NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI-620015

INDUSTRIAL SAFETY LABORATORY RECORD

Certified Bonafide Record of work done by

Sambhu.B
M Tech (ISE), Roll No – 211215018
Year 2016

Lab Examination held on ___________________

Dr. S.P Sivapirakasam

Associate Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Internal Examiner External Examiner

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to convey our heartfelt thanks to Dr.S.P.Sivapirakasam,

Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering NITT and
our course co-ordinator, for his guidance and support. This laboratory
work would not be possible without his invaluable suggestions and
generous help.

It gives us immense pleasure to express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr.

K.R. Balasubramanian, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, NITT, who has been extremely supportive during the course
of the laboratory.

We wish to thank Dr. T. Suthakar, Head of Department, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, NITT and Dr.K.Sankaranarayanasamy,
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering for their constant
support.

We also thank all those who directly or indirectly rendered physical

assistance, extended moral support and co-ordination through useful
discussion and valuable comments for the success of the laboratory.

ii
 EXPERIMENT DETAILS

EXPT PAGE
DATE DESCRIPTION
NO NO

1 7.3.2016 IMPACT SENSITIVENESS TEST 1

2 7.3.2016 FRICTION SENSITIVENESS TEST 4

3 7.3.2016 THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS 7

HAND ARM VIBRATION

4 9.3.2015 14
MEASUREMENT
WHOLE BODY VIBRATION
5 7.3.2016 21
MEASUREMENT
Application of ErgoMaster software in
6 9.3.2015 32
Ergonomic analysis
DETERMINATION OF FUME EMISSION
7 15.2.2016 36
RATE DURING ARC WELDING
PERSONAL EXPOSURE MEASUREMENTS
8 15.2.2016 39
TO WELDING FUMES

9 15.2.2016 HIGH-VOLUME SAMPLER 43

STUDY OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE

10 30.3.2015 46
EQUIPMENTS (PPE)

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No Title Page No

1.1 Observation Table for Impact Sensitiveness Test…………….. 2
2.1 Tabulation for friction sensitivity………………...….……...… 6
3.1 Tabulation for DSC…………………………………………… 11
4.1 ACGIH HAV (2006) TLV values…………………………….. 15
4.2 EU exposure guidelines……………………………………….… 16
4.3 Frequency weighted acceleration from 6.3 to 1250 Hz………. 17
4.4 Frequency weighted acceleration from 8 to 16 Hz…………… 18
4.5 Frequency weighting factors as per IS 5349………...………... 18
4.6 Tabulation showing frequency and peak rms acceleration…… 20
5.1 EU exposure guidelines……………………………………….. 22
5.2 Calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for 1 to 80 Hz
on floor………………………………………………………… 24
5.3 Calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for 2 to 5 Hz
on floor………………………………………………………… 25
5.4 Calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for 1 to 80 Hz
on seat…………………………………………………………. 26
5.5 Calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for 2 to 5 Hz
on seat…………………………………………………….…… 27
5.6 Showing comfort reactions to vibration environment………… 28
5.7 Showing frequency and peak acceleration……………………. 31
6.1 Measurement of continuous sound pressure level…………….. 34
6.2 Measurement of Impulse noise……………………………...… 35
7.1 Tabulation for Fume formation rate…………………………... 38
8.1 Typical back pressure of sampling media…………………….. 40
8.2 Showing initial and final weight of filter paper………..……… 41
10.1 TLV-TWA for continuous noise………………………………. 48
10.2 Comparison of hearing protection…………………………….. 49

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

1.1 Schematic of a Ball Fall Hammer…………………….………. 1
2.1 Schematic of a BAM friction tester……..……………….….... 5
3.1 A standard output for a polymer from a DSC machine………. 8
3.2 The workings of a DSC machine………………………….….. 9
3.3 DSC cell schematic……………………………………….…... 10
3.4 Graph between TG % and Temperature………………………. 12
3.5 Graph between TG % and Time………………………………. 12
4.1 Coordinate system for vibration measurement………………... 16
4.2 Hand arm vibration 6.3 to 1250 Hz……………………………. 20
4.3 Hand arm vibration 8 to 16 Hz……………………………….... 20
5.1 Accelerometer with cable & connector and Vibrational
analyser……………………………………………………...…. 23
5.2 Circuit diagram for Experimental setup……………………….. 24
5.3 Graph between acceleration and frequency of vibration at floor
1 to 80 Hz………………………………………………………. 29
5.4 Graph between acceleration and frequency of vibration at floor
2 to 5 Hz………………………………………………..………. 29
5.5 Graph between acceleration and frequency of vibration at seat
1 to 80 Hz………………………………………………………. 30
5.6 Graph between acceleration and frequency of vibration at seat
2 to 5 Hz………………………………………………..………. 30
7.1 Schematic of a Fume Test Chamber…………………………… 37
8.1 PCXR8 Universal Sample Pump………………………………. 40
9.1 Schematic of a high volume sampler………………………...… 44
10.1 Disposable foam ear plugs and Ear muff………………………. 47
10.2 Cross section of a safety helmet……………………………….. 50
10.3 Various parts of goggles…………. …………………………… 53
10.4 Cross section of safety boot……………………………………. 55

v
 1. IMPACT SENSITIVENESS TEST

1.1 AIM: To determine the impact sensitivity of the given energetic material using
ball fall hammer.

1.2 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION:

The diagram of the drop weight apparatus used in this study for impact
sensitiveness measurement is shown in Figure 1.1. The equipment was supplied by
Electro Ceramics Private Limited, Pune, India. The design and principle of the
equipment is similar to that of the drop fall hammer equipment of BAM standards. It
consists of a cast steel block with a base, an anvil, supporting columns, guide rods, a
drop mass with release device and an impact device. A steel anvil is screwed on to the
steel block and cast base. The two supporting columns (made from a seamless drawn
steel tube), are bolted to the back of the steel block. The two guide rods fixed to the
column are used to limit the rebound of the drop mass. The apparatus is fixed on to a
concrete block by means of four anchoring screws secured in concrete, so that the
base is in contact with the concrete over its whole area and guides are exactly vertical.

Fig. 1.1 Schematic of a Ball Fall Hammer

1
1.3 SPECIFICATION:

 2kg, 5kg, 10kg weight give the desired impact load range.
 Solid cast steel hard bar block.
 Hardened steel anvil.
 Control column with graduated scale reading to set and calibrated.

1.4 STANDARD:

As per the United Nations (UN) guidelines for Transport of Dangerous Goods
(TDG), the sample exhibiting limiting impact energy of 2J or less is considered too
sensitive.
Limiting Impact Energy: The lowest energy at which at least one explosion occurs in
six trials.

1.5 PROCEDURE:

1. About 40mg of the sample is placed in the plunger assembly.

2. Select suitable load and position with help of a grounded scale.
3. Block the weight at the desired height and then release.
4. If spark and fumes appears, mark the position of weight
5. Repeat it for different position and identify the minimum impact sensitivity.

1.6 OBSERVATIONS:

Table 1.1: Tabulation for friction sensitivity

Height Trial
(in cm) 1 2 3 4 5 6
40 
35  
30   
28  
27    
25  

2
 24   
23.5      

1.7 CALCULATIONS:

LIE = mgh = 2 x 9.81 x 24 x 10-2 = 4.7088 J

Where
LIE - limiting impact energy in joules (J)
m - Weight of the drop mass in kilograms (kg)
g - Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
h - Fall height in meters (m)

1.8 RESULT: The impact energy of the energetic material is 4.7088 J.

3
 2. FRICTION SENSITIVENESS TEST

2.1 AIM: To determine the friction sensitivity of an energetic material (match stick
composition is used)

2.2 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION:

Power supply: 330V/3Φ/50Hz
220V/2Φ/60Hz
40V/3Φ/60Hz
Load capacity= 0.5 x 36 kg (Rating)
Porcelain plate =25 x 25 x 25 mm

2.3 APPARATUS:

The diagram of the BAM friction tester used in this study for friction
sensitiveness measurements is shown in the Figure 2.1. It consists of a cast steel base,
on which a friction device is mounted. The friction device comprises a fixed porcelain
pin and a moving porcelain plate. The porcelain plate is held in a carriage which runs
in two guides. The carriage is connected to an electric motor via a connecting rod, an
eccentric cam and suitable gearing such that the porcelain plate could retract and
move forward to a distance of 10 mm beneath the porcelain pin. The loading device
pivots on an axis so that the porcelain pin can be changed; it is extended by a loading
arm which is fitted with 6 notches for the attachment of a weight. Zero load is
obtained by adjusting a counter weight. When the loading device is lowered onto the
porcelain plate, the longitudinal axis of the porcelain pin is perpendicular to the plate.
There are different weights of masses up to 10kg. The loading arm is fitted with 6
notches of distances of 11cm, 16 cm, 21cm, 31cm and 36cm from the axis of the
porcelain pin. A weight is hung onto a notch on the loading arm by means of ring and
hook. The use of different weight in different notches results in loads on the pin of 5-
10-20-40-60-80-120-160-240-360 N. Provisions are available for using intermediate
loads, if needed.

