Reliability Guideline

BPS-Connected Inverter-Based Resource

Performance

September 2018

NERC | Report Title | Report Date

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Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................................ v
Preamble ................................................................................................................................................................... vi
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................................. vii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. viii
Applicability of Guideline ..................................................................................................................................... viii
Key Findings from the Disturbance Analyses ......................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1: Momentary Cessation ..............................................................................................................................1
Introduction to Momentary Cessation ...................................................................................................................1
Mitigating Ramp Rate Interactions .........................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2: Active Power-Frequency Control ..............................................................................................................7
Ensuring Robust Frequency Measurement and Protection ...................................................................................7
FERC Order No. 842 ................................................................................................................................................8
Steady-State Active Power-Frequency Control ......................................................................................................8
Dynamic Active Power-Frequency Control .......................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control............................................................................................................ 12
Inverter Regulation Controls................................................................................................................................ 12
Reactive Power-Voltage Control and FERC Order No. 827 .................................................................................. 14
Inverter-Based Resource Reactive Capability ...................................................................................................... 15
Steady-State Reactive Power Control and Droop ................................................................................................ 18
Large and Small Disturbance Performance Characteristics ................................................................................. 19
Small Disturbance Reactive Power-Voltage Performance ................................................................................... 20
Large Disturbance Reactive Current-Voltage Performance................................................................................. 21
Reactive Power at No Active Power Output ........................................................................................................ 24
Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection ..................................................................................................... 28
Overview of Inverter-Based Resource Protective Functions ............................................................................... 28
Inverter Tripping and Shutdown .......................................................................................................................... 30
Return to Service following a Trip ....................................................................................................................... 31
Frequency and Voltage Ride-Through Related to PRC-024-2 .............................................................................. 31
Overvoltage Protection ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Frequency Tripping Mechanism .......................................................................................................................... 38
Rate-of-Change-of-Frequency Measurement and Protection............................................................................. 39
Over- and Underfrequency Protection ................................................................................................................ 39
Phase Lock Loop Loss of Synchronism ................................................................................................................. 40

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 Table of Contents

DC Reverse Current Protection ............................................................................................................................ 40

Successive Voltage Dips ....................................................................................................................................... 41
Chapter 5: IEEE Std. 1547 and UL Std. 1741 ............................................................................................................ 44
Description of IEEE Std. 1547 ............................................................................................................................... 44
Description of UL Std. 1741 ................................................................................................................................. 45
UL Std. 1741 Certification and IEEE Std. 1547 ..................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 6: Measurement Data and Performance Monitoring ................................................................................ 46
Measurement Technologies ................................................................................................................................ 46
Measurement and Monitoring Data .................................................................................................................... 48
Chapter 7: Other Topics for Consideration ............................................................................................................. 52
Controls Interactions and Controls Instability ..................................................................................................... 52
Dispatchability ..................................................................................................................................................... 54
Grid Forming Inverter Concept ............................................................................................................................ 54
Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications ....................................................................................... 56
A. General Requirements..................................................................................................................................... 56
1. Momentary Cessation ...................................................................................................................................... 56
2. Fault Ride-Through and Protection.................................................................................................................. 57
3. Active Power-Frequency Control ..................................................................................................................... 59
4. Reactive Power-Voltage Control ...................................................................................................................... 61
Appendix B: List of Acronyms .................................................................................................................................. 65
Appendix C: IEEE Standard 1547-2018 Terminology ............................................................................................... 69
Appendix D: Methods for Deriving Grid Frequency ................................................................................................ 70
Frequency Measurement Fundamentals............................................................................................................. 70
Methods for Deriving Grid Frequency ................................................................................................................. 70
Phase Lock Loop................................................................................................................................................... 71
Zero Crossing ....................................................................................................................................................... 72
Appendix E: Other Power Electronic Resources on the BPS ................................................................................... 74
Battery Energy Storage Systems .......................................................................................................................... 74
Momentary Cessation used in FACTS Devices and HVDC .................................................................................... 75
Dynamic Performance Characteristics of STATCOMs and SVCs .......................................................................... 76
STATCOM Protection Example............................................................................................................................. 77
Appendix F: Response Characteristic Reference ..................................................................................................... 79
Appendix G: Relevant Materials and References .................................................................................................... 80
NERC .................................................................................................................................................................... 80
FERC ..................................................................................................................................................................... 81

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 Table of Contents

Industry References ............................................................................................................................................. 81

International Grid Codes and References ............................................................................................................ 82
Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................ 84

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Preface

The vision for the Electric Reliability Organization (ERO) Enterprise, which is comprised of the North American
Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and the seven Regional Entities (REs), is a highly reliable and secure North
American bulk power system (BPS). Our mission is to assure the effective and efficient reduction of risks to the
reliability and security of the grid.

The North American BPS is divided into seven RE boundaries as shown in the map and corresponding table below.
The multicolored area denotes overlap as some load-serving entities participate in one Region while associated
Transmission Owners/Operators participate in another.

FRCC Florida Reliability Coordinating Council

MRO Midwest Reliability Organization
NPCC Northeast Power Coordinating Council
RF ReliabilityFirst
SERC SERC Reliability Corporation
Texas RE Texas Reliability Entity
WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council

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Preamble

NERC, as the FERC-certified ERO,1 is responsible for the reliability of the Bulk Electric System (BES) and has a suite
of tools to accomplish this responsibility, including but not limited to the following: lessons learned, reliability and
security guidelines, assessments and reports, the Event Analysis program, the Compliance Monitoring and
Enforcement Program, and Reliability Standards. Each entity, as registered in the NERC compliance registry, is
responsible and accountable for maintaining reliability and compliance with the Reliability Standards to maintain
the reliability of their portions of the BES.

It is in the public interest for NERC to develop guidelines that are useful for maintaining or enhancing the reliability
of the BES. The NERC Technical Committees—the Operating Committee (OC), the Planning Committee (PC), and
the Critical Infrastructure Protection Committee (CIPC)—are authorized by the NERC Board of Trustees (Board) to
develop Reliability (OC and PC) and Security (CIPC) Guidelines per their charters.2 These guidelines establish
voluntary recommendations, considerations, and industry best practices on particular topics for use by users,
owners, and operators of the BES to help assess and ensure BES reliability. These guidelines are prepared in
coordination between NERC Staff and the NERC Technical Committees. As a result, these guidelines represent the
collective experience, expertise, and judgment of the industry.

The objective of each reliability guideline is to distribute key practices and information on specific issues to support
high levels of BES reliability. Reliability guidelines do not provide binding norms and are not subject to compliance
and enforcement (unlike Reliability Standards that are monitored and subject to enforcement). Guidelines are
strictly voluntary and are designed to assist in reviewing, revising, or developing individual entity practices to
support reliability for the BES. Further, guidelines are not intended to take precedence over Reliability Standards,
regional procedures, or regional requirements. Entities should review this guideline in conjunction with Reliability
Standards and periodic review of their internal processes and procedures and make any needed changes based
on their system design, configuration, and business practices.

1http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/072006/E-5.pdf
2http://www.nerc.com/comm/OC/Related%20Files%20DL/OC%20Charter%2020131011%20(Clean).pdf
http://www.nerc.com/comm/CIPC/Related%20Files%20DL/CIPC%20Charter%20(2)%20with%20BOT%20approval%20footer.pdf
http://www.nerc.com/comm/PC/Related%20Files%202013/PC%20Charter%20-%20Board%20Approved%20November%202013.pdf

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Executive Summary

The North American BPS and electric grids around the world are undergoing rapid changes in generation resource
mix with increasing amounts of renewable generation such as wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) power plants.
These resources are asynchronously connected to the grid and are either completely or partially interfaced with
the BPS through power electronics, hence referred to as inverter-based resources. The power electronics aspects
of these generating resources present new opportunities in terms of grid control and response to abnormal grid
conditions. Regardless of the type of resource, it is paramount that all BPS-connected resources are capable of
providing ERSs3 and operate in a manner that supports BPS reliability. NERC, as the ERO of North America, is tasked
with assuring reliability of the North American BPS and is continually assessing the impacts of the changing
resource mix. A critical component to these assessments is developing guidance and recommended practices for
the performance of resources when connected to the BPS. This Reliability Guideline provides a set of
recommended performance specifications for inverter-based resources.

Disturbance analyses of BPS-connected solar PV tripping have identified a number of areas where the
performance of inverter-based resources can be improved. In addition, reliability organizations around the world
have devised grid code requirements to solve reliability issues with nonsynchronous resources. With this
information, and working closely with the electric industry, NERC has captured a set of recommended
performance specifications for inverter-based resources in this Reliability Guideline (guideline). The specifications
are designed to be independent of specific technology and relate to all types of inverter-based resources, such as
wind, solar PV, and battery energy storage systems (BESSs). This guideline uses examples of each interchangeably.
It is understood, and noted in the guideline, that some of the recommended performance aspects may need
modification based on local interconnection studies, grid strength, etc., and those modifications should be
coordinated between the Generator Owner (GO), Generator Operator (GOP), inverter manufacturer, plant
designer, Planning Coordinator (PC), Transmission Planner (TP), Reliability Coordinator (RC), and Transmission
Service Provider (TSP).

This guideline provides recommended steady-state and dynamic performance characteristics for inverter-based
resources and also covers a wide range of related aspects from protective functions to monitoring capability. The
material presented throughout the guideline is based on extensive research and discussions with industry experts
and members of the NERC Inverter-Based Resource Performance Task Force (IRPTF). The NERC IRPTF consists of
industry representatives from multiple sectors of the electric industry: inverter manufacturers, GOs, GOPs, PCs,
TPs, RCs, Balancing Authorities (BAs), Transmission Owners and Operators (TOs/TOPs), independent system
operator (ISO), national laboratories, research organizations, and simulation and modeling experts. This
collaborative industry effort has led to a vetted set of recommendations for inverter-based resources, and the
types of technical discussions in the NERC IRPTF around these topics should continue as the BPS continues to
evolve.

The body of the guideline provides detailed reference materials. The recommended performance specifications
are also provided more concisely in Appendix A.

3See the Essential Reliability Services Task Force Measures Framework Report. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/comm/Other/essntlrlbltysrvcstskfrcDL/ERSTF%20Framework%20Report%20-%20Final.pdf.

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Introduction

As a result of the ongoing analyses of large BPS disturbances in the Western Interconnection involving inverter-
based resources, particularly solar photovoltaic (PV) resource, NERC formed the NERC IRPTF to develop
recommended performance specifications for BPS-connected inverter-based resources during steady-state and
dynamic system conditions. The Blue Cut Fire and Canyon 2 Fire events in the Southern California area led to key
disturbance reports4 and NERC Alerts5 to identify the extent of conditions and develop recommended mitigating
actions. This guideline subsequently builds on these efforts to more comprehensively provide technical guidance
for the recommended behavior of inverter-based resources when connected to the BPS.

One of the major goals of the IRPTF is to bring GOs, GOPs, TPs, TOs, TSPs, TOPs, RCs, and BAs together to engage
with the inverter manufacturing community, inverter-based resource performance experts, and other applicable
standards bodies to cooperatively develop recommended practices moving forward. The IRPTF is cognizant of
existing equipment capabilities and limitations. However, the IRPTF is also considering the growing penetration of
inverter-based resources and resulting future operating conditions.

Applicability of Guideline
This guideline focuses on inverter-based resources directly connected to the BPS. While NERC Reliability Standards
only apply to BES resources, this guideline is also relevant to smaller inverter-based resources that are still
connected to the BPS. This includes resources connected to the transmission and sub-transmission system voltage
levels that do not meet the BES inclusion criteria (e.g., also including resources less than 75 MVA). The guideline
does not cover resources connected to the distribution system (distributed energy resources (DERs)), and instead
recommends the use of the new IEEE Std. 1547-2018 for these resources.

The electric industry has decades of experience with synchronous machines, but experience with significant
amounts of nonsynchronous resources is limited and the technology of inverter-based resources is evolving
rapidly. Inverter-based resources present new characteristics for stability and control with power electronics,
which are high-power switching devices (transistors) controlled by high-speed digital controls. These resources
also present new challenges that will be faced as the penetration continues to grow. Many of the performance
characteristics presented in this guideline for inverter-based resources are an innate feature of the characteristics
of a synchronous machine. On the other hand, one should not expected that an inverter-based resource perform
exactly like a synchronous machine. This would disregard many of the fast controls and features of inverter-based
resources that have the ability to improve the dynamic performance and stability of the BPS. Therefore, it is
important to clearly articulate those aspects that are different (from a power electronics standpoint) and those
that are similar to synchronous machine technology. This guideline presents these similarities and differences
such that these resources can be integrated reliably.

This guideline also provides technical details and clarifications for inverter-based resources related to relevant
NERC Reliability Standards and other interconnection requirements. The NERC Reliability Standards are
independent of technology and performance-based to the most possible extent. The goal of this guideline is to
ensure that the technological attributes of inverter-based resources (e.g., the power electronic aspects,
opportunities, and challenges) are clear and consistent.

The material in many sections of this guideline is highly technical and specific as this is unavoidable given the
subject matter and the intended purpose. This guideline provides guidance and technical reference material to
GOs and GOPs with inverter-based resources connected to the BPS, inverter manufacturers, and transmission
entities including TPs, TSPs, PCs, RCs, BAs, TOPs, and TOs. Lastly, the guideline was developed in close coordination

4 NERC Disturbance Reports: https://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/ea/Pages/Major-Event-Reports.aspx.

5 NERC Alerts: https://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/bpsa/Pages/Alerts.aspx.

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 Introduction

with liaisons to IEEE Std. 1547 to ensure alignment in performance across transmission, sub-transmission, and
distribution-connected resources.

Key Findings from the Disturbance Analyses

The key findings from the Blue Cut Fire and Canyon 2 Fire disturbance analyses are briefly described here for
reference. More information can be obtained in the relevant disturbance analysis reports and NERC Alerts.6

Blue Cut Fire Disturbance

On August 16, 2016, the Blue Cut Fire caused a 500 kV line fault that cleared normally (less than 3 cycles) that
resulted in the widespread loss of 1,178 MW of solar PV generation. This event was the primary focus of the
NERC/WECC joint task force, which was formed prior to the NERC IRPTF. The task force published a disturbance
report7 that identified the following key findings:
 Inverters were tripping erroneously on instantaneous frequency measurements
 The majority of inverters are configured to momentary cease injection of current for voltages outside the
continuous operating range around 0.9–1.1 pu

Canyon 2 Fire Disturbance

On October 9, 2017, the Canyon 2 Fire caused two transmission system faults east of Los Angeles. The first fault
was a normally cleared phase-to-phase fault on a 220 kV transmission line that occurred at 12:12:16 PST, and the
second fault was a normally cleared phase-to-phase fault on a 500 kV transmission line that occurred at 12:14:30
PST. Both faults resulted in the reduction of solar PV generation across a wide region of the SCE footprint. NERC
and WECC published a disturbance report that identified the following key findings:8
 The erroneous tripping on calculated frequency issues appeared to be mitigated
 Inverters continued to use momentary cessation as a form of ride-through
 Plant-level controller ramp rates were interacting with the recovery from momentary cessation
 Many inverter protective controls were set solely based on the PRC-024-2 voltage curve, rather than
actual equipment limitations
 Many inverter protective controls were set to trip for instantaneous voltage over 1.2 pu, using an
unfiltered measurement
 One inverter manufacturer reported phase lock loop (PLL) synchronization issues
 One inverter manufacturer reported tripping on dc reverse current that required a manual reset at the
inverter
 There appears to be transient interactions between momentary cessation, transient overvoltage, and in-
plant shunt compensation that warrants further investigation

6 NERC Industry Recommendation: Loss of Solar Resources during Transmission Disturbances due to Inverter Settings:
https://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/bpsa/Alerts%20DL/NERC%20Alert%20Loss%20of%20Solar%20Resources%20during%20Transmission%20
Disturbance.pdf.
NERC Industry Recommendation: Loss of Solar Resources during Transmission Disturbances due to Inverter Settings – II:
https://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/bpsa/Alerts%20DL/NERC_Alert_Loss_of_Solar_Resources_during_Transmission_Disturbance-II_2018.pdf.
7
Blue Cut Fire Disturbance Report:
http://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/ea/1200_MW_Fault_Induced_Solar_Photovoltaic_Resource_/1200_MW_Fault_Induced_Solar_Photovolta
ic_Resource_Interruption_Final.pdf.
8
Canyon 2 Fire Disturbance Report:
http://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/ea/October%209%202017%20Canyon%202%20Fire%20Disturbance%20Report/900_MW_Solar_Photovolt
aic_Resource_Interruption_Disturbance_Report.pdf.

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 Introduction

As noted, these recommendations are the drivers for this guideline document. Considerable time was invested by
all sectors of the industry, including the inverter manufacturers, GOs, and GOPs, to ensure each subject is
thoroughly vetted with each sector.

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Chapter 1: Momentary Cessation

This chapter describes the concept of momentary cessation and provides recommendations for existing and new
inverter-based resources on the use of momentary cessation and recovery from momentary cessation.

Introduction to Momentary Cessation

Momentary cessation, also referred to as “blocking,” is when no current is injected into the grid by the inverter
during low or high voltage conditions outside the continuous operating range. This occurs because the power
electronic firing commands are blocked, and the inverter does not produce active or reactive current (and
therefore no active or reactive power). The use of momentary cessation for relatively shallow voltage dips has
unintentionally propagated from distribution-connected resources to BPS-connected resources, especially for
solar PV inverters. Inverter manufacturers have stated that momentary cessation has been implemented for a
couple of reasons, including the following:
 Distribution-Connected Inverter-Based Resource Standard Requirements: Inverters connected to the
distribution system have historically been required to use momentary cessation during abnormal (both
high and low) voltage and frequency conditions. However, inverter manufacturers have stated that these
requirements were driven by distribution operating entities for safe and reliable operation of the
distribution system, not limitations within the inverter.
 Design Philosophies: Existing inverters have been designed with distribution requirements in mind and
rely on momentary cessation as a control strategy. Existing inverter designs have historically used
momentary cessation in conditions where accurately measuring the voltage waveform9 is challenging.

BPS-connected inverter-based resources are expected to

Key Takeaway:
continue current injection inside the “No Trip” zone of the
BPS-connected inverter-based resources are
frequency and voltage ride through curves of PRC-024-2.
expected to continue current injection inside the
Existing and newly interconnecting inverter-based
“No Trip” zone of the frequency and voltage ride
resources should eliminate the use of momentary
through curves of PRC-024-2. Existing and newly
cessation to the possible extent.10 Recommendations on
interconnecting inverter-based resources should
the type of current to be injected during low voltage
eliminate the use of momentary cessation to the
conditions is described in Chapter 3.11
greatest possible extent.
Newly interconnecting inverter-based resources should be
designed and operated to eliminate the use of momentary cessation. Existing resources may have hardware
and/or software limitations based on a design philosophy using momentary cessation, and it may not be feasible
to eliminate its use. For equipment limitations that cannot be addressed, PRC-024-2 Requirement R3.1 states that
“[t]he [GO] shall communicate the documented regulatory or equipment limitation, or the removal of a previously
documented regulatory or equipment limitation, to its Planning Coordinator and Transmission Planner within 30
calendar days…” Table 1.1 shows some examples of equipment limitations that necessitate momentary cessation
for some existing generating resources.

9 The derived phase angle from that voltage waveform is used to synchronize to the grid, and that angle is used to determine the active
and reactive current injected into the grid.
10 The voltage and frequency ride-through curves of PRC-024-2 apply to the Point of Interconnection (POI) and not the inverter terminals

themselves. The GO, in coordination with their plant designer and inverter manufacturer, should reflect the frequency and voltage
protection ride-through requirements at the POI to the inverter terminals to ensure expected conditions at the inverters can also ride
through and continue current injection during the disturbance.
11 ERCOT Operating Guide requires generators to provide real and reactive power and does not allow momentary cessation during voltage

ride through conditions. Available: http://www.ercot.com/content/wcm/current_guides/53525/02-050117.doc

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 Chapter 1: Momentary Cessation

Table 1.1: Examples of Equipment Limitations for Momentary Cessation

Hardware Limitations Software Limitations

 Line voltage sensing circuits for synchronization  Voltage synchronization (e.g., PLL) is inoperable at
are not able to operate correctly at low low input voltages
voltages
 New software is required to provide current
 Control power supplies are not able to operate injection
at low input voltages while providing the power
 Additional designs are needed for hardware
to switch the power electronic devices during
limitations
current injection
 Program cycle time or loop time limitations do not
 Auxiliary devices have a limited operating
allow software upgrades without compromising
voltage range (e.g., contactors drop out,
performance
variable speed drives for fans may not provide
the required airflow, building air conditioning
may trip)

In addition to equipment limitations, interconnection studies may identify specific situations where it may be
advantageous for resources to use momentary cessation in some form. For example, there may be systems where
current injection during the fault period results in unacceptable overvoltages during fault clearing. Other systems
may be connected in extremely weak regions, and struggle to maintain tight control over real and reactive currents
in periods immediately following fault clearing, resulting in the need to actively limit or even eliminate current
injection until control can be restored. In most of these cases, momentary cessation would only be needed for
very low voltages (e.g., less than 0.3–0.4 pu), resulting in the momentary cessation being restricted to a relatively
small electrical region. Additionally, any momentary cessation used for special purposes such as these should not
be extended (current injection delayed) further than necessary for grid recovery.

The TP and PC should approve the use of momentary cessation on a case-by-case basis based on local system
reliability needs. Electromagnetic transient (EMT) studies should be used to confirm that momentary cessation is
necessary and that any instability cannot be mitigated by controls tuning, determined by the TP and PC. This can
be confirmed during the interconnection process. When momentary cessation needs to be used because of
equipment limitations, momentary cessation settings should be set by performing the following:
 Reducing the momentary cessation low voltage threshold to the lowest feasible value
 Increasing the momentary cessation high voltage threshold to at least the PRC-024-2 voltage ride-through
curve levels
 Reducing the recovery delay (time between voltage recovery and start of current injection) to the smallest
value possible (e.g., on the order of one to three electrical cycles)
 Increasing the active power ramp rate upon return from momentary cessation to at least 100 percent per
second (e.g., return to predisturbance active current injection within one second). The exception to this
is if the generation interconnection studies, or direction from the TP or PC, specify a slower ramp rate
(i.e., low short circuit strength areas).

The TP and PC should specify, as part of the interconnection agreement data requirements, that the following
information is provided if momentary cessation is used:
 Low voltage magnitude threshold (pu voltage)

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 Chapter 1: Momentary Cessation

 Time delay before recovery begins after voltage recovers (sec)

 Active current ramp rate back to precontingency current after voltage recovers (pu/sec)

The dynamic models (positive sequence stability models and EMT models as applicable) provided to the TP and
PC by the GO should accurately represent the response of the inverter-based resource, including any use of
momentary cessation. Refer to the NERC Modeling Notification12 published by the NERC System Analysis and
Modeling Subcommittee (SAMS), in coordination with the NERC IRPTF, which provides clear guidance on modeling
momentary cessation.

Key Takeaway:
When momentary cessation is used as an equipment limitation for existing resources, GOs should consider
improving inverter-based resource performance by performing the following:
 Reducing the momentary cessation low voltage threshold to the lowest value possible.
 Increasing the momentary cessation high voltage threshold to as close to, or higher than, the PRC-
024-2 voltage ride-through curve levels.
 Reducing the recovery delay (time between voltage recovery and start of current injection) to the
smallest value possible (e.g., on the order of one to three electrical cycles).
 Increasing the active power ramp rate upon return from momentary cessation to at least 100 percent
per second (e.g., return to predisturbance active current injection within one second). The exception
to this is if the generation interconnection studies, or direction from the TP or PC, specify a slower
ramp rate (i.e., low short circuit strength areas).

Considerations for Type 3 and Type 4 Wind Turbine Generators

Type 3 and 4 wind turbine generators (WTGs) use current-limiting mechanisms to protect the power electronic
components from damage during high voltage or high current conditions during faults. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 show
typical responses of Type 3 and Type 4 WTGs during fault conditions, respectively. In both cases, the Type 3 and
Type 4 WTGs are providing fault current to the grid and are not entering into momentary cessation (no current
injection).13 This is the expected behavior from these types of inverter-based resources. They use the following
controls during ride-through for short-circuit conditions:
 Type 3 WTG Response: During a fault, a Type 3 WTG may short circuit the rotor-side windings (active-
crowbar14) for a short period of time (zero to several cycles) to protect the rotor-side converter and dc
link. This may or may not be used in conjunction with a “dc bus chopper” or dynamic brake (see Figure
1.3).15
 Type 4 WTG Response: During a fault, a Type 4 WTG dissipates energy stored in the rotating electric
machine using a dc bus chopper circuit within the ac–dc–ac converter (see Figure 1.4).16 This chopper
circuit may also operate postfault to dissipate energy and mitigate drivetrain oscillations.

12
http://www.nerc.com/comm/PC/NERCModelingNotifications/Modeling_Notification_-_Modeling_Momentary_Cessation_-_2018-02-
27.pdf
13 That is, these resources should not momentarily cease injection of current to the BPS.
14 The active-crowbar circuit shorts the windings completely; however, ac output current of the WTG does not immediately go to zero.
15 The dc bus chopper (also referred to as a “dynamic brake”) is part of the ac–dc–ac converter system, and limits dc bus voltage by using

a braking resistor switched by a thyristor. The dc bus chopper provides better control of fault response than the simple shorting crowbar.
16 Since this energy is a function of the magnetic field and speed of rotation of the electric machine.

