be u s ing in the workshop.

Plan to make photocopies at least a day in advance of the workshop to avoid
mishaps with faulty copying machines. Al so, make more copies than you think you
will need s o that all participants receive their own materials. As a contingency,
know wher e you can conveniently make more copies if you do run out of them during
the workshop.

Handling transportation issues. Most participants will drive their own vehicles or
carpool to the workshop. For those who are dr iving, you will need to make sure they
have a few simple pieces of information, including dir ections and a map to the
training sit e, parking instructions, and details about any mileage or gas
reimbursement being offered. If you believ e carpoolin g will be h elpful, you may also
want to maintain a lis t of participants who have indic ated they would like to share
rides. You can share this information among participants as they request it.

There are occasions when participants will not be able to travel by their own car. In
those cases, commercial transportation su ch a s re n ta l ca rs, b u se s, tra in s, a n d
airplanes may be options. You and the other organizers of the workshop will need to
decide how much of the budget you can a llot to transportation. If you do use
commercial transportation, arrangements should be made as far in advance as
possible. In the case of rental cars and airline tickets , plan at least three w eeks in
advance to obtain the most consistently favorable rates. You will also need to
decide who should take responsibility fo r making the arrangements, and it should be
somebody who is well versed in the budgetar y limits for the event. Never allow
workshop participant s to purchase tickets wi th o u t p rio r a p p ro va l a s circu msta n ces
can change and most commerci al transporta tion tickets are non-refundable. If
participant s do arrive by means other than a ca r , y o u w i l l a l s o w a n t t o m a int a i n a

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list of scheduled arriv al times and possibly assist in making arrangements for them
to go from the airport, train station, or bus depot to the training site.

Managing the expen ses. Once you have been allotted a specific budget for the
workshop, it is important to stay within it. To start, decide how much money will
need to spent on each of the arrangements – site rental, lodging, food and drinks,
equipment and supplies, and transportation. Also consider administrative expenses
such as postage and phone calls. Create a wr itten budget for the event and record
expenses as they occur. This will he lp you monitor and adjust your budget as
needed.

Funds can be obtained two ways within AF S. You can either receive an advance or
you can incur the expenses and request reimbursement. Depending on who you are
conducting the workshop for, you will obta i n funds from a local chapter treasurer, an
area team treasurer, AF S Field Finance Department. In all cases, keep receipts to
document what you have spent. Receipts are a necessary part of the expense
report form whether you have rece ived an advance or will be rec eiving
reimbursement. A copy of the expense r eport form is included in the resource
section of this manual.

Before inviting participants, you should als o decide if there are expenses they will
incur whic h you will r eimburse. Typical ex penses inc lude car mileage, gas, and
parking. If you plan to reimburse partici p a n t s , b r i n g e x t r a c opies of the expense
r e p o r t f o r m t o t he w ork s hop. A f t e r th e y have filled th em out, you can either
reimburse them with cash at the end of the workshop or send the expense form to
the appropriate financial manager, who will in tu rn se n d re imb u rse me n t ch e cks to
the participants.

Handling the Workshop Logistics – Checklist

 Reserve a training site that meets the needs of the workshop and familiarize yourself with the
services and layout of the site.
 Arrange overnight lodging for participants, if necessary.
 Consult with volunteer leaders and staff if you need to sign a contract, make a down payment,
or offer proof of liability insurance for the site and/or lodging.
 Determine what food and drinks need to be provided at the workshop and who will handle these
arrangements.
 Make a list of equipment and supplies needed for the workshop, make arrangements to have
them at the site, and test the equipment before the workshop begins.
 Determine how people will travel to the site and ensure that participants who need special travel
arrangements receive personalized assistance.
 Consult with the unit’s financial officer to establish a detailed budget, a process for monitoring
expenses and collecting receipts, and a procedure for reimbursing yourself and workshop
participants.
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 RECRUITING AND PREPARING THE PARTICIPANTS
All of the decisions and arrangements y ou are making are on behalf of participants
whom you hope will attend the w orkshop and gain the maximum benefit from being
t h e r e . I n o r d e r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e c e n t r a l goals of any workshop, you and the other
organizers will nee d to take time to recruit and prepare the participants. Through
good communication , you will ideally e nti ce the participants en ough to attend the
workshop and create a clear pi cture of the workshop’s in tended goals and outcomes.