4
2.4 STANDARD:

As per the United Nations (UN) guidelines for Transport of Dangerous Goods
(TDG), in a BAM friction tester, a sample is subjected to a frictional load between the
porcelain plate and pin. Samples exhibiting a limiting load of 80N or less are
considered too sensitive.

Limiting frictional load: The lowest frictional load at which atleast one explosion
occurs in six trials

Fig. 2.1 Schematic of a BAM friction tester

Material Used: Match Stick composition

2.5 PROCEDURE:

1. Set the tester to starting position.

2. For holding the assembly, use a porcelain plate with sponge marks in the
opposite direction of motion.
3. Switch the main power source.
4. Place about 10 mg of the sample inside the porcelain plate where pins come in
contact.
5. Load the bar with weight and push the start button.
6. When the spark and fumes appears, mark the position and weight.
7. Repeat the steps 1-6 for a different position and identify the load position for
the spark and fumes to appear.
8. The position of the load just before the initiation of spark or fume is the
maximum load position before the start of ignition.
5
2.6 OBSERVATION:

Table2.1: Tabulation for friction sensitivity

Load 1 2 3 4 5 6
128 
120    
108   
96     
84   
80      

2.7 RESULT:

The friction sensitivity of the given energetic material is obtained as 84 N.

6
 3. DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY (DSC)

3.1 AIM

The purpose of this experiment was to use Differential Scanning Calorimetry

to find numerous thermal properties of samples

3.2 THEORY

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measures the temperatures and heat

flows associated with transitions in materials as a function of time and temperature in
a controlled atmosphere. Such measurements provide quantitative and qualitative
information about physical and chemical changes that involve endothermic or
exothermic processes, or changes in heat capacity. It measures thermal properties of
polymers based on the rate at which they absorb heat energy compared to a reference
material. The technique takes advantage of the energy changes involved in the various
phase transitions of certain polymer molecules. This allows several properties of the
material to be ascertained; melting points, enthalpies of melting, crystallisation
temperatures, glass transition temperatures and degradation temperatures. DSC is the
most widely used of all thermo analytical techniques. It is used primarily to
characterize polymers and other organic materials, but is also applicable to metals,
ceramics, and other inorganics.

In a heat flux differential scanning calorimeter sample is heated along with a

reference material with a known specific heat. One of the criteria of this technique is
that the sample and reference material remain at the same temperature during heating.
This can be achieved by Setting the machine to heat both the sample and reference
material at a specific rate (In this experiment, the rate is set to 10oC per minute). This
allows the heat flux or difference in energy input between the sample and reference to
be measured. Maintaining a constant supply of heat to both materials would not
(unless the materials have the same heat capacity at all points, which is unlikely)
maintain a minimal temperature difference between them. Instead, a computer is
connected to the machine, and using the software and various signals from the
calorimeter, “decides” when to supply heat to either material. This information is then
dealt with by the computer software and presents it as a graph of the energy changes
versus the temperature.

7
 Fig 3.1 a standard output for a polymer from a DSC machine.

From the fig 3.1, it can be seen that a sudden upward jump in the curve signifies an
exothermic process. A sudden drop in heat flux indicates an endothermic process.

It is possible to approximate the heat flow into the sample holder using the following
equation:

 K Tb  T  ……………..(1)
dQ
dT

T is the sample temperature

Tb: programmed block temperature

K: thermal conductivity of the material

Tb  T0  qt ……………..(2)

T0 is the initial temperature and q is the programmed heating rate.

The heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a body by 1K. For a substance with a constant heat capacity:

Q  C P T  T0  ……………..(3)

It is possible to derive an equation from equations 2 and 3 that forms the basis for the
DSC experiment. This is as follows:

8
 CP
T  q ……………..(4)
K

ΔT is the difference in temperature between the reference material and the sample.

The heat capacity is given as

C P  mcP ……………..(5)

Where cp is the specific heat (Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit
mass by 1K).

The enthalpy change for a given phase transition may be found by integrating over the
area in which the transition is seen to occur on the DSC plot. This change may be
described by the following integral:

Tf Tf
 KT 
H   C P dt    dT ……………..(6)
Ti Ti 
q 

Where the limits of integration Ti and Tf are the initial and final temperatures over
which the graph is integrated. Therefore it is the area under the curve that gives
information about the enthalpy changes involved in the various transitions.

3.3 APPARATUS

Shown in fig 3.2 is a diagram of the workings of a differential scanning calorimeter.

Figure 3.2 The workings of a DSC machine:

9
As shown in fig 3.3, the reference pan is to remain empty at all times. Signals from
both pans provide information to the computer. This allows it to regulate the
temperature and provide a constant heating rate. Not shown are the gas inlets and
outlets, using these, a chemically inert gas such as Argon or nitrogen may be pumped
through the machine in order to prevent the accumulation of dust. The gas also serves
to remove any volatile chemicals that may be present.

Figure 3.3 DSC cell schematic

3.4 PROCEDURE

 Prepare the samples for analysis. Extreme care should be taken not to
contaminate samples or sample pans with either other chemicals or matter
from human skin. This meant that all equipment is to be handled with
tweezers. Prepare Samples as follows:
 Obtain tare weight of the sample pan and lid. Select Sample pans with flat
undersides so as to make the maximum contact possible with the bottom of the
calorimeter. Following this, place between 5 and 10 milligrams of sample in

10
 the sample pan and find the mass of the filled sample pan and lid. This is the
mass of sample to be used. Again using tweezers, move the sample pan and lid
to the crimping press where upon crimping the lid sealed the pan. Weigh
another sample pan along with its lid. This, however, leave as empty and seal
using the crimping device, forming the reference pan to be heated along with
the sample.
 Place the first sample in the left hand side of the furnace in the calorimeter
while the reference pan should place in the right hand position, where it should
remain for the duration of the experiment.
 Avg Heating cycle:
 Nitrogen atmosphere, with a gas flow rate of 10Cm3/min, heating rate of
10oC/min from 120oC to 180oC.

For the samples, the heating cycle proceeded as follows:

 Maintain the same gas flow rate, along with the heating rate of 10oC/min. The
only change is that the range of temperature was modified so that it ranged
from 30oC to 250oC. Following this, the furnace was allowed cool to room
temperature before the next sample could be introduced.
 Then analyse resulting graphs and information about onset, peak and endpoint
temperatures and changes in enthalpy for the various processes obtained using
the computer software.

3.5 OBSERVATION

The masses of each of the sample temperatures of glass transition, crystallisation,

melting and degradation are shown along with the enthalpy changes associated with
each of these.

The resultant graphs are shown on the next few pages along with the enthalpy changes
and temperature range of each transition. The first of these graphs is for the Indium
reference material.