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 Chapter 1: Momentary Cessation

Figure 1.1: Typical Response of Type 3 WTG Short Circuit Current

Figure 1.2: Typical Response of Type 4 WTG Short Circuit Current

Figure 1.3: Type 3 Wind Turbine Generator Simplified One-line Diagram

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 Chapter 1: Momentary Cessation

Figure 1.4: Type 4 Wind Turbine Generator Simplified One-line Diagram

[Source: Siemens]

Mitigating Ramp Rate Interactions

Ramp rate limits17 that are typically set by the BA to ensure reliable balance of generation and load during normal
operation should not be imposed during recovery of current injection unless explicitly required by interconnection
agreements. Existing inverter-based resources that are unable to eliminate the use of momentary cessation
should restore current injection to precontingency levels as
quickly as possible18 following momentary cessation. Active Key Takeaway
current injection upon restoration from momentary Ramp rate limits that are typically set by the
cessation should not be restricted by a plant-level controller. BA to ensure reliable balance of generation
and load during normal operation should not
When voltage at the plant-level controller falls below the be imposed by the plant-level controller or
continuous operating range (e.g., 0.9 pu), control logic any other inverter controls during recovery of
freezes sending commands to individual inverters to avoid current injection following momentary
controller windup. The inverters either enter momentary cessation (if used as an equipment limitation).
cessation or a ride-through mode where the individual
inverters take over control rather than the plant-level controller. Once voltage recovers to within the continuous
operating range, the inverters start responding to the centralized plant-level controller commands once again,
and the ramp rate is then determined by the plant controller. If the inverter has not yet returned to its
predisturbance current injection, then the plant-level controller may impede the response of the inverters.
Generating facilities with this interaction should remediate it in coordination with their BA and inverter
manufacturer(s). One solution is to add a time delay before the plant-level controller resumes its control of
individual inverters. That delay should be coordinated with the inverter time constants such that the inverter has
sufficient time to fully restore output.

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) controls should also not impede recovery of predisturbance active current
injection following momentary cessation. Potential interaction depends on whether the MPPT controls freeze
output of the MPPT function to the precontingency value or reset it to a default value. If the inverter uses a
default value far from the operating value, control software changes are most likely needed to mitigate
interactions.

17 Ramp rates are used by BAs to aid in the balance of generation and demand to control grid frequency and BA area control error (ACE).
BAs may specify ramp rate limits for generating resources to ensure the plant does not change power output too quickly during normal
operation (not during transient events). Ramp rate limits are typically implemented at the plant-level controller, although may be
implemented at the inverter-level, to ensure overall plant active power output meets BA ramping requirements. This controller is relatively
slow, operating around 10 times per second or slower.
18 As mentioned above, the recovery of active current injection may be altered by the TP or PC based on reliability studies. However, there

should be no unintended interaction between plant-level controller and inverter controls regardless.

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 Chapter 1: Momentary Cessation

Figure 1.5 shows the response of six large power plants during the Canyon 2 Fire disturbance and shows that
plant-level controllers impeded the recovery of active power by the inverters. This is not the desired operation of
BPS-connected inverter-based resources after fault conditions and should be mitigated to support BPS stability.
TPs, PCs, TOPs, and RCs should be monitoring SCADA data for this type of response from inverter-based resources
and work with those identified GOs to correct this interaction.

Figure 1.5: Plant Controller Ramp Rate Interactions during Canyon 2 Fire Disturbance

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Chapter 2: Active Power-Frequency Control

This chapter describes aspects related to the calculation of frequency and also recommends steady-state and
dynamic performance characteristics for active power-frequency control of inverter-based resources. As the Blue
Cut Fire event illustrated, how an inverter-based resource calculates and acts upon measured frequency is directly
related to its ability to support BPS reliability. In addition, ensuring that the capability for active power-frequency
control is installed in all generating resources connected to the BPS will ensure continued frequency stability
across the North American Interconnections. This chapter describes aspects related to frequency calculation and
protection and recommends steady-state and dynamic performance characteristics for active power-frequency
control of inverter-based resources.

Ensuring Robust Frequency Measurement and Protection

Correct sensing of grid frequency during grid disturbances is essential for meeting the requirements of PRC-024-
2. GOs with inverter-based resources connected to the BPS should ensure that the frequency measurement and
protection settings are set such that these resources are able to ride through and not trip for phase jumps or other
grid disturbances when calculated frequency is affected but grid frequency is within the ride through curves of
PRC-024-2. Manufacturers should test19 the inverter’s capability to ride through these types of disturbances even
though such testing is not part of performance-based standards used by NERC. There are multiple options to
ensure that frequency sensing and frequency protection functions operate robustly:
 Frequency Measurement Duration: Frequency is calculated over a window of time. Instantaneous
calculated frequency should not be used for protection. While the PRC-024-2 frequency ride-through
curve includes the option to trip instantaneously for frequencies outside the specified range, this
calculation should occur over a time window. Typical window/filtering lengths are three to six cycles (50–
100 ms).
 Time Duration before Frequency Tripping: As stated in the Blue Cut Fire disturbance report, adding a time
duration (time in which frequency must be below the threshold) prior to action for frequency protection
is a reasonable solution for inverter-based resources connected to the BPS.
 Frequency Ride-through Settings to within Equipment Specifications: Any frequency-based protection
settings should be based on the equipment specifications of the facility, including inverters and associated
controls. Expanding the frequency trip limits to the extent reliably and safely possible will generally help
avoid any nuisance trips.
 Low Voltage Inhibit for Frequency Protection: Synchronous machines also include under-/over-frequency
protection functions (relay 81) that typically have a voltage cut-off. The relay will typically become
disabled if the voltage falls below the cut-off level. This is a settable value and can be as high as 80 percent
of nominal voltage. The intent of this cut-off is to avoid the problem of accurately calculating frequency
during fault conditions or large voltage dips. During fault conditions, there are other issues more critical
than accurate speed detection for a synchronous machine. One option for inverter-based resources to
ensure robust trip operation and frequency ride-through is to inhibit frequency tripping during and
immediately after low voltage conditions. Most modern relays are digital and use this type of approach
on synchronous machines; the same concept could be used for inverter-based resources.

19IEEE Std. P1547.1 is using the UL 1741(SA) test specifications for voltage and frequency ride-through and further developing them to
account for voltage phase angle jumps commonly caused by fault conditions as well as rate-of-change-of-frequency (ROCOF) ride-through
test procedures. “Smart inverters” being installed in California under CA Rule 21 will be utilizing UL1741(SA) for certification.

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 Chapter 2: Active Power-Frequency Control

While inverters can tolerate large frequency fluctuations, the

Key Takeaway:
inverter ac filtering may be affected and the ac transformer may
Inverter-based resources should ensure
be susceptible to saturation if the frequency deviates from the
that the frequency measurement and
designed nominal value. Other transformers supplying power to
protection settings are set such that these
the internal inverter loads and external auxiliary loads, as well as
resources are able to ride through and
other control components at the facility, may also be a limiting
not trip for phase jumps or other grid
design specification for frequency ride-through. Inverter
disturbances where calculated frequency
manufacturers have stated that existing resources have been
is affected but grid frequency is within the
designed to existing standards and equipment specifications.
ride-through curves of PRC-024-2.
Therefore, there may be equipment limitations based on design
criteria20 that require under- or over-frequency tripping. Moving
forward for new inverter-based resources, inverter manufacturers have stated that the frequency ride-through
ranges can be widened (e.g., to 57-63 Hz or wider for North America).

FERC Order No. 842

FERC Order No. 84221 amended the Commission’s pro forma Large Generator and Small Generator Interconnection
Agreements to require that all newly interconnecting resources within its jurisdiction install, maintain, and operate
a functioning governor or equivalent controls as a precondition of interconnection effective May 15, 2018. FERC
Order No. 842 requires new generation units to have functioning primary frequency response capability, and also
requires resources to respond to frequency excursion events when plant point of measurement (POM)22
frequency falls at least outside of a ± 0.036 Hz deadband, and adjust its output in accordance to a five percent
droop. This response must be timely and sustained rather than injected for a short period and then withdrawn. In
other words, new generation is expected to adjust its output to follow its droop of five percent whenever the
frequency is at least outside of ± 0.036 Hz. Reserving generation headroom to provide frequency response to
underfrequency events is not required. However, resources should respond to overfrequency excursion events at
least outside a deadband by reducing active power output in accordance with the five percent droop specification.
The TP or PC may require more responsive droop settings; however, those should be based on engineering studies
demonstrating that more responsive frequency control is needed.

Steady-State Active Power-Frequency Control

Inverter-based resources should have active power/frequency controls that adhere to FERC Order No. 842 and
regional requirements, where applicable, and should have similar performance characteristics to those
documented in the NERC Reliability Guideline on Frequency Control.23 Regional requirements or standards should
also be adhered to when determining appropriate settings for active power-frequency controls. For example, the
regional standard on primary frequency response in the ERCOT footprint, BAL-001-TRE-1,24 sets forth
requirements for each applicable generating resource, including droop and deadband settings. These controls
should be active any time the resource is connected to the BPS. This section describes these performance
characteristics as related to inverter-based resources.

20 For example, existing inverters may be designed and constructed to the specifications of PRC-024-2. Since they may be designed to these
requirements, they may not be able to reliably operate outside the “No Trip Zone” frequency ranges.
21 Available here:

https://elibrary.ferc.gov/IDMWS/common/downloadOpen.asp?downloadfile=20180215%2D3099%2832695275%29%2Epdf&folder=1521
9837&fileid=14823757&trial=1.
22 This is the “high-side of the generator substation” transformer according to FERC Order No. 827. This guideline aligns with FERC on the

use of Point of Measurement rather than Point of Interconnection, unless referencing a specific NERC Reliability Standard that uses Point
of Interconnection.
23 Available: http://www.nerc.com/comm/OC_Reliability_Guidelines_DL/Primary_Frequency_Control_final.pdf.
24 http://www.nerc.com/_layouts/PrintStandard.aspx?standardnumber=BAL-001-TRE-1&title=Primary Frequency Response in the ERCOT

Region&jurisdiction=United%20States

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 Chapter 2: Active Power-Frequency Control

While inverter-based resources may not have a turbine-

Key Takeaway:
governor, they should have an active power-frequency
Inverter-based resources should have the
control system with the capability to provide primary
capability to provide primary frequency
frequency control when dispatched to an operating
response (active power-frequency control) and
conditions that would allow for them to respond. Ensuring
deliver that primary frequency response to the
that the capability to provide this response is available and
grid when in an operating condition that would
functional will prompt the BA (either in a market or
allow for a response. The active power-
nonmarket environment) to procure sufficient levels of
frequency control should use a proportional
frequency responsive reserves. Having the capability to
droop characteristic and a nonstep type of
respond is not the same as a requirement or
deadband setting, as outlined in FERC Order No.
recommendation to actually respond. For example, most
842, where applicable.
inverter-based resources operate at maximum power
tracking (e.g., maximum output based on solar irradiance
or available wind speed) and therefore do not have the ability to generate additional active power. If the unit is
dispatched at some level less than its maximum available output for any reason (e.g., curtailed or market signal),
it should be configured to have the capability to respond in the upward direction for an underfrequency event.
Similarly, all on-line generating units should be configured to respond to an overfrequency event by reducing
output based on their control settings.

For BPS-connected resources, active power-frequency control can be implemented at either the inverter-level25
or at the plant-level. This is based on the design of the plant and the selection and coordination of inverters. Either
philosophy should provide adequate active power-frequency control at the POM that meets the needs of the BPS.
The primary frequency response control algorithm of the inverter-based resource (plant) should meet the
following performance aspects. Figure 2.1 illustrates a droop characteristic with nonstep deadband.
 Droop: The active power-frequency control system should have an adjustable proportional droop26
characteristic with a default value of five percent. The droop response should include the capability to
respond in both the upward (underfrequency) and downward (overfrequency) directions. Frequency
droop should be based on the difference between maximum nameplate active power output (P max) and
zero output (Pmin) such that the droop line is always constant for a resource. The reference set point value
for power output is based on the current generating level of the unit prior to any disturbance (Pgen). When
the unit is operating at maximum available power output (Pavail), then Pgen is equal to Pavail. If, for example,
the unit is curtailed, then Pgen may be less than Pavail.
 Deadband: If the active power-frequency control system has a deadband, it should be a nonstep27
deadband28 that is adjustable between 0 Hz and the full frequency range of the droop characteristic with
a default value not to exceed ± 0.036 Hz.
 Hysteresis: Inverter-based resources may consider a small hysteresis characteristic where linear droop
meets any deadband to reduce dithering of inverter output when operating near the edges of the
deadband. The hysteresis range should not exceed ± 0.005 Hz on either side of the deadband. If
measurement resolution is not sufficient to measure this frequency, then hysteresis should not be used.

25 For DER applications, these requirements (e.g., CA Rule 21, IEEE Std. 1547-2018) are set at the inverter-level.
26 The droop should be a permanent value based on Pmax (maximum nominal active power output of the plant) and Pmin (typically 0 for an
inverter based resource). This keeps the proportional droop constant across the full range of operation.
27 Outside a nonstep deadband, the change in active power output starts from zero deviation away from either side of the deadband.

Sometimes referred to as a Type 2 deadband (see Appendix B of the IEEE Technical Report, Dynamic Models for Turbine-Governors in Power
System Studies. Available: http://sites.ieee.org/fw-pes/files/2013/01/PES_TR1.pdf.
28 Frequency deadband is the range of frequencies in which the unit does not change active power output.

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 Chapter 2: Active Power-Frequency Control

Figure 2.1: Recommended Active Power-Frequency Control Characteristic

Dynamic Active Power-Frequency Control

For a step change29 in frequency at the POM, inverter-based resources should have the capability to meet or
exceed the dynamic characteristics shown in Table 2.1. Refer to Figure F.1 in Appendix F for an illustration of these
recommendations. These recommended performance characteristics apply to the closed-loop response of the
entire inverter-based resource as measured at the POM (or possibly the POI). While resources should have the
capability to meet or exceed these specifications, requirements set forth by Regional standards or the BA should
take precedence.30 The active power-frequency response should be sustained by the resource until such time that
control signals (e.g., BA automatic generation control (AGC)) return generation to a new set point value.

29 While frequency cannot step instantaneously, this is a common means of defining the desired control action. A typical step size is 0.2
percent, or 0.120 Hz, from nominal on a 60 Hz system.
30 As the generation mix continues to evolve on the BPS, with lower inertia resources, faster response times may be needed by the BA to

arrest decline in frequency following large generation-load imbalances. Therefore, the response times shown in the table may need to be
tuned faster at a later time based on grid needs.

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 Chapter 2: Active Power-Frequency Control

Table 2.1: Dynamic Active Power-Frequency Performance

Parameter Description Performance Target

For a step change in frequency at the POM of the inverter-based resource…

Time between the step change in frequency and the time

Reaction Time when the resource active power output begins < 500 minutes
responding to the change31

Time in which the resource has reached 90 percent of the

Rise Time < 4 seconds
new steady-state (target) active power output command

Time in which the resource has entered into, and remains

Settling Time within, the settling band of the new steady-state active < 10 seconds
power output command

Percentage of rated active power output that the

Overshoot < 5 percent**
resource can exceed while reaching the settling band

Percentage of rated active power output that the

Settling Band < 2.5 percent**
resource should settle to within the settling time
** Percentage based on final (expected) settling value

Actual performance of variable energy resources (operating at maximum available input power) is highly variable.
Therefore, it is challenging to test this performance characteristic with on-line measurement data. However, this
can be tested during commissioning at reduced (curtailed) power output prior to commercial operation. It can
also be verified and tested using simulation techniques, which assume a constant input power (i.e., constant wind
speed or solar irradiance). Both methods are viable in terms of verification of this performance characteristic.

31
Time between step change in frequency and the time to 10 percent of new steady-state value can be used as a proxy for determining
this time.

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Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

This section describes the recommended steady-state and dynamic reactive current (or power)-voltage
performance characteristics.

Inverter Regulation Controls

Inverter controls are highly complex and include many control loops and functions. The inner control loops are
the fastest while the outer loops (i.e., the plant-level controller) are the slowest. Some inner inverter controls are
proprietary and generally not openly shared. However, basic inverter controls (for a solar PV inverter) are captured
in Figure 3.1. The diagram shows the hierarchy of the multi-loop controls; however, it does not show the more
detailed controls such as the PLL, feed-forward and cross coupling terms, active-reactive current priority, and
other details that would be in an actual controller. At a high level, the following control loops typically impact
regulation, particularly voltage regulation, for inverter-based resources:
 Current Regulation Loops: The current regulation loops (often referred to as the inner current control
loops) control the ac current32 injected by the inverter into the grid. Most three-phase inverters control
current in the dq reference frame. Active current is controlled by controlling the d-axis component of the
ac current, and local inverter voltage and reactive current control is implemented by controlling the q-axis
component of the ac current. These control loops typically operate in the kilohertz range. These loops use
the phasor determined by the PLL, or equivalent, as a reference for the dq transformation, so the
dynamics of the local voltage and current controllers, as well as the PLL, are important to the operation
of the current regulation loops.
 DC Bus Voltage (VDC) Regulation Loop: In a general control configuration, this loop controls the
magnitude of the real axis component of the ac output current (i.e., the value of the current reference) of
the grid side inverter to maintain voltage on the dc bus capacitor. It is usually slower than the current
regulation loop (the output of the dc voltage regulation loop is an input to the current regulation loop),
acting within one to six cycles. When inverter terminal voltage changes due to a large event in the system,
the dc bus voltage changes thereby causing the dc bus voltage regulator to react and regulate the dc bus
voltage by adjusting the real axis ac current reference of the inverter. For example, if a sudden large drop
in inverter terminal voltage occurs, accompanied by an increase in phase angle (characteristic of a large
load increase or fault), the PLL will track the increased angle causing a decrease in real axis current output
from the inverter. This can cause the dc voltage to increase as the current input into the dc bus does not
change. The magnitude of increase in dc voltage depends upon, among other factors, the size of the dc
bus capacitor and the magnitude of decrease in current. The dynamics of the complete regulation of this
voltage is controlled by the following:
 The Current Regulation Loop: By controlling the output voltage of the inverter, the value of current
can be brought back to the predisturbance value thereby bringing the dc voltage back to its
predisturbance value.
 The DC Bus Voltage Regulation Loop: By controlling the reference value provided to the current
regulation loop, the current can be controlled and the dc voltage can be brought back to its
predisturbance value. An increase in dc voltage can result in an increase in real axis current reference
value thereby instructing the current regulation loop to increase the current output of the inverter.
 The Source Side Control Loop: The dc bus serves as a load to the source/rectifier. Thus, an increase
in dc voltage can result in a decrease in current input into the dc bus, and thus, bring the dc voltage
down to its predisturbance value.

32 Both active and reactive current injection

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

 The dominance of a particular control loop depends on its speed of response, duration of the forcing
event, and the particular control topology implemented. Also, the PQ priority mode of the grid side
inverter influences the extent to which the current regulation loop can help in maintenance of the dc
voltage level. Additionally, the size of the dc bus dictates the speed and complexity of the required
control. If the dc bus capacitor is small, then the energy on the dc bus is low and it would be more
susceptible to voltage variations for smaller network events. In such cases, complex and fast controls
are required in order to maintain the dc bus voltage.
 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Loop:33 The MPPT loop maximizes the utilization of input energy
(solar irradiance) by locating and maintaining operation at the point where the dc-side power source
produces its maximum power. This applies primarily to PV inverters,34 where the loop adjusts the voltage
reference for the dc bus voltage regulation loop. This is the slowest of the inverter control loops, and its
operation rate varies from a half-second to around 10 seconds depending on characteristics of the dc-side
source.
 Plant-Level Voltage Controller: The generating facility is required to maintain scheduled voltage (or
power factor) per NERC Standard VAR-002-4.1. Often, the plant-level controller maintains this scheduled
voltage at the POM. The controller coordinates individual inverter reactive power (or voltage reference)
set points. The inverters respond to these commands by modifying their reactive current injection to the
grid. The plant-level controller also optimizes losses, coordinates with dynamic or static reactive devices,
manages inverter and collector system voltages, maintains specified POM voltage ranges or reactive
power outputs, and manages other external factors. Control times of the plant-level controller are
coordinated with the individual inverter controls and are typically site- or owner/operator-specific. For
example, if the inverters have fast voltage control at their terminals, then the plant-level controller should
be at least one order of magnitude slower to avoid control instability. The overall response of the plant-
level voltage regulation is typically slower, primarily due to communication latency and measurement
delays between the measurement meters to the plant-level controller to the individual inverters.

Figure 3.1. Basic Diagram of Solar Inverter Controls [Source: GE]

33 This is applicable to solar PV. For wind, the torque controller maintains optimal turbine speed to maintain the tip-speed ratio at the peak
of the efficiency (Cp) curve.
34 For variable-speed wind turbines, the torque controller (a slow control loop) maintains the tip-speed ratio at its optimal point. In that

case, this is not typically referred to as MPPT, it is simply part of the torque/speed control system.

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

The following subsections describe the recommended performance characteristics of these various control loops
working together to provide the overall plant’s response to change in BPS grid conditions. Large disturbances are
dominated by the faster controls of the inverters while small disturbances are driven by the plant-level controller
response.

Reactive Power-Voltage Control and FERC Order No. 827

FERC issued Order No. 82735 on June 16, 2016, eliminating exemptions for newly interconnecting wind generators
under its jurisdiction from the requirement to provide reactive power by revising the pro forma Large Generator
Interconnection Agreement (LGIA), Appendix G of the LGIA, and the pro forma Small Generator Interconnection
Agreement (SGIA). FERC found that, due to technological advancements, the cost of providing reactive power no
longer creates an obstacle to wind power development, and this decline in cost resulted in the exemptions being
“unjust, unreasonable, and unduly discriminatory and preferential.” FERC addressed the following items in its
Order:36
 Power Factor Range: All newly interconnecting nonsynchronous generators must “maintain a composite
power delivery at continuous rated power output at the high-side of the generator substation… [and]…
must provide dynamic reactive power within the power factor range of 0.95 leading to 0.95 lagging, unless
the transmission provider has established a different power factor range that applies to all
nonsynchronous generators in the transmission provider’s control area on a comparable basis.”
 Point of Measurement (POM): All newly interconnecting nonsynchronous generators are required to
provide reactive power within the power factor range at the point of Measurement (POM), or “high-side
of the generator substation.”37 See Figure 3.2 for an illustration of the POM.
 Dynamic Reactive Power Capability: Dynamic reactive power can be achieved by “systems using a
combination of dynamic capability from the inverters plus static reactive power devices to make up for
losses.” The static reactive power devices should only be used to make up for losses that occur between
the inverters and the POM that would otherwise cause the overall nonsynchronous resource to not meet
the 0.95 leading to 0.95 lagging power factor requirement. However, the dynamic reactive capability of
the inverters should be utilized to the greatest possible extent.
 Real Power Output Threshold: All newly interconnecting nonsynchronous generators should be able to
maintain the 0.95 leading to 0.95 lagging power factor requirement at all active power outputs down to
0 MW. FERC provided an example of a 100 MW generator required to provide 33 MVAR at 100 MW output
and 3.3 MVAR at 10 MW output. This essentially is a triangle-shaped capability curve. However, this
guideline recommends broader use of the inherent inverter capability beyond the triangular shape, as
discussed in the following subsection.
 Compensation: The FERC Order covers compensation for reactive capability; however, this is outside the
scope of this guideline.

35 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Order No. 872, 16 June 2016. Available: http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-
meet/2016/061616/E-1.pdf
36 NERC provided comments on the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NOPR) preceding this Final Rule.
37 The Point of Measurement (POM) concept is carried over into this document, to align with FERC Order No. 827.

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

Figure 3.2. Wind Power Plant One-line Diagram Example

Inverter-Based Resource Reactive Capability

Inverters are current source devices that provide a specified amount of active and reactive current, and the active
and reactive power is dependent on the amount of current and inverter terminal voltage. At nominal voltage, the
inverter-based resource can supply 1.0 pu apparent power continuously to the grid.38 Each inverter has a capability
curve similar to a synchronous machine, which is affected by terminal voltage of the inverter. At higher and lower
voltage, the reactive capability is restricted at leading and lagging output, respectively. Figure 3.3 shows an
inverter capability curve with near semi-circle capability while Figure 3.4 shows an inverter capability curve with
fixed reactive capability at lower active power output levels. Both figures show reactive capability for nominal
voltage, similar to a synchronous generator capability curve.