Ensuring that invitees becom e trainees. Once you have a list of potential
participant s, the starting plac e is a formal invitation t o attend the workshop. If you
surveyed your target group as part of the assessment process, you may have
already established s ome desire for t he workshop. Beyond that, a well-des igned
invitation will spark interest in the subjec t. In the invitation, let the invitees know
that they have been specially chosen to attend and portray the workshop as an
opportunity for personal learning and growth . There are items w hich you c an inclu de
in the invit ation that will help toward s these ends, such as a hand-written note
encouraging an indiv i dual to attend, a te stimonial from a previous workshop
participant , “teasers” on the topics to be co vered, and information about the social
opportunities surrounding the workshop. The more appealing the opportunity seems,
the more likely it is that the individua ls yo u want to attend will.

The invitat ion should also be very clear about the logistical details of the w orkshop.
Participant s want to know specif ics such as who has been inv ited, when and where
the workshop will be held, what food is bei ng offered, who will be facilitating the
workshop, how to RSVP, and who to call if they have questions. Including these
details will convey a message that t he workshop is well-organized and will reduce
the potential for confusion and frustration. Sending the invitations well in advance
(approximately six weeks) is another detail that will sh ow the professional level of
organization behind the workshop and allow people enough time to make pl ans to
attend.

After the i nvitations have been sent, you will increase attendance by initiating
follow-up phone calls and e-mails encouraging p e o p l e t o a t t e n d . O t h e r v o l u n t e e r s
and staff can be very useful by calling people they know personally to enc ourage
them to come. Sending a reminder postcard to those who have not sent their RSVP
is another way to increase attendance sinc e many potential participants will put the
i n v i t a t i o n in a pil e and f orget t o retu rn to it. If high attendance is an important goal,
then it is worth the time to do some follow-up.

Preparing participants to expect wha t y ou pla n to de liv e r . For those who do

commit to attending, you will w a n t t o m a k e s u r e t h a t t hey fully understand what the
workshop is about. One of the greatest detri ments to the success of a workshop is
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an unfulfilled expectation. If the initial in vitation does not fully convey the topics
that will be covered and the participants w ho have be en selecte d, you may want to
send follow-up correspondence such as a final agenda or some brief background
reading. Not only will this will h elp ensure that all of the participants are on the
same page, but it will help re mind people to attend the event.

Recruiting and Preparing the Participants – Checklist

 Create and send enticing and personalized invitations for the workshop.

 Follow up on invitations with phone calls, e-mails, and reminder cards.

 Create accurate expectations among participants with detailed agendas, information about
fellow participants, and background reading materials.

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 EVALUATING THE WORKSHOP ORGANIZATION
An important and often overlook ed step of organizing a workshop is evaluating it
when it is over. In order to improve the next workshop, it is helpful to analyze the
successes and difficulties just experienced. This remains as true for people who are
experienced at organizing works hops as it is for those who are new to th e p ro ce s s .

A good ev aluation will contain f eedback from ev eryone involv ed in the workshop. As
the facilita t or, your own feedba ck is im portant, especially becau se you have been
involv ed in all phases of the organizati on. Other staff and volunteers who helped
should be encouraged to give their feedback, whether they had a narrow or a broad
role. Finally, a good participant evaluat ion will inc lud e question s about the
organization as well as the content and del ivery of the workshop. In all cases,
feedback may be either written or verbal or a combination of the two. For
participant s, build the evaluation into the workshop agenda so that it is not
fo r g o t t e n . For y ours el f and ot her o r ganizers, seek out feedback after the
participant s have left or at a later time when people have had a chance to reflect.
En c o u r a g e ev ery one t o s ugges t s olu tio n s o r alternatives when they are identifying
organizatio nal difficulties as this will in crea se the usefulness of the evaluations.

To help in the evaluation proces s, sample evaluations are included in eac h of the
training modules in this manual. Compilin g these evaluation fo rms along with verbal
feedback you receive will help le ave a record of the workshop. It will also help
guide the direction of future workshops.

Evaluating the Workshop Organization – Checklist

 Write down your own feedback about the organization of the workshop.

 Obtain written and/or verbal feedback from the workshop participants.

 Obtain written and/or verbal feedback from other people who helped organize the workshop.

 Summarize the feedback for a final evaluation.

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 Potpourri

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 ETHICS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Compiled by Judy Cyprian and Catriona McHardy, Planned Parenthood of Northern New
England
W e b e l i e v e t h a t a t r a in e r i s NOT the ultimate repository of wisdom.