11
Fig 3.4: Graph between TG % and Temperature

Fig 3.5: Graph between TG % and Time

12
3.6 RESULTS

Sample 1: Match stick powder

Graph 1: As in Fig 3.4 between Temperature and TG%

Graph 2: As in Fig 3.5 between Time and TG%

Mass of sample: 6.24 mg

Heat of formation (Enthalpy change): 398.7 J/g

Onset temperature: 185.8 oC

Peak melting temperature: 188.3 oC

13
 4. HAND ARM VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

4.1 AIM
To carry out hand-arm vibration measurements in order to investigate the
Hand Arm vibration of operator and to assess vibration exposure risk assessments
from acquired vibration data.
4.2 THEORY
HAV is vibration transmitted from work processes into workers’ hands and
arms. It can be caused by operating hand-held power tools such as road breakers,
hand-guided equipment such as lawn mowers, or by holding materials being
processed by machines such as pedestal grinders. Regular and frequent exposure to
high levels of vibration can lead to permanent injury. This is most likely when contact
with a vibrating tool or process is a regular part of a person’s job. Occasional
exposure is unlikely to cause injury. Jobs requiring regular and frequent use of
vibrating tools and equipment are found in a wide range of industries, for example:
Building and maintenance of roads and railway, concrete products, Construction,
Concrete products, Foundries etc.
Aim should be to buy the lowest vibration equipment suitable for the job.
Manufacturers identify vibration levels in units of meters per second squared (m/s2).
4.2.1 Effects
Regular exposure to HAV can cause a range of permanent injuries to hands
and arms, collectively known as hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). The injuries
can include damage to the:
1. Blood circulatory system (e.g. vibration white finger)

2. Sensory nerves

3. Muscles

4. Bones

5. Joints

Vibration-induced white finger (VWF) is the most common condition among the
operators of hand-held vibrating tools. Vibration can cause changes in tendons,
muscles, bones and joints, and can affect the nervous system. Collectively, these

14
effects are known as Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS). The symptoms of
VWF are aggravated when the hands are exposed to cold. Workers affected by HAVS
commonly report symptoms such as:
1. Attacks of whitening (blanching) of one or more fingers when exposed to
cold

2. Tingling and loss of sensation in the fingers

3. Loss of light touch

4. Pain and cold sensations between periodic white finger attacks

5. Loss of grip strength

6. Bone cysts in fingers and wrists

4.2.2 Standards And Limits

4.2.2.1 IS 5349-1 provides guidance for the evaluation of hand-transmitted vibration

exposure, specified in terms of a frequency- weighted vibration acceleration and daily
exposure time. It does not define limits of safe vibration exposure. The vibrations
along x, y and z axis are combined, defined as the root-sum- of- squares of the three
component values.
4.2.2.2 IS 5349-2 provides practical guidance for measurements and applies to all
situations where people are exposed to vibration transmitted to the hand-arm system
by hand-held or hand-guided machinery, vibrating work pieces, or controls, of mobile
or fixed machinery.

4.2.2.3 ACIGH
Table 4.1-ACGIH HAV (2006) TLV values
Maximum value of frequency weighted
Total Daily Exposure Duration (hours)
acceleration (m/s2) in any direction
4 to less than 8 hours 4
2 to less than 4 hours 6
1 to less than 2 hours 8
less than 1hour 12

15
4.2.2.4 EU directive
Table 4.2-EU exposure guidelines
Exposure limit value (ELV) 5 m/s2
Exposure action value (EAV) 2.5 m/s2.

4.3 PROCEDURE

1. Arrange the whole set-up of vibration analyser.

2. Make proper configurations as required to carry out the measurements.

3. Mount the accelerometers at the proper hand locations so that they can
measure the vibration transmitted to the hands from the vibrating equipment.

4. At each measurement location, orient the piezoelectric accelerometers in

orthogonal axes and mount rigidly.

5. Process the outputs from the accelerometers via charge amplifiers and input
to a vibration analyser (Brüel & Kjær PULSE system) for real-time analysis.

6. Activate the vibration analyser a few seconds after the start of equipment
(once stable operation had been achieved) and take measurement for the
duration of 1 minute for free operation.

4.4 MEASUREMENTS

Calculate ax in free air and calculate frequency weighted acceleration along x-axis
(ahwx ) as shown in fig 4.1.

Fig. 4.1 - coordinate system for vibration measurement

16
4.5 OBSERVATIONS

Plot graph for sensitive frequency range of 8 to 16 Hz and 6.3 to 1250 Hz and take
acceleration on Y-axis and frequency on X-axis.

Table 4.3: Showing calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for a particular
axis from 6.3 to 1250 Hz

Weighting Acceleration
Frequency
Sl No. W i * Ai (Wi * Ai) 2
(Hz) factor (Wi) A i (m/s2)
1 6.3 0.727 0.0109971 0.007995 6.39183E-05
2 8 0.873 0.00778094 0.006793 4.61416E-05
3 10 0.951 0.0200502 0.019068 0.000363579
4 12.5 0.958 0.0084266 0.008073 6.51682E-05
5 16 0.896 0.00845172 0.007573 5.73464E-05
6 20 0.782 0.00673668 0.005268 2.77527E-05
7 25 0.647 0.00892324 0.005773 3.33314E-05
8 31.5 0.519 0.0435089 0.022581 0.000509907
9 40 0.411 0.0165603 0.006806 4.63255E-05
10 50 0.324 0.0420336 0.013619 0.000185474
11 63 0.256 0.0974421 0.024945 0.000622262
12 80 0.202 0.0885625 0.01789 0.000320039
13 100 0.16 0.120538 0.019286 0.000371953
14 125 0.127 0.38796 0.049271 0.002427624
15 160 0.101 0.30932 0.031241 0.00097602
16 200 0.0799 0.279184 0.022307 0.000497593
17 250 0.0634 1.02861 0.065214 0.004252849
18 315 0.0503 2.16501 0.1089 0.011859211
19 400 0.0398 1.45485 0.057903 0.003352761
20 500 0.0314 1.31738 0.041366 0.001711124
21 630 0.0245 0.675726 0.016555 0.000274078
22 800 0.0186 0.571784 0.010635 0.000113107
23 1000 0.0135 0.768718 0.010378 0.000107697
24 1250 0.00894 0.528929 0.004729 2.23599E-05
Σ (Wi * Ai) 2

=0.02830762

17
Table 4.4: Showing calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for a particular
axis from 8 to 16 Hz

Frequency Weighting factor Acceleration

Sl No. Wi * Ai (Wi * Ai) 2
(Hz) (Wi) A i (m/s2)

1 8 0.00622382 0.873 0.005433 3.38165E-05

2 10 0.00766508 0.951 0.007289 5.58745E-05
3 12.5 0.00470508 0.958 0.004507 2.1208E-05
4 16 0.00981623 0.896 0.008795 8.63371E-05
Σ (Wi * Ai) 2 =
0.000197236

4.6 CALCULATIONS

Frequency weighted rms acceleration value for X-axis

For 6.3 to 1250 Hz rms acceleration = 0.1682 m/s2

For 8 to 16 Hz rms acceleration = 0.014004 m/s2

ahw is frequency weighted rms acceleration. Whj is weighting factor for the jth
1/3rd octave band. ahj is the rms acceleration in the jth 1/3rd octave band in
m/s2(given by vibration analyser) n is the number of 1/3rd octave band considered.

Table 4.5: Frequency weighting factors as per ISO 5349

Frequency band number Nominal mid Weighing factor

I frequency Hz
6 4 0.375
7 5 0.545
8 6.3 0.727
9 8 0.873
10 10 0.951

18
 11 12.5 0.958
12 16 0.896
13 20 0.782
14 25 0.647
15 31.5 0.519
16 40 0.411
17 50 0.324
18 63 0.256
19 80 0.202
20 100 0.160
21 125 0.127
22 160 0.101
23 200 0.0799
24 250 0.0634
25 315 0.0503
26 400 0.0398
27 500 0.0314
28 630 0.0245
29 800 0.0186
30 1000 0.0135
31 1250 0.00894
32 1600 0.00536
33 2000 0.00295

Note: Calculate frequency weighted rms acceleration for both the frequency ranges
i.e.
1) for 6.3 Hz to 1.25 kHz
2) for 8 Hz to 16 Hz

4.7 RESULTS-

1. Frequency weighted acceleration along x-axis 0.1682 m/s2 for frequency

range of 6.3 Hz to 125 kHz which is below 2.5 m/s2 according to the EU
Directives.
2. Frequency weighted acceleration along x-axis 0.014004 m/s2 for frequency
range of 8 Hz to 16 Hz which is below 2.5 m/s2 according to the EU
Directives.
3. Table 4.5 showing acceleration & frequency response and fig 4.2 ,fig 4.3
shows graph of acceleration and frequency in Hand arm vibration

19
 HAND ARM VIBRATION 6.3 TO 1250 Hz
Acceleration axis in Logarithemic scale
10

1
ACCELERATION (m/s2)

0.1

0.01

0.001

100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
12.5

31.5

1000
1250
8
10

16
20
25

40
50
63
80
6.3

FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig 4.2 Hand arm vibration 6.3 to 1250 Hz

HAND ARM VIBRATION 8Hz TO 16Hz

0.012
ACCELERATION (m/s2)

0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
8 10 12.5 16
FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig 4.3 Hand arm vibration 8 to 16 Hz

Table 4.5: Tabulation showing frequency and peak rms acceleration

Frequency Peak-rms
Sl No.
in air(Hz) acceleration (m/s2)
1 6.3 to 1250 0.1682

2 8 to 16 0.014004

20
 5. WHOLE BODY VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

5.1 AIM

To carry out Whole Body vibration measurements in order to investigate the Whole
Body vibration of operator and to assess vibration exposure risk assessments from
acquired vibration data.