The overall plant also has a reactive capability, which depends on the individual inverter capabilities as well as the
in-plant dynamic and static reactive resources. Figures 3.5 and 3.6 show two examples of overall plant capability.
The power factor requirements from FERC Order No. 827 are also shown. Both figures show the reactive capability
of the inverters and how that capability is modified at the POM using static reactive devices (shunt compensation)
to meet the power factor requirements at maximum active power output.39 The reactive capability outside the
triangular-shaped requirement, yet within the reactive capability of the plant, should be utilized to the greatest
possible extent to support BPS voltages. Inverters should not have artificial settings imposed to limit reactive
power output to the triangular boundary (other than the maximum power operating point, and other plant-level

38 At nominal voltage, the capability curve can be drawn in terms of active and reactive power. At off-nominal voltage, typically active and
reactive current are specified since inverter-based resources are current-limited devices.
39 Note that FERC Order No. 827 states that, “the pro forma LGIA and pro forma SGIA do not specify a voltage range for the reactive power

requirement.” It also states that the “power factor range standard shall be dynamic and can be met using, for example, power electronics
designed to supply this level of reactive capability (taking into account any limitations due to voltage level, real power output, etc.) or fixed
and switched capacitors, or a combination of the two.”

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

limits, or voltage limits at the terminals of the inverter). The ability to provide additional reactive power while not
operating at maximum active power capability is part of automatic voltage control and an ERS. If the inverter-
based resource can provide more reactive current within its limitations to maintain scheduled voltage pre- or
postcontingency, the inverter should be programmed to do so. Similar to a synchronous machine, the full
capability of the inverter should be utilized to maintain steady-state voltage without degrading active power
output.40 Capability curves are typically specified at nominal voltage, so specific performance at off-nominal
voltage values may vary slightly.

Figure 3.3: Inverter P-Q Capability—Vendor 1 [Source: First Solar]

Figure 3.4: Inverter P-Q Capability—Vendor 2 [Source: First Solar]

40 These concepts apply to battery energy storage as well, however, these resources can operate with negative active power. It is
recommended that batteries also provide automatic voltage control within their reactive capability while acting as a load (charging,
negative active power generation). The automatic voltage control aspects of a battery should be seamless across the transition from acting
as a generating resource to acting as a load.

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

Figure 3.5: Plant Capability Curve—Example 1 [Source: First Solar]

Figure 3.6: Plant Capability Curve Example 2 [Source: First Solar]

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

Steady-State Reactive Power Control and Droop

All GOPs with applicable resources are required to “operate each generator connected to the interconnected
transmission system in the automatic voltage control mode (with its automatic voltage regulator (AVR) in service
and controlling voltage) or in a different control mode as instructed by the Transmission Operator,” per NERC
Reliability Standard VAR-002-4.1. While an AVR generally applies to synchronous machines, this concept also
applies to inverter-based resources that control voltage with inverter-level or plant-level controls, or both.
Inverter-based resources, similar to synchronous machines, should operate in a closed-loop, automatic voltage
control mode to maintain the scheduled voltage provided by the TOP. The voltage range or set point will
determine the commanded reactive current to be exchanged with the grid.41 For inverter-based resources, similar
to synchronous generating resources, the following considerations should be accounted for:
 For a single plant connected to a bus, the plant may operate in an automatic voltage control mode without
reactive-droop (explained below). However, even in these cases, if there are other voltage controlling
devices in close electrical proximity (i.e., not on the same bus, but electrically close), some level of
reactive-droop may still be appropriate.
 For multiple plants or generators regulating the same bus, reactive droop should typically be used to
ensure stable and coordinated voltage control among resources. This control should be coordinated with
the TP, PC, and TOP. Reactive droop provides a set point value at off-nominal reactive power based on
the given voltage deviation from nominal operating voltage so that each resource shares in the allocation
of reactive control. Figure 3.7 shows an example of reactive droop, and is described by the following
equation:42
∆𝑉⁄
𝑉𝑛
𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝 =
∆𝑄
⁄𝑄
𝑛

The reactive droop is based on the scheduled voltage set point and the high and low schedule limits. For
example, if the scheduled operating voltage is 1.0 pu and the acceptable range is 0.95–1.05 pu, then a 10
percent change in voltage should move the resource from full leading to full lagging reactive power output
(2.0 pu change in current), which equates to a 5% droop. Note some standards or entities may refer to
this as 10% droop (1.0 pu change in current).43 The equation here shows a simple example equation (not
accounting for deadband):
1.05 − 0.95 𝑝𝑢
1.0 𝑝𝑢 0.10 𝑝𝑢
5% 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝 = = = 5%
𝐼𝑞+ − 𝐼𝑞− 2.00 𝑝𝑢
𝐼𝑛

41 Scheduled voltage is typically a set point with a specified voltage tolerance (or range). Controls may include deadband and/or droop to
ensure stable performance.
42 Note that this is a conceptual equation of droop. The equation in the figure includes deadband.
43 This concept may be applied for voltage schedules that are off nominal voltage (e.g., 525 kV for 500 kV base system).

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

Figure 3.7: Reactive Power-Voltage Control Characteristic

Large and Small Disturbance Performance Characteristics

This guideline differentiates between large disturbance (e.g., fault-type events) and small disturbance (e.g.,
normal switching-type events, changes in generation and load) performance characteristics for inverter-based
resources since different controls within the plant dominate the response depending on the severity of the
disturbance. These types of responses are differentiated by the following:
 Small Disturbance: Voltage stays within the continuous operating range of the plant
 Large Disturbance: Voltage falls outside the continuous operating range of the plant (i.e., “ride-through
mode”)

The transition between large and small disturbance behavior is coordinated between the plant-level controller
and the individual inverter controls.44 This is typically based on the boundary of the continuous operating range,
which is typically ± 10 percent around nominal operating voltage. When voltage remains within the continuous
operating range, the plant-level controls drive the overall plant response. Faster local inverter controls take over
when voltage falls outside this range during severe transient events that result in large variations in voltage at the
POM and at the inverters.

Each generating resource should have a continuously acting automatic control system that controls reactive
power and reactive current injection. These controls should operate without instability over the entire expected
operating range of the resource. The steady-state and dynamic performance of the resource should be studied

44
If there is no plant-level controller, then the inverters still have a point where they enter “ride-through mode” and this would be the
distinguishing point between large and small disturbances.

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

during the interconnection process leading up to commissioning and energization. These controls should ensure
BPS stability and reliability and should be agreed upon between the GO and the TOP. This is particularly an issue
in areas with low short circuit strength relative to the size of the inverter-based resource(s) in the area.

Large disturbance performance criteria is difficult to test in the field due to the severe transient voltages and
currents. This is often type-tested in the factory during inverter design. Small disturbance performance criteria
can be tested by using testing techniques similar to those used for MOD-026-1. The following sub-sections
describe the recommended small and large disturbance performance characteristics for inverter-based resources.
Note that the small disturbance characteristics are specified in terms of reactive power since they are driven by
the plant-level controller while the large disturbance characteristics are specified in terms of reactive current since
they are driven by the inverter controls.

Small Disturbance Reactive Power-Voltage Performance

Small disturbances regularly occur on the BPS, ranging from switching events to continuous load and generation
changes throughout the day. Voltage typically remains within the continuous operating range and the plant-level
controller maintains reactive power/voltage control. The control characteristic should follow the guidance
provided in the “Steady-State Reactive Power Control and Droop” section above. The overall response of the plant
should have response times and characteristics to support BPS voltage schedules, postcontingency voltage
recovery,45 and voltage stability. Inverter-based resource should be flexible and have the capability to adjust
control settings and tuning based on changing grid conditions. As the generating resource mix becomes more
dominated by inverter-based resources, resources will need to provide fast automatic voltage control to support
voltage even for small disturbances. Inverter-based resources should have the capability to meet or exceed the
performance characteristics shown in Table 3.1.46 These characteristics are specified for the response of reactive
power of the overall closed-loop response of the inverter-based resource (plant). Refer to Figure F.1 in Appendix
F for an illustration of these recommendations.

Table 3.1: Small Disturbance Reactive Power-Voltage Performance

Parameter Description Performance Target

For a step change in voltage at the POM of the inverter-based resource…

Time between the step change in voltage and when the resource
Reaction Time < 500 ms*
reactive power output begins responding to the change47

Time between a step change in control signal input (reference voltage

Rise Time or POM voltage) and when the reactive power output changes by 90 < 1–30 sec**
percent of its final value

Percentage of rated reactive power output that the resource can

Overshoot < 5 percent***
exceed while reaching the settling band
* Reactive power response to change in POM voltage should occur with no intentional time delay.
** Depends on whether local inverter terminal voltage control is enabled, any local requirements, and system strength (response
should be stable for the lowest possible grid strength). Response time may be modified based on studied system characteristics.
*** Any overshoot in reactive power response should not cause BPS voltages to exceed acceptable voltage limits.

45 The small disturbance response characteristic may apply for periods after a larger disturbance has occurred once voltage has recovered
to within the normal operating range, depending on how the inverter and plant-level controls are coordinated.
46 This aligns with the expected performance of other generating resources connected to the BPS (e.g., synchronous machine technology).
47 Time between the step change in voltage and reaching 10 percent of new steady-state value can be used as a proxy for determining this

time.

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

Inverter-based resources should operate in closed loop

Key Takeaway:
automatic voltage control at all times to support voltage
Inverter-based resources should operate in
regulation and voltage stability. Either the individual
closed loop automatic voltage control at all
inverters or the plant-level closed loop automatic voltage
times to support voltage regulation and voltage
controller should operate with a relatively fast response
stability. Either the individual inverters or the
characteristic to mitigate steady-state voltage issues from
plant-level closed loop automatic voltage
causing dynamic voltage collapse. The plant-level controller
controller should operate with a relatively fast
may send voltage or reactive power set point changes to
response characteristic to mitigate steady-state
the individual inverters relatively fast, or the inverters will
voltage issues from causing dynamic voltage
respond locally (depending on control architecture). Plants
collapse. The plant-level controller may send
with high-speed communication between the individual
voltage or reactive power set point changes to
inverters and the plant-level controller may not need to
the individual inverters relatively fast, or the
employ local control if the overall coordinated controls are
inverters will respond locally (depending on
fast enough to meet the performance specifications in
control architecture).
Table 3.1.

Plants with individual inverters that only respond to slow reactive power set point commands from the plant-level
controller when operating in the continuous operating range do not support steady-state and postcontingency
voltage stability, particularly when the plant-level controller is significantly limited in its response time. As the grid
becomes more dominated by inverter-based resources, inverter-based resources need to provide the fast voltage
regulation that conventional synchronous generating resources do today. Most WTGs already operate in this
fashion with each turbine on a local voltage control responding to changes in set point commands from the slower
plant-level controller when in normal operation or for small disturbances. This enables the plant-level controller
to operate on a relatively slower response time (e.g., five–30 seconds) to avoid any interactions between the local
inverter voltage control and the plant-level voltage control. If this capability is not possible for existing inverter-
based resources, then the response time of these resources should be relatively fast (at least in the two–four
second range) to accommodate the lack of automatic voltage control at the inverter level. While faster response
times typically support postcontingency voltage support and voltage stability, the response should not cause
transient voltage overshoot issues. Tuning should be based on system impact studies performed during the
interconnection process as described in NERC Reliability Standard FAC-002-2. Default response times should be
relatively fast unless system stability studies identify any issues. GOPs of inverter-based resources have stated
that their plants in the high penetration areas of ERCOT are tuned with overall plant response times of less than
five seconds.

Large Disturbance Reactive Current-Voltage Performance

Large disturbances, for the purposes of this guideline, are disturbances that cause voltage to fall outside the
continuous operating range (e.g., 0.9–1.1 pu voltage). The plant-level controller cedes control to the individual
inverters (ceases sending new commands), and the inverters typically enter a “ride-through” mode where they
assume control of reactive current injection. The dynamic response of the overall inverter-based resources is
dominated by the response of the inverters (and any other dynamic devices within the plant). The inverter-based
resource should adhere to the following characteristics for large disturbances:
 Stable Response: The response of each generating resource over its full operating range and for all
expected BPS grid conditions should be stable. The dynamic performance of each resource should be
tuned to provide this stable response. The TP and PC ensure during the interconnection process that each
resource supports BPS reliability and provides a stable transient response to grid events. The performance
specifications described in Table 3.2 may need to be modified, based on studies performed for specific
interconnections to provide a stable response.
 Voltage Outside Continuous Operating Range: Large disturbances are characterized by inverter terminal
voltage falling outside of the continuous operating range. Outside of this range, the plant-level controller

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

cedes control to the individual inverters. This range is often 0.9–1.1 pu voltage but may vary by plant.
Regardless, a normal operating range is typically specified where the plant-level controller is in control.
 Local Control and Faster Response Time: Since the local inverters are in control of the response during
large disturbances, the response times can be significantly faster.
 Voltage Measurement: Local inverter controls, in response to the voltage measured at their terminals,
drive overall plant response during large disturbances (not the voltage at the Point of Measurement for
the overall inverter-based resource).
 Inverter Capability: Inverters should be designed to have the capability to meet the performance
specifications shown in Table 3.2. It is expected that inverters meet these performance specifications, and
that inverter-based resources are installed with similar performance characteristics as a default value.
However, more detailed studies (during the interconnection process or during Planning Assessments by
the TP or PC) may demonstrate the need for modifications to these settings to ensure stable response of
the BPS.
 Inverter Control Flexibility: The dynamic response of inverter-based resources should be programmable
by the GO (in coordination with the inverter manufacturer) to enable changes based on changing grid
conditions once installed in the field. This is similar to tuning or modifying response characteristics of an
excitation control system for synchronous machines.
 Current Limiting: Large changes in terminal voltage will likely cause the inverter to reach a current limit.
This is to be expected for inverter-based resources, and current limiters should be coordinated with
inverter protection to ensure that the resource is able to respond very quickly while staying within its
continuous or short-term overload limits.
 Fault Inception and On-Fault Current Injection: During the inception of a fault, priority should be given
to delivering as much current to the system as quickly as possible to support protective relay systems to
detect and clear the fault.48 For the remaining on-fault period after the first couple cycles up to fault
clearing (regardless of fault duration), priority should be given to accurately detecting and controlling the
type of current needed based on terminal conditions and providing a combination of active and reactive
current as necessary.
 Negative and Zero Sequence Current Injection: Existing transmission protection systems utilize negative
sequence quantities extensively to determine fault direction49 to operate reliably. Additionally, providing
negative sequence current in addition to positive
sequence current will aid in the prevention of Key Takeaway:
overvoltages on the unfaulted phases in the presence of More detailed specifications need to be
strictly positive sequence currents. More detailed developed by the industry regarding
specifications need to be developed by the industry inverter-based resource negative sequence
regarding inverter-based resource negative sequence current contribution during faults.

48 The exception to this statement is in weak grid conditions where system studies may identify potential issues with fast injection of fault
current (particularly when current injection accuracy may be compromised). In these cases, the GO, PC, TP, and inverter manufacturer
should work together to identify a control strategy that addresses these conditions adequately. Focus should be on providing as much fault
current as possible while still ensuring a stable response of the plant in all timeframes.
49 Fault direction refers to identifying the location of the fault.

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

current contribution during faults.50, 51, 52, 53 Zero sequence currents are adequately provided by ground
source transformers, and typically there is at least one delta/wye transformer between the inverter
terminals and the BPS connection. Therefore, zero sequence current is not required to be produced by
inverter-based resources.
 Postfault Current Injection: Accuracy of current injection after fault clearance is critical for a stable return
to precontingency output conditions, transient voltage support, and frequency recovery. Inverter-based
resources should accurately detect and control the type of current needed based on terminal conditions,
and respond accordingly to provide a combination of active and reactive current injection. Priority should
be given to ensuring sufficient local voltage support before attempting to maintain or return to
predisturbance active current injection. The transition from inverter control back to plant-level controls
(if applicable) once voltage returns within the continuous operation range should not hinder or affect the
ability to meet the performance specifications described in this guideline for the overall response of the
resource.
 Postfault Voltage Overshoot Mitigation: The reactive current response of the inverter should not
exacerbate transient overvoltage conditions on the BPS. The controls and response times of the inverter
may need to be tuned in some situations, particularly weak grid conditions, to mitigate such conditions
from occurring. This may include, but is not limited to, limiting the magnitude of fault current contributed
during on-fault conditions54 or modifying the response time of the inverter to changes in voltage.

NERC Reliability Standard FAC-002-2 requires each TP and each PC to study the reliability impact of
interconnecting new generation as well as studying the impact of any material modifications to existing
interconnections of generation. The type of current to be injected during large disturbances should be tuned in
coordination with the TP and PC based on detailed system studies. The speed of response should also be tuned to
meet the characteristics described above. Inverter-based resources should be capable to meet or exceed the
specifications set forth in Table 3.2, although tuning of controls may modify the settings based on the reliability
needs of the system.55 Refer to Figure F.1 in Appendix F for an illustration of these recommendations.

50 Fault Current Contribution from PPMS & HVDC, entso-e, November 2016. Available: https://consultations.entsoe.eu/system-
development/entso-e-connection-codes-implementation-guidance-d-3/consult_view/.
51 VDE-AR-N 4120, “Technical Requirements for the Connection and Operation of Customer Installations to the High Voltage Network (TCC

High Voltage), Jan. 2015. Available: https://shop.vde.com/en/vde-ar-n-41202015-01-technical-requirements-for-the-connection-and-

operation-of-customer-installations-to-the-high-voltage-network-tcc-high-voltage.
52 IEEE PES–NERC Technical Report, “Impact of Inverter Based Generation on Bulk Power System Dynamics and Short-Circuit Performance”,

July 2018. [Online]. Available: http://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/pes/product/technical-publications/PES_TR_7-18_0068.

53 PSCR WG C32 “Protection Challenges and Practices for Interconnecting Inverter Based Resources to Utility Transmission Systems” report

is expected to have more technical details. The WG is active and the report is being drafted.
54 The amplitude of positive sequence reactive current injection may need to be limited for asymmetrical faults. Otherwise there may be

an overvoltage on the unfaulted phases.

55 The performance being recommended for inverter-based resources aligns with the inherent capability and dynamic response of

synchronous machine technology to the most reasonable possible extent (e.g., inherent fast dynamics during fault events as a result of flux
dynamics in a rotating machine).

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

Table 3.2: Large Disturbance Reactive Current-Voltage Performance

Parameter Description Performance Target

For a large disturbance step change in voltage, measured at the inverter terminals, where voltage falls outside
the continuous operating range, the positive sequence component of the inverter reactive current response
should meet the following performance specifications…

Time between the step change in voltage and when the resource
Reaction Time < 16 ms*
reactive power output begins responding to the change56

Time between a step change in control signal input (reference

Rise Time voltage or POM voltage) and when the reactive power output < 100 ms**
changes by 90 percent of its final value

Percentage of rated reactive current output that the resource can Determined by the
Overshoot
exceed while reaching the settling band TP/PC***
* For very low voltages (i.e., less than around 0.2 pu), the inverter PLL may lose its lock and be unable to track the voltage
waveform. In this case, rather than trip or inject a large unknown amount of active and reactive current, the output current of
the inverter(s) may be limited or reduced to avoid or mitigate any potentially unstable conditions.
** Varying grid conditions (i.e., grid strength) should be considered and behavior should be stable for the range of plausible
driving point impedances. Stable behavior and response should be prioritized over speed of response.
*** Any overshoot in reactive power response should not cause BPS voltages to exceed acceptable voltage limits. The magnitude
of the dynamic response may be requested to be reduced by the TP or PC based on stability studies.

Reactive Power at No Active Power Output

Inverters typically start operation once the dc voltage from the input source (e.g., solar PV panels57) reaches a
sufficient level. Once the source is unable to sustain the dc voltage (e.g., at night for solar) the inverters shut down
since the dc voltage drops below the operable threshold. When shut down, inverters do not provide active power
or control voltage through reactive power output. However, if configured to do so, inverters can inject (lagging)
or consume (leading) VARs at zero active power output by controlling the phase angle of the ac current relative
to the ac voltage seen at the terminals of the inverter.58 When the dc source is not active, the inverter can use its
dc link capacitors to function similar to a STATCOM. The inverters remain operational during this period, which
requires some active power consumptions for the inverter power supplies and conversion losses. That active
power would need to be supplied from the grid to account for losses and auxiliary loads for plant operation at
zero power output. For example, a large inverter in standby mode (e.g., expected solar PV operation during
nighttime or WTG with no wind speed or high-speed cutout) might consume a few hundred watts while an
operating inverter consumes anywhere from two through 10 kW (ballpark). The inverter would require the ability
to power itself; therefore, conventional inverters that operate on a dc source could not provide VARs with no
active power output and would need a different source to do so. Once that capability is available, there is little
cost from the inverter standpoint to enable this feature assuming it has the capability built into its control.
However, there are additional costs associated with operations and maintenance, dc link capacitor lifespan,
inverter component lifespans, etc.

56 Time between the step change in voltage and reaching 10 percent of new steady-state value can be used as a proxy for determining this
time.
57 Note that wind has similar capabilities of providing reactive power during conditions when wind speed is zero or too low for active power

generation, and battery energy storage also has this capability.

58 SMA America, “Q at Night,” Accessed Nov 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.sma-america.com/fileadmin/content/www.sma-

america.com/Partners/Images/Knowledgebase/Q_at_night/Q%40NIGHTWP-UUS134511P.pdf

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

From an equipment specification and design standpoint, the following considerations or changes may be required
to operate an inverter for reactive support at zero power output and with no available dc input power:
 The ability to provide reactive power at zero or slightly negative59 active power output normally requires
a “two-quadrant” inverter and does not require BESS to enable this capability.
 Reactive power controls must be decoupled from active power controls (e.g., the reactive power
command path must be independent of the active power command path).60 Controls that involve either
constant reactive power set point or automatic voltage control (e.g., Volt-Var mode) have this capability.
The vast majority of inverters manufactured today have this type of control to meet BPS automatic voltage
control requirements61; however, some legacy inverters that used power factor control mode may not
have independent active and reactive power control capability.
 From an inverter hardware perspective, the output limit is the rated current (usually the power electronics
device rating), meaning that the inverter is able to supply nearly 100 percent MVA regardless of whether
it is supplying active or reactive power (i.e., the inverter should be able to supply nearly 100 percent
reactive power with no active power output). However, there are design limitations that may hinder the
full reactive capability at low/zero active power output. This include hardware and software limitations,
power electronic heating limits,62 and other limitations imposed during the design phase of the plant. For
these reasons, the amount of reactive power capability at zero active power output may be less than 100
percent, and should be specified by the GOP if this service is provided.
 Many inverters open their ac-side contactor when not generating active power, so operating firmware
may need to be modified to be able to provide reactive power at zero or slightly negative active power
output.63
 The capability to provide reactive power at zero or slightly negative active power needs to be designed
into the firmware controls and hardware of the inverter, otherwise the incremental costs to retrofit this
service are not likely cost effective.
 Low voltage ride through may not be achievable during zero active power injection since there is no power
into the dc bus to charge and maintain dc voltage. During fault conditions, the power losses without active
power support behind the fault will drive voltage low, likely below the operational voltage limit of the
inverter. Therefore, these resources use momentary cessation when operating in this mode to maintain
the integrity of the dc bus voltage and be able to support voltage recovery after the fault is cleared. The
TP, PC, and TOP should be aware of this operational limitation for these resources. Further, the inverter-
based resources should return to reactive current injection to support BPS voltage immediately upon fault
clearing.

59 Active power for the inverter-based resource may be slightly negative to supply power to the inverter power supplies and account for
conversion losses.
60 Voltage control is tied to the reactive power control loop inside the controller software (active and reactive power control are completely

decoupled). This is apparent in the block diagrams of the second generation renewable energy models – regc_a, reec_b, and repc_a.
61 BES resources are required to operate in automatic voltage control mode, per NERC Standard VAR-002-4, so the capability to provide

independent active and reactive power control should be available in every BES-connected inverter-based resource.
62 For example, losses in the antiparallel diodes in an IGBT bridge are higher than those in the IGBT itself. Because there are more losses in

the reverse-current paths and the out-of-phase current (vars) flows in those paths, more heat is generated during var flow than during watt
flow.
63 Inverter-based resources, when not explicitly operating in a reactive power support mode at zero active power output, should isolate

the ac filter circuits and any plant-level capacitors and reactors from the grid after production hours unless instructed otherwise by the
TOP. This minimizes any injection or consumption of reactive power that may not be expected or planned for by the TP, PC, or TOP. The
only remaining consumption is the collector system cable charging, and HV and LV transformer loads, which are provided as part of the
reliability studies as losses to the GO/GOP during these conditions.

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

From a transmission planning and operations perspective, the BPS would benefit from inverter-based resources
actively managing voltage even at zero power output. Although this is not a requirement for BES-connected
resources,64 some examples of the benefits include the following:
 Customer load can remain high or increase after sunset. Commonly, this load increase is due to HVAC
loads during hot summer days related to the time lag of solar heating on homes and businesses. In areas
with high penetration of DERs, the loss of DERs after sunset will also increase real and reactive
requirements on the BPS. The loss of voltage support at sunset can have a significant impact on BPS
voltage control, particularly if a large penetration of inverter-based resources are used to maintain voltage
schedules during the day. Maintaining voltage support from BPS-connected solar plants even when solar
PV active power is not available can assist in controlling BPS voltages particularly on hot summer evenings.
 In winter, peak load occurs in the early morning and evening hours when there is little to no active power
output from solar PV plants. Customer load ramps are frequently more severe in the winter as well due
to temperature fluctuations and end-use load behavior patterns. If solar PV plants could provide voltage
support in the morning before sunrise and in the evening after sunset, this could help stabilize BPS
voltages during sharp load ramp periods.
 In light load periods in the middle of the night, fewer synchronous generators are dispatched to supply
customer load, so the number of generators able to regulate grid voltage is reduced. Light load periods
can have high voltage problems due to the capacitance of lightly loaded transmission lines. Like most
legacy solar inverters, most synchronous generators are not typically able to remain online at zero active
power output to regulate voltage. Often, if they can, they have reduced reactive power capability in the
leading (absorbing) direction versus the lagging (injecting) direction. In contrast, inverters can provide
nearly the same level of reactive power in both leading (absorbing) and lagging (injecting) directions.
 During startup and shutdown of inverters, the inverters may have a noticeable impact on BPS voltage and
reactive power injection depending on the voltage before the inverters activate, the rate at which the
inverters ramp active power, and the scheduled voltage. This can be mitigated using a ramp rate limit on
active and reactive power injection at the inverter or plant-level controller during startup/shutdown;
however, providing automatic voltage control during all times would ensure supply of reactive power to
support voltage across the different operating modes.