W e d o b e l iev e t hat a t rai ner has useful information and is a resource to people.

We believe that it is especially important that a trainer projects confidence and

competen ce.

W e b e l i e v e t h a t a t r a in e r s h o u l d establish a non-judgmental atmosphere that

f o s t e r s e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , e x p l o r a t ion and the free exchang e of ideas.

W e b e l i e v e t h a t a t r a in e r s h o u l d not impose one’s own values or be judgmental of

the values of others.

W e b e l i e v e t h a t a t r a in e r s h o u l d diffe r e ntia te be tween opinion a nd fa c t.

W e b e l i e v e t h a t a t r a in e r s h o u l d have good training skills, keep current on the

t o p i c s o n e trai ns i n, and c ont i nuo u sly fin d wa ys to improve one’s knowledge and
skills.

We believe that it is the trainer’s job to know as much as one can about the
participants and their needs. Learni n g , h o w e v e r , i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e
participants.

W e b e l i e v e t h a t a t r a in e r i s a l i st e n e r a n d a n o b s e r v e r , paying close attention to

what is being said and making appropriate observations that further the group’s
learning.

W e b e l i e v e a t rainer i s both a facilitator who moves the group along when it gets
caught up in a particular problem or topic – and an innovator who suggests various
techniques to maximize the learning experience.

W e b e l i e v e t h a t a t r a in e r must have integrity. This means that one approaches

one’s work as a professional… is hones t about one’s qualifications, knowledge and
skills… is t r ustworthy... does not manipulat e the situation or participants… and
keeps personal infor m ation confidential. It al so me a n s th a t a tra in e r is h o n e st w i t h
oneself.

W e b e l i e v e t h a t a t r a in e r needs to be authentic…be oneself. Be sincere in what

one says and does.

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 ANALYZING THE SPEAKING SITUATION
From Craig Storti Associates, 410-346-7336
 The room of the hall

 Arrangement of chairs and tables

 Saboteurs

 Equipment

 Temperature

 Noise

 Hour of the day

 Late arrivals

 Lectern

 Microphone

 Previous speakers

 Other

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 SAMPLE SEATING

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 AUDIO VISUAL EQUIPMENT
As you put together your training, here is a list of AV equipment you may consider
using. This list is not comprehensive by an y s t r e t c h , b u t i t m a y remind you of the
m a n y o p t i o ns t hat ex is t i n our incre a s ingly high-tech society. Choosing AV
equipment, as with choosing any elements in yo u r tra in in g , n e e d s to b e th o u g h t- o u t
and planned. Ideally the AV itself serves t he activity and therefore the objectives,
environment, and learners.

Remember to give careful attention to the medium, your technical skills, your
audienc e, their learning styles and even the time of day, when choosing AV. High-
tech does not always mean a better product. Sometimes a well-planned but low-tech
activity can reach the objectives more effectively than the latest “gadgets”.

It is essential to have spoken with the si te and pre-arrange for any of the equipment
you need. Ideally the equipment should be pres ent when you arrive so that you can
review how it operates. While there is usua lly similarity between the same kinds of
equipment (e.g. between any two DVD players) there is also enough difference that
you do not want to discover at the last mi nute that you don’t know how to operate it.

Possible AV Equipment:
 LCD Projector (PowerPoint)*
 Laptop
 Screen(s) (appropriate for the size of the group that is viewing)
 Flip Chart / Easel Pad (make sure enough paper is included for your activities)
 White board with wipe off markers
 Markers
 Sticky notes
 Masking Tape
 Microphones / Stands
 Amplifiers and speakers
 CD player
 Digital Camera
 Video Camera
 Television / VCR / DVD
 Other

*When using projecting equipm ent it is always helpf ul to ask that a spare bulb be
i m m e d i a t e ly av ail abl e.

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 WAYS TO SUM IT ALL UP
How to be a Trainer, By Terry Beresford, 1980.
Planned Parenthood of Maryland

If you want to end with a bang and not a whimper, you can consider the following
ideas:

 Sometimes a brief summary of major poi nts or accomplishments of the group

during the session pr ovides a positive and useful ending.
 Sometimes introducing an exercise or a new idea when there is not time to
explore it fully makes an ending that l eaves trainees wishing they could stay
longer and gives them somethi ng to think about on the way home.
 Sometimes a short keynote speech (w hich people are accustomed to getti ng
at beginnings) makes an inspirat ional en ding, especially if the speaker is
entertaining and can tie them es from the session toget h e r in a se n sib le w a y .
 Sometimes participants would like a way to say goodbye to one another and
to you in a way that allows them to share their enthusiasm and good feelings.
 Sometimes an evaluation of the traini ng provides a way for participants to
gain a sense of close and order thei r thoughts about applic ations of the
learning for their jobs.
 Sometimes ending a few minutes early and giving par ticipants the gift of
some unexpected free time gives everyone a lift.