5.2 THEORY

WBV is defined as the vibration experienced by the human body as a result of direct
contact with the vibrating surface. Vibration arises from various mechanical sources
with which humans have physical contact. Vibration energy can be passed on to
operators from vehicles on rough roads; vibrating tools; vibrating machinery; or
vibrating work platforms. It can be transmitted through the feet and legs, the hands
and arms but most commonly through the buttocks in a driving vehicle. If a human
body is subjected to strong vertical vibration it may cause fracturing of spine,
discomfort and adverse effects on health. Regular and frequent exposure to high
levels of vibration can lead to permanent injury. This is most likely when contact with
a vibrating tool or process is a regular part of a person’s job. Occasional exposure is
unlikely to cause injury. Before you buy new equipment, consider any alternative way
of working without using vibrating equipment. If not, introduce a low vibration
purchasing policy in consultation with your managers and safety or employee
representatives and let potential suppliers know about it. We should aim to buy the
lowest vibration equipment suitable for the job. Manufacturers identify vibration
levels in units of meters per second squared (m/s2).

5.2.1 Effects

1. Regular exposure to WBV can cause a range of permanent injuries to

human such as Disorders of the joints and muscles (especially spine).

2. Disorders of the circulation system.

3. Problems in digestive system Reproductive damage in females

4. Impairment of vision Interference with activities Discomfort Noise

induced hearing loss.

21
5.2.2.1 Indian Standard- Mechanical vibration and shock- evaluation of human
exposure to whole body vibration IS 2631-2: 2003.

This part of ISO 2631 concerns human exposure to whole-body vibration and shock
in buildings with respect to the comfort and annoyance of the occupants. It specifies a
method for measurement and evaluation, comprising the determination of the
measurement direction and measurement location. It defines the frequency weighting
Wm which is applicable in the frequency range 1 Hz to 80 Hz where the posture of an
occupant does not need to be defined.

5.2.2.2 EU directive

Table 5.1: EU exposure guidelines

Exposure limit value (ELV) 1.15 m/s 2

Exposure action value (EAV) 0.5 m/s2

5.2.3 PULSE labshop software

Pulse labshop is a vibration measuring software. The whole body vibrations and hand
arm vibrations can be measured using this software. This software is developed by the
Bruel & Kjaer. The most basic vibrations measurements that can be made are Time
signal and Spectrum analysis. The accelerometer can be attached to anything that the
vibration spectrum or time response can be measured. As shown in fig 5.1, a simple
setup may involve mounting an accelerometer to a table and the response of the
tapping the table can be measured. In order for measurements to be made with Pulse,
a transducer has to be connected to one of the inputs of the analyser.

22
 Fig 5.1- Accelerometer with cable & connector and Vibrational analyser

5.3 PROCEDURE

1. Arrange the whole set-up of vibration analyser as shown in fig 5.2.

2. Make proper configurations as required to carry out the measurements.

3. Mount the accelerometers in the interface of the seat and seated

occupant on the vehicle so that they can measure the vibration transmitted to
the human body.

4. Mount the piezoelectric accelerometers rigidly to measure the

acceleration in vertical direction.

5. Process the outputs from the accelerometers via charge amplifiers and
input to a vibration analyser (Brüel & Kjær PULSE system) for real-time
analysis.

6. Activate the vibration analyser few seconds after the start of vehicle
(once stable operation had been achieved) and take measurement for the
duration of 1 minute.

23
 7. The vibration analyser produces a frequency spectrum of acceleration
for z-axis.

Fig 5.2- Circuit diagram for Experimental setup

5.4 OBSERVATIONS-

Plot graph for sensitive frequency range of 1 to 80 Hz and 2 to 5 Hz .Take

acceleration on Y-axis and frequency on X-axis.

Note: Get the value of weighting factor (Wk) and divide the value by 1000 from IS
2631-1: General requirements Table-5.3 corresponding to the required frequencies.

Table 5.2: Showing calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for a particular
axis 1 to 80 Hz on floor

Frequency Acceleration Weighting

S No. Wk * aj (Wk * aj)2
2
(Hz) A i (m/s ) factor (Wk)

1 1 0.0519758 0.833 0.043296 0.00187453

2 1.25 0.0570151 0.907 0.051713 0.002674203

3 1.6 0.0125755 0.934 0.011746 0.000137957

4 2 0.00699321 0.932 0.006518 4.248E-05

24
 5 2.5 0.00398732 0.91 0.003628 1.31657E-05

6 3.15 0.00409933 0.872 0.003575 1.27779E-05

7 4 0.00211772 0.818 0.001732 3.00085E-06

8 5 0.00317722 0.75 0.002383 5.67828E-06

9 6.3 0.00532118 0.669 0.00356 1.26727E-05

10 8 0.0290481 0.582 0.016906 0.000285813

11 10 0.0406057 0.494 0.020059 0.000402372

12 12.5 0.0124859 0.411 0.005132 2.63344E-05

13 16 0.0712206 0.337 0.024001 0.000576064

14 20 0.0660594 0.274 0.0181 0.00032762

15 25 0.0123371 0.22 0.002714 7.36668E-06

16 31.5 0.0493549 0.176 0.008686 7.54546E-05

17 40 0.0426903 0.14 0.005977 3.57202E-05

18 50 0.0115995 0.109 0.001264 1.59857E-06

19 63 0.0277522 0.0834 0.002315 5.35707E-06

20 80 0.0426082 0.0604 0.002574 6.62308E-06

Σ (Wk * aj)2=

0.006526789

Table 5.3: Showing calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for a particular
axis 2 to 5 Hz on floor

Frequency Acceleration Weighting

Wk * aj (Wk * aj)2
Sl (Hz) A i (m/s2) factor (Wk)
No.
1 2 0.00257656 0.934 0.002407 5.79128E-06

2 2.5 0.00137502 0.91 0.001251 1.56567E-06

3 3.15 0.00166542 0.872 0.001452 2.10902E-06

25
 4 4 0.00577507 0.818 0.004724 2.23162E-05

5 5 0.00595927 0.75 0.004469 1.9976E-05

Σ (Wk * aj)2

= 0.00005176

Table 5.4: Showing calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for a particular
axis 1 to 80 Hz on seat

Frequency Acceleration Weighting

S No. Wk * aj (Wk * aj)2
2
(Hz) A i (m/s ) factor (Wk)

1 1 0.00245903 0.833 0.002048 4.19583E-06

2 1.25 0.000751424 0.907 0.000682 4.64499E-07

3 1.6 0.00137437 0.934 0.001284 1.64779E-06

4 2 0.000735128 0.932 0.000685 4.69416E-07

5 2.5 0.000958989 0.91 0.000873 7.6157E-07

6 3.15 0.000959288 0.872 0.000836 6.99731E-07

7 4 0.00203493 0.818 0.001665 2.7708E-06

8 5 0.00246298 0.75 0.001847 3.41228E-06

9 6.3 0.00648262 0.669 0.004337 1.88085E-05

10 8 0.014656 0.582 0.00853 7.27574E-05

11 10 0.0154268 0.494 0.007621 5.80772E-05

12 12.5 0.0107088 0.411 0.004401 1.93716E-05

13 16 0.0266527 0.337 0.008982 8.06756E-05

14 20 0.0515103 0.274 0.014114 0.0001992

15 25 0.0257697 0.22 0.005669 3.21413E-05

16 31.5 0.0500484 0.176 0.008809 7.759E-05

17 40 0.405286 0.14 0.05674 0.003219432

26
 18 50 0.210461 0.109 0.02294 0.000526255

19 63 0.0656619 0.0834 0.005476 2.99888E-05

20 80 0.166462 0.0604 0.010054 0.000101089

Σ (Wk * aj)2=

0.004449808

Table 5.5: Showing calculations for frequency weighted acceleration for a particular
axis 2 to 5 Hz on seat

Frequency Acceleration A i Weighting

Wk * aj (Wk * aj)2
Sl (Hz) 2
(m/s ) factor (Wk)
No.
1 2 0.00308723 0.934 0.002883 8.31442E-06
2 2.5 0.00443526 0.91 0.004036 1.629E-05
3 3.15 0.00388875 0.872 0.003391 1.14988E-05
4 4 0.00243336 0.818 0.00199 3.96204E-06
5 5 0.00137731 0.75 0.001033 1.06705E-06
Σ (Wk * aj)2

=0.00004113

5.5 CALCULATIONS-

Frequency weighted acceleration value for each axis x,y,z

aw is frequency-weighted acceleration.