If inverter-based resources were able to regulate voltage during any of these periods when their active power
output was at zero (typically the inverter would be off-line), this control could significantly improve BPS voltage
profiles, minimize voltage variability, and support voltage stability by providing dynamic reactive power during all
operating modes. There may be benefits to enabling this capability in inverters, such as less expensive zero or
slightly negative active power voltage support (compared with synchronous machines) and more dispersed
resources supporting automatic voltage control. If set up to do so, inverter-based resources can be a valuable
asset to provide this ERS when dispatched at zero or slightly negative active power.

In terms of grid planning, TPs and PCs should consider utilizing the reactive capability of inverter-based resources
during zero power output conditions during the interconnection process. This type of control can be designed into
the generating facilities, and would then need to be compensated accordingly. Reactive power support during
these times may be able to offset transmission investments that would otherwise be necessary without the
capabilities enabled. Inverter manufacturers have stated that the incremental cost to enable this capability at the
solar PV facility is typically significantly less than a transmission-connected dynamic reactive power resource.
However, the GO will also need to consider the costs of supplying power to make up losses in the inverters during

64 Similarly,IEEE Std. 1547-2018 does not require any reactive power capability for active power output less than 5 percent. Therefore, IEEE
Std. 1547-2018 does not require that capability to provide VARs at zero MW output for distribution-connected resources. However, the
capability is feasible and many inverter manufacturer include this technology in their latest inverters.

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 Chapter 3: Reactive Power-Voltage Control

zero power output conditions as well as any impacts to the lifespan of the inverter components and added
operations and maintenance costs.

Conversely, dispersed power producing resources may be capacitive when at zero power output since inverter
filter capacitors, plant-side fixed shunt capacitors (if left in-service), feeder line/cable charging, and tie line
charging will all contribute to VAR injection.65 In aggregate, the amount of VARs produced can be significant in
some situations, and TPs, PCs, and TOPs should specify reactive power performance (e.g., type of control) of
inverter-based resources during off-line operation. In addition, the TP and PC should be aware of existing practices
and the impacts these can have on BPS voltage control during zero power output conditions. In general, inverter-
based resources should not inject reactive power under conditions of high voltage and should ensure that inverter
filter capacitors, plant fixed shunt capacitors, and any other switchable reactive power device are removed from
service such that reactive power at the Point of Interconnection (POI) is near zero when the overall plant is not
providing active power (unless otherwise instructed by the TOP). Any requirements or contractual decisions
should specify the production capability of VARs when at zero power output as a percentage of nameplate rating
(e.g., 44 percent of the nameplate rating of the facility) to ensure a common base. If this is not deployed, then the
requirements should clearly state that the reactive power exchange at the POI should be zero during off-line (no
active power injection) conditions. These types of specifications are well understood by inverter manufacturers
for conditions at low values of active power.

65IEEE Std. 1547-2018 is adding new requirements to limit reactive power exchange between the DER and the Area EPS during offline
conditions. At the BPS, reactive power injection when the plant is offline should be zero unless other arrangements or agreements have
been made between the TOP and GO.

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Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

Inverter-based resources have a number of different types of protective functions throughout the plant, many of
which are similar to protective relaying in synchronous machines or transmission-level relaying. However,
inverter-based resources also have some unique protective characteristics that are described in more detail in this
chapter. Also discussed are various aspects of protective relaying that should be considered by inverter-based
resources. These topics have been identified as potential causes for tripping based on recent BPS disturbances
where solar PV resources tripped offline for the conditions present at the facility caused by the system fault.

Note that all BES generating resources, including inverter-based resources, are subject to the NERC Reliability
Standards based on their applicability with each Reliability Standard. While PRC-024-2 is of particular focus due to
recent BPS grid disturbances, all Reliability Standard requirements should be considered. For example, PRC-025-
1, PRC-026-1, and PRC-027-1 relate to inverter-based resource protection. Inverter controls and protection need
to be coordinated with other forms of protection within the overall plant.

Overview of Inverter-Based Resource Protective Functions

Figure 4.1 shows an example of a simplified one-line diagram of an inverter-based resource (solar PV plant in this
example). The plant consists of daisy-chained inverters connected to an aggregating switchgear box (optional) or
to the substation collector bus. There are multiple collectors of inverters that connect to the bus. At the low-side
(typically 34.5 kV) bus, there are typically shunt capacitors and/or reactors to help offset collector system losses
and supplement voltage regulation. Each feeder has a breaker, and the substation GSU also has breakers on both
sides. Often, there is a main line EHV transmission circuit that connects the facility to the POI connecting to the
TO. The individual inverter transformers are typically a wye (ungrounded)-delta configuration66 and the GSU is
typically a wye (grounded)-wye (grounded) configuration.

Figure 4.1: Simplified Solar PV Plant One-line Diagram

66 Some installations may use a wye-wye (ungrounded) configuration at the inverter transformers; however, this is relatively rare.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

The protection systems in the plant can be categorized based on the elements they are protecting, including the
following:
 Inverter (protective functions):
 Open phase (single phase loss) detection
 ac and dc overcurrent protection
 ac undervoltage protection
 dc undervoltage protection (for BESS)
 Under- and overfrequency protection67
 ROCOF protection (should be disabled)
 Loss of synchronization
 Unintentional islanding protection (should be disabled)
 Passive anti-islanding protection (should be disabled)
 Reverse current protection (dc voltage low relative to ac voltage, solar PV only)
 dc ground fault or insulation monitoring protection68
 ac ground fault protection
 Negative sequence current protection69
 Reverse phase sequence protection (46 element)
 Internal inverter temperature protection
 Other internal health monitoring protection
 Inverter transformer protection:
 Current limiting fuse (fast)
 Expulsion fuse (slow)
 Collector system protection:
 Under- and overvoltage protection
 Overcurrent protection (50 and 51 elements)70
 Under- and overfrequency protection71
 Substation and GSU protection:
 Differential protection (transformer and bus)

67 May be used for protection of inverter fans, transformers, magnetics, etc., but should be based on a physical equipment limitation;
otherwise, the tripping thresholds should be expanded to the widest possible extent.
68 The negative terminal of the PV system is grounded and protection is monitoring the positive side. On floating systems, the protection is

monitoring insulation resistance.

69 Typically monitoring for ~2 percent long-term/continuous negative sequence current, which can be damaging to capacitors and other

elements.
70 IEEE Standard for Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers, Acronyms, and Contact Designations', IEEE Std. C37.2-2008.
71 Typically used for 3-phase loads, frequency sensitive loads, fire pumps, and other auxiliary loads; otherwise, the tripping thresholds

should be expanded to the widest possible extent.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

 Breaker failure protection (high side breaker)

 Ground fault protection:
 Main line/breaker protection72
 Under- and overvoltage protection
 Overcurrent protection (50 and 51 element)
 Zone (impedance-based) protection (21 element)
 Under- and overfrequency protection

As with most resources, the protective functions can and often do use phase-based quantities rather than a
positive sequence value. Therefore, positive sequence dynamic simulation tools may not capture the conditions
in which inverter-based resources may trip. This should be acknowledge during studies, and engineering judgment
should be used to understand the extent to which tripping will also occur for these studies. For example, simulated
delayed clearing faults may extend past the ride-through capability of inverter-based resources. This may not be
captured using the positive sequence voltage quantity in simulation, yet the faulted phase (in which the inverter-
based resource may take protective action based on) will exceed the ride-through criteria. In this case, the
resource should be tripped in simulation.

A useful reference for protective relaying at wind power plants is the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee
(PSRC) Working Group C25, which is drafting Guide for Protection of Wind Power Plants.73 This guide provides
more detail related to the various types of WPP protection systems.

Inverter Tripping and Shutdown

Figure 4.2 shows a simplified one-line diagram of one individual inverter connected at the plant shown in Figure
4.1. How an inverter responds to a fault condition depends on if the fault code initiates on the dc or ac side of the
inverter. At a high level, this can be described as follows:
 DC-side Fault: If the fault code initiates on the dc side, the inverter stops gating the power electronics and
ceases energization within microseconds, and the inverter shuts down. The inverter ac circuit breaker
does not necessarily have to open.
 AC-side Fault: If a fault occurs on the ac side, inverter protection (e.g., under- and overvoltage,
overcurrent) may operate. Inverter controls stop gating the power electronics and cease energization
within microseconds. The inverter breaker then opens based on the protection trip command.

While the phenomena that causes the inverter to cease energization may be different, both conditions are
considered a “trip” where the protective functions and/or circuit breaker operation impact current injection and
energization to the BPS. While in some cases the inverter IGBT gating may cease, this action is not considered
momentary cessation since the fast recovery of current once voltage returns to within acceptable limits does not
occur. For a given disturbance, inverter-based resources may exhibit tripping of all inverters or only partial tripping
of inverters depending on what each individual inverter experiences at its terminals during the event.

72The TSP/TO for which the inverter-based resource is connected to at the transmission level will most likely weigh in heavily on the type
of protection required at the EHV bus and main line protection to match the existing protection philosophies used at that utility (e.g.,
standardized line protection relations, permissive over-reaching transfer trip, current differential).
73 IEEE Power System Relaying Committee, “Guide for Protection of Wind Plants,” IEEE C25, draft guide. http://www.pes-

psrc.org/c/c25/c25.html.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

Figure 4.2: Simplified Inverter One-line Diagram

Return to Service following a Trip

Inverters that trip off-line due to faults on the BPS will typically automatically return to service with a specified
time delay.74 The time delay can be separated into two distinct time frames:
 Inverter Reset Mode: Some tripping actions require a full inverter reset that typically requires one to two
minutes to complete. This may be for inverter software or hardware requirements, or may be to charge
the dc bus before returning to service. Regardless, these are required actions before the inverter is able
to reconnect to the BPS.
 Intentional Time Delay: Some inverters may use an intentional, programmed time delay to return to
service following a trip. IEEE Std. 1547-2018 Requirement 4.10.3 requires an adjustable range of the
minimum intentional delay between 0–600 seconds, with a default of 300 seconds (five minutes). Past
disturbances on the BPS have identified that this five-minute timer is implemented into many BPS-
connected inverters.

Any resource that trips off-line should reconnect to the BPS based on the reconnection requirements specified by
their BA, if any. BAs should consider the current and future penetration of inverter-based resources and determine
if automatic reconnection is acceptable to maintain reliable performance and generation-load balance. Large
amounts of automatic reconnection of any resource may pose challenges for the BA to maintain this balance and
ensure stability. At higher penetration levels, BAs should consider whether automatic/uncontrolled reconnection
is allowable. BAs may consider implementing reconnection requirements following tripping. These requirements
may include, but are not limited to: notification by the GOP that the plant experienced a whole or partial trip75
and an estimated time to return, reconnection approval, and reconnection ramp rates. In any case, BAs should
require that GOs of inverter-based resources using automatic reconnection specify the time to reconnection for
these automatic actions. If there are different times depending on different protective actions, each should be
specified so the BA can have full situational awareness and understanding of tripping and reconnection events.

Frequency and Voltage Ride-Through Related to PRC-024-2

Frequency and voltage protection aspects are discussed in more detail in the subsequent sub-sections. However,
it is important to first clarify some aspects of the PRC-024-2 ride-through curves, particularly related to inverter-
based resources. Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show the frequency and voltage ride-through curves from PRC-024-2,
respectively. The corresponding tables can be found in the standard. The following observations are provided:

74Some inverter fault codes require a manual reset while many fault codes allow for automatic reconnection.
75If the partial loss inverter(s) at the facility does not impact the amount of output power expected to be delivered to the BPS, then it
should not need to be reported. This could include individual inverter trips where another inverter is quickly brought online to maintain
the scheduled value.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

 The region outside the “No Trip Zone” for both the frequency and voltage protection ride-through curves
is not a “Must Trip Zone.76
 The ride-through curves apply to the POI voltage for the overall inverter-based resource and not for each
individual inverter. Inverters may experience transient terminal voltages that are higher or lower than
those shown in the ride-through curves. Inverters are expected to ride through those voltages77 so long
as the POI voltage is within acceptable limits, per PRC-024-2.
 If the resource is subjected to successive faults in a period of time that necessitates tripping to protect
from the cumulative effects of those successive faults, the resource may trip to ensure safety and
equipment integrity. For example, wind turbines may trip to protect the drivetrain from cumulative
torsional stress due to successive faults within a given period of time (mechanical fatigue protection).
 Inverter voltage and frequency trip settings should not be based solely on the PRC-024-2 voltage ride-
through curves. These settings should account for physical equipment limitations to protect the inverter
and associated equipment. Voltage and frequency trip settings should be set as wide as possible while still
protecting the inverter equipment from damage.
 While the frequency ride-through tables allow for an “instantaneous” trip for high or low frequency, this
frequency should be accurately calculated over a time window (e.g., around six cycles) and should not use
an instantaneously calculated value; it should be filtered over a time window. The ride-through curve uses
a logarithmic scale, which starts at 100 ms, and is more indicative of a minimum time to take frequency-
related tripping action.
 Item 1 of the Curve Details of Attachment 2 of PRC-024-2 states that "[t]he per unit voltage base for these
curves is the nominal operating voltage specified by the Transmission Planner in the analysis of the
reliability of the Interconnected Transmission Systems at the point of interconnection to the Bulk Electric
System (BES)." TPs generally limit acceptable operating voltages to some range of the system nominal
voltage. The GO should confirm the system nominal voltage for the POI bus that is used in the TP’s model
of the BES, which typically does not vary from bus to bus for a given voltage level of the BES (e.g., 230 kV,
500 kV). Since the no-trip zone limits are steady-state representations of the severity of the voltage
transient versus the time to recover during a transient event, it is acceptable to use the system model
nominal voltage in defining these limits.
 Item 5 of the Curve Details of Attachment 2 of PRC-024-2 states that “[v]oltages in the curve assume
minimum fundamental frequency phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltage for the low voltage
duration curve…” Either the phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltage, whichever selected, should use
the fundamental frequency component of the signal when comparing to the ride-through curve.
 Item 5 of the Curve Details of Attachment 2 of PRC-024-2 states “…and the greater of maximum RMS or
crest phase-to-phase voltage for the high voltage duration curve.” However, this signal should be a
fundamental frequency voltage well-filtered over a window (e.g., RMS) to avoid spurious tripping during
voltage transients. Therefore, an RMS voltage measured over around one cycle is best suited in
comparison with the voltage ride-through curve of PRC-024-2 (within the equipment limitations).

76 Footnote 1 of PRC-024-2 states: “Each Generator Owner is not required to have frequency or voltage protective relaying (including but
not limited to frequency and voltage protective functions for discrete relays, volts per hertz relays evaluated at nominal frequency, multi-
function protective devices or protective functions within control systems that directly trip or provide tripping signals to the generator
based on frequency or voltage inputs) installed or activated on its unit.” This further reinforces the concept that the area outside of the
“No Trip Zone” is not a “Must Trip Zone”.
77 This is predominantly a voltage-related issue since frequency is relatively the same between the inverter terminals and the POM.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

Figure 4.3: Off-Nominal Frequency Capability Curve from PRC-024-2

Figure 4.4: Voltage Ride-Through Time Duration Curve from PRC-024-2

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

Overvoltage Protection
Figure 4.5 shows transient overvoltage conditions at the terminals of an inverter during one of the faults during
the Canyon 2 Fire disturbance. Inverters tripped on a sub-cycle (less than quarter cycle) measured voltage above
the overvoltage protective settings for the inverter. This illuminated a need to specify recommended voltage
protection, particularly overvoltage protection, to ensure inverter-based resources are not susceptible to spurious
tripping on transient overvoltages caused by faults, switching, or instantaneous changes in controls.

Figure 4.5: Phase Voltages during On-Fault Conditions

Voltage Measurement Filtering and Instantaneous Trip Settings

The PRC-024-2 ride-through curve and voltage-time characteristics were derived based on conventional relaying
philosophies. Modern digital protective relays typically use a filtered (e.g., bandpass filter) RMS signal for voltage
sensing, which eliminates any susceptibility to tripping for transient overvoltages. Instantaneous voltage values
are not used since voltage transients are common on the BPS due to switching actions, fault clearing, lightning,
etc. These types of transients should not result in protective relay action unless a fault condition exists and relays
are set using filtered quantities to ensure secure operation. Inverters should not be set to trip on an instantaneous,
unfiltered voltage measurements. Inverter protective functions should use a fundamental frequency voltage for
overvoltage protection when compared with the PRC-024-2 ride through curve. While the protective function can
be “instantaneous,” the filtering on the voltage measurement should occur over at least a cycle or longer, and the
inverter should not operate on an instantaneous voltage measurement (except due to known equipment
limitations).

The overvoltage trip settings, based on a fundamental frequency, filtered voltage measurement should also be
coordinated with other forms of plant protection to ensure equipment reliability. Trip commands and opening of
the inverter circuit breaker typically require three to four cycles, and therefore do not protect the equipment from
damage caused by instantaneous overvoltage. Therefore, sub-cycle transient overvoltages are typically protected
against using surge arresters (described below).

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Protection Coordination Improvements

Most high voltage equipment on the BPS have two voltage ratings:
1. Basic Impulse Level (BIL) Rating:78 The electrical strength of insulation expressed in terms of the crest
value of a standard lightning impulse (e.g., 1.2 × 50 µs wave) under standard atmospheric conditions. This
rating is the maximum voltage that the equipment can withstand without breakdown of electrical
insulation and damage caused by a transient voltages wave with fast rise time and decay time. BIL ratings
are typically anywhere from 2.5 to 15 times rated voltage (much higher than maximum operating voltage
rating).
2. Maximum Operating Voltage Rating: The maximum operating voltage is the maximum fundamental
frequency voltage that the equipment can withstand without damage.

Since exceeding the BIL rating can result in nearly instantaneous damage to the equipment, de-energizing the
equipment using ac circuit breaker operation is typically too slow. For this reason, surge arresters are used to
clamp voltage to a specific level below the BIL, allowing energy to dissipate nearly instantaneously through the
surge arrester to protect the equipment from damage. Fast-front, sub-cycle overvoltages are remediated in many
applications by applying surge arrestors. Besides the very fast time constants for protecting against these transient
conditions, another advantage of using arresters is that it allows the equipment to continue operation throughout
the short-duration transient overvoltage, ride through the disturbance, and continue operation after the
overvoltage conditions is eliminated. The effectiveness of surge arresters is a function of the impedance between
the overvoltage requirement location and the inverter terminal where the surge arrester is installed. For this
impedance, a per unit value is defined when designing and testing the overvoltage capability of the inverters to
ensure that equipment provided by various suppliers has indeed similar capability. The impedances of the step-
up transformer (“MV transformer” in Figure 4.1) and the inverter are typically used for this purpose.

Most BPS equipment also has a maximum operating voltage that it can withstand, which is a voltage measured at
fundamental frequency. This inherently means that the voltage is measured over some time, and a time delay
may be incorporated before de-energizing the equipment. So, for fundamental frequency overvoltage conditions,
overvoltage protective elements typically use some form of bandpass filtered RMS value. This helps mitigate
tripping for any spurious transients that occur during fault conditions. Even for “instantaneous” trip functions in
conventional protective relays, some filtering is applied to ensure it is operating on fundamental frequency
quantities. This helps ensure protection system security (tripping only when intended).

Inverter protection should be coordinated with the use of surge arresters with inverter protective tripping
functions to securely protect against transient, sub-cycle overvoltages. Surge arrestors applied to the inverters
can clamp transient overvoltages to acceptable levels while still ensuring continuous operation of the inverter.
Protective functions within the inverter should operate on a filtered fundamental frequency RMS quantity to avoid
erroneously tripping on transient overvoltages that are cleared before the inverter or circuit breaker can even
respond.

Recommended Overvoltage Protection

Inverter-based resources should use protection settings based on design specifications from the manufacturer to
ensure equipment integrity while also ensuring secure operation. Protection settings should not be based solely
on the ride-through curves in PRC-024-2. This protection philosophy is separated into two aspects: sub-cycle
transient overvoltage protection, and fundamental frequency overvoltage protection. Figure 4.6 shows
recommended transient overvoltage ride-through (protection) performance for inverter-based resources, and
Table 4.1 shows a tabular representation of the curve. The curve is based on historical events and input from
inverter manufacturers, and it is intended to guide future inverter-based resource specifications as well as

78 See IEEE Std. 1313.2 “IEEE Guide for Application of Insulation Coordination”

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

potential changes to existing resources (to the most possible extent, based on equipment capability) to improve
ride-through performance. The following observations describe the overvoltage ride-through curve in more detail:
 The right axis represents a fundamental frequency RMS voltage measured at the POI. The blue portion of
the curve uses this axis and mirrors the overvoltage ride-through curve in PRC-024-2.79 This curve starts
at 16.66 ms to account for filtering of the voltage waveform. Protective functions being applied to the
PRC-024-2 ride-through curve should use a well-filtered fundamental frequency RMS voltage
measurement. Many different types of filtering methods can be applied, and any method should filter out
harmonics and sub-cycle spikes that are not part of the fundamental frequency ac voltage waveform. This
mitigates erroneous tripping during sub-cycle spikes for this type of protection.
 The left axis represent the instantaneous voltage at the inverter terminals (“V2” in Figure 4.1) in per unit
of nominal instantaneous peak base voltage. Inverters should be designed to withstand sub-cycle
transient overvoltages that may occur during fault conditions or switching events while also protecting
the inverter from damage. Inverter ac breakers require at least three to four cycles to operate (and often
much longer for the types of breakers used at the inverter terminals), and therefore are not effective
protection mechanisms for mitigating sub-cycle transient overvoltages. The red portion of the curve uses
this axis and represents the recommended sub-cycle performance for inverters. Inverters should be able
to withstand higher voltages for shorter durations and higher voltage magnitudes typically only persist for
a very short time and decay very quickly.80 Within the curve, these voltage spikes should not result in
inverter tripping action.
 The area within both the instantaneous inverter terminal voltage (red) and filtered RMS POI voltage (blue)
portions of the curve should be treated as a “No Trip Zone,” where the overvoltage protection should not
operate within this area. The area outside this region of the curve should be considered as a “May Trip
Zone” and not as a “Must Trip Zone.”
 For sub-cycle transient overvoltage protection, inverters may need to use alternative operating modes for
very short times (e.g., on-fault conditions) to sustain very high short-duration overvoltages. For example,
current clipping, gate pulse suppression, or other fast controls within the inverter can help ensure a stable
response that does not lead to tripping. Any reduction in current should be restored immediately (within
cycles) once voltage returns to acceptable levels within the fundamental frequency RMS voltage portion
of the curve. This is different than momentary cessation, which involves a resource returning over a
relatively longer time frame with a specified delay and ramp rate.
 IEEE Std. 1547-2018 includes a requirement that “DER shall not cause the instantaneous voltage on any
portion of the Area EPS to exceed the magnitudes and cumulative durations” shown by the dotted line in
Figure 4.6. This is provided here only for reference and completeness.81 DERs are expected to not
contribute reactive current to the grid during overvoltage conditions (in per unit of nominal instantaneous
peak base) above the curve. However, DERs do not necessarily have to trip for these conditions. Rather,
they must ensure that their current contribution does not exacerbate the overvoltage.

79 This curve focuses on transient overvoltage and thus ends at 200 ms, while the PRC-024-2 curve continues to four seconds.
80 For example, the Ontario Transmission System Connection Point Performance Standards—Appendix 2 states that “all equipment shall
be able to withstand capacitor switching surges that transiently increase voltage to twice normal levels.” Available:
https://www.oeb.ca/documents/cases/RP-2004-0220/appendix2_clean.pdf.
81 Refer to IEEE Std. 1547-2018, Section 7.4.2, Figure 13.

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Figure 4.6: Recommended Overvoltage Ride-Through Curve

Table 4.1: Recommended Overvoltage Ride-

Through Characteristic
Curve Section Voltage (pu) Time (sec)

Instantaneous Trip
≥ 2.000
Instantaneous Acceptable
Inverter
Terminal ≥ 1.700 0.0016
Voltage
≥ 1.400 0.003

≥ 1.200 0.0167
Fundamental
≥ 1.175 0.20
Frequency
RMS POI ≥ 1.150 0.50
Voltage
≥ 1.100 1.00

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

In cases where the inverters with integrated fast-acting controls, surge arresters, or other clamping circuits are
provided with a standalone step-up or grid interface transformer, the instantaneous overvoltage requirements on
the left axis can be applied at a point further in the supply system (“V1” in Figure 4.1). Application of the
overvoltage curve in the supply system should account for the full range of potential initial operating points of the
inverter as well as the impedances that play into the given point of interface. This is to ensure successful ride-
through of the system of connected resources for the overvoltages shown in Figure 4.6.