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 CO-FACILITATION/CO-TRAINING GUIDE
When two or more trainers lead a workshop together, they are called co-trainers or
co-facilitators. Using more than one facilit at or brings diversity to the training and
expands the range of skills an d experience s to be utilized in a workshop. Different
people res pond to different personalities a n d te a ch in g style s. Co -tra in in g /co -
facilitation increases the possibility of br idging the gulf that can be created betwee n
indiv idua ls /a group and trainers/facilitators.

When one facilitator is leadin g the group, the other can assume the role of group
observer and may note group dynamic issues which need to be resolved. In addition,
the other individual c ould be noting parti cip a n t sta te me n ts/co n c erns that can be
referred back to, or missing information and ke y points that should be woven in at a
later point.

T h e r e l a ti o ns hi p among c o-f ac il i t ato rs s hould demonstrate mutual respon sibility and

respect. Team members serve as allies , resources and supports for and to each
other. Therefore, co-facilitation can model powerful ally relationships to celebrate
difference and promote an at mosphere of cooperation.

Co-facilitat ors need to spend ample time together and communicate well in order to
w o r k t o g e t h e r e f f e c t iv e l y . Each trainer brings to a workshop his/her own unique life
e x p e r i e n c e s , b e l i e f s , k n o w l e d g e , r e a c t ions, and feelings about him/herself, the
content to be covered and his/her role as a trainer. The challenge is to bring this
c o m b i n a ti o n of ingredi ent s t oget he r to ma ximize the training experience for those
who will participate in the workshop.

Use this guide to help you and your co-trai n e r / c o - f a c i l i t a t o r g e t t o k n o w e a c h o t h e r ,

develop a set of mutually agreed upon ope rating ground rules, and hopefully have a
productive and successful experience work ing together.

Before the Workshop: Background and Planning

1. Do some personal homework. Do a personal examin ation of your own
attitudes and feelings about the issues and content to be covered in the
workshop and about the makeup of the expected audience. Identify your
personal and professional strengt hs, weaknesses, confidences and
vulnerabilities about the issues/cont ent and audience. Identify your hopes
and fears about working with th is p a rticu la r co -tra in e r.
2. Do not walk into the workshop “cold” and have to get accustomed to each
other, as well as to the group. Spend some “team-building” time and some
“ w o r k i ng-t oget her” t im e prio r to th e wo rksh o p .
a. If at all possible, send some soci al, non-task oriented time together.

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 b. Conduct a “formal” interview with eac h other using the “Co-Facilitation
I nv ent ory ” t hat f ol l ows a s a sta rti ng point. Use this as the opportunity
to learn about each other as trainer s, to establish your operating
ground rules and to share expectations.
c. Plan the workshop together including n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t i n f o r m a t i o n ,
developing and/or reviewing the goal s , o b j e c t i v e s , a g e n d a , a c t i v i t i e s ,
who will do what, the overall process the two of you will follow, what
the training room should look lik e, etc. Establish a time line and
identify who is responsible for th ings that need to be done before the
training begins.
d. Clearly est ablish what, if any, feedba ck you would lik e to receive from
each other. Be as clear and specific about what you are looking for as
possible.

During the Workshop: Checking In

1. Continually check in with each other to monitor how the training is evolving
overall and how the co-training seems to be going for each of you.
2. Follow all of your agreed upon operating ground rules . If you feel a need to
break one of the rules, check it out ahead of time if possible or ask
permission to do so of your co-t r a i n e r i n f r o n t o f t h e g r o u p .
3. Be totally and completely supportive o f, and helpful to, each other in all ways
possible.

After the Workshop: Debriefing

1. Debrief the workshop as a whole in cluding the process and the design.
2. Debrief your experience with each other as co-trainers.
3. Share with each other your agreed upon feedback.
4. Share with each other what you learned from this experience.