27
 Wk is weighting factor for the jth 1/3rd octave band.

aj is the rms acceleration in the jth 1/3rd octave band in m/s2 (given by vibration
analyser)

n is the number of 1/3rd octave band considered.

aw at desired locations of accelerometers for both the frequency range ie.

1) for 1Hz to 80 kHz

On floor aw = 0.079 m/s2

On seat aw = 0.0667 m/s2

2) for 2 Hz to 5 Hz

On floor aw = 0.0071 m/s2

On seat aw = 0.0064 m/s2

Table 5.6: Showing comfort reactions to vibration environment

Acceleration (m/s2) Reaction

less than 0.315 not uncomfortable

0.315 to 0.63 a little uncomfortable

0.5 to 1 fairly uncomfortable

0.8 to 1.6 uncomfortable

1.25 to 2.5 very uncomfortable

greater than 2 extremely uncomfortable

28
5.6 RESULTS-

1) When accelerometer is placed at floor

Frequency weighted acceleration along z-axis is 0.079 m/s2 for frequency range of 1
Hz to 80 Hz.

WHOLE BODY VIBRATION 1Hz TO 80Hz AT FLOOR

0.08
0.07
ACCELERATION (m/s2)

0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0

FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig 5.3: Graph between acceleration and frequency of vibration at floor 1 to 80 Hz

2) Frequency weighted acceleration along z-axis 0.0071 m/s2 for frequency range
of 2 Hz to 5 Hz.

WHOLE BODY VIBRATION 2Hz TO 5 Hz AT FLOOR

0.007
0.006
ACCELERATION (m/s2)

0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
2 2.5 3.15 4 5
FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig 5.4: Graph between acceleration and frequency of vibration at floor 2 to 5 Hz

29
 3) When accelerometer is placed at seat

Frequency weighted acceleration along z-axis 0.0667 m/s2 for frequency range of 1
Hz to 80 Hz.

WHOLE BODY VIBRATION ON SEAT 1 TO 80 HZ

0.45
0.4
ACCELERATION (m/s2)

0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1.25

3.15

12.5

31.5
1

4
5

8
10

16
20
25

40
50
63
80
1.6

2.5

6.3

FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig 5.5: Graph between acceleration and frequency of vibration at seat 1 to 80 Hz

4) Frequency weighted acceleration along z-axis 0.0064 m/s2 for frequency range
of 2 Hz to 5 Hz.

WHOLE BODY VIBRATION 2Hz TO 5 Hz AT SEAT

0.005
0.0045
ACCELERATION (m/s2)

0.004
0.0035
0.003
0.0025
0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
0
2 2.5 3.15 4 5
FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig 5.6: Graph between acceleration and frequency of vibration at seat 2 to 5 Hz

30
 5) Comfort reaction to vibration environment for all the frequency ranges are in
the comfortable limit.

6) Table showing Peak acceleration values in the sensitive frequency range of 2

to 5 Hz from graph

Table 5.7: Showing frequency and peak acceleration

Trials (position of rms acceleration Peak acceleration

Frequency (Hz)
accelerometers) (m/s2) (m/s2)
0.405 m/s2
Seat 1 to 80 0.0667
(at 40 Hz)
0.0059 m/s2
Seat 2 to 5 0.0064
(at 5 Hz)
0.071 m/s2
Floor 1 to 80 0.079
(at 16 Hz)
0.0044 m/s2
Floor 2 to 5 0.0071
(at 2.5 Hz)

31
 6. Application of ErgoMaster software in Ergonomic analysis

6.1 AIM: To learn the ErgoMaster Software and to understand its applications
Ergonomic analysis.

6.2 THEORY & PROCEDURE:

Ergonomic analysis becomes easy with ErgoMaster. ErgoMaster is a suite of

ergonomic analysis software modules containing a broad range of features and
capabilities. The system is easy to use and produces easy to understand reports
incorporating pictures or images of the job task being analyzed or redesigned.

ErgoMaster enables users with minimal computer expertise to easily utilize the
system. The user can customize various reports and analysis. The system also includes
detailed on-line help and instructions.

The system's applications include ergonomic analysis, risk factor identification,

training, as well as job and workstation redesign. Its suite of modules and tools assists
in the analysis of lifting tasks, repetitive tasks, awkward postures, office ergonomics
and many other areas.

The system allows users to obtain images from a variety of popular packages and
receive such images even via the Internet. The system includes a database, which
enables users to easily save and retrieve their studies including the images.

Suite of Ergonomic Analysis Modules

The ErgoMaster is comprised of several different analysis modules. These modules

are designed to satisfy the evaluation needs of a specific area of interest and are
categorized as follows:

 Lift Analyst: provides tools to evaluate and document materials handling

activities and perform biomechanical predictions for the lower back. These
tools include Materials Handling Assessment, 2-D Biomechanical Prediction,
Revised NIOSH Lifting Equation, and Discomfort Survey.

32
  Task Analyst: includes various tools to evaluate task design and perform job
analysis. These tools include Task Assessment, Tool Assessment, RULA,
Work/Rest Cycles, and Discomfort Survey.
 Biomechanics Analyst: enables users to easily interface with the University of
Michigan's 3D SSPP in 2D mode (which is purchased directly from the
University of Michigan Software) by simply clicking on the joint positions in
the digital image.
 Posture Analyst: provides tools to evaluate an individual's posture as it
pertains to range-of-motion, biomechanics and anthropometrics. These tools
include Posture Assessment, RULA, Dimensional Analysis, and Discomfort
Survey.
 Workstation Analyst: provides tools for the evaluation of industrial and/or
office environments for ergonomic risk factors. This includes the assessment
of furniture and equipment. These tools include Workstation Assessment,
Video Display Assessment, Tool/Product Assessment, and Discomfort Survey.
 Ergo Product Database: is a resource of ergonomic related products that may
be used as recommendations to environmental layout or tool/equipment
selection. This database does contain sample products but is encouraged to be
user defined.
 Getting Started: contains general tools to begin an ergonomic evaluation.
General Information, Discomfort Survey.

Many of the modules have image digitization capability. Users have a variety of tools
to enter information (text and basic drawings) in the image area and obtain
information from the image itself (such as distances and angles) as well as edit the
image itself.

These modules include the capability to digitize any digital image converted from
video frames and other digital and scanned images (captured using a variety of
popular packages). Users can also capture images from an AVI file. Images or AVI
files can be received from clients or plants by sending them over the Internet and then
simply importing them into ErgoMaster's image areas.

The ability to incorporate the image of the job greatly increases the effectiveness in
the presentation of the final report and recommendations.
33
Discomfort Survey

The Discomfort Survey is a tool used to help assess the relationship of

pain/discomfort to working postures, static exertions and repetitive motions. If
properly administered and reviewed, it may serve as an excellent indicator of poor job
design on both the administrative and engineering levels of industry.

Posture Assessment

The Posture Assessment function allows the user to select various joints of interest
and easily perform angular and distance calculations. The user has the ability to
customize the evaluation of risk associated with various work postures.

34
RULA

The RULA posture analysis is used to investigate the exposure of workers to the risk
of upper limb disorders. RULA provides a record of each operator's general posture
with particular reference to the trunk, neck and upper limbs. RULA examines several
risk factors associated with the body posture, loads, and muscle use and compiles
these factors into a posture score.

Dimensional Assessment

The Dimensional Assessment function easily calculates linear and angular dimensions
from the captured image. The software includes a calibration feature to properly
calculate linear distances. Users can also enter text and basic drawings in the image
area as well as edit the image.

6.3 RESULT-

ErgoMaster Software is studied and its various applications in Ergonomic analysis has
been understood.

35
 7. DETERMINATION OF FUME EMISSION RATE DURING
ARC WELDING
7.1 AIM: To measure the fume emission rate from arc welding.

7.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: Fume Test Chamber, Filter Paper, and Precision
Weighing Balance.