Frequency Tripping Mechanism

An inverter-based resource should protect itself against over- and underfrequency issues that could cause damage
or safety issues at the resource for frequencies outside the “No Trip Zone” of PRC-024-2.82 PRC-024-2 provides
clarity for dispersed power producing resources regarding ride-through requirements of the generator frequency
protective relaying. It states in Footnote 2 the following:

“For frequency protective relays associated with dispersed power producing resources identified through
Inclusion I4 of the Bulk Electric System definition, this requirement applies to frequency protective relays
applied on the individual generating unit of the dispersed power producing resources, as well as frequency
protective relays applied on equipment from the individual generating unit of the dispersed power
producing resource up to the point of interconnection.”

Although PRC-024-2 does not specify how frequency should be measured, frequency should be calculated with
sufficient accuracy (accounting for phase jumps or distorted waveforms due to faults or harmonics) such that
protective actions operate as expected and the number of undesired operations of protection systems is
minimized. There are multiple ways an inverter can calculate frequency and take protective action on the
calculated value. Figure 4.7 shows two different forms of frequency derivation and how those calculations feed
the frequency protective relaying. In the past, frequency was derived using from zero crossings of the measured
phase voltages. Today, grid frequency is most commonly calculated using the derived phase quantity from the PLL
since the PLL is used to maintain synchronization to the grid. In this setup, the derived phase from the PLL is fed
through an integrator (dθ/dt) and that signal should then be filtered83 (e.g., low pass filter) over some time. This
signals is then passed to the frequency protective relaying function where any potential tripping of the inverter
would take place.

82 And should otherwise not trip on frequency-related protection for frequencies within the PRC-024-2 ride-through curves.
83 Using a filter mitigates any potential erroneous tripping on higher frequency components or spikes in the calculated frequency.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

Figure 4.7: Frequency Protective Relaying using PLL Controls

[Source: Adapted from EPRI]

Rate-of-Change-of-Frequency Measurement and Protection

Inverter-based resources do not have an equipment limitation or need to trip on high rate-of-change-of-frequency
(ROCOF). ROCOF protection has been used in certain grid code requirements around the world, particularly for
small island systems, and for passive islanding detection for DER installations. However, ROCOF relays should not
be used for inverter-based resources connected to the BPS and should be disabled in the inverter.

Measured frequency changes at the inverter are either caused by

Key Takeaway:
phase shifts on the BPS (due to faults, line switching, or other
Inverter-based resources do not have
normally occurring fast transient events) or by a generation-load
an equipment limitation or need to
imbalance in the system. Phase shifts from fault events, for example,
trip on high ROCOF. Inverter relays or
cause an instantaneous change in phase angle that results in a very
controls should not be used for BPS-
high instantaneously calculated ROCOF value. Inverter-based
connected inverter-based resources
resources are expected to ride through these events, regardless of
and should be disabled in the inverter.
the ROCOF, using advanced controls to maintain PLL synchronism
during the high ROCOF and potential momentary (cycles) loss of PLL
lock. On the other hand, the BPS may experience a relatively high system-wide ROCOF during a large generation-
load imbalance situation. However, these conditions are significantly slower than the instantaneous phase jumps
caused by faults, and inverter-based resources should ride through these events and continue to provide active
and reactive current, as necessary. In either case, a BPS-connected inverter-based resource should not have
ROCOF protection enabled and should be able to ride through phase jumps and high system-wide ROCOF events.
PLL controls should be robust enough to ride through these events using advanced logic. Tripping due to high
ROCOF is not acceptable ride through performance.

Over- and Underfrequency Protection

Generator protection settings should be based on physical equipment limitations, and generators should remain
connected to support BPS frequency control and stability during large BPS disturbances to the best possible
extent. Frequency trip settings for inverter-based resources should be set as wide as possible while still ensuring
equipment protection and personnel safety to support BPS reliability. This aligns with the intent of PRC-024-2 and
the concept that the region outside of the “No Trip Zone” should not be interpreted as a “Must Trip Zone.”

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Frequency is not a primary concern for inverter preservation.

There are no limitations that require inverters to trip based on Key Takeaway:
off-nominal frequency within expected abnormal BPS Frequency trip settings for inverter-based
operations (e.g., ± 3 Hz). Many inverter manufacturers have resources should be set as wide as
stated that inverters can operate indefinitely for frequencies possible while still ensuring equipment
down to 57 Hz (and those with universal design for 50 Hz protection and personnel safety to
systems can sustain down to 47 Hz). Therefore, inverter-based support BPS reliability. This aligns with the
resources should be able to operate for frequencies between intent of PRC-024-2, and the concept that
57–63 Hz moving forward. Limitations of inverter-based the region outside of the “No Trip Zone”
resources are more related to the specifications used when the should not be interpreted as a “Must Trip
inverter was designed. Zone.”

PRC-024-2 frequency limits were based on synchronous machine limitations, protection settings, and coordination
with underfrequency load shedding (UFLS) programs. IEEE 1547-2003 requirements for disconnection within a
specified period of time were predominantly based on anti-islanding considerations on the distribution system
and should not be applied to BPS-connected resources. Revisions in IEEE 1547-2018 have proposed frequency
ride-through requirements that more closely align with, and use wider trip thresholds than, PRC-024-2.

Phase Lock Loop Loss of Synchronism

Sudden changes in BPS voltage magnitude and phase occur during faults on the BPS. Recent disturbance events
identified that some inverters’ PLL loss of synchronism may cause an ac synchronization fault (loss of PLL
synchronization), resulting in protective action to open the inverter primary circuit breaker. For these inverters,
this action is taken for complete loss or sudden fluctuation in BPS voltage that causes the inverter PLL to lose
synchronism with the ac waveform. This triggers a five-minute restart action by the inverter. At the plant where
this occurred, other fault indicators also took action to trip the inverter and PLL loss of synchronism was not the
primary cause of inverter tripping.84 On the other hand, other plants did experience only a PLL synchronism fault
code that tripped inverters. Therefore, it is worthwhile to clearly articulate the recommended performance
specifications for PLLs during BPS disturbances.

PLL loss of synchronism should not result in inverter tripping. Momentary cessation, as described in Chapter 1,
should also not be used, to the possible extent, when PLL loss of synchronism temporarily occurs. The PLL is able
to resynchronize to the grid within a couple electrical cycles and should be able to immediately return to expected
current injection. Alternative operating modes such as current clipping or gate pulse suppression could be used
during transient conditions to ensure equipment safety; however, recovery and resynchronization should occur
nearly instantaneously once PLL lock is regained. Current limits should ensure that overcurrent protective
functions do not operate during PLL loss of synchronism conditions.

DC Reverse Current Protection

Inverters have anti-parallel diodes across the power electronic switches (insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs))
to mitigate voltage spikes during switching. These diodes are used to allow current through the inductive load to
go to zero (current through an inductor cannot change instantly otherwise transient voltage spikes occur), and a
small amount of reverse current may flow during normal switching operations. However, this amount is relatively
low. When ac voltage is higher than dc bus voltage during transient ac overvoltage conditions, higher amounts of
dc reverse current may flow. However, the dc reverse current protection is typically used for the following
purposes:

84See the Canyon 2 Fire disturbance report for more details. Available:
http://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/ea/October%209%202017%20Canyon%202%20Fire%20Disturbance%20Report/900_MW_Solar_Photovolt
aic_Resource_Interruption_Disturbance_Report.pdf.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

 Short Circuit Protection: protection against short circuit faults (due to component failures) on the dc side
that can lead to risk of fire, electric shock, or injury to personnel
 Inverter Back Feed Current Onto the Array: protection against short circuits in the PV array that can cause
back feed currents from the inverter

UL Std. 174185 includes a testing requirement that reverse current should not exceed the manufacturer’s
specification for maximum reverse current. The maximum dc reverse current specification here depends on the
inverter and is specified by the manufacturer. However, it does not specify a maximum duration and provides
sufficient design flexibility that it should be feasible for inverters to not trip due to reverse current during transient
ac over-voltages. According to a number of equipment manufacturers, current in the reverse direction is generally
not damaging to the inverters, the dc power source, nor the collector systems. Rather, detection and protection
of this dc reverse current is used to protect the PV modules, particularly for local faults in the collector system. An
inverse time characteristic could be used for dc reverse current protection. Instantaneous tripping should not be
used unless current exceeds the dc reverse current rating of the inverter or PV modules. Therefore, inverter
reverse current protection should be coordinated with the PV module limitations and operate for dc short circuits
yet not operate for transient ac overvoltage conditions caused by external BPS faults. Any modifications to
protection settings should ensure that protection operates to ensure equipment and personnel safety.

Successive Voltage Dips

Successive voltage dips may occur on the BPS for a number of reasons such as reclosing into permanent faults or
environmental conditions (e.g., lightning storms, wildfires). Figure 4.8 shows multiple unsuccessful transmission
line reclosing attempts into a permanent fault.86 Voltage continued to rise after each reclosing attempt as inverters
tripped off-line. From a BPS performance perspective, inverter-based resources should ride through successive
fault events to the possible extent to provide BPS voltage support. However, if the resource is subjected to
successive faults in a period of time that necessitates tripping to protect from the cumulative effects of those
successive faults, the resource may trip to ensure safety and equipment integrity. For example, wind turbines may
trip to protect the drivetrain from cumulative torsional stress due to successive faults within a given period of
time (mechanical fatigue protection).

Voltage protective relaying/controls of inverter-based resources should be set such that these resources do not
trip within the No Trip zone of the PRC-024-2 voltage ride-through curve, which represents the cumulative voltage
duration at the POI. Existing resources that were not designed with this performance characteristic may need to
consider the most effective upgrade to ensure ride-through capability. In the event that an inverter-based
resource cannot ride through successive fault events, the GO should document and communicate these
limitations to the PC and TP, similar to other equipment limitations for a single ride-through event.

85 UL 1741, “Standard for Inverters, Converters, Controllers and Interconnection System Equipment for Use with Distributed Energy
Resources”. Available: https://standardscatalog.ul.com/standards/en/standard_1741_2.
86 Note that some protection system philosophies may not result in as many attempted recloses as shown in the figure. However, this is an

actual event captured using a digital fault recorder near multiple inverter-based resources.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

Figure 4.8: Successive Fault Events Example – Inverter Tripping Impacts on Voltage

Inverters have traditionally used a protection feature that operates87 if the number of ride-through events88
exceeds a predetermined threshold programmed into the inverter within a specified period of time (e.g., 24
hours). This has been used in the past to detect internal failures or faults within the inverter and shut down for
any potential equipment malfunction.89 Inverters should shut down and trip with no intentional time delay for
internal failures or faults to ensure equipment and personnel safety within the plant. However, this function
should not be used for taking protective operation based on external faults.

An inverter needs to maintain adequate energy to the power supply used for the inverter controls. These power
supplies need a specified amount of energy to continue running. Inverters use some form of capacitance (e.g., a
large capacitor) to support the dc bus voltage during low voltage conditions. The capacitor has a given charging
time constant that is required to recharge the capacitor to prepare for the next event. If the time between
successive events is too short, the energy supply may fall below acceptable levels for the inverter to reliably
operate. The dc bus capacitor should be sized such that the inverter-based resource can successfully ride through
any number of successive fault events on the system spaced apart by four seconds.

These protection actions were a contributor to the South Australia disturbance that occurred on September 28,
2016.90 However, the Australian Energy Market Operator was unaware of this protection feature because it is not
represented in the simulation models used for system planning and operating studies, and limited industry
experience with successive low voltage conditions.

Since it is rare to apply more than two successive events in simulation studies, adding a hard limit in the dynamic
models may not be warranted. Also, the number of allowed successive events is not typically easy for

87 These actions typically either trip the resources, cease energization of the resource, or reduce output of the resource.
88 Ride through events are simply events in which the voltage falls below a specified threshold programmed in the inverter.
89 Synchronous machines commonly use differential protection to detect faults within the generator and trips to lock out the machine. The

differential scheme only operates for faults within the generator and not for faults external to the generator. The same concept should
apply to inverter-based resources regarding internal and external faults.
90 See the disturbance report developed by the Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO). Available: HERE.

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 Chapter 4: Inverter-Based Resource Protection

manufacturers to define. The limit could be driven by complex factors that would be difficult to model or fall into
timeframes outside normal stability simulations. Programming a simple limit into the model may not reflect
reality. If this were to be explored, it could be added to the voltage ride-through model lhvrt that usually
accompanies the REGC/REEC models.

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Chapter 5: IEEE Std. 1547 and UL Std. 1741

This chapter provides a brief overview of UL Std. 1741 Standard for Inverters, Converters, Controllers and
Interconnection System Equipment for Use with Distributed Energy Resources and IEEE Std. 1547-2003 (and the
new IEEE Std. 1547-2018) Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems. It also
discusses the relationship between the two standards and considerations that should be made when
interconnecting inverter-based resources to the BPS related to these two standards.

Description of IEEE Std. 1547

IEEE Std. 1547-2018 “establishes criteria and requirements for interconnection of distributed energy resources
with electric power systems (EPS) and associated interfaces.”91 IEEE Std. 1547 defines and quantifies a set of
technical requirements for interconnection of DERs with the local EPS. The recently published IEEE Std. 1547-
201892 revisions to IEEE Std. 1547-2003 made substantial changes to the original standard requirements including
ride through, active power-frequency control, reactive power-voltage control, etc. These requirements in IEEE
Std. 1547-2018 are more aligned with requirements on the BPS
Key Takeaway:
in some aspects. The proposed revisions were approved by the
IEEE Std. 1547 is a standard relevant only
IEEE Standards Association on March 15, 2018, and were
to distribution connected resources, not
published and available as of April 6, 2018. Regardless, IEEE Std.
resources connected to the BPS. Inverter
1547 is a standard relevant only to distribution connected
manufacturers may need to meet the
resources, not resources connected to the BPS. Inverter
requirements of IEEE Std. 1547 for
manufacturers may need to meet the requirements of IEEE Std.
distribution connected resources, but
1547 for distribution connected resources, but BES resources will
BES resources will be subject to NERC
be subject to NERC Reliability Standards. Individual utilities or
Reliability Standards.
regions may also have facility connection requirements or
interconnection agreements that specify performance for certain
issues of interest.

TSPs who have LGIAs/SGIAs that contain language referencing any technical standards such as IEEE Std. 1547 should
fully understand the distinctions between technical requirements for distribution-connected resources and those
for BPS-connected resources. Entities should ensure there are no conflicting requirements between the referenced
standards and the NERC Reliability Standards to ensure alignment and minimize any potential reliability issues. Key
points in IEEE Std. 1547 that may not be appropriate for BPS interconnections include the following:
 Enter service and return to service after trip conditions
 Considerations for grounding and ground fault protection
 Cease to energize application at the distribution system
 Reactive power capability and controls for DER and BPS-connected facilities
 Area fault and open phase conditions between BPS and distribution protection systems.
 Use of “must trip” requirements for DER resources as compared with the “may trip” mentality of
NERC PRC-024-2.
 Unintentional and intentional islanding requirements and usage

91
IEEE Std 1547-2018, “Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Energy Resources with Associated Electric Power System Interfaces”,
April 6, 2018.
92 https://standards.ieee.org/findstds/standard/1547-2018.html

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 Chapter 5: IEEE Std. 1547 and UL Std. 1741

Description of UL Std. 1741

UL Std. 1741 sets requirements that “cover inverters, converters, charge controllers, and interconnection system
equipment (ISE) intended for use in stand-alone (not grid-connected) or utility-interactive (grid-connected) power
systems.” The requirements for utility-interactive equipment “are intended to supplement and be used in
conjunction with…IEEE 1547, and…IEEE 1547.1.” The requirements cover products “intended to be installed in
accordance with the National Electrical Code, NFPA 70.” The UL Std. 1741 Supplement A (SA) certifies inverters
and other utility-connected equipment “for grid support functions” that may be available in “advanced inverters.”
The UL Std. 1741 SA testing was designed to test grid-interactive functions that are required in, for example, State
of California Electric Tariff Rule 21 (“Rule 21”) made by the California Public Utility Commission (CPUC). “Rule 21
is a Source Requirement Document (SRD) to be used with the UL 1741 SA. SRDs set the specific parameter settings
to be used with the test methods of the UL 1741 SA. Other SRDs may also be used with the UL 1741 SA as other
markets look to build smart grid functionality into the modernization of their electrical power system.” 93

UL Std. 1741 Certification and IEEE Std. 1547

It was brought to the attention of NERC during the Blue Cut Fire analysis that many inverters connected to the
BPS are subject to the National Electric Code (NEC) since the majority of solar PV power plants are often not
constructed by local electric utilities (that are generally exempt from NEC by their state jurisdiction). There were
concerns that the NEC requires a UL listing and that the UL listing requires that the inverter be compliant with IEEE
Std. 1547. Subsequent to that initial finding, NERC coordinated with UL Std. 1741 and IEEE Std. 1547
representatives to further understand this relationship and determined the following.

The majority of solar development owners are not electric utilities and therefore are subject to the NEC. The NEC
requires that the inverters they install have UL 1741 certification. To obtain UL 1741 certification, an inverter must
pass one of the UL 1741 certification tests. These certification tests are based on distribution connection
requirements. Even though the inverter must pass
these distribution requirement based tests, it does not Key Takeaway:
preclude the inverter from being able to be configured, Inverter manufacturers have acquired UL 1741
via user settings, to a different configuration that would certification. This testing does not preclude the
meet BPS connection requirements. This could be done inverter from being tested and certified to
via different profiles selected in the inverter configurable settings that meet BES connection
configuration setup, such as country codes, or other requirements. As long as the inverter is configured
methods. As long as the inverter is configured appropriately for the application in which it is
appropriately for the application in which it is installed, installed, the UL 1741 certification requirement
the UL 1741 certification requirement should not be an should not be an issue. If an inverter manufacturer
issue. wishes to obtain a third party certification that their
inverter meets BES requirements (e.g., PRC-024-2),
NERC does not require a third-party certification, such they are free to supply PRC-024-2 as a SRD to
as UL, to assure the inverter can meet BES establish a UL PRC-024-2 certification test.
requirements. However, if an inverter manufacturer
wished to obtain a third party certification that their inverter meets BES requirements, such as PRC-024-2, they
are free to supply PRC-024-2 as a Source Requirements Document to establish a UL PRC-024-2 certification test.

93UL 1741-SA, “Supplement SA – Grid Support Utility Interactive Inverters and Converters”, 9/16/2016, p. 1.
Available: https://standardscatalog.ul.com/standards/en/standard_1741_2

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Chapter 6: Measurement Data and Performance Monitoring

Large power system disturbances, and the response of generating resources to these disturbances, include many
discrete events in rapid succession. Various measurement and monitoring technologies are used to capture the
performance of these resources. Sequence of events recording (SER) data provides information regarding what
occurred and when each action was taken. Digital fault recorder (DFR) and dynamic disturbance recorder (DDR)
data captures the dynamic response of the resource at the Point of Measurement (POM) and within the plant.
Other plant-level controller triggers and the plant Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) data are
valuable in understanding the longer-term trends in performance. This chapter describes the various types of
measurement technologies and data sources used for performance monitoring of inverter-based resources
connected to the BPS.

Measurement Technologies
A wide array of measurement technologies can be used to monitor the performance of inverter-based resources.
These data sources may include, but are not limited to the following:
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Data:
 Generally one to four second scan rate
 Can capture steady-state performance characteristics (e.g., active-power frequency droop, reactive-
power voltage droop) and static set point values
 Likely will miss any dynamic response such as momentary cessation
 Can be used to capture general tripping behavior
 Dynamic Disturbance Recorder (DDR) Data:
 Data resolution of 30–60 samples per second
 Time-synchronized positive sequence phasor94 data
 Useful for comparing dynamic response from multiple plants
 Useful for corroborating with other BPS events during a disturbance due to time synchronization
records voltage and current phasors (and therefore active and reactive power) at POM of inverter-
based resource
 Digital Fault Recorder (DFR) Data:
 High resolution (> 960 samples per second), point-on-wave (POW) three-phase measurement data
 Most effective measurement for capturing momentary cessation and fast dynamics from overall plant
 POW can be converted to sequence data for comparison with PMU data
 Sequence of Events Recording (SER) Data:
 Internal time resolution of sub-millisecond
 Synchronized to time reference, captures discrete changes in plant characteristics (control modes,
relay targets, alarms, tripping, etc.) and statuses

94This data is typically provided from a Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) or other device that has PMU capability. See:
IEEE Standard for Synchrophasor Measurements for Power Systems, IEEE Std. C37.118.1-2011. [Online]. Available:
https://standards.ieee.org/findstds/standard/C37.118.1-2011.html.

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 Chapter 6: Measurement Data and Performance Monitoring

 May be integrated into various devices within the inverter-based resource or in the plant-level
controller
 Typically memory-based storage of event logs that should be extracted on a periodic basis to avoid
data loss
 Individual Inverter Data:
 Very high resolution data within the inverter
 Inverter fault codes
 Triggered dynamic response files
 Change of operating mode
 Inverter control and feedback signals
 Typically proprietary data extracted from the inverter and supplied to equipment manufacturer

Figure 6.1 shows plant-level three-phase POW data capturing momentary cessation. From this data, one can
deduce that at least most of the inverters entered momentary cessation (reduction in current output to near zero)
and that there is a delay upon recovery from momentary cessation (not recommended). This can be observed in
the delayed recovery of current even though voltage has recovered. Figure 6.2 shows RMS data for another event
where a DFR captured momentary cessation. This data is useful in understanding how the inverter responds to a
BPS event in terms of active and reactive power output. It is clear that the inverter immediately provides reactive
current (reactive power) while delaying the recovery of active current (active power) (not recommended) followed
by a clear ramp rate response back to predisturbance output.

Figure 6.1: DFR POW Data Capturing Momentary Cessation Event

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 Chapter 6: Measurement Data and Performance Monitoring

Figure 6.2: DFR RMS Data Capturing Momentary Cessation Events

Measurement and Monitoring Data

Measurements are taken all throughout the inverter-based resource from the individual inverters all the way to
the POM and POI by using the technologies described above. The types of data, resolution of that data, and
retention of that data are provided in Table 6.1. This table is not intended to be all-inclusive; rather, it provides
an overview of the types of measurements.

Data Time Synchronization

All data within an inverter-based resource should be time synchronized to a common reference time (e.g.,
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)).95 This makes any analysis of plant behavior, including inverter actions and
dynamic response, more effective (and even possible in some situations). If the plant has a PMU (or PMU-capable
device) that is synchronized to GPS96 and using a GPS receiver, GPS clock, and time distribution (typically over IRIG-
B), then synchronization is fairly straightforward. The other measurement devices within the substation can also
be time synchronized to that common reference time that is then also referenced to the same time used by the
TSP, RC, and other entities. This ensures that the “plant time” is accurate and synchronized to UTC. Distribution
of this time to other components (e.g., the inverters) can be done using various methods. Network Time Protocol
(NTP)97 is one timing option supported by many devices, but this protocol is not typically able to meet 1 ms
accuracy for every time stamp. IEEE Std. 1588 Precision Time Protocol (PTP)98 can achieve a higher accuracy over
a network and may be a useful option moving forward. Regardless, timing within the plant should have as best an
accuracy and resolution as possible.

Data Retention
Data should be retained to support event analysis, improve plant performance, and possibly perform dynamic
model verification. Table 6.1 shows the recommended retention of the different types of data within an inverter-
based resource. GOs and GOPs should store any and all data available for a given disturbance if requested by the
TP, PC, TSP, RC, or BA. This event data should be saved per Table 6.1 so that it is available at a later time for
forensic analysis. This includes collecting all locally stored data as well as data streamed to a centralized location.

95 https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboututc.shtml
96 https://www.gps.gov/
97 https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/support/docs/availability/high-availability/19643-ntpm.html
98 https://www.nist.gov/el/intelligent-systems-division-73500/ieee-1588

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 Chapter 6: Measurement Data and Performance Monitoring

The requesting entities should develop procedures and processes for requesting this data effectively from the
GO/GOP. This process and expectations for data collection should be discussed between these entities ahead of
time.

Latching of Inverter Events

During BPS events, the magnitude of the disturbance, as seen at the terminals of each inverter, will vary within a
PV plant based on system impedance (transmission line, plant HV transformer, collection system impedance, and
LV transformer). Hence, inverter response may also vary slightly within a plant. Usually BPS disturbances are short-
lived (e.g., no more than a few electrical cycles) before system conditions return to a new steady state. Depending
on the data collection capability of plant data historians from the inverters, BPS events may or may not be
captured which makes it difficult to determine which inverters within a PV plant experienced the BPS event.

To address this issue, inverters should have a specific data tag defined for each type of BPS event (e.g., LVRT,
HVRT, FRT), and these tags should be part of the data transmitted to the plant data historian. During a BPS event,
these data tags should be latched high within the inverter and should remain high for at least three to five times
the data collection period, even after the BPS returns to nominal and allows for the plant data historian to capture
the events. Using the latching concept for tag information, the plant data historian will be able to store the
information, and the user can then identify which inverters experienced the BPS events.