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 CO-FACILITATION INVENTORY
Adapted by Wayne V. Pawlowski for PPFA from Pfeiffer and Jones, 1975 Annual
Handbook for Group Facilitators and from work by Caroline Haskelll.
July 17, 2002

Your Name:

Training Event:

Expected Size and Make-up of Audience:

Date(s):

Before the Workshop: Planning

Share and discuss the following with your co-facilit ator/co-trainer:

Learning Theory | Share your concepts of how people learn…

P e r s o n a l M o t i v a t i o n | Complete the following sentences:

I am involved in training becaus e…

What I like best about training is…

What I like least about training is…

I a m a t m y bes t as a t rainer w hen …

I am at my worst as a trainer when…

Expectations about the Workshop | I expect the following things could happen in
the group with which we will be working:

1.

2.

3.

4.

The best thing that could happen would be…

The worst thing that could happen would be…

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E x p e c t a t i o n s A b o u t C o - F a c i l i t a t i n g / C o - T r a i n i n g | Complete the following
sentences:

What I am most looking forward to about this co-training experience is…

What I am most anxious about th is co-training experience is…

Training experience | Summarize your experience a s a n i n d i v i d u a l t r a i n e r …

If you have co-trained/co-facilitated in t he past, what do you lik e about it… what do
y o u d i s l i k e about it … w hat has w o rke d … wh a t h a s n o t wo rke d … ?

Training Style | As best you can, describe your “style” as a trainer…

If you have taken them, share your scores on any style inventor ies such as the
Myers Briggs, the Gregoric Style Inventory, etc.

Intervention Style | The following are my typical re sponses in the type of group
with which we will be working:

When starting the group I usually…

When someone talks too much I usually…

When the group is silent I usually…

When an individual is silent for a long period of time I usually…

When someone comes in late I usually…

When someone constantly side tracks the group I usually…

When there is conflic t in the group I usually…

When there is a group attack on one indiv i dual I usually…

When group members share or discuss ex c essive ly p e rso n a l o r in a p p ro p ria te

information I usually …

When someone asks me personal questions about my behaviors, relationships,

and/or life I usually…

M y t y p i c a l int erv ent i ons rhy t hm (f a st, slo w) is…

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The thing that makes me most uncom fortable about a group like this is…

The thing I like best about a group like this is…

Other things I would like to share about myself and this type of group are…

Operating Ground Rules and Co-Facilitation Style

Discuss an d determine who will have overa ll authority for decision-making – or will
it be shared?

Discuss is sues of time: How important is it to start and end exactly on time? How
will you handle it if one of you get s off schedule? Discuss possible signals.

Decide how you will communicate with each other during the workshop? Suppose
one of you wants to add something? Suppo se the facilitator who is “on” is l eaving
something important out? Supp ose your co-facilitato r is noticing something
happening in the group that you a r e m i s s i n g ? O t h e r s it u a t i o n s ?

Decide how you will handle differences of opi n i o n a b o u t f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n ? I s i t O K

to publicly state a different point of view than your co-facilitator ? If so, how would it
feel most comfortable to do this?

Discuss how you will handle serious disagr eements or conflicts between you? When,
where, and how should you disc uss conflic ts/disagreements?

During the workshop: Checking In

During breaks and at meals, discuss the following:

 On a ten-point scale, how do things seem to be going?

 How’s the group responding?
 Are there any problem behavio rs that need to be handled?
 On a ten-point scale, how well are you working together?
 Are you both following your operating ground rules? If not, why not and what
should happen now?
 How are you doing with time? Do you need to revise the design for timing
reasons?
 Do you need to revise the design for any other reason?
Determine in advance how you will procee d if you have differences in perception
about any of the above questions.

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After the Workshop: Debriefing
Debrief the workshop and training design: Review the evaluations together, discuss
the extent to which the training goal s and objectives were achieved and discuss
changes y ou might make to the design if y ou were going to do this workshop again.

What did you do indiv idually that was effe ctive or ineffective? What would you do
differently next time?

How did th e co-facilitation work for you? When was it smoothest? When did you
experience bumps? What did you do when t he bumps occurred? What else could you
have done about them? Do you need to do anyth ing about them now ? What can you
do to prevent those bumps from recurring in the future?

Express appreciations for each other.

Share agreed upon feedback wit h each other.

Discuss what you learned personally and pr o fe ssio n a lly fro m th is e xp e rie n ce .

Discuss under what conditions you might work together again in the future.