7.3 THEORY:

Welding fumes are small particles formed by the condensation of metals and
metal oxides that become volatile due to the intense heat of the arc; whose presence
poses great health risks to the people inhaling it. The mass rate of these fumes
depends on the following: base material, filler metal, welding process adopted and
chemical composition of the shielding gas mixture. The acute and chronic health
effects due to exposure to welding fumes are dependent on the exposure duration and
its severity. Despite the automation in welding and control technology, welders are
still exposed to hazardous fumes and gases. Further, the concern of industries to
reduce the costs related to the worker’s sick leave (both short and long terms) and the
need to increase worker’s productivity is also increasing nowadays. The revision of
Permissible exposure limits in recent years has resulted in recent years has resulted in
even lower limits on the release of toxic substances during welding, and this
downward trend can be expected to continue in the coming years as a way to reduce
the incidence of work-related diseases in welders. Accurate Fume generation data is
thus necessary for sophisticated control strategies.

International Standard: The collection of welding fumes using the “Fume Test
Chamber” conforms to the ISO 10511-1 standard.

7.4 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Fig. 7.1 shows the schematic of a fume test chamber.

a. Test Chamber: Having a top section in which a filter is positioned to capture all
fume produced, of a construction that minimizes the deposition of fume on the
internal surface and attached to a suitable extraction unit.

36
b. Filters: Manufactured from glass or quartz fibre for emission rate testing. The
filters shall be sufficiently robust that they do not tear or perforate during testing and
shall not be friable that fibres can be lost from the filter during handling.

c. Extraction Unit: Capable of maintaining an adequate flow rate through the filter.

d. Turn Table: Variable speed and Capable of providing rotation to the base plate

Fig. 7.1 Schematic of a Fume Test Chamber

7.5 PROCEDURE:

a. Weigh the filter paper in a precision weighing balance and mount it in the Fume
Test Chamber.

b. Adjust the speed of rotation of the turn table to approx. 10rev/hr corresponding to
the normal speed of welding.

c. Adjust the flow rate of the extraction unit to 900 l/min.

d. Turn ON the welding power supply and start welding. Do welding for a period of
60 s and leave the extraction unit running for another 90s to ensure maximum fume
collection efficiency.

e. Switch OFF the extraction unit and the turn table.

37
f. Take out the filter paper and weigh it again in the precision weighing balance.

g. Note the difference in weight of the filter paper before and after fume collection.

7.6 CALCULATIONS:

Initial weight of the filter paper (IW) = 2.7672 g

Final weight of the filter paper (FW) = 2.8658 g

Weight of fumes collected in the filter paper = (FW-IW) = 0.0986 g

Weight of fumes collected in the filter paper

Fume Formation Rate (FFR) = g/min
Time taken for welding

0.0986
= g/min = 98.6 mg/min
1

7.7 OBSERVATIONS

Table 7.1: Tabulation for Fume formation rate

Initial Weight Final Weight Weight of Fume

Sl. (IW) of the (FW) of the fumes Formation
Current
No. filter paper filter paper Collected Rate (FFR)
(g) (g) (FW-IW) (g) (g/min)
1 120 2.7672 2.8658 0.0986 0.0986
2 130 2.548 2.646 0.099 0.099
3 140 2.465 2.88 0.115 0.115
4 150 2.555 2.72 0.169 0.169

7.8 RESULT:

Average Fume Formation Rate (FRR) is 0.1204 g/min.

38
 8. PERSONAL EXPOSURE MEASUREMENTS TO WELDING
FUMES
8.1 AIM:

To find out the breathing zone concentration of fumes for an automatic welding
process

8.2 APPARATUS USED:

a. Personal Air sampler

 Sampling pump
 Tube connections
 Cassette and filter for aerosol sampling
 Cyclone attachment
b. Welding power source

Specifications of sampling pump:

 Flow rate - 2 m3/min

 Size- 130×119×480 mm
 Weight- 34g

8.3 THEORY:

Welding is the principal industrial process used for joining metals. The form
welding refers to the joining process of two materials that coalesced at their
contacting surface by the application of pressure and heat.

Fumes are formed when hot metal vapor’s cool and condense into very small
particles that stay suspended in gas. The particle may be metal or metal compound
and are often smaller than one micrometer.

Occupation exposure limit (OEL’s) are maximum permissible concentration of

a hazardous substance that most healthy adult may be repeat exposed to without
suffering adverse health effects. These limit assumed that individual exposed to the
substance is a healthy adult. There may be increased risk, for e.g. for a smoker, a
person with pre-existing health problem or individual who suffer from allergies.

8.4 EQUIPMENT USED:

The PCXR8 (as shown in fig 8.1) Universal Sample Pump is a constant flow
air sampler suitable for a broad range of applications. It is ideal for industrial hygiene
studies as well as environmental testing.

39
 Fig 8.1 PCXR8 Universal Sample Pump

Compensation Range:
1000 to 2500 ml/min at 40 inches water back pressure
3000 ml/min at 35 inches water back pressure
4000 ml/min at 20 inches water back pressure
5000 ml/min at 10 inches water back pressure

Table 8.1: Typical back pressure of sampling media

Flow rate 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

m3/min
Filter/ pore
size(µm)
25mm MCE, 6 9 12 15 18
0.8
25mm MCE, 14 22 28 35 40
0.45
37mm MCE, 2 3 4 5 6
0.8
37mm PVC, 1 1 2 2 2.5
5.0

40
Compare the information in this table to pump compensation range to determine
appropriate applications

8.5 STANDARDS:

Conforms to the procedure for sampling airborne particles in the breathing zone of a person
who performs welding and allied processes ISO 10882-1:2011

8.6 PROCEDURE:

1. Calibrate the pump of the sampler for a standard flow rate of 2 l/min.

2. Prior to welding those parameters which likely influence the mass and composition
of fumes were selected and it ranges were based on initial experiment trials.

3. Attach one end of the personal air sampler having a filter paper-cassette
arrangement to the lapel of the welder behind his face shield.

4. Carry out welding for a period of 12 min.

5. Measure the filter paper prior to and after sampling and find out its difference to get
the mass of fumes collected.

6. Calculate the breathing zone concentration using the following equation:

(Wa – Wb) x1000

Breathing zone concentration (BZC) = mg/m3
flow rate x time period

8.7 OBSERVATIONS:

Table 8.2: Showing initial and final weight of filter paper

Initial Final
Trial Current BZC
weight weight
no. (A) mg/m3
(g) (g)
1 120 0.0165 0.0168 12.5

2 130 0.0169 0.0176 29.2

3 140 0.0178 0.0198 83.3

4 150 0.0175 0.0215 166.7

41
8.8 CALCULATIONS:

For Trial No 1:

Initial weight of the filter paper (IW) = 0.0165 g

Final weight of the filter paper (FW) = 0.0168 g

Weight of fumes collected in the filter paper = (FW-IW) = 0.0003 g

(Wa – Wb) x1000
Breathing zone concentration (BZC) = mg/m3
flow rate x time period

0.0003 x 1000
= mg/l
2 x 12

= 0.0125 x 1000 mg/m3

= 12.5 mg/m3

8.9 RESULT: The average air borne particle concentration in the breathing zone of
the welder = 72.925 mg/m3

42
 9. HIGH-VOLUME SAMPLER
9.1 AIM: To determine the amount of suspended particles in air using respirable dust
sampler.

9.2 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

 Respirable dust sampler

 Chemical balance
 Filter paper
 Air blower
 Gaseous sampling attachment

9.3.1 Specifications:

 Flow rate - 0.9 to 1.4 m3/min

 Sampling time- 20 hrs maximum
 Power- 220 volts, 1ø, 50 Hz
 Size- 430×320×930 mm
 Weight- 45 kg

9.3.2 Standards: 40 CFR Part 50, Appendix B - Reference Method for the
Determination of Suspended Particulate Matter in the Atmosphere (High-Volume
Method)

9.4 PROCEDURE:

1) Mount the pre-weighted filter paper on the filter holder as shown in fig 9.1.
2) Check whether auxiliary power and cord provided with the system is plugged
off when blower unit is off.
3) Put the sub main switch of the flow controller on “manual” mode.
4) Place the auto switch of the timer in the leftmost position.
5) Note down the initial time.
6) Switch on the power to the flow controller unit which is real sacked and
provided on the panel.
7) Power ON the blower unit using the MCB.
8) Slowly turn the flow control knot until you reach a reading of 1mg/min.
9) Put the auto manual switch of the flow controller in the “auto” mode. This
enables the auto slowdown features.