Table 6.1: Recommended Measurement Data and Retention

Data Type Measurement/Data Points Resolution Retention

This data includes the settings, set points, and other static
information that should be captured about the plant. This
information should be captured at a resolution sufficient
to identify any changes (i.e., when settings are changed).
Data points include the following:
Plant Control Settings  Active power/frequency control mode of operation Static, as
One year
and Static Values changed
 Reactive power (current)/voltage mode of operation
 Individual inverter mode of operation (e.g., reactive,
voltage, or power factor)
 Digital control system gains, time constants, limiters,
etc.

The plant SCADA system is often a lower resolution

repository of information that should include, at a
minimum, the following data points:
 All breaker statuses
 Shunt (dynamic or static) reactive compensation One to two
Plant SCADA Data statuses One year
seconds
 Shunt (dynamic or static) reactive power output
 Substation transformer status
 Substation transformer tap position
 Time synchronization (e.g., GPS status word)

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 Chapter 6: Measurement Data and Performance Monitoring

Table 6.1: Recommended Measurement Data and Retention

Data Type Measurement/Data Points Resolution Retention

 Medium voltage collector system statuses

 Individual inverter statuses
 External control signals from the BA, RTO, RC, etc.
 External automatic generation control signals
 Active and reactive power commands sent to
individual inverters
 Active and reactive power output of individual
inverters
 Overall plant active and reactive power output
 Point of Measurement voltage and medium voltage
collector system voltages

SER devices should be sized to capture and store hundreds

or thousands of event records and logs. SER event records
can be triggered for many different reasons but include
the following at a high level:

Sequence of Events  Event date/time stamp (synchronized to common ≤ one

reference (e.g., Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)) 90 days
Recording (SER) Data millisecond
 Event type (status changes, synchronization status,
configuration change, etc.)
 Description of action
 Sequence number (for potential overwriting)

This data should be captured for at least the plant-level

(e.g., at the Point of Measurement) response to BPS
events. It is typically high resolution (kHz) point-on-wave
data and triggered based on configured settings. Data
points should include the following:
> 960
 Bus voltage phase quantities samples
Digital Fault
 Bus frequency (as measured/calculated by the per 90 days
Recording (DFR) Data
recording device) second,
triggered
 Current phase quantities
 Calculated active and reactive power output
 Dynamic reactive element voltage, frequency,
current, and power output

Dynamic Disturbance A DDR (e.g., a PMU or digital relay with this capability) > 30
One year
Recorder (DDR) Data should capture the plant-level response during normal and samples

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 Chapter 6: Measurement Data and Performance Monitoring

Table 6.1: Recommended Measurement Data and Retention

Data Type Measurement/Data Points Resolution Retention

disturbance events. This data should be captured per

continuously at the Point of Measurement and can be second,
used for multiple purposes including event analysis and continuous
disturbance-based model verification. Data points should
include the following:
 Bus voltage phasor (phase quantities and positive
sequence)
 Bus frequency
 Current phasor (phase quantities and positive
sequence)
 Calculated active and reactive power output

The individual inverters are highly complex pieces of

equipment with a vast amount of information continually
being calculated and stored within them. The data from
inverters is very high resolution. At a high level, for grid
BPS faults, the following information should be available
from the inverters for analysis by the GO:
 All major and minor fault codes
 All fault and alarm status words
 Change of operating mode
Inverter Fault Codes
and Dynamic  High and low voltage fault ride through Many kHz 90 days
Recordings  High and low frequency ride through
 Momentary cessation (if applicable)
 PLL loss of synchronism
 dc current and voltage
 ac phase currents and voltage
 Pulse width modulation index
 Control system command values, reference values,
and feedback signals

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Chapter 7: Other Topics for Consideration

Inverter-based technology continues to evolve, and the performance capabilities of these resources connected to
the BPS also continue to improve. There are other considerations and trends with inverter-based resources that
are described briefly in this chapter. These topics are covered to acknowledge the existing or growing importance
of inverter-based resources as their penetration continues to increase.

Controls Interactions and Controls Instability

Inter-plant coordination is increasingly important as the penetration of inverter-based resources continues to
grow. When multiple resources attempt to control the same location on the BPS (e.g., controlling voltage at the
same POM, or two or more POMs in close electrical proximity), their control systems need to be coordinated with
one another. If not, this could result in reactive power output imbalance, circular reactive power flows, controls
overshoot, voltage control hunting, or unstable oscillations. The inverter and plant-level controls (e.g., deadbands,
response times, control gains) can interact with each other unless properly coordinated. Figure 7.1 shows an
example of two inverter-based resource control systems interacting with each other; this interaction caused
abnormal oscillatory behavior from both resources. These examples exist throughout North America and are dealt
with during the interconnection study process, in the transmission planning horizon, and when they unknowingly
occur on the BPS.

Figure 7.1: Inverter-Based Resource Controls Interactions

Coordination issues should be evaluated in the interconnection process prior to connection of these resources to
the BPS. It is common for inverter-based resources to be connected very close to each other, often at the same
POM. For example, phases of wind or solar PV projects may connect to the same BPS bus or daisy-chain the
connections to each other. As each phase is added, controls should be evaluated and updated to ensure stable
operation. Control systems for a single plant connected at one location are different than control systems that
coordinate or share between resources. TPs and PCs should maintain up-to-date models and data on generator
control settings and ensure sufficient studies are performed during the planning process. Additionally, TPs and
PCs could work with entities in other areas to evaluate potential issues related to control interactions. Solutions
are often location-specific but, at a high level, some solutions that can be used to coordinate controls may include
the following:
 Use of reactive droop to share responsibility of reactive power output for changes in POM voltage
 Tuning of response times, deadbands, and controller gains to ensure stable dynamic response
 Additional features or control strategies for specific operating conditions or topologies
 Master-slave or other control systems for resources in very close electrical proximity

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 Chapter 7: Other Topics for Consideration

The changing nature of the electric grid and the growing complexity of control systems can also impact the
performance of inverter-based resources and should be studied regularly to ensure reliable operation of the BPS.
An example of these changes is the continued reduction of short circuit levels in areas of high penetration of
inverter-based resources. Figure 7.2 shows a wind instability event that occurred under low short circuit strength
conditions.99 An operating state not planned for (due to forced outage) caused two Type 4 wind power plants (300
MW total) to enter into negative damping oscillations near 3.5 Hz. The short circuit strength was significantly
reduced by the outage, and the instability was not associated with any fault or switching on the system at the
time the oscillation began. The instability was likely due to ramping of the wind power resource after the switching
action occurred earlier that day.

Figure 7.2: Wind Power Plant Controls Instability under Low Short Circuit Strength

99Refer to the NERC Reliability Guideline on Integrating Inverter-Based Resources into Low Short Circuit Strength Systems for more
information. Available: https://www.nerc.com/comm/PC_Reliability_Guidelines_DL/Item_4a._Integrating%20_Inverter-
Based_Resources_into_Low_Short_Circuit_Strength_Systems_-_2017-11-08-FINAL.pdf.

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 Chapter 7: Other Topics for Consideration

Dispatchability
Many inverter-based resources today are allowed to deliver energy to the BPS as environmental or facility
conditions warrant. Due to commonly applied economic drivers, these facilities generally do not receive dispatch
signals directly from TOPs or BAs. As the penetration of inverter-based resources increases, the ability of system
operators to increase or decrease active and reactive power output through direct control will become more
important for reliability issues occurring on the BPS. To maintain grid reliability and balance generation and load,
system operators will need direct observability and control for dispatching and scheduling these BPS-connected
resources.

The following plant operational data should be available to the TOP or BA either continuously or as requested:
 Plant MW output
 Plant MVAR output
 Plant POI/POM terminal voltage
 Reactive device status (e.g., LTC, shunts, dynamic reactive devices)
 Maximum available active and reactive power
 MW control set point with feedback
 Number/percentage of inverters producing power
 Number/percentage of inverters available
 Number/percentage of inverters experiencing localized curtailment (e.g., high speed cutout, low
temperature cutout, momentary cessation, high voltage, unit protection)
 Plant ramp rate settings and capability
 Environmental criteria that could impact energy production (e.g., wind speed, ambient temperature, solar
incidence)

Operation of inverter-based resources through automatic control systems external to plant controllers should also
be considered. Although de-energizing a facility through remote opening of a SCADA-controlled switching device
at the POI is generally available as a last resort, this is not always an optimal solution to many problems that may
arise on the BPS. This may also be detrimental to the operation of inverter-based resource facilities. Inverter-
based resources should be capable of receiving dispatch signals from the BA via SCADA control. The ability of a
system operator to curtail or return from curtailment in a controlled and expedited manner is beneficial to overall
BPS reliability. TSPs may consider revisions to their interconnection agreements to require dispatchability of
inverter-based resources.

Grid Forming Inverter Concept

An inverter used in renewable energy applications is almost always a voltage source inverter in that a dc voltage
(usually held by a capacitor) is converted to an ac voltage via switching of the IGBTs in the inverter. This is different
from a current source inverter, largely used in motor drive applications, where the dc side energy is held in an
inductor. However, traditional inverter control for renewable energy sources connected to the BPS transform the
voltage source inverter to a virtual current source (as seen by the power system) by means of strict control on the
current output. As a result of being a strict virtual current source, in order to inject current into the power system,
the inverter controls need to “know” the load level. Thus, most of the inverters connected to the BPS are
considered “grid following,” which implies that they rely on a strong grid for synchronizing their PLL and thus
follow the grid behavior by responding to the measured quantities. Often, this strong grid is considered an infinite
bus with high inertia and high short circuit strength. Some further classify these grid following devices as “grid

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 Chapter 7: Other Topics for Consideration

supportive,” which may be either a voltage or current source inverter that have control capabilities to support the
balances of grid voltage and frequency.

On the other hand “grid forming” inverters have unique characteristics that are particularly important for high
penetration inverter-based resource systems. These inverters control the voltage source converter as a voltage
source and can thus establish and control grid voltage and frequency independent of the status of the grid. The
current output from the inverter is then automatically determined by the grid until the current hits the inverter
maximum current limit. As in, rather than relying on the strong grid voltage to synchronize, they can form their
own synchronism with the grid and actually control the grid voltage and phase through their internal controls. At
a high level, the aim of a grid forming inverter is to replicate the behavior of the infinite bus network (i.e., maintain
constant voltage and frequency as long as it can without violating its current limits). These type of inverters are
capable of blackstart since they can generate their own voltage source, and they do not rely on a PLL to start
producing a sinusoidal voltage at their terminals. They may still have a PLL to keep track of inverter output and
use that information in their control systems; however, the PLL is not required for starting the inverter-based
resource.

A future BPS could consist of some grid forming inverters and many grid following inverters. One critical question
for future high penetration inverter-based resource systems is how the grid forming inverters synchronize with
each other. Grid forming inverters are able to start up on their own without support from the grid. Grid following
inverters track the grid that could be formed by the grid forming inverter (very similar to synchronous machine
theory). Under these very low short circuit strength conditions, special care may be needed to ensure stable
operation between the grid following inverters. Additional grid forming inverters may be added to the BPS,
however, they need to ensure that their output voltage magnitude and phase at the inverter are the same as the
grid-side of the inverter circuit breaker where it connects for proper synchronization. Grid forming inverters could
use a PLL to track the grid in grid supportive mode for a short time, synchronize, and then return to grid forming
mode once synchronized. Future work is needed in this area to develop operating plans.

Grid forming inverter technology enables blackstart capability from inverter-based resources. Dispatchable
inverter-based resources could be capable of operating as a blackstart resource, when utilizing inverters operating
in grid forming mode, since they are able to generate their own voltage waveform and are not reliant on the BPS
to synchronize. Blackstart service from BPS-connected inverter-based resources should be implemented in
coordination with the TOP, RC, BA, etc.

The implications and impacts these controls could have on synchronous machines also need to be more clearly
understood, particularly during the transition a conventional power system to a very high penetration inverter-
based power system. NERC will continue to coordinate with national laboratories, researchers, academia, and
registered entities testing these types of inverters (e.g., for microgrid applications and islanded systems) to expand
industry knowledge in this area.

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Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications

The following specifications are recommended for inverter-based resources and are a concise description of the
technical material presented throughout the guideline. The following sub-sections address the following:
 General requirements for inverter-based resources
 Momentary cessation mitigation and behavior
 Fault ride-through, and frequency and voltage protection philosophies
 Steady-state and dynamic active power-frequency control
 Steady-state and dynamic reactive power (current)-voltage control

A. General Requirements
A.1. The dynamic models used to represent inverter-based resources should accurately capture the small and
large disturbance aspects of the resource. Accurate models should be used in the interconnection study
process, per NERC Reliability Standard FAC-002-2, and model verification should be performed, per NERC
Reliability Standards MOD-026-1 and MOD-027-1. Accurate steady-state, dynamic, and short circuit models
should be provided to the Planning Coordinator, per NERC Reliability Standard MOD-032-1, based on the
data reporting requirements.
A.2. Inverter-based resources should be capable of receiving dispatch signals from the BA via SCADA control.
A.3. The following information should be available to the TOP or BA, either continuously or as needed:
 Plant MW output
 Plant MVAR output
 Plant POI/POM terminal voltage
 Reactive device status (LTC, shunts, dynamic reactive devices, etc.)
 Maximum available active and reactive power
 MW control set point with feedback
 Number/percentage of inverters producing power
 Number/percentage of inverters available
 Number/percentage of inverters experiencing localized curtailment (e.g., high speed cutout, low
temperature cutout, momentary cessation, high voltage, unit protection)
 Plant ramp rate settings and capability
 Environmental criteria that could impact energy production (e.g., wind speed, ambient temperature, solar
incidence)

1. Momentary Cessation
1.1. Momentary cessation should not be used within the voltage and frequency ride through curves specified
in PRC-024-2. Use of momentary cessation is not considered “ride through” within the “No Trip” zone of
these curves.

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 Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications

1.2. Exception: Use of momentary cessation may be needed under low short circuit strength conditions in rare
situations. Any use of momentary cessation should be studied during the interconnection process and
approved on a case-by-case basis by the TP and PC.
1.3. If the use of momentary cessation cannot be eliminated for some existing resources due to equipment
limitations, the GO should document and communicate this “to its PC and TP within 30 calendar days” as
an equipment limitation, per PRC-024-2 Requirement R3.
1.4. If the use of momentary cessation cannot be eliminated for some existing resources due to equipment
limitations, the following setting philosophies should be used:
1.4.1. The momentary cessation low voltage threshold should be reduced to the lowest value possible.
1.4.2. The momentary cessation high voltage threshold should be set no lower than the PRC-024-2
voltage ride-through curve levels.
1.4.3. The recovery delay (time between voltage recovery and start of current injection) should be set
to the shortest value possible (e.g., on the order of one–three electrical cycles).
1.4.4. The active power ramp rate upon return from momentary cessation should be increased to at
least 100 percent per second (e.g., return to predisturbance active current injection within one
second). *An exception to this is if the generation interconnection studies, or direction from the
Transmission Planner or Planning Coordinator, specify a slower ramp rate (i.e., low short circuit
strength areas).
1.4.5. Active current injection upon restoration from momentary cessation should not be impeded by a
plant-level controller or other outer-loop controls that could inhibit the inverter returning to
predisturbance active current injection.

2. Fault Ride-Through and Protection

2.1. The PRC-024-2 voltage and frequency ride-through curves specify a “No Trip Zone” for protection system
(and control system) settings. Outside of the “No Trip Zone” should not be interpreted as a “Must Trip
Zone.” Rather, it should be considered a “May Trip Zone.”
2.2. Inverter protective relaying or controls should only operate based on physical equipment limitations or
specifications. Protection functions should be set as wide as possible while ensuring equipment safety and
reliability.
2.3. Any tripping on calculated frequency should be based on an accurately calculated and filtered frequency
measurement over a time window (e.g., around six cycles) and should not use an instantaneously
calculated value.
2.4. Inverter overvoltage protection should be based on the performance specified in Figure A.1 and Table
A.1. Review the section on recommended overvoltage protection for more details.

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 Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications

Figure A.1: Recommended Overvoltage Ride-Through Curve

Table A.1: Recommended Overvoltage Ride-

Through Characteristic
Curve Section Voltage (pu) Time (sec)

Instantaneous Trip
≥ 2.000
Instantaneous Acceptable
Inverter
Terminal ≥ 1.700 0.0016
Voltage
≥ 1.400 0.003

≥ 1.200 0.0167
Fundamental
≥ 1.175 0.20
Frequency
RMS POI ≥ 1.150 0.50
Voltage
≥ 1.100 1.00

2.5. If the resource is subjected to successive faults in a period of time that necessitates tripping to protect
from the cumulative effects of those successive faults, the resource may trip to ensure safety and
equipment integrity.

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 Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications

2.6. Dc reverse current protection should be coordinated with the PV module ratings and set to operate for
short circuits on the dc side. Dc reverse current protection should not operate for transient overvoltages
or for ac-side faults.
2.7. Inverter-based resources connected to the BPS should not use rate-of-change-of-frequency (ROCOF)
protection, unless an equipment limitation exists that requires the inverter to trip on high ROCOF.
However, in most instances, ROCOF protection should not be used for BPS-connected resources.
2.8. Inverter phase lock loop (PLL) loss of synchronism should not cause the inverter to trip or enter
momentary cessation within the voltage and frequency ride-through curves of PRC-024-2. Inverters
should be capable of riding through temporary loss of synchronism, and regain synchronism, without
causing a trip or momentary cessation of the resource.
2.9. Any resource that trips off-line should reconnect to the BPS based on the reconnection requirements
specified by their BA. BAs should consider the current and future penetration of inverter-based resources,
and determine if automatic reconnection is acceptable to maintain reliable performance and generation-
load balance.

3. Active Power-Frequency Control

3.1. All inverter-based resources should include an operable, functioning governor or equivalent control
system that is responsive to changes in frequency while the resource is online (except, possible, during
startup or shut down). Resources should respond to frequency excursion events accordingly; however,
reserving generation headroom to provide response to underfrequency events is not required.
3.2. Frequency should be calculated over a period of time (e.g., three to six cycles), and filtered to take control
action on the fundamental frequency component of the calculated signal. Calculated frequency should
not be susceptible to spikes caused by phase jumps on the BPS. Frequency should be calculated over a
time window (e.g., three to six cycles), and filtered to take action on the fundamental frequency
component.
3.3. The active power-frequency control system, and overall response of the inverter-based resource (plant),
should meet the following performance aspects100 (see Figure A.2):
3.3.1. The active power-frequency control system should have an adjustable proportional droop101
characteristic with a default value of five percent. The droop response should include the
capability to respond in both the upward (underfrequency) and downward (overfrequency)
directions. Frequency droop should be based on the difference between maximum nameplate
active power output (Pmax) and zero output (Pmin) such that the five percent droop line is always
constant for a resource.
3.3.2. If the active power-frequency control system has a deadband, it should be a nonstep102
deadband103 that is adjustable between 0 Hz and the full frequency range of the droop
characteristic with a default value not to exceed ± 0.036 Hz.
3.3.3. Inverter-based resources may consider a small hysteresis characteristic where linear droop meets
any deadband to reduce dithering of inverter output when operating near the edges of the
deadband. The hysteresis range should not exceed ± 0.005 Hz on either side of the deadband. If
measurement resolution is not sufficient to measure this frequency, hysteresis should not be
used.

100 The curve for inverter-based battery energy storage systems may include the negative active power quadrant of this curve.
101 The droop should be a permanent value based on Pmax (maximum nominal active power output of the plant) and Pmin (typically 0 for an
inverter based resource). This keeps the proportional droop constant across the full range of operation.
102 Nonstep deadband is where the change in active power output starts from zero deviation on either side of the deadband.
103 Frequency deadband is the range of frequencies in which the unit does not change active power output.

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 Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications

Figure A.2: Recommended Active Power-Frequency Control Characteristic

3.4. The closed-loop dynamic response of the active power-frequency control system of the overall inverter-
based resources, as measured at the POM (or possibly the POI), should have the capability to meet or exceed
the performance specified in Table A.2. The Generator Owner should ensure that the models and
parameters for the generator and control equipment are consistent with those provided during the
interconnection study process and that any updates have been provided to the Transmission Planner and
Planning Coordinator, reflecting currently implemented settings and configuration.

Table A.2: Dynamic Active Power-Frequency Performance

Parameter Description Performance Target

For a step change in frequency at the POM of the inverter-based resource…

Time between the step change in frequency and the time

Reaction Time when the resource active power output begins < 500 ms
responding to the change104

Time in which the resource has reached 90% of the new

Rise Time < 4 sec
steady-state (target) active power output command

104
Time between step change in frequency and the time to 10 percent of new steady-state value can be used as a proxy for determining
this time.

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 Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications

Table A.2: Dynamic Active Power-Frequency Performance

Parameter Description Performance Target

For a step change in frequency at the POM of the inverter-based resource…

Time in which the resource has entered into, and remains

Settling Time within, the settling band of the new steady-state active < 10 seconds
power output command

Percentage of rated active power output that the

Overshoot < 5%**
resource can exceed while reaching the settling band

Percentage of rated active power output that the

Settling Band < 2.5%**
resource should settle to within the settling time
** Percentage based on final (expected) settling value

4. Reactive Power-Voltage Control

4.1. Inverter-based resources should operate in a closed-loop, automatic voltage control mode to maintain
voltage at the Point of Measurement to within the specified voltage schedule provided by the
Transmission Operator, per NERC Reliability Standard VAR-001-4.2. The following principles should be
adhered to, in coordination with the Transmission Planner, Planning Coordinator, and Transmission
Operator.
4.1.1. A single plant connected to a bus should operate in voltage control that ensures no steady-state
error between nominal value and steady-state output (e.g., a PI controller). In some cases,
reactive droop may be required for more stable operation.
4.1.2. Multiple plants connected to the same bus may require reactive droop (a set point value at off-
nominal reactive current based on the given voltage deviation from nominal operating voltage).
Reactive droop should be based on the scheduled voltage set point and the high and low schedule
limits such that the entire capability of the resource from full leading to full lagging reactive power
output should be utilized across the range of acceptable voltages.
4.2. Inverter-based resources should utilize the dynamic reactive capability from the inverters to the greatest
possible extent within the specified power factor requirements. Newly interconnecting resources, per
FERC Order No. 827, will meet power factor requirements at the point of measurement (POM) of 0.95
leading to 0.95 lagging.
4.3. FERC Order No. 827 requires a triangle-shaped reactive capability with proportional reduction in reactive
capability at lower active power output. However, reactive capability outside the triangular-shaped
requirement yet within the reactive capability of the plant, should be utilized to the greatest possible
extent. Inverters should not have artificial settings imposed to limit reactive power output to the
triangular boundary (other than the maximum power operating point, and other plant-level limits, or
voltage limits at the terminals of the inverter) when the capability can be utilized with no reduction of
active power.
4.4. Inverter-based resources should have a continuously acting automatic control system that stably controls
reactive power and reactive current injection across all expected operating conditions for the resource.
The steady-state and dynamic performance of the resource should be studied during the interconnection
process leading up to commissioning and energization. Control settings should be agreed upon between
the Generator Owner and the Transmission Service Provider (TSP).

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 Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications

4.5. Overall plant small disturbance105 reactive power-voltage control should meet the following performance
characteristics:
4.5.1. Inverter-based resources should operate in closed loop automatic voltage control at all times to
support BPS voltage schedules, postcontingency voltage recovery,106 and voltage stability. Either
the individual inverters or the plant-level closed loop automatic voltage controller should operate
with a relatively fast response characteristic to mitigate steady-state voltage issues from causing
dynamic voltage collapse. The plant-level controller may send voltage or reactive power set point
changes to the individual inverters relatively fast, or the inverters will respond locally (depending
on control architecture).
4.5.1.1. If this capability is not possible for existing inverter-based resources, then the response time
of these resources should be relatively fast (at least in the two to four second range) to
accommodate the lack of automatic voltage control at the inverter level.
4.5.2. Reactive power-voltage controls should be tuned based on system impact studies performed
during the interconnection process, as described in NERC Reliability Standard FAC-002-2.
4.5.2.1. The controls should have the capability to be adjustable and tunable in the field based on
reliability studies.
4.5.3. Inverter-based resources should have the capability to meet or exceed the performance
characteristics shown in Table A.3. These characteristics are specified for the response of reactive
power of the overall closed-loop response of the inverter-based resource (plant).

Table A.3: Dynamic Reactive Power-Voltage Performance

Parameter Description Performance Target

For a step change in voltage at the POM of the inverter-based resource…

Time between the step change in voltage and when the resource
Reaction Time < 500 ms*
reactive power output begins responding to the change107

Time between a step change in control signal input (reference voltage

Rise Time or POM voltage) and when the reactive power output changes by < 2–30 sec**
90% of its final value

Percentage of rated reactive power output that the resource can

Overshoot < 5%***
exceed while reaching the settling band
* Reactive power response to change in POM voltage should occur with no intentional time delay.
** Depends on whether local inverter terminal voltage control is enables, any local requirements, and system strength (higher
short circuit ration allows for faster response). Response time may need to be modified based on studied system characteristics.
*** Any overshoot in reactive power response should not cause BPS voltages to exceed acceptable voltage limits.