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 TRAINING AND MANAGING ANXIETY
Compiled by Judy Cyprian and Catriona McHardy
Planned Parenthood of Northern New England

 Breathe deeply
 Focus on relaxing (image or scene)
 Have something in pocket to hold – stone, small picture, lucky charm
 Releas e tension with isometrics just before the training begins
 Plant feet firmly on the gr ound, dig heels into the ground
 Move around during presentation BUT don’t pace
 M a i nt ain ey e c ont ac t w i t h au d ie n ce ( don’t look down, dart around, or focus
off)
 Tell audience something about yourself… make a personal connection so you
don’t feel so separate
 Use humor… releases tension, yours and the participants
 Be prepared
 Silence can be OK while you gather your thoughts
 Remember… you are the guide but y ou don’t have to know everything

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 THE PEDAGOGUE’S DECALOGUE
A Crash course for the novice trainer on how to conduct a good seminar…
By Frank O’Meara

Maybe you’re a manager. Maybe you’re a t eam leader. Maybe you’re a technician.
Whatever the case, you know enough about something that somebody in the
organization has decided you ought to pas s on the knowledge. C o n g r a t u l a t i o n s ,
you’re going to conduct a seminar.

To get off on the right foot, please cons ider the following 10 ru le s, a so rt o f
“ p e d a g o g u e’s dec al ogue. ” They wo n ’t ma ke you an instant expert in the art and
science of teaching, but they can help you avoid some major pitfalls. If nothing else,
perhaps they can serve as a reminder to keep your attention focused where it
belongs, on the learners.

Change your shoes.

No doubt you have encountered some teacher s, professors, or learned experts who
seemed to believ e otherwise, but the point of a training session is not to prove the
instructor’s competence or to display her kn o wle d g e a n d e xp e rie n ce . Th e p o in t is t o
m a k e s u r e t hat t hes e res ources help the participants deepen their knowledge and
develop t h e i r competence.

The purpose of teaching is lear ning.

Learning doesn’t happen simply because an in structor delivers a speech, however

well-constr ucted, on a subject in whic h he is an expert. Learning happens when a
concept, an aptitude or a body of knowle d g e i s u n d e r s t o o d , assimilated and
mastered by the learner. That is why a goo d teacher begins by imagining himself as
a member of his audience, by seeing his s ubject from the learners’ point of view,
and by asking some basic questions:

 What does my audience already know about the subject?

 What is their experience in this area?
 What do they need to know about it?
 What do they want to know about it?
 What importance do they attach to it?
 What are their likely questions, difficulties, and misconceptions about it?

Your answers to these question s will he lp you prepare the module you are going to
teach. But what really matters is their answers to those questions. Before you go
any further, try to find out what your audience knows and thinks about the subject.
Y o u m i g h t a s k t h e m , s u r v e y t h e m , t e s t t h e m , w a t c h t h e m on the job, talk to their

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supervisors – whatever gives you the information you need to help you focus your
module on their real needs, on their understanding, on their learning.

Get your act together.

You know your stuff. You also k now what the audienc e needs to know about your
subject. And you have a time frame in which to get your message across.

The first thing to decide in preparing your session is: what are the three or four
main things you want these people to learn? Be careful here: Whatever you’re trying
to teach, there is a world of differenc e between what you think would be good to
explain to them, and what you want them to be ca p a b le o f at the end of the session.

What do you want them to know, to under stand, to remember, to be convinced of

and to be able to do? Furthermore, how are you going to know they know? It all
starts with the way you phrase the objecti ves. The trick is to build into your
objectives the criteria by which you can observe and thus evaluate the knowledge
and know- how that your trainees have ac quired. If you’re teaching people how to
change a tire, your objective is not just to im part information about tire changing,
b u t t o s e e t o i t t h a t b y the end of the session, everybody can, in fact, successfully
change a tire. We’ll come back to this poin t later in the Decalo gue.

For the moment, just remember to think of the content of your module not in terms
o f c h a p t e r headi ngs , but i n t erm s o f o p e r ational and observabl e competencies: At
the end of the day, partici pants will be ab le to define, recognize, explain,
distinguish, analyze, use or do whatever it is you set out to teach them.

The next thing is to plan the overall struct ure of your module. A seminar day can be
divided handily into four blocks: two in the morning, two in th e afternoon (the
important thing about coffee breaks is t he break, not the bever age). In a full-day
seminar you can wrap up each unit of t he module in one and a half to two hours,
and increase your chances of retaining pa rticipants’ attention and interest with a
change of pace as you tackle each new unit.