43
 Fig. 9.1 Schematic of a high volume sampler

9.5 PRECAUTIONS

1. Glassware used in analysis need to be cleaned properly

2. Chemicals whose strength changes with time need to prepare fresh.
3. Reagents used for analysis must be brought to same temperatures before
mixing.
4. Dry chemicals should be transferred from bottles using a clean spatula.
5. Reagent bottles should be properly tightened.
6. Prepared chemicals should not to be left in the volumetric glassware. These
should be transferred to reagent bottles.
7. Always use analytical grade reagent for air pollution monitoring
8. Check quality of distilled water regularly.
9. Calibration and performance check of balance and spectrophotometer should
be one regularly.
10. Prepared reagents should be stored in bottles indicating their name strength,
date of preparation, expiry date and initial of the chemist who prepared them.
11 Do not weigh chemicals using ordinary papers, always use glaze papers for
weighing.

44
9.6 CALCULATION:

Initial filter paper weight = 2.6255 g

Final filter paper weight = 2.6508 g

Weight of respirable dust accumulated = final weight- initial weight = 0.0153 g

Initial weight of cyclone cup = 10.5327 g

Final weight of cyclone cup = 10.5429 g

Weight of Non-respirable = Final weight of cyclone cup – Initial weight of = 0.0102 g

dust accumulated in cyclone cyclone cup
cup
Flow rate of the sampler = 1m3/min

Sampling time = 12 min

Total weight of air passed= flow rate × sample time = 12 m3

Concentration of respirable = Weight of respirable dust on filter paper

particles in atmosphere total sample volume

= 1.275 mg/m3

Concentration of non-respirable = Weight of non− respirable dust

particles in atmosphere total sample volume

= 0.85 mg/m3

Concentration of total suspended = Concentration of Concentration of

particle in atmosphere respirable particles + non-respirable
in atmosphere particles in
atmosphere

= 1.275 + 0.85 = 2.125 mg/m3

9.7 RESULT:

Concentration of total suspended particle in atmosphere is 2.125 mg/m3.

45
 10. STUDY OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS (PPE)

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Personal protective equipment, or PPE, is designed to protect employees from serious

workplace injuries or illnesses resulting from contact with chemical, radiological,
physical, electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards. Besides face shields,
safety glasses, hard hats and safety shoes, PPE includes a variety of devices and
garments such as goggles, coveralls, gloves, vests, earplugs, and respirators. Using
PPE is often essential, but it is generally the last line of defence after engineering
controls work practices, and administrative controls. Engineering controls involve
physically changing a machine or work environment. Administrative controls involve
changing how or when employees do their jobs, such as scheduling work and rotating
employees to reduce exposures. Work practices involve training workers how to
perform tasks in ways that reduce their exposure to workplace hazards.

As a safety engineer, you must assess your workplace to determine if hazards are
present that require the use of PPE. If such hazards are present, you must select PPE
and require employees to use it, communicate your PPE selection decisions to your
employees, and select PPE that properly fits your workers.

You must also train employees who are required to wear PPE on how do the
following:

 Use PPE properly,

 Be aware of when PPE is necessary,
 Know what kind of PPE is necessary,
 Understand the limitations of PPE in
 protecting employees from injury,
 Don’t, adjust, wear, and doff PPE, and
 Maintain PPE properly

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10.2 TYPES OF PPE:

10.2.1. Ear protection:

Wearing earplugs or earmuffs can help prevent damage to hearing. Exposure to high
noise levels can cause irreversible hearing loss or impairments well as physical and
psychological stress. Earplugs made from foam, waxed cotton, or fiber glass wool is
self-forming and usually fit well. A professional should fit employees individually for
moulded or preformed earplugs. Clean earplugs regularly, and replace those you
cannot clean. Hearing protectors are required to be tested according to the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) acoustical testing standard, ISO
4869 Part 1 and the Single Number Rating (SNR) or High/Middle/Low (HML)
ratings are calculated according to ISO 4869 Part 2. An SNR is a single number
rating system determined according to International Standard ISO 4869. The tests are
carried out by commercial laboratories that are independent of the manufacturers.
Like NRRs, SNRs are expressed in dB's and are used as a guide for comparing the
potential noise reduction capability of different hearing protection devices. A typical
ear plug and earmuff is shown in the fig 10.1.

Fig-10.1: Disposable foam ear plugs and Ear muff.

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The amount of on-the-job noise exposure can be determined through various testing
devices; excessive noise is generally defined as exposure to 85 or more decibels of
sound over an 8 hour period. According to OSHA, hearing protection is required for
all employees at this degree of exposure as in table 10.1. This OSHA Action Level,
however, will vary depending upon the decibel level of the surrounding environment.
For example, if a worker is exposed to 100dB in a 2 hour period, he or she is also
required to wear hearing protection.

Table 10.1: TLV-TWA for continuous noise

Duration per day, Sound level, dbA

Hours
8 90

6 92

4 95

3 97

2 100

1.5 102

1 105

.5 110

<.25 115

OSHA’s permeable noise exposure

A typical Comparison of hearing protection between Ear plug and Ear Muff is given
in Table 10.2.

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 Table 10.2: Comparison of hearing protection.

10.2.2. Safety helmet/Hard hat:

A hard hat is a type of helmet predominantly used in workplace environments such as

industrial or construction sites to protect the head from injury due to falling objects,
impact with other objects, debris, rain, and electric shock. A suspension band inside
the helmet spreads the helmet's weight and the force of any impact over the top of the
head. A suspension also provides space of approximately 30 mm (1.2 inch) between
the helmet's shell and the wearer's head, so that if an object strikes the shell, the
impact is less likely to be transmitted directly to the skull. Some helmet shells have a
mid-line reinforcement ridge to improve impact resistance. IS 2925:1984 specifies the
Indian standards for industrial safety helmets. Helmets shall be in sizes 520, 530, 540,
550, 560, 570, 580, 590 and 600 mm. These sizes may be generated out of one or
more shells or one or more headbands. The size adjustment range shall be clearly
marked on the helmet. A tolerance of ±10 mm on the size of the headband shall be
permitted. The shell shall be dome-shaped. There shall not be any metallic component
passing through the shell. It shall be provided with a brim with or without a peak. The
brim and peak (where provided) shall be integral part of the shell and these shall have
no sharp edges as in fig 10.2.

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 Fig10.2: Cross section of a safety helmet.

The brim shall be continuous around the dome. The position of ventilation holes shall
be such that the central axis of the holes is almost horizontal when the helmet is in
normal wearing position. The diameter of any hole shall not exceed 6 mm nor the
edges of adjacent holes closer than 15 mm. The minimum number of holes on each of
the two sides shall be not less than 3 and total aggregate area of holes shall not less
than 180 mm2 and not exceeds 300 mm2. The mass of a complete helmet without
attachments and with or without peak (where not provided) may not exceed 400 g. If
the mass exceeds 400 g, this mass determined to the nearest 35 g shall be shown on a
label attached to the helmet.

Other international standards for safety helmets, Each hard hat is specified by both
Type and Class:

i. Types:

 ANSI Type I / CSA Type 1 hard hats meet stringent vertical impact and
penetration requirements.
 ANSI Type II / CSA Type 2 hard hats meet both vertical and lateral impact and
penetration requirements and have a foam inner liner made of expanded
polystyrene (EPS).
ii. Classes:

 Class E (Electrical) provides dielectric protection up to 20,000 volts.

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 Class G (General) provides dielectric protection up to 2,200 volts.
 Class C (Conductive) provides no dielectric protection.

2.1 Tests for safety helmets:

I. Shock Absorption Resistance
Helmets shall be tested for shock absorption by the following method.
The helmet with apex cushioning material, if any, removed shall be
mounted on the head form, of appropriate size. The striker shall be
raised to a clear height of 1.5 m ± 5 mm above the point of contact with
the helmet and allowed to fall freely. A photographic or other high
speed record of the force transmitted during impact shall be made.
Within one minute after subjecting those to the conditions specified in
(a), (b) and (c) below:

a. A temperature of 50 ± 5°C for 4 hours in an oven,

b. A temperature of −10 ± 2°C for 4 hours in a refrigerator, and

c. Water flowing over the whole outer surface of the shell at room temperature
for 4 hours at a rate of 1 l/min.