4.6. Overall plant large disturbance108 reactive current-voltage control should meet the following performance
characteristics:

105 Where voltage remains within the continuous operating range and the plant-level controller maintains reactive power/voltage control
106 The small disturbance response characteristic may apply for periods after a larger disturbance has occurred once voltage has recovered
to within the normal operating range, depending on how the inverter and plant-level controls are coordinated.
107 Time between the step change in voltage and reaching 10 percent of new steady-state value can be used as a proxy for determining this

time.
108 Where voltage falls outside the continuous operating range.

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 Appendix A: Recommended Performance Specifications

4.6.1. The reactive current-voltage control should be stable over all expected operating conditions. The
dynamic performance of each resource should be tuned to provide this stable response. Reactive
current-voltage controls should be tuned based on system impact studies performed during the
interconnection process, as described in NERC Reliability Standard FAC-002-2.
4.6.1.1. The controls should have the capability to be adjustable and tunable in the field based on
reliability studies.
4.6.2. Inverters should be designed to have the capability to meet the performance specifications shown
in Table A.4. Inverter-based resources should be installed with similar performance
characteristics as a default value. However, more detailed studies (during the interconnection
process or during Planning Assessments by the Transmission Planner or Planning Coordinator)
may demonstrate the need for modifications to these settings to ensure stable response of the
BPS.
4.6.3. Inverter response to fault events on the BPS should use the following principles:
4.6.3.1. During fault inception, priority should be given to delivering as much current to the system as
quickly as possible to support protective relay operation to clear the fault.109
4.6.3.2. For the remaining on-fault period after the first couple cycles up to fault clearing (regardless
of fault duration), priority should be given to accurately detecting the type of current needed
based on terminal conditions and providing a combination of active and reactive current as
necessary.
4.6.3.3. During postfault clearing, inverters should accurately detect the type of current needed based
on terminal conditions and respond accordingly to provide a combination of active and
reactive current injection. The transition from inverter control back to plant-level controls (if
applicable) once voltage returns within the continuous operation range should not hinder or
affect the ability to meet the performance specifications described in this guideline for the
overall response of the resource.
4.6.3.4. Inverter reactive current injection should not exacerbate transient overvoltage conditions on
the BPS.
4.6.4. Inverters should be capable (and configurable) of providing negative sequence current. Zero
sequence current is not required to be produced by inverter-based resources.

Table A.4: Dynamic Reactive Current-Voltage Performance

Parameter Description Performance Target

For a large disturbance step change in voltage, measured at the inverter terminals, where voltage falls outside
the continuous operating range, the positive sequence component of the inverter reactive current response
should meet the following performance specifications…

Time between the step change in voltage and when the resource
Reaction Time < 16 ms*
reactive power output begins responding to the change110

109 The exception to this statement is in weak grid conditions, where system studies may identify potential issues with fast injection of fault
current (particularly when current injection accuracy may be compromised). In these cases, the GO, PC, TP, and inverter manufacturer
should work together to identify a control strategy that addresses these conditions adequately. Focus should be on providing as much fault
current as possible while still ensuring a stable response of the plant in all timeframes.
110 Time between the step change in voltage and reaching 10 percent of new steady-state value can be used as a proxy for determining this

time.

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Table A.4: Dynamic Reactive Current-Voltage Performance

Parameter Description Performance Target

Time between a step change in control signal input (reference

Rise Time voltage or POM voltage) and when the reactive power output < 100 ms**
changes by 90 percent of its final value

Percentage of rated reactive current output that the resource can As Determined by
Overshoot
exceed while reaching the settling band the TP/PC***
* For very low voltages (e.g., less than around 0.2 pu), the inverter PLL may lose its lock and be unable to track the voltage
waveform. In this case, rather than trip or inject a large unknown amount of active and reactive current, the output current of
the inverter(s) may be limited or reduced to avoid or mitigate any potentially unstable conditions.
** Varying grid conditions (i.e., grid strength) should be considered and behavior should be stable for the range of plausible
driving point impedances. Stable behavior and response should be prioritized over speed of response.
*** Any overshoot in reactive power response should not cause BPS voltages to exceed acceptable voltage limits. The magnitude
of the dynamic response may be requested to be reduced by the TP or PC based on stability studies.

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Appendix B: List of Acronyms

Table B.1: List of Acronyms

Acronym Term

A/D Analog-Digital

ac Alternating Current

ACE Area Control Error

AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator

BA Balancing Authority

BES Bulk Electric System

BESS Battery Energy Storage System

BIL Basic Impulse Level

BPS Bulk Power System

CAISO California Independent System Operator

dc Direct Current

DDR Dynamic Disturbance Recorder

DER Distributed Energy Resource

DFR Digital Fault Recorder

EHV Extra High Voltage

EMT Electromagnetic Transient

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

EPS Electric Power System

ERCOT Electric Reliability Council of Texas

ERS Essential Reliability Service

ERO Electric Reliability Organization

FACTS Flexible ac Transmission System

FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

FRT Fault Ride-Through

GO Generator Owner

GOP Generator Operator

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 Appendix B: List of Acronyms

Table B.1: List of Acronyms

Acronym Term

GPS Global Positioning System

GSU Generator Step Up

HFRT High Frequency Ride-Through

HV High Voltage

HVDC High Voltage Direct Current

HVRT High Voltage Ride-Through

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IEEE PSRC IEEE Power System Relaying Committee

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IP Intellectual Property

ISO Independent System Operator

LADWP Los Angeles Department of Water and Power

LCC Line Commutated Converter

LF Loop filter

LFRT Low Frequency Ride-Through

LGIA Large Generator Interconnection Agreement

LV Low Voltage

LVRT Low Voltage Ride-Through

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

MW Megawatt

MV Medium Voltage

MVA Megavolt-ampere

MVAR Megavolt-ampere (reactive)

NEC National Electric Code

NERC North American Electric Reliability Corporation

NERC ERSWG NERC Essential Reliability Services Working Group

NERC IRPTF NERC Inverter-Based Resource Performance Task Force

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 Appendix B: List of Acronyms

Table B.1: List of Acronyms

Acronym Term

NOPR Notice of Proposed Rulemaking

NTP Network Time Protocol

OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer

PC Planning Coordinator

PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control

PLL Phase Lock Loop

PMU Phasor Measurement Unit

POC DER Point of Connection

POI Point of Interconnection

POM Point of Measurement

POW Point-on-Wave

PTP Precision Time Protocol

PU Per-Unit

PV Photovoltaic

RC Reliability Coordinator

RE Regional Entity

RMS Root-Mean-Square

ROCOF Rate-of-Change-of-Frequency

RTO Regional Transmission Organization

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SCE Southern California Edison

SER Sequence of Events Recording (Recorder)

SGIA Small Generator Interconnection Agreement

SRD Source Requirements Document

STATCOM Static Compensator

SVC Static Var Compensator

TO Transmission Owner

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 Appendix B: List of Acronyms

Table B.1: List of Acronyms

Acronym Term

TOP Transmission Operator

TP Transmission Planner

TSP Transmission Service Provider

UFLS Underfrequency Load Shedding

UPS Universal Power Supply

UTC Coordinated Universal Time

VSC Voltage Source Converter

WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council

WPP Wind Power Plant

WTG Wind Turbine Generator

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Appendix C: IEEE Standard 1547-2018 Terminology

This section provides some of the definitions in IEEE Std. 1547–2018, particularly those related to the performance
specifications discussed in this guideline. These definitions are provided here for reference only, and they only
apply to IEEE Std. 1547-2018. They should not be applied to BPS-connected resources described in this guideline.
 Cease to Energize: Cessation of active power delivery under steady state and transient conditions and
limitation of reactive power exchange.111
 Continuous Operation: Exchange of current between the DER and an EPS within prescribed behavior
while connected to the Area EPS and while the applicable voltage and the system frequency is within
specified parameters.
 Energize: Active power outflow of DER to an EPS under any conditions (e.g., steady state and transient).
 Mandatory Operation: Required continuance of active current and reactive current exchange of DER with
Area EPS as prescribed, notwithstanding disturbances of the Area EPS voltage or frequency having
magnitude and duration severity within defined limits.
 Momentary Cessation: Temporarily cease to energize an EPS, while connected to the Area EPS, in
response to a disturbance of the applicable voltages or the system frequency, with the capability of
immediate Restore Output of operation when the applicable voltages and the system frequency return to
within defined ranges.
 Operating Mode: Mode of DER operation that determines the performance during normal or abnormal
conditions.
 Performance operating region: An area bounded by pair points consisting of magnitude (voltage or
frequency) and duration which define the operational performance requirements of the DER.
 Permissive Operation: Option for the DER to either continue to exchange current with or to cease to
energize an EPS, while connected to the Area EPS, in response to a disturbance of the applicable voltage
or the system frequency.
 Point of common coupling (PCC): The point where a Local EPS is connected to an Area EPS.
 Point of Distributed Energy Resources Connection (Point of DER Connection–PoC): The point where a
DER unit is electrically connected in a Local EPS and meets the requirements of this standard exclusive of
any load present in the respective part of the Local EPS.112
 Postdisturbance Period: The period starting upon the return of all applicable voltages or the system
frequency to the respective ranges of the mandatory operation region or continuous operation region.
 Restore Output: Return operation of the DER to the state prior to the abnormal excursion of voltage or
frequency that resulted in a ride-through operation of the DER.
 Return to Service: Enter service following recovery from a trip.
 Ride-Through: Ability to withstand voltage or frequency disturbances inside defined limits and to continue
operating as specified.
 Trip: Inhibition of immediate return to service, which may involve disconnection.113

111 This may lead to momentary cessation or trip. This does not necessarily imply nor exclude disconnection, isolation, or a trip. Limited
reactive power exchange may continue as specified (e.g., through filter banks). Energy storage systems are allowed to continue charging.
112 For (a) DER unit(s) that are not self-sufficient to meet the requirements without (a) supplemental DER device(s), the point of DER

connection is the point where the requirements of this standard are met by DER (a) device(s) in conjunction with (a) supplemental DER
device(s) exclusive of any load present in the respective part of the Local EPS.
113 Trip executes or is subsequent to cessation of energization.

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Appendix D: Methods for Deriving Grid Frequency

Inverters calculate grid frequency by measuring it through the electrical quantities observed at their terminals (or
plant POM for a plant-level controller). There are various ways an inverter-based resource may calculate
frequency, and there are no standardized approaches to the calculation methods. However, each method should
be robust to large phase jumps and should not result in erroneous tripping of inverter-based resources. Some of
the methods employed by inverter-based resources are described here.

Frequency Measurement Fundamentals

Frequency is fundamentally the number of complete cycles of a periodic signal over a specified period of time.
Periodic signals, by definition, occur only in steady state and therefore frequency is a steady-state measurement.
Frequency is most effectively calculated as the rate of change of rotor angular position, or angular velocity, of a
synchronous machine. However, once we consider frequency derived from an electrical quantity such as voltage
or current, the link to physical equipment no longer holds. Power system measurements are constantly fluctuating
due to small load perturbations, generator rotors oscillating, etc. System voltage and current phase quantities are
therefore continuously changing, and their waveforms are not periodic. Further, discrete changes in the system,
such as switching events, make calculating frequency more difficult. Strictly speaking, frequency should not be
calculated during switching events since the period or frequency cannot be measured.114

There currently is not a common definition of dynamic frequency nor a standardized means of calculating
frequency during dynamic events. Each measurement method is able to calculate and define frequency. While
different methods may derive very similar frequency measurements during steady-state and during slow changes
to electrical quantities, large fluctuations in input signals may yield drastically different results based on
measurement technique.

Historically, inverters needed to respond very quickly in order to meet the IEEE 1547-2003 fast “must trip”
requirements of 0.16 seconds. Frequency ride through was not a consideration at that time and so instantaneous
tripping was allowed. At that time, the prevailing philosophy for DERs was to trip as quickly as possible during
abnormal grid conditions, including off-nominal frequencies. Therefore, a method for quickly determining
frequency was desired. However, recent BPS disturbances, such as the Blue Cut Fire disturbance, have proved that
accurately measuring, filtering, and calculating grid frequency are essential to reliable inverter behavior. In
addition, inverters should be robust to anomalous frequency measurements calculated during grid transient
events such as faults.

Methods for Deriving Grid Frequency

Various methods are used by microprocessor-based protective relays, frequency recorders, phasor measurement
units (PMUs), and inverters to calculate grid frequency using input electric quantities. Microprocessor-based
devices have demonstrated excellent reliability and performance in detecting off-nominal frequency conditions.
Further, false operation of these relays, especially for voltage transient conditions due to the occurrence and
clearing of high voltage transmission faults, is extremely rare. These devices provide high accuracy measurements
around nominal frequency (can use internal device processes such as waveform sampling), are relatively
insensitive to switching events on the BPS (ensure a periodic input signal), and balance sufficient filtering with
necessary speed of calculation over a time window. Inverter-based resources that calculate frequency internally
are expected to have these same attributes as conventional microprocessor-based devices.

114B. Kasztenny, “A new method for fast frequency measurement for protection applications,” Schweitzer Engineering Laboratory,
Pullman, WA, Accessed 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://static.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/6734_NewMethod_BK_20151112_Web.pdf?v=20160310-
154646.

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 Appendix D: Methods for Deriving Grid Frequency

Phase Lock Loop

A PLL is a control loop used in inverter control systems to track the phase angle of the grid.115 Successful tracking
of phase angle results not only in a successful synchronization of the inverter with the grid but also allows the
inverter control system to adequately decide the necessary angle required for its terminal voltage in order to
inject current into the network. Operation of the PLL closed loop can be related to the natural interaction that
occurs between the rotor angle of a synchronous machine and its terminal voltage angle.

While there are many different ways a PLL may be implemented, a typical implementation is based on the dq
frame transformation.116 This transformation takes the three phase ABC reference frame quantities (i.e., phase
voltages) and converts the values into a dq frame rotating at synchronous speed such that the fundamental
frequency quantity of the ABC frame becomes a constant “dc value” in the dq frame. A simple block diagram of
such a PLL117 is as shown in Figure D.1.

Figure D.1: Basic Synchronous Reference Frame PLL

The loop filter (LF) block is traditionally a PI controller with the aim to drive the q component of the dq transformed
voltage to zero. By doing so, the value of the d component becomes equal to the magnitude of the complex
number Vd+jVq while the value of θ becomes the angle of the input ABC frame quantities.

Frequency, f, and angle, θ, become outputs of the PLL. As mentioned, the primary goal of the PLL is to track the
grid angle under varying conditions of voltage magnitude and phase jumps (associated with BPS events like faults
and line-switching events). In tracking phase, the frequency output of the PLL can have large spikes in order to
produce the required quick change in phase angle θ. Consider Figure D.2, which illustrates the behavior of a digital
PLL (no external inverter control loops or network modeled) for a voltage dip to 0.5 pu for a duration of around 6
cycles. The change in voltage magnitude and phase was applied uniformly to all three phases, but only a single
phase is shown for simplicity. A phase jump of -60 degree occurs at the initiation of the voltage dip while a phase
jump of 170 degree occurs at the clearance of the dip. Frequency of the three ABC phase voltages remains
unchanged. This scenario is a conservative representative of a fault on a long EHV transmission circuit relatively
nearby the measurement location, followed by outage of the circuit upon clearance of the fault.

115 P. M. Anderson and A. A. Fouad, “Power System Control and Stability,” IEEE Press, 2003.
116
R.H. Park, “Two Reaction Theory of Synchronous Machines,” AIEE Transactions, vol. 48, no. 3, July 1929.
117 This simple illustration of a PLL provides an example of PLL functionality while, in practice, manufacturers may use advanced loop filters

and signal conditioning on input and output signals to further improve PLL performance.

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 Appendix D: Methods for Deriving Grid Frequency

Figure D.2: PLL Performance for Second Scenario

The PLL has good performance as it is able to track the angle of the input voltage wave within a couple of cycles.
However, in order to do so, the control loop of the PLL must cause a large change in the numerical value of
frequency. As the performance goal of the PLL is to track the input voltage angle, the spikes in the PLL frequency
are of relatively less significance to the inverter control loop. However, if this same frequency signal has to be
used as an input to frequency protection settings, care must be taken to adequately filter out the large sub-cycle
jumps in frequency. Additionally, if the input voltage wave is not balanced, a positive-negative sequence
decomposition is carried out and then the positive sequence portion is typically used as an input to the PLL loop.

Zero Crossing
Zero crossing was used by early generation inverter technology and provides a relatively crude method for
calculating frequency, particularly under transient conditions. It is prone to miscalculations under heavy harmonic
distortion and for large phase jumps caused by switching events or faults. These errors should be filtered out,
rather than averaged, to avoid erroneous frequency calculations. Validated frequency measurements are then
filtered to improve accuracy, and measurements are reported as zero crossings are detected. This makes
frequency calculations during transient events highly nonlinear. Many of the heuristic methods employed to
improve accuracy and quality are proprietary, making the results inconsistent across manufacturers. For these
reasons, zero crossing methods are not recommended and typically not used by modern inverter technology.

The zero crossing method uses one or more of the voltage phases sampled by an A/D converter. Voltage signals
are scaled, isolated (if needed) and low pass filtered for anti-aliasing prior to input to the A/D converter. A typical
sample rate might be 15 kilohertz. As the waveform is being captured, additional digital low pass filtering may be
applied. The intent of low pass filtering prior to performing the comparison for zero crossing is to minimize the
chance of noise or surges on the line from impacting the determination of a zero crossing.

If the first sample is negative then a positive going zero crossing is searched for first, otherwise a negative going
zero crossing is searched for first. Searching for a positive going zero crossing, one looks for the voltage sample
that meets the following condition:

vi >= 0 AND vi-1 < 0

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 Appendix D: Methods for Deriving Grid Frequency

When this condition is true; a zero crossing has been detected, then the time of the zero crossing is stored as say
t0. A convenient time clock in a microprocessor is a 32bit program counter, PC, which increments with each clock
cycle. A convenient clock rate for such a microprocessor might be 10 MHz (fCLK), meaning that PC increments every
tCLK = 0.1 microseconds. Checking for further zero crossings is then inhibited for a period of time so that waveforms
with high frequency noise near the zero crossing do not generate multiple detections. This inhibit time would
typically be ¼ of a nominal grid cycle. Once the inhibit period is over, searching for a negative zero crossing
commences looking for the next voltage sample to meet the following condition:

vi <= 0 AND vi-1 > 0

When this condition is met, the time of the negative zero crossing is stored as time t1, reading time from the PC.
Inhibit time is applied again, then the search for the next positive zero crossing is done, yielding time t2.

It is preferred to estimate frequency using integer multiples, N, of one full cycle. The frequency estimate may be
updated every ½ cycle. Frequency is then computed as follows:

frequency = N * fCLK / ( tj – tj-2N )

where
j is the index of the most recent zero crossing time
N is the number of grid cycles over which to measure frequency

There is no firm standard for how zero crossing detection is performed. The calculation techniques are up to the
manufacturer to derive, and the manufacturers test their approach to verify proper performance. Therefore,
standardized testing of frequency calculations from inverters is essential.

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Appendix E: Other Power Electronic Resources on the BPS

This appendix provides useful reference material for the performance characteristics of other power electronic-
based elements connected to the BPS, namely BESS, STATCOMs, SVCs, and HVDC technology. This material is
based on discussions between NERC and multiple equipment manufacturers. The performance aspects described
here are intended to provide illustrative comparisons, not detailed equipment specifications.

Battery Energy Storage Systems

BESS controls are similar to those of other inverter-based resources (with a few differences), particularly solar PV
inverters, as presented throughout this guideline. BESS controls include current regulation loops, PLLs, dc bus
voltage regulation loops, battery charge and discharge control loops, active power-frequency and reactive power-
voltage controls, plant-level controls, etc. Performance specifications recommended in Appendix A, for inverter-
based resources, are also recommended to be used for BESS plants.

Compared to inverter-based generating resources such as solar PV and wind turbines, BESS can operate in both
load and generation modes when connected to the BPS. Therefore, the power capability curve for BESS is a four-
quadrant curve similar to the one that is shown in Figure E.1. A BESS might have different maximum charge active
power and maximum discharge active power limits, and its reactive power capability might not be the same when
operating in load or generation modes. Current injection from BESS during large signal disturbances is
recommended to follow the behavior as presented in Chapters 2 and 3, regardless of the BESS being in load or
generation mode. It is recommended for BESS resources to provide dynamic reactive power support within their
capability curve. It is not recommended to artificially limit reactive power output capability of the resource to the
triangular or rectangular area boundaries, within the capability of the inverters or other plant-level limits as shown
in Figure E.1. If the inverter-based resource can provide more reactive current within its limitations to maintain
scheduled voltage pre- or post-contingency, the inverter and plant-level controls should be programmed to do so.

Figure E.1: BESS Inverter Capability Curve

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 Appendix E: Other Power Electronic Resources on the BPS

Momentary Cessation used in FACTS Devices and HVDC

Momentary cessation (commonly referred to as “blocking” by these technologies) is used in BPS-connected FACTS
devices and HVDC circuits. Blocking is initiated at low voltage; however, unlike inverter-based generating
resources (e.g., solar PV and WTGs), there is no active power source in these devices to sustain current injection
at zero voltage. They are purely reactive devices and have some key distinctions from inverters used in generating
facilities. Often, these resources are used to maintain system stability upon fault clearing (e.g., transient voltage
recovery) or during continuous steady-state operation. The controls and protection (including blocking) are set to
avoid spurious tripping of these devices in conditions where they are designed to operate to ensure system
stability and reliability. In some cases, the consequences of erroneous tripping could result in unreliable operation
of the BPS and potential instability. Some considerations for SVCs and STATCOMS include the following:
 SVCs are a line-commutated (thyristor-based) technology, directly dependent on synchronization to the
ac bus voltage. For this reason, the PLL must remain locked on the ac voltage to avoid commutation failure.
Typically, SVC thyristor branches are blocked below low voltages around 0.3 pu of the nominal ac bus
voltage. The reason is to ensure that the SVC remains online and is able to “de-block” very quickly
following fault clearance to provide dynamic reactive support in the postfault period as voltages recover.
 STATCOMs behave in a similar way to other inverter-based technologies. STATCOMs use voltage-source
converters with IGBTs or other types of semiconductors with “turn off” switching capability (similar to
inverter-based generation). A STATCOM operates by inverting its internal dc voltage to an ac phasor at its
terminals in order to either inject or absorb reactive power from the grid and control terminal ac bus
voltage. It keeps synchronism with the grid using a PLL, similar to other inverter-based resources. During
severe voltage dips or phase jumps, the PLL may lose synchronism, which may lead to the STATCOM dc-
link being either drained or charged. This is not desired, from the equipment perspective, since it can lead
to dc undervoltage or overcharging depending on the direction of active power flow. For this reason,
STATCOMs are designed to block at very low voltages around 0.2 to 0.3 pu.
 Line commutated converter (LCC) HVDC may use both blocking or bypassing of the thyristor valves at low
voltage to protect the valves and avoid thyristor misfiring when synchronization is lost. To ensure grid
stability and proper control of the dc circuit, LCC HVDC uses voltage-dependent current order limits
(VDCOL) to deliberately reduce the power transfer (current order) during ac faults. These are necessary
functions for stable operation of an LCC HVDC system and should be properly designed and tuned for each
installation.118 Also, ac faults on the inverter end may result in temporary commutation failure. This may
appear as “momentary cessation,” but this is a well-understood behavior of LCC HVDC that needs to be
properly accounted for in planning, design, and control of such systems (and modeled accordingly). For
voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC, blocking is used to protect the dc bus voltage to avoid tripping the
entire circuit, to maintain current control, and to not adversely impact the other end of the dc circuit.

Table E.1 shows common momentary cessation (or “blocking”) characteristics used by these resources. These
values are provided as an illustrative reference.

118 This is outside the scope of this guideline. More information can be found in Power System Control and Stability, by P. Kundur, 1994.

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 Appendix E: Other Power Electronic Resources on the BPS

Table E.1: Momentary Cessation Characteristics for FACTS and HVDC

Parameter Performance Characteristic

FACTS Momentary Cessation (Blocking) Voltage Threshold 0.2-0.3 pu of nominal

LCC HVDC Inverter-Side Blocking Voltage Threshold 0.8-0.9 pu of nominal

Delay in Recovery Upon Voltage Restoration 1-2 cycles (16-33 ms)

Reactive Current Response Time < 2 cycles (33 ms)

Time to Restoration of Pre-Disturbance Active Current (HVDC) < 250 ms*

* The rate of recovery may be tuned, or slowed, in some systems based on interconnection studies or planning
studies.

Dynamic Performance Characteristics of STATCOMs and SVCs

Typical dynamic performance characteristics for STATCOMs and SVCs during small signal disturbances (relatively
small voltage fluctuations) are shown in Table E.2.119 Response times depend on voltage regulator gain in relation
to system fault level and short circuit ratio, which is often set for each specific installation based on system studies.
The values also assume coordinated conditions between short circuit ratio and gain settings.