Finally, plan the day using a three-colu mn outline: objectives, content, and
methodology.

The objectives will co rrespond to the principal co mp e t e n cy fo r e a ch o f th e time s l o t s

during the day. The content column will fl e sh out the main messages of each unit.
The methods column will list the choices you make as to the ways learning will
happen (ex planation, discussion, simulations , group work, indiv idual responses to
questionnaires, etc.), as well as the visual or audiovisual aids y ou plan to use. This
one-page outline of the day will help you keep the whole picture in focus. It will
prompt you to build in cohesion, conti nuity, variety and active participation. The
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participant s’ ability to assimilat e information and dev elop skills will depend, in large
measure, on the clarity of the plan you construct.

Loosen up.
Yes, this seminar is serious business. You have a lot of material to convey, and you
h a v e a p l a n t hat is a model of t ime management. You’ve no time to waste on
chitchat. You’re not interested in deliv e rin g a p rima d o n n a p e rfo rmance or gathering
votes as the year’s jo llie st instructor.

On the other hand, seminars need not be a pain in the neck. As a participant, you
probably remember best – and learned most in – sessions in which the instructor
t o o k t h e t im e t o b r e a k t h e i c e . I f y o u ’ r e like most of us, you prefer an instructor
whose style is businesslike but relaxed, one who makes you feel you can speak up
without busting a schedule set in concrete.

Be attentive to the group’s reactions. Change gears whenever you notice signs of
i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , b o r e d o m o r fatigue. Hang loose. And smile.

Uncomplicate it.
This subject you’re teaching is perfectly cl e a r to yo u . Yo u kn o w it in sid e o u t. Wha t ’ s
not clear sometimes is why thi ngs are not obvious to others.

It’s up to you to make sure parti cipants h a ve th e vo ca b u la ry to u n d e rsta n d wh a t

you’re talk ing about. The advant ages of a hyper-logographic reading of company
procedures rather than a hypolographic reading may be self-evident to you, but the
audienc e might be excused for not sharing your c o n v i c t i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , e x p r e s s
your idea in the simplest possible language.

Follow the advice of Cicero, who suggested that without examples, nothing is taught
and nothing is learned. Your technica l ex planations s hould be accompanied by
v i s u a l r e p res ent at i ons (pi c t ures , gra p h s, drawings) or simulations of real-life
situations. Better yet, wherever possible, provide dir ect contact with the thing you
are talking about.

The assimilation of cognitive input is in inverse proportion to the presence of

obfuscation. That’s a complicated way of s a y i n g : I f y o u w a n t t h e m t o u n d e r s t a n d ,
express your message as clearly, as vividly and as simply as possible.

Put it on ice.
We’ve spoken of the need for a certain flexibi lity in presenting your materi al. You’ve
p r e p a r e d y our program . Y ou’ v e m a p p e d o u t the itinerary for the day. Now you need
t o m o t i v a t e y o u r p a r t ic i p a n t s , t o m a k e t h e m f e e l i t ’ s t h e i r program.

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One way is to begin by letting them know what you plan to cover, and then inviting
them to let you know what questions they might have about those subject s. Put
these questions on ic e: Write them on a flip chart and promise to integrate them into
y o u r p r e s ent at i on, or at l east to answer them in an open forum before the end of the
day. This signals yo ur participan ts that other questions will be welcomed during the
session, that you aim at having them a ssimilate a certain amount of prepared
material, but that you intend to ma ke communication a two-way affair.

After all, there’s little point in spending t he day telling them what they could read in
a book or your lecture notes. The spec ific pedagogic al advantage of a seminar is
that it permits dialogue with the inst ructor and within t he group. Exploit it.

Vary your pitch.

An instructor ought to be comfortable with several dif f erent teaching techniques so
as to maintain and renew interest and participation during the day.

The predic t able format for a training m odule is: formal presentation by the
i n s t r u c t o r , f o l l o w e d b y q u e s t i o n s f r o m t he audienc e or perhaps an exercis e in small
groups, and then synthesis and conclus ion by the instructor. That’s one way. Here
are half a dozen others:

 Demonstration. Show them how to fill in a form, how to conduct an interview, how to analyze
information, how to construct a budget or whatever.
 Simulation. Invite two individuals to assume the role of client and salesperson, manager and
subordinate – whatever is appropriate. Ask the other participants to observe and comment on
the simulated experience. Or ask some members of the group to take part in a simulated staff
meeting that the others analyze with the help of observation sheets.

In some cases, you may want to use a vi deo recorder to tape the role players so
they can evaluate their performance.

 Case Study. Present a documented, real situation for analysis by the group or by subgroups.
 Discussion. Break the participants into small groups. Have them share their ideas on some topic
or question you have posed. Ask them to present the results to the rest of the group.
 Individual tasks. Ask each participant to fill in a questionnaire, to analyze a document or to
explain a particular point to the group.
 Group projects. Ask small groups to produce a document or a series of transparencies or flip
charts that can be used in a final segment at the end of the session.
 The important thing is to realize that while lectures can be useful and even necessary in a
seminar, they need not be the only item on the menu.

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Let George do it.
You can tell them, you can show them, yo u can do it for them . But until they tell
y o u , s h o w y ou and do i t t hems elv e s, t hey have not acquired the knowledge or
mastered the skill yo u want them to learn.

Active participation is not just a way of keeping people awake and busy. It is the
way adults learn.

If you spend 75% of the day talking, you can be sure you will have a better grasp of
y o u r s u b j e c t . I f on t he ot her hand, yo u le t t h e m w o r k o n a p r o b l e m , l e t t h e m
discover how to do it, let them explain wh at they have learned, let them learn by
doing, then you can be sure t he y will get the hang of it. Wh ich is the whole point,
remember?

Play it again, Sam.

“ R e p e t i ti o m at er l ec t ioni s ” i s h o w C i c e r o p u t i t : R e p e t i t i on is the mother of learning.

They may have heard you the first time, but they’ll un derstand it better the second
time, especially if you find a different way to express it (visually , for instance). And
when they hear it the third time, you will ha ve made sure that it’ s one of them who’s
doing the talking.

If they hear it, see it, say it and do it…then, by George, they’ve got it.

Accentuate the positive.

T e a c h i n g i s a t r i c k y b u s i n e s s . I f w e w e r e dealing wit h tape recorders rather than
people, it would be r elatively simple. T ape recorders absorb everything they hear,
and it makes no difference whether they actua lly “u n d e rsta n d ” a wo rd o f i t . M o r e o v e r
they’re sensitive to sounds, but devoid of e mo tio n s. Th e y n e e d n o mo tiva tio n , n o
encouragement, none of the niceties o f in te rp e rso n a l co mmu n ica tio n .

People are different. They don’t like to be embarrassed, made fun of or treated like
m o r o n s . T h ey dis l i k e t he hy poc risy o f fla t tery, but they do like to be respected for
who they are, for what they already know , for what they can do and for their ability
to learn.

A wise inst ructor will not hesitate to recognize ign orance or to correct
misunderstanding. Bu t he will be patient and positive in trying to ensure each
indiv idual’s comprehensi on and proficienc y.

Always try to underline what’s correct in an imp e rfe ct a n swe r o r p e rfo rma n ce b e f o r e
pointing out what’s wrong or needs to be im p r o v e d . T h a t ’ s n o t a moral imperative,
it’s a pedagogical one.

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Get a receipt.
We’ve said it all along; The point of your s e m i n a r i s t o m a k e sure participants know
w h a t t h e y ’ re s uppos ed t o k now .

Making sure does not necessarily mean adminis tering a test at the end of the day.

Throughout the seminar, you’ve been ai ming at operational and observable

competencies. You built into your objec tiv es the criteria for evaluating those
competencies. When observers are capable of finding what’s wrong or in need of
improvement in a simulated sales call, when indiv iduals or subgroups can
summarize the material you’ve present ed, when participants ch osen at random can
explain about products or procedures , when they show you they can do w h a t y o u s e t
out to make them capable of doing, you have the right to feel you have done your
job. You know t h e y k n o w .

Postscript
Just in case you’re still wo ndering what those weird words in “Uncomplic ate It”
mean, here are the definitions:

 Hyperlogographic: Characteristic of a reading by a normally educated person who

spontaneously attributes meaning to words and groups of words without analyzing their phonetic
structure.
 Hypologographic: Characteristic of a reading by a person who laboriously identifies each word
by identifying each of its phonetic elements (letters or syllable).

You can now add an 11 t h commandment to your Pedagogue’s Decolague: “Tie up the
loose ends .”

Frank O’Meara is a director at the Univers ite (training c enter) of Cap Gemini Sogeti
in Behoust near Paris. Cap Gemini Sogeti designs and manufactures computer
software.

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