Credit And Collections: Effective Strategies Can Generate A

Substantial Cash Flow

Credit and Collections strategies, if properly applied can help firms reduce Accounts
Receivable (AR) balances and generate a substantial one-time cash flow. In this challenging
economy some customers will delay payment for as long as they possibly can do so. In other cases
invoices are not paid on time because there is some form of issue that must be addressed before
payment will be made. Your task is to apply payment pressure without creating undue friction that can
negatively impact customer relations.
Accounts Receivable is one of the largest and most liquid of corporate assets. Unfortunately
effective management of the process is still often wrongly seen as being part of accounting and
therefore as a cost center.
Many organizations view credit and collections as a necessary evil designed to protect against
bad debts. In actual fact credit and collections should be an integral part of the sales process; helping
establish an initial framework for a long and mutually beneficial relationship between buyer and seller
and completing the final step in the sale-to-cash cycle.
If viewed from this perspective, credit and collections becomes a sales enhancement function
and a profit center, not an administrative cost center that inhibits the sales process.
Credit and collections management is a fundamental part of Customer Relationship
Management and you must apply payment pressure in line with a formal strategy rather than just
trying to be tough on every customer.

Why is Credit and Collections Important?

Cash flow drives every business. If you cannot turn an invoice into cash in a timely manner,
then you are going to have to find an alternate source of cash to fund your operations. That’s why
people use the term order-to-cash. Credit and collections is the last step in this critical cycle. As long
as an invoice hasn’t been paid there is no sale!
Now let’s give you a very simple example to demonstrate the importance of credit and
collections. As we have alluded to above, this is a very challenging economy. Although a customer
may be given payment terms of Net 45 days (as an example), they will adjust the terms in their
Accounts Payable application to Net 60 and in many cases even more.
If you were to work with your customers to encourage them to pay you just a little bit sooner, a
modest 3-day reduction in receivables for a $10 million firm will generate a cash flow of $82,000! The
potential speaks for itself. The question now becomes one of creating a strategy and appropriate
tactics to empower your employees who are in charge of your credit and collections initiatives.
If you are interested in learning more, you might want to use GoogleBlogSearch to find other
articles and blogs that relate to credit and collections.

Major Components and Goals of Credit and Collections

In most cases the credit-to-cash function can be broken down into four major components:
 Credit/sales approval
 Billing
 A/R management (what some erroneously call “collections”)
 Monitoring and improvement
Each component must have a goal which compliments the purpose of the credit-to-cash
function itself.
 Credit/Sales Approval
If the purpose of credit is to secure profitable sales which would otherwise be lost, then it
follows that the goal of the Credit/Sales Approval process should be to seek ways to say yes while
being confident of payment. In some cases a substantial investment is made to guide the customer to
the point where they want to buy. It’s such a waste to then look for reasons to reject the sale or to
quite possibly alienate the customer to the point where they will reject you.
 Wrong Message: The credit approval process has at times been described as finding
ways to say “no” and the credit department has been referred to as the sales avoidance
department. Considering that the credit people are being told, via performance measurements, that
risk avoidance is the goal; it’s surprising that any customer gets approved.
 Right Message: The goal of the credit approval process should be to maximize sales
opportunities wherever possible while minimizing risks. Working to find ways of saying “yes” to every
possible sale while remaining confident of payment better complies with the sales support mission.
Most people treat credit approval as a fixed point in time with a fixed set of operating
characteristics. Once a prospect has overcome all of the credit approval hurdles that inhibit their
desire to place an order (we can really make the simplest of acts incredibly complex), they are
assigned a credit limit that in most instances acts more as a deterrent to new business than a
protection against increased risk.
 If a customer likes your products/services and wants to order more than either party
had originally anticipated, the credit limit places a temporary cap on their ability to do business with
you. What’s wrong with this picture?
 If you are operating below capacity or are trying to sell off excess inventory, the only
expenses that matter are the variable costs of production (product acquisition). The actual profit
margin for these incremental sales is therefore higher, sometimes substantially higher. In order to fill
this excess capacity you can adopt very aggressive pricing models and/or relaxed credit terms. The
write-off rate may be higher, but the incremental profit more than makes up for the added risk. This
concept is called “Product Value at the Time of Sale” and works for any type of business with excess
capacity.
One last comment should be made before we move forward. If A/R Management is in fact a
sales support function, then the people working in this area may need to adopt a different
attitude. Credit is not a privilege offered to only the few. Prospects and customers should not be
made to jump through hoops in order to do business with you. Customer contact to discuss overdue
invoices should be a positive experience where buyer and seller are working together to achieve a
mutually beneficial relationship. In short, A/R Management personnel should be well versed in the fine
art of selling.