Table E.2: Dynamic Performance Characteristics for STATCOMs and SVCs

Parameter Description Performance Target*

For a step change in voltage at the terminals of the FACTS device…

Time between the step change in voltage and the time < 1 cycle
Delay Time when the resource reactive power output begins
responding to the change120 (< 16.66 ms)

Time in which the resource has reached 90 percent of the < 2-3 cycles
Rise Time
new steady-state reactive power output command (<33-50 ms)

Time in which the resource has entered into, and remains < 10 cycles
Settling Time within, the settling band of the new steady-state reactive
power output command (< 166 ms)

Percentage of rated reactive power output that the

Overshoot < 5-10%
resource can exceed while reaching the settling band

Percentage of rated reactive power output that the

Settling Band < 5%
resource should settle to within the settling time
* The performance for each installation will be tuned to meet the local grid needs, and needs of the specific
application. These are provided for reference with other inverter-based generation specifications.

119 Response may be expressed in terms of voltage response rather than reactive power in some cases. However, the values in the table
should be similar.
120 Time between the step change in voltage and the time to 10 percent of new steady-state value can be used as a proxy for determining

this time.

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 Appendix E: Other Power Electronic Resources on the BPS

SVCs and STATCOMs are able to design their control systems to minimize transient voltage overshoot following
fault clearing. Relative to SVCs, STATCOMs are inherently more lenient in this respect in that a STATCOM has a
finite internal voltage source, which is beneficial during postfault voltage recovery. Capacitor-based devices
produce reactive power proportional to the square of the voltage, so these types of devices have more
susceptibility to transient overvoltage unless they can be swiftly removed (not likely in the sub-cycle transient
time period). In SVCs, there are control mechanisms that attempt to cater to this, and the protection is
coordinated to avoid spurious tripping during transient overvoltages. Coordinated control for avoiding transient
overvoltages is essential for many BPS-connected FACTS applications.

The issue of “weak grid” conditions (i.e., low short circuit strength areas of the system) is particularly a problem
for line-commutated equipment and less of a problem for self-commutated equipment. Specialized studies are
often performed to establish control system designs that function properly in these conditions. These controls
may include regulator gain limitations or adaptive gain scheduling that reduces the gain of the controls as the
system condition weakens. The effective short circuit ratio is specifically reviewed for each application, and the
device configurations are adapted accordingly. In addition, focus is given to more robust PLL controls since phase
shifts are particularly amplified in “weak grid” conditions. Regarding areas of low short circuit current contribution
(high penetration of inverter-based resources), the low short circuit currents have not proved an issue for the
equipment.121 The devices rely on their protective control functions in the device controllers as well as an array of
conventional protective relays (e.g., differential and overcurrent protection) on these devices that are not prone
to misoperation for low short circuit conditions.

STATCOM Protection Example

Table E.3 shows some of the protection and control functions within a typical STATCOM. These help understand
the relation to inverter-based generating resources connected to the BPS. In general, dc overvoltage protection
operates on an instantaneous value. On the other hand, ac overvoltage protection uses filtered quantities and
requires some sampling to get RMS-type (d-q decomposition) quantities. Filtering is used on the ac voltage
waveform signals prior to protection system operation to avoid any spurious transients.

FACTS devices are typically designed to the requirements at hand, and the equipment manufacturers are strong
advocates of the utilities considering what types of overvoltages they may encounter. There is a difference
between SVCs and STATCOMs in this respect in that the SVC is inherently resilient against overvoltage. For the
STATCOM, like any IGBT or other “turn off” semiconductor-based device, it has to be designed to the extreme
voltage level at which it is required to operate. All these devices have semiconductors with antiparallel diodes.
This means they become rectifiers when the voltage rise to levels high enough, resulting in overcharging the dc-
link. They then have to trip, and blocking is not an option because of the diode. The only option is to design the
equipment prior to installation (or significant equipment replacement) for the higher voltage. For STATCOMs this
typically translates to 1.3 to 1.5 pu, except for short duration transient overvoltages. Figure E.3 shows an example
voltage profile.

Equipment manufacturers have stated that overvoltage is not a justifiable cause of tripping for BPS-connected
STATCOMs and SVCs. The general idea is that the transmission protective relaying should operate before the
device protection does. There are practical and economic aspects to this, but the overall philosophy is that the
STATCOM or SVC should be the last element to trip. To the greatest possible extent, the device equipment is set
outside the transmission system protection settings. The protective time settings are important in this respect
since actual overvoltage levels, practically speaking, are usually based on estimations. This often requires some

121However, it is noted that low short circuit currents have been identified as a potential issues for overall transmission system protective
relaying. NERC and IEEE jointly developed a report that outlines some of these issues, and directs industry to continue work in this area.
Available: http://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/pes/product/technical-publications/PES_TR_7-18_0068?utm_source=PES_PR_TCReports-
JULY2018&utm_campaign=2018-PR.

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 Appendix E: Other Power Electronic Resources on the BPS

study and coordination with the TP and PC to understand specific aspects of each installation during the
interconnection studies.

Table E.3: Dynamic Performance Characteristics for STATCOMs and SVCs

Type Condition Typical Value Protection Action

ac Extreme High Voltage > 1.5 pu Trip

ac Internal Smoke Detection OEM specific settings Trip

ac Internal Faults1 OEM specific settings Trip

ac High Voltage 1.15 pu < HV < 1.5 pu2 Momentary Cessation

ac Low Voltage < 0.2 pu (could be as low as 0.1 pu) Momentary Cessation

dc Overvoltage Specific to OEM Momentary Cessation

dc Undervoltage Specific to OEM Momentary Cessation

Freq High Frequency +3 Hz2 Momentary Cessation

Freq Low Frequency -3 Hz2 Momentary Cessation

Freq df/dt 4 Hz/s2 Momentary Cessation

1 Similar to synchronous generator protection (e.g., overcurrent)
2 Varies by equipment manufacturer

Figure E.2: STATCOM Ride-Through Profile Illustration [Source: ABB]

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Appendix F: Response Characteristic Reference

Chapters 3 and 4 related to active power-frequency, reactive current-voltage, and reactive power-voltage
response characteristics, including tables that specify the recommended performance for changes in terminal
frequency or voltage. Each table uses some or all of the performance characteristics shown in Figure F.1, based
on BPS performance needs. Figure F.1 does not include specific times or quantities, so it can be used for each of
the tables respectively.122

Figure F.1: Power/Current Response Characteristic

122
The performance specs were adapted from IEEE Std. 1031-2011, “IEEE Guide for the Functional Specification of Transmission Static Var
Compensators”. Available: https://standards.ieee.org/findstds/standard/1031-2011.html.

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Appendix G: Relevant Materials and References

The following list of references was compiled while developing recommended performance for inverter-based
resources and is provided here as reference for industry.

NERC
 NERC Inverter-Based Resource Performance Task Force, NERC, Atlanta, GA. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/comm/PC/Pages/Inverter-Based-Resource-Performance-Task-Force.aspx.
 1,200 MW Fault Induced Solar Photovoltaic Resource Interruption Disturbance Report: Southern
California 8/16/2016 Event, NERC, Atlanta, GA, June 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/ea/Pages/1200-MW-Fault-Induced-Solar-Photovoltaic-Resource-
Interruption-Disturbance-Report.aspx.
 Canyon 2 Fire Disturbance Report. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/ea/Pages/October-9-2017-Canyon-2-Fire-Disturbance-Report.aspx.
 NERC Alerts, NERC, Atlanta, GA. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/bpsa/Pages/Alerts.aspx.
 Industry Recommendation: Loss of Solar Resources during Transmission Disturbances due to Inverter
Settings, NERC, Atlanta, GA, June 27, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/pa/rrm/bpsa/Alerts%20DL/NERC%20Alert%20Loss%20of%20Solar%20Resources
%20during%20Transmission%20Disturbance.pdf.
 Industry Recommendation: Loss of Solar Resources during Transmission Disturbances due to Inverter
Settings - II, NERC, Atlanta, GA, Q2 2018 (Planned).
 Modeling Notification: Recommended Practices for Modeling Momentary Cessation, NERC, Atlanta, GA,
February 2018. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/comm/PC/NERCModelingNotifications/Modeling_Notification_-
_Modeling_Momentary_Cessation_-_2018-02-27.pdf
 Reliability Guideline: Integrating Inverter-Based Resources into Low Short Circuit Strength Systems,
NERC, Atlanta, GA, December 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/comm/PC_Reliability_Guidelines_DL/Item_4a._Integrating%20_Inverter-
Based_Resources_into_Low_Short_Circuit_Strength_Systems_-_2017-11-08-FINAL.pdf.
 Reliability Guideline: Primary Frequency Control, NERC, Atlanta, GA, December 2015. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/comm/OC_Reliability_Guidelines_DL/Primary_Frequency_Control_final.pdf
 Reliability Guideline: Reactive Power Planning, NERC, Atlanta, GA, December 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/comm/PC_Reliability_Guidelines_DL/Reliability%20Guideline%20-
%20Reactive%20Power%20Planning.pdf
 NERC Standards, NERC, Atlanta, GA. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/pa/Stand/Pages/Default.aspx.
 Facility Interconnection Studies, NERC Reliability Standard FAC-002-2, Atlanta, GA, Accessed March 2018.
[Online]. Available: https://www.nerc.com/_layouts/15/PrintStandard.aspx?standardnumber=FAC-002-
2&title=Facility%20Interconnection%20Studies
 Generator Frequency and Voltage Protective Relay Settings, NERC Reliability Standard PRC-024-2,
Atlanta, GA, Accessed March 2018. [Online]. Available:

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 Appendix G: Relevant Materials and References

https://www.nerc.com/_layouts/15/PrintStandard.aspx?standardnumber=PRC-024-
2&title=Generator%20Frequency%20and%20Voltage%20Protective%20Relay%20Settings
 Verification of Models and Data for Generator Excitation Control System or Plant Volt/Var Control
Functions, NERC Reliability Standard MOD-026-1, Atlanta, GA, Accessed March 2018. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nerc.com/_layouts/15/PrintStandard.aspx?standardnumber=MOD-026-
1&title=Verification%20of%20Models%20and%20Data%20for%20Generator%20Excitation%20Control%
20System%20or%20Plant%20Volt/Var%20Control%20Functions&jurisdiction=United States
 Verification of Models and Data for Turbine/Governor and Load Control or Active Power/Frequency
Control Functions, NERC Reliability Standard MOD-027-1, Atlanta, GA, Accessed March 2018. [Online].
Available: https://www.nerc.com/_layouts/15/PrintStandard.aspx?standardnumber=MOD-027-
1&title=Verification%20of%20Models%20and%20Data%20for%20Turbine/Governor%20and%20Load%2
0Control%20or%20Active%20Power/Frequency%20Control%20Functions&jurisdiction=United States

FERC
 Order 661 and 661-A: Interconnection for Wind Energy, Order No. 661, FERC Stats. & Regs. ¶ 31,186,
order on reh’g, Order No. 661-A, FERC Stats. & Regs. ¶ 31,198 (2005).
 Order 827: Reactive Power Requirements for Non-Synchronous Generation, Order No. 827, 155 FERC ¶
61,277 (2016).
 Order 828: Requirements for Frequency and Voltage Ride Through Capability of Small Generating
Facilities, Order No. 828, 156 FERC ¶ 61,062 (2016).
 Order 842: Essential Reliability Services and the Evolving Bulk-Power System—Primary Frequency
Response, Order No. 842, 162 FERC ¶ 61,128 (2018).

Industry References
 IEEE/NERC Task Force on Short-Circuit and System Performance Impact of Inverter Based Generation,
“Impact of Inverter based Generation on Bulk Power System Dynamics and Short-Circuit Performance,”
IEEE PES-TR68, July 2018. [Online] Available: http://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/pes/product/technical-
publications/PES_TR_7-18_0068?utm_source=PES_PR_TCReports-JULY2018&utm_campaign=2018-PR.
 IEEE Std. 1547-2018 IEEE Standard for Interconnection and Interoperability of Distributed Energy
Resources with Associated Electric Power Systems Interfaces , Copyright © 2018 by The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., ISBN 978-1-5044-4640-2
 Standard for Inverters, Converters, Controllers and Interconnection System Equipment for Use With
Distributed Energy Resources, Underwriters Laboratories, UL Std. 1741, January 28, 2010. [Online].
Available: https://standardscatalog.ul.com/standards/en/standard_1741_2.
 ERCOT Nodal Operating Guide, Section 2.9. Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT). [Online].
Available: http://www.ercot.com/mktrules/guides/noperating/current
 EPRI 3002007496: Analysis of Voltage and Frequency Performance of the Bulk System with High Levels of
Variable Generation and Distributed Energy Resources--Case Studies and Lessons Learned, Feb. 2016.
 EPRI 3002010928 Renewable Energy Systems Modeling Considerations for Weak Grid Studies: Limitations
of Positive- Sequence Models in Comparison with Three-Phase Models, Dec. 2017.
 J. Giraldez, et al., “Simulation of Hawaiian Electric Companies Feeder Operations with Advanced Inverters
and Analysis of Annual Photovoltaic Energy Curtailment,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),
NREL/TP-5D00-68681, September 2017. [Online]. Available:

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 Appendix G: Relevant Materials and References

https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/68681.pdf
 A. Nelson, “Hawaiian Electric Advanced Inverter Grid Support Function Laboratory Validation and
Analysis,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), NREL/TP-0500-67485, December 2016. [Online].
Available: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/67485.pdf.
 The Frequency-Watt Function: Simulation and Testing for the Hawaiian Electric Companies, Grid
Modernization Laboratory Consortium, U.S. Department of Energy, July 2017.
 Using Renewables to Operate a Low-Carbon Grid: Demonstration of Advanced Reliability Services from a
Utility-Scale Solar PV Plant, California Independent System Operator (CAISO).

International Grid Codes and References

ENTSO-E
 Network Code on Requirements for Generators, ENTSO-E. [Online]. Available: https://electricity.network-
codes.eu/network_codes/rfg/
 ENTSO-E Connection Codes Implementation Guidance Documents, ENTSO-E. [Online]. Available:
https://consultations.entsoe.eu/system-development/entso-e-connection-codes-implementation-
guidance-d-3/
 Fault Current Contribution from PPMS & HVDC: ENTSO-E guidance document for national implementation
for network codes on grid connection – Draft of Expert Group FFCI, ENTSO-E, March 2017.
 High Penetration of Power Electronic Interfaced Power Sources (HPoPEIPS): ENTSO-E Guidance document
for national implementation for network codes on grid connection, ENTSO-E, March 2017.
 Need for synthetic inertia (SI) for frequency regulation: ENTSO-E Guidance document for national
implementation for network codes on grid connection, ENTSO-E, March 2017.
 Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF) withstand capability: ENTSO-E Guidance document for national
implementation for network codes on grid connection, ENTSO-E, March 2017.

Germany
 Network Code Requirements for Generators (RfG), Forum Network Technology/Network Operation in the
VDE, April 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.vde.com/en/fnn/topics/european-network-codes/rfg

Ireland
 EirGrid Grid Code: Version 6.0, EirGrid, July 2015. [Online]. Available: http://www.eirgridgroup.com/site-
files/library/EirGrid/GridCodeVersion6.pdf

United Kingdom
 Grid Code, National Grid (UK). [Online]. Available:
https://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/electricity/codes/grid-code
 The Grid Code: Issue 5, Revision 21, National Grid (UK), March 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nationalgrid.com/sites/default/files/documents/8589935310-
Complete%20Grid%20Code.pdf

Egypt
 Solar Energy Plant Grid Connection Code: In addition to the Egyptian Transmission Grid Code and The
Egyptian Distribution Network Code, Eyptera, Accessed March 2018. [Online]. Available:

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 Appendix G: Relevant Materials and References

http://egyptera.org/Downloads/code%20w%20dalil/code/Egypt_gridcode_for_solar_plant_connection
%20on%20MV%20and%20HV.pdf

Australia
 Codes and Guidelines, Essential Services Commission of South Australia (ESCOSA), Access March 2018.
[Online]. Available: http://www.escosa.sa.gov.au/industry/electricity/codes-guidelines
 Electricity Generation License: Hornsdale Power Reserve Pty Ltd, Essential Services Commission of South
Australia (ESCOSA), ABN 79 619 311 983, October 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.escosa.sa.gov.au/ArticleDocuments/1116/20171013-Electricity-GenerationLicence-
HornsdalePowerReserve.pdf.aspx?Embed=Y
 Response of Existing PV Inverters to Frequency Disturbances, Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO),
April 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.aemo.com.au/-/media/Files/PDF/Response-of-Existing-PV-
Inverters-to-Frequency-Disturbances-V20.pdf

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Contributors

NERC gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions and participation of all IRPTF members, and would like
to recognize their contributions to this NERC Reliability Guideline.

Name Entity Status

Steven Ashbaker Western Electricity Coordinating Council Primary Contributor
Wes Baker Power Grid Engineering Primary Contributor
John Berdner Enphase Energy Primary Contributor
Jeff Billo (Vice Chair) Electric Reliability Council of Texas Primary Contributor
Jens Boemer Electric Power Research Institute Primary Contributor
Mohammad Bozchalui Tesla Primary Contributor
Gary Custer SMA America Primary Contributor
Lisa Dangelmaier Hawaii Electric Light Company Primary Contributor
David DeLoach Tennessee Valley Authority Primary Contributor
John Diaz de Leon American Superconductor Primary Contributor
Ravi Dodballapur SMA America Primary Contributor
Bilgehan Donmez American Superconductor Primary Contributor
Samer El Itani Senvion Canada Primary Contributor
Evangelos Farantatos Electric Power Research Institute Primary Contributor
Louis Fonte California ISO Primary Contributor
Hassan Ghoudjehbaklou San Diego Gas & Electric Primary Contributor
Irina Green California ISO Primary Contributor
Anderson Hoke National Renewable Energy Laboratory Primary Contributor
Andrew Isaacs Electranix Corporation Primary Contributor
Katie Iversen Western Electricity Coordinating Council Primary Contributor
Gerald Keenan Northwest Power Pool Primary Contributor
Greg Kern SunPower Primary Contributor
Dmitry Kosterev Bonneville Power Administration Primary Contributor
Chester Li Hydro One Networks Primary Contributor
Jason MacDowell GE Energy Primary Contributor
Rajat Majumder Siemens Energy Primary Contributor
Bradley Marszalkowski ISO New England Primary Contributor
Al McBride ISO New England Primary Contributor
Christopher McCarthy SMA America Primary Contributor
Don McInnis Peak Reliability Primary Contributor
Christopher Mertz Dominion Energy Primary Contributor
Christopher Milan First Solar Electric Primary Contributor
Siddharth Pant GE Power Primary Contributor
Greg Park Northwest Power Pool Primary Contributor
Manish Patel Southern Company Primary Contributor
David Piper Southern California Edison Primary Contributor
Pouyan Pourbeik PEACE Primary Contributor
Sergey Pustovit Bonneville Power Administration Primary Contributor
William Quaintance Duke Energy Primary Contributor
Deepak Ramasubramanian Electric Power Research Institute Primary Contributor
Venkat Reddy Konala First Solar Electric Primary Contributor
Matthew Richwine General Electric Company Primary Contributor

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 Contributors

Name Entity Status

Jeff Roesch TMEIC Primary Contributor
David Roop Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, Inc. Primary Contributor
Michael Ropp Northern Plains Power Technologies Primary Contributor
Roger Salas Southern California Edison Company Primary Contributor
Allen Schriver (Chair) NextEra Energy Resources Primary Contributor
Sachin Soni First Solar Electric Primary Contributor
Adam Sparacino Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, Inc. Primary Contributor
Efrem Tagliamonte Power Electronics Primary Contributor
Kyle Thomas Dominion Technical Solutions Primary Contributor
Charles Vartanian Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, Inc. Primary Contributor
Eknath Vittal Electric Power Research Institute Primary Contributor
Stephen Williams S&C Electric Primary Contributor
Sophie Xu Pacific Gas & Electric Primary Contributor
Tim Zgonena Underwriters Laboratories Primary Contributor
Songzhe Zhu California ISO Primary Contributor
John Zong Powertech Labs Primary Contributor
Rich Bauer (Coordinator) North American Electric Reliability Corporation Primary Contributor
Robert Cummings North American Electric Reliability Corporation Primary Contributor
Hongtao Ma North American Electric Reliability Corporation Primary Contributor
James Merlo North American Electric Reliability Corporation Primary Contributor
John Moura North American Electric Reliability Corporation Primary Contributor
Ryan Quint (Coordinator) North American Electric Reliability Corporation Primary Contributor
Mark Ahlstrom NextEra Energy Resources IRPTF Member
Andrew Arana Florida Power & Light IRPTF Member
Sasoon Assaturian Independent Electricity System Operator IRPTF Member
Jason Ausmus ITC Holdings IRPTF Member
Mario Barbaresso Power Survey IRPTF Member
Ayesha Bari Entergy IRPTF Member
Mike Beuthling Hydro One Networks IRPTF Member
Danny Black Georgia Power Company IRPTF Member
Jason Bobruk SolarEdge IRPTF Member
Kent Bolton Western Electricity Coordinating Council IRPTF Member
Richard Bravo Southern California Edison Company IRPTF Member
Oliver Burke Entergy IRPTF Member
Leo Casey GoogleX IRPTF Member
Kevin Collins First Solar Electric IRPTF Member
Nicolas Compas Hydro-Quebec TransEnergie IRPTF Member
Chris Coronel Con Edison Development IRPTF Member
Kevin Damron Avista Utilities IRPTF Member
Donald Davies Western Electricity Coordinating Council IRPTF Member
Anthony Doering ITC Holdings IRPTF Member
Andrew Dressel GridSME IRPTF Member
Scott Erwin Western Electricity Coordinating Council IRPTF Member
Roberto Favela El Paso Electric Company IRPTF Member
Anisha Fernandes PJM Interconnection IRPTF Member
Mike Gabriel Ethos Energy IRPTF Member
Durga Naga Gaddam Entergy IRPTF Member

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 Contributors

Name Entity Status

Arun Gandhi New York Independent System Operator IRPTF Member
Amitabha Gangopadhyay National Energy Board IRPTF Member
Bo Gong Columbia Grid IRPTF Member
James Hanson Western Electricity Coordinating Council IRPTF Member
Mark Henry Texas Reliability Entity IRPTF Member
Eric Heredia Bonneville Power Administration IRPTF Member
Shun-Hsien Huang Electric Reliability Council of Texas IRPTF Member
Le Hui Pacific Gas and Electric Company IRPTF Member
Ben Hutchins NV Energy IRPTF Member
Richard Hydzik Avista Corporation IRPTF Member
Mike Jensen Pacific Gas and Electric Company IRPTF Member
Prashant Kansal American Electric Power IRPTF Member
John Kotula Dominion Energy IRPTF Member
Dean Latulipe National Grid IRPTF Member
Katherine Legates American Electric Power IRPTF Member
Eddy Lim Federal Energy Regulatory Commission IRPTF Member
Xiaochuan Luo ISO New England IRPTF Member
Christopher Lynn Tucson Electric Power IRPTF Member
David Manning Western Interstate Energy Board IRPTF Member
Amir Mohammednur Southern California Edison Company IRPTF Member
Rohit Nair PacifiCorp IRPTF Member
Michael Nieman Solectria IRPTF Member
Jonathan Pantano NextEra Energy IRPTF Member
Evan Paull Western Electricity Coordinating Council IRPTF Member
David Penney Texas Reliability Entity IRPTF Member
Albert Peters Arizona Public Service IRPTF Member
Maryclaire Peterson Entergy IRPTF Member
Tim Reynolds Western Electricity Coordinating Council IRPTF Member
Matthew Rhodes Salt River Project IRPTF Member
Fabio Rodriguez Duke Energy – Florida IRPTF Member
Russell Schussler Georgia Transmission Corporation IRPTF Member
Miaolei Shao General Electric Power Systems IRPTF Member
Jonathan Shearer Southern California Edison Company IRPTF Member
William Shultz Southern Company Generation IRPTF Member
Hari Singh Xcel Energy IRPTF Member
Kannan Sreenivasachar ISO New England IRPTF Member
David Szumlas Southern California Edison Company IRPTF Member
Jieling Tang Huawei North America IRPTF Member
Jason Tanner Southwest Power Pool IRPTF Member
Megan Thompson GridSME IRPTF Member
Geng Tian Sungrow USA Corp IRPTF Member
Carl Turner Florida Municipal Power Agency IRPTF Member
Rodolfo Vega ISO New England IRPTF Member
Boris Voynik Federal Energy Regulatory Commission IRPTF Member
Song Wang PacifiCorp IRPTF Member
Jun Wen Southern California Edison Company IRPTF Member
Brant Werts Duke Energy Carolina IRPTF Member

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 Contributors

Name Entity Status

Cat Wong Entergy IRPTF Member
Xiaokang Xu S&C Electric IRPTF Member
Tao Yang PJM Interconnection IRPTF Member
Xiaping Zhang Peak Reliability IRPTF Member
Wenchun Zhu Siemens PTI IRPTF Member
Stephen Crutchfield North American Electric Reliability Corporation IRPTF Member
Carter Edge North American Electric Reliability Corporation IRPTF Member
Jack Norris North American Electric Reliability Corporation IRPTF Member
Mark Olson North American Electric Reliability Corporation IRPTF Member
Alison Oswald North American Electric Reliability Corporation IRPTF Member
Levetra Pitts North American Electric Reliability Corporation IRPTF Member
Jule Tate North American Electric Reliability Corporation IRPTF Member

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