No single helmet shall, however, be subjected to more than one of these

conditions. The shell shall not show any penetration and/or cracks (separation of
material) and harness shall not show any damage deteriorating its function. The force
transmitted from the head form to the base shall not be higher than 5 kN (510 kgf). A
wooden headform ( IS 7692 : 1975 ‘Specification for wooden headform for testing of
helmets’) shall be used.
II. Penetration Resistance
Helmet shall be tested for penetration resistance in accordance with the
method, Mount helmet on any headform. Drop freely a plumb bob of
500 g mass with conical steel having an included angle of 36° and a
spherical point radius of not more than 0.5 mm from a clear height of
3.0 m with the pointed end downwards on to the top of the crown of the
helmet. Examine the helmet for piercing or denting, failure of any
integral parts, etc.. These shall neither break nor be forced through
sufficiently to touch the headform; no integral part shall fail or stretch
permitting the helmet to be forced down over the headform. The static

51
 measurement of the depth of a penetration or dent including the
thickness of the material of the shell shall not exceed 10 mm.
III. Flammability Resistance
Helmet shell shall be tested with the helmet upside down, and the
burner angled at 45° to the vertical, the end of the flame shall be applied
to the outside of the shell at any suitable point between 50 and 100 mm
from the crown for a period of 10 seconds. The plane tangential to the
test point shall be horizontal. The shell shall be examined for flaming 5
seconds removal of the flame. The material of the shell shall not burn
with emission of flame after a period of 5 seconds following removal of
flame.
IV. Electrical Resistance
Invert the helmet and place it on a frame in a suitable container with a
solution of 6 g/l of sodium chloride in water, in the container and the
helmet to within 12 mm of the junction of the brim and the dome, or, if
the helmet is provided with holes to a depth of 12 mm below the holes.
10Allow the helmet to remain in the solution for a period of 18 to 24
hours. Maintain the temperature of 25° to 35°C during this period. Then
apply an alternating voltage of 2 000 V (rev/s) at 50 Hz and of
approximately sine wave form, for one minute between electrodes
placed in the solution inside and outside the helmet respectively. If no
electrical breakdown occurs, disconnect the high voltage supply and
connect a milliammeter in the circuit on each side of the electrode.
Raise the test voltage slowly observing the ammeter reading, until the
applied voltage is 2000 V. An automatic tripping device may be used in
the circuit in addition to the milliammeter.
V. Water Absorption
Weigh the sample (full shell). Immerse for 24 hours in water, at a
temperature of 25° to 35°C. Remove from water, dry the surfaces by
wiping them, and weigh them again. Report the average gain in mass as
a percentage and shall not absorb water more than 5 percent of its mass.
VI. Heat Resistance
Place the shell for 15 minutes in an oven maintained at a temperature of
93 ± 5°C. The shell shall be shielded from direct radiation during the
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 test. Remove the shell from the oven and examine for separation,
distortion or softening and the shell shall not separate, distort or soften.

10.2.3. Eye protection

Eye injuries can happen through a variety of means. Most eye injuries occur
when solid particles such as metal slivers, wood chips, sand or cement chips get into
the eye. Smaller particles in smokes and larger particles, such as broken glass also
account for particulate matter causing eye injuries. Blunt force trauma can occur to
the eye when excessive force comes into contact with the eye. Chemical burns,
biological agents, and thermal agents, from sources such as welding torches and UV
light also contribute to occupational eye injury. Eye protection includes
i. Safety glasses
ii. Eye shields
iii. Goggles
iv. Face shields

Fig 10.3: Various parts of Goggles

ANSI/ISEA Z87.1 2003 (American), CE EN166 (European), give the

standards for safety goggles, face shields and spectacles. Lenses can be clear, tinted,
photochromic or polarized. Each type offers various levels of ultraviolet protection,
including no protection (even when coloured). Lateral (side) coverage usually in the
form of a fixed or detachable shield will not be allowed to have any openings larger in
diameter than 1.5mm. Coverage will be lateral from the vertical plane of the lenses

53
tangential to a point not less than 10mm posterior to the corneal plane and not less
than 10mm in height (8mm for the small head form) above/below the horizontal plane
as in fig 10.3.

 Ignition testing on all externally exposed materials is required but

ignition tests of textiles or elastic bands are not required.
 Specific lens types will be marked as noted:
I. ƒ Clear: no mark
II. ƒ Welding: “W” shade number
III. ƒ UV Filters: “U” scale number
IV. ƒ Visible light filter: “L” number
V. ƒ IR Filter: “R” scale number
VI. ƒ Variable tints: “V”
VII. ƒ Special purpose: “S”

10.2.3.1 Test for Safety goggles, Spectacles, face protections:

High Mass and High Velocity Impact forces to be tested remain essentially the same
as the prior standard. The high mass pointed projectile is pointed and weighs 500
grams and is dropped from a height of 50 inches. The high velocity test uses a steel
ball.25 inches in diameter that is fired at 150 feet per second at the lens in the test
frame.

10.2.4. Foot protection.

I. Safety shoes:
Safety Footwear Standards EN345 / EN ISO 20345:2007 / EN ISO 20345:2011. The
EN ISO 20345:2007 standard sets out minimum requirements that safety footwear
must be successfully tested against .The EN ISO 20345:2011 standard sets out new
tougher minimum requirements that safety footwear must be successfully tested
against. The standard specifies all safety footwear must have toe protection. In
addition to different protective features footwear can be represented by a combination
of letters. Cross section of safety boot is given in fig 10.4.

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 Fig10.4: Cross section of safety boot

Requirements of safety shoes:

a) Toe protection (SB): Toes are a very vulnerable part of your body, especially
in a work place. Toe protection must withstand a 200 joule impact..
Something heavy falling from a low height could have a lot less energy than
something lighter from a much higher height. As well as impacts the toe area
must withstand a resting mass of well over 1000kg. Most people have heard
of steel toe cap boots but the protection doesn't have to be steel. In fact there
are advantages to alternatives. Non-metallic protection can be equally as
strong but lighter.
b) Antistatic protection (A): Clothing, seating materials, and climate factors can
cause a build up a static charge of electricity in the body. Some materials in
footwear can over insulate the body causing the charge to be held. When you
then touch something the charge can rush from your body quickly causing a
spark and a small uncomfortable shock. Antistatic footwear will significantly
reduce this effect but does not offer full protection for exposure to electronics
and explosives work. You will need Electro-Static Protection (ESD) for this.

c) Midsole penetration protection (P) - SB-P, S1-P, S3, S5: Sharp objects where
we walk and stand are significant risk not only in the workplace but also
outdoors and at home. Midsole protection will guard against nails and other
objects. To meet this standard the footwear must be able to resist a
penetration force of 1100N. Midsole protection is provided in one of these
methods: a stainless steel insert in the sole, aluminium insert in the sole, or by

55
 Kevlar insole. The Aluminium and Kevlar solutions are the most flexible and
lightest and cover the greatest area of the foot. Kevlar insoles also offer much
higher thermal insulation.

d) Energy Absorption (E): Energy Absorption in the heel region.

e) Water Resistant Upper (WRU): Water resistant upper, not used on all rubber
or polymeric footwear.

f) Heat Resistant (HRO): Heat resistant Outsole: To resist 300°C for 60

seconds.

g) Insulation against Cold (CI): Insulation against cold: tested for 30 minutes at
1 -20°C.

h) Insulation against heat (HI): Insulation against heat: tested for 30 minutes at
150°C.

i) Electro-Static Discharge (ESD): ESD footwear is designed for the electronics

and explosives industry and has to meet ESD CEI EN61340-5-1 standard.

j) Non-metallic footwear: Safety footwear containing no metal parts is ideal for

workplaces with metal detectors like airports eliminating the hassle of
removing them.
10.2.5. Respirators:

Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, thus
preserving the health of one's respiratory tract. There are two main types of
respirators. One type of respirator functions by filtering out chemicals and gases or
airborne particles from the air breathed by the user. Gas masks and particulate
respirators are examples of this type of respirator. A second type of respirator
protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source. This type
includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). OSHA's
Respiratory Protection Standard 29 CFR 1910.134 gives the standards for major
requirements of respiratory protection standards. Fit tests are required to be
conducted to ensure the compatibility with users.

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10.2.6. Hand and Arm protection:

It depends on

-Type of chemicals handled.

-Nature of contact

-Grip requirement

Types of these are gloves and guards.

10.2.7. Body protection

It includes

-temperature protectives

-hot splashes from molten metal

-Hazard from tools

Types are:

-Laboratory coats

-Jackets

-Apron

-Surgical gown

-Full body suit

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