Billing
Companies sell products in order to generate revenue. That revenue cannot be turned into
cash until two key milestones have been reached: the customer must receive the invoice and the
invoice must be approved for payment. Therefore the purpose of the billing process is to facilitate
payment.
It may not sound like a significant problem, but let’s look at an example where it takes three
days to generate an invoice. Let’s also say that this company generates $20 Million in annual
revenue. That’s $100,000 in revenue per day. Therefore for every day that an invoice is not
completed and mailed a company must invest an additional $100,000 in receivables. Looking at it the
other way round, for every day a company can reduce the time required to actually generate and mail
an invoice they will receive a one-time cash flow of $100,000.
 The invoicing function is a critical link in the order-to-cash cycle. At a minimum companies
should
 monitor and reduce the time required to generate a typical invoice and
 monitor and reduce invoice defects (format, pricing, terms, etc.).

A/R Management
A/R Management is not “collections”, the enforcement of payment. Collections is what
collection agencies and attorneys do, and they deal with “debtors”, not customers.
A/R Management is “the completion of the sale”. The goal is to keep customers current and
buying and in the process achieve one of the most important underlying goals: the stimulation of
repeat sales. The last thing smart companies want to do is create an impediment to lucrative repeat
business.
The purpose of A/R Management is keeping credit customers current. The benefit is
enhanced cash flow. The secondary purpose of A/R Management is the early identification and
control of the small percent of business that represents a potential for loss.

Monitoring and Improvement

The last and most important component of credit management is the process of continuous
improvement. Goals need to be established. Information needs to be generated to compare actual
results against the established goals. This then leads to the identification of opportunities for
improvement and the creation of specific steps to either overcome the identified problems (that’s the
reactive approach) or take advantage of the new opportunities (that’s the proactive approach). Finally,
the circle is closed as new goals are established and information gathered to monitor the revised
processes.
Please keep in mind that this is both an internal and external process. The internal
component is an analysis of the efficiency and effectiveness of business processes themselves as well
as individual employees (or work groups). Efficiency is tied to the cost of a business process (or one
of its components), while effectiveness is tied to whether the specified goals are being achieved.
You could spend great quantities of cash to make a business process work, but that would not
be cost effective. Conversely you could make the business process less costly and not achieve the
goals of the process. Somewhere between these two extremes is the best suited path and that path
will depend on your industry and the way you have decided to run your business.
Having said all of this, what then needs to be measured and why? The following list is
certainly not all inclusive but intended to help establish a framework to help measure efficiency and
effectiveness.
 Payment Terms: Cash flow can be impacted if payment terms are too liberal. While
more lenient payment terms may be a reflection of competitive realities, they may also be used as a
quick fix to gain business.
 Invoicing Delays: If there is a delay between the time an order is shipped or a service
provided and the invoice date, this may be an opportunity for improvement. Users should track both
the average delay (general improvement) as well as investigate billing delays for specific invoices that
exceed a specified limit (specific improvement).
 Procedural Errors: The failure to meet a customer’s business process requirements
(Purchase Order number, invoice formats, pricing, even number of invoice copies) will lead to payment
delays. These procedural errors need to be segregated by type, tracked, and continuously improved.
 Service Disputes: If a customer does not pay on time due to an identifiable
dispute/problem (goods or services are not provided on time, poor quality, or any other reason that
can be tracked), cash flow will be negatively impacted. These specific problems need to be resolved
as quickly as possible (another measurement standard) and they need to be tracked over time to
determine if general improvement is being achieved. When an invoice is disputed, a specific dispute
type needs to be assigned. Each dispute type (both instances and value) need to be monitored.
 Average Days Late: DSO (Days Sales Outstanding) is relevant to cash flow forecasting,
but not A/R Management simply because it (DSO) is not tied to the payment terms you can elect to
offer customers. Average Days Late (ADL) measures a customer’s payment history as it relates to the
payment terms offered for each invoice. If a customer’s ADL is increasing or is higher than average,
this should be a trigger to contact the customer, not about a specific invoice, but their payment history
in general. ADL may also indicate that a specific A/R rep is not quite as effective as they could be
(when compared against other A/R reps). Finally, a customer’s payment history should be one of the
factors sales people consider when discussing future pricing with customers.

Improving the Credit and Collections Process

We have hinted above that there are certain aspects of the credit and collections process that
need to be monitored and improved to minimize the funds tied up in Accounts Receivable. While it is
not possible for every customer to pay every invoice on time, there are some very specific steps you
can take to optimize AR balances and the credit and collections process.

Step 1: Remove all Impediments to Payment

Your first credit and collections strategy is the removable of any impediment to payment. Your
order-to-ship business processes cannot be allowed to stand in the way of payment. You could call
this a mini business process improvement opportunity. Whatever you call it, adopt credit and
collections strategies and tactics that give your customers no excuse to delay payment. Think about it
for a moment. How many days can be lost if you fail to give customers exactly what they need to
immediately approve your invoice for payment. If you are a $10 million firm, each day’s delay
represents $27,000 in cash flow.
Look at some of the credit and collections strategies listed below. How many could be
improved in your business?
 Ship/provide acceptable products and services (no returns, no questions).
 Make sure the invoice format is acceptable. If the customer requires an invoice format
that is different from your “standard” invoice format, this will require that your ERP system gives you
the ability to assign a specific invoice format to each customer.
 Bill what you quote.
 Create a method by which all quotations are saved and easily retrieved by AR
personnel to avoid any delay should the customer challenge the prices or rates you have billed.
 Include appropriate documentation. This implies that the invoicing system knows that
specific documentation is required by the customer and the person creating the invoice knows where
to get it easily so it can be included in the invoice packet.
 Reduce the time it takes to create and send invoices. In some instances this can be a
substantial delay. This is an ideal mini process improvement opportunity.
 Make sure you have the correct Bill-To information. This is particularly true for the
addition of new customers but also keep in mind the fact that the customer’s bill-to person can leave
and you have to determine their replacement quickly.
  If a customer requires additional invoice copies, send them with the original
invoice. Again this is something the invoicing system and the person creating the invoice need to
know.
 Send interim bills whenever possible. This is particularly true for service oriented
businesses. If the value of a project is going to be substantial, negotiate with the customer some form
of interim billing. Similarly if a project is going to cover the purchase and subsequent installation of a
high value machine, negotiate a contract whereby you bill for the machine when delivered.
 Transmit invoices electronically or use priority mail for high value invoices. The
objective here is to get the invoice in the hands of your customers as quickly as possible.
 Resolve disputes immediately. If the customer challenges an invoice, resolve this
dispute as quickly as possible.
 Track the reason why each invoice was not paid on time. If you do not monitor why
invoices are not paid on time, you cannot launch appropriate steps to improve your performance.
 Document the steps you take to improve each impediment and create graphs to track
your performance in each area.

Step 2: Implement an Appropriate Credit and Collections Strategy

Credit and collections is an integral part of your total customer relationship strategy. You
cannot adopt one strategy for all customers and you certainly should not adopt adversarial tactics that
put undue pressure on your customers. Instead you want your customers to want to do business with
you, even if they know they are paying you later than you want.
You have to decide when to contact customers and more importantly what credit and
collections approach you are going to use. If you start the credit and collections process too soon, you
might negatively impact the relationship you have with your best customers. If you wait too long, you
may be investing funds in Accounts Receivable (AR) that are desperately needs elsewhere.
 Extend credit (time) to your best (most profitable) customers.
 Contact habitually late customers sooner.
 The underlying objective of any credit and collections strategy is changing a customer’s
payment behavior. If you do nothing to change this behavior, then you just perpetuate the problem
every time you send them an invoice.
 Make sure management and your sales team buys into your credit and collections
strategies.
 All collections activities should be an integral part of your larger customer relationship
management (CRM) strategy.
 Make sure members of your credit and collections staff understand how they should
conduct themselves.
 Devise management oversight procedures. This is particularly useful when monitoring
the success of each credit and collections staff member. You might find that specific individuals may
not be doing quite as well as others.

Step 3: Adopt Effective Credit and Collections Tactics

Having devised an overall strategy and enlisted organizational support, what should you do
specifically to achieve your credit and collections objectives?
 Keep in mind the fact that each time you touch a customer there is a cost associated
with that contact. Your overall objective is to optimize the cost per dollar collected.
  Statements and dunning notices are low cost touches as long as customers
respond. For those that do not respond, a phone call may be the best first contact. This of course
requires that you track each customer’s response so you know who responds to what credit and
collections tactic. If a customer does not respond to dunning notices or statements, it makes no sense
to waste your valuable time on these fruitless activities.
 Dunning notices should list each invoice, the total outstanding and an expected pay
date. If possible the dunning notice should contain text asking for payment while at the same time
thanking the customer for their business. This carrot and stick approach is more effective than a
notice that appears to be blunt and forcing.
 Don’t use the same trigger point (e.g. 60 days overdue) for all customers. Good
customers who pay their bills on time and generate substantial gross margin should be contacted less
often than customers who are less “profitable”.
 Try to adopt a positive credit and collections approach until it become quite clear that a
more forceful attitude is required.
 If possible always contact the same person.
 If there is some impediment to payment, take immediate steps to resolve this specific
issue and then take steps to prevent this issue from occurring in the future.
 Don’t be afraid to ask for payment 7 – 14 days sooner. Most of your customers are
using some form of accounting software or ERP software and it’s likely that they are setting payment
terms within their Accounts Payable system that does not match the payment terms you have
negotiated.
 There is no incentive for the customer to do anything unless you ask for an action
(invoice approval, payment, etc.) by a specific date and follow up accordingly.
 Once you close a call, follow up immediately via e-mail (thanking the customer for their
anticipated payment, the action that has been agreed will be taken, the due date this action was
promised, and of course your call back date). All of this information is required so that the customer is
given no real opportunity to take no action. If the customer does not meet the actions agreed upon,
this information can be used when you next contact them.
 In some instances a forceful attitude is the only language people understand.
 Monitor payment history (Average Days Late, Not Average Days to Pay) and be ready
to react swiftly. Average Days Late is the key credit and collections measure because it relates to
what payment terms you have negotiated with the customer. In some instances sales people might
offer more lenient payment terms to close a particularly important sale. Average Days to Pay just
measure how long it takes for a customer to pay based on the original invoice date. It’s good for cash
flow forecasting, but has no relevance to credits and collections activities.
 Encourage prompt payment in the future by saying “Thank You” when you receive
payment.

Credit and Collections Software Applications

If your credit and collections tactics are entirely manual, obviously the process itself is very
inefficient. Small to mid-sized accounting systems only support an Aging Report as the primary credit
and collections tool, and it’s unlikely that there is a third party product that supports credit and
collections. If your current accounting system doesn’t support any form of software supported credit
and collections application, you can use your contact manager to support your credit and collections
activities.
Since the Aging Report contains a list of all unpaid invoices, you might want to use your
accounting system’s report writer to display a list of only those invoices that are X days
overdue. Review this list and create an action in your contact manager for each of your customers
that need to be contacted. Then you can at least track your efforts and send customers appropriate e-
mails depending on where they are in the credit and collections process. Once a customer pays, you
can “complete” the action that you created to track this specific overdue invoice.
Most higher-end accounting and ERP systems do support some form of credit and collections
functionality, but the “quality” of the applications will vary significantly. Some systems just support the
creation of an alert to let you know that a customer has an overdue invoice. That’s at least a start, but
you can do more.
The ideal credit and collections application is in fact a highly specialized contact manager.
 The system can be programmed to notify you when an invoice is overdue using a
trigger point (x days overdue) specified for each customer.
 If you are going to send statements and dunning notices, you can program these
activities into your credit and collections application on a customer by customer basis. Of course
these activities will occur automatically and should be added to the contact record for each invoice.
 If a personal call is the next step in the credit and collections process, the planned call
will be automatically placed into your credit and collections contact manager.
 If you are a larger firm with multiple people involved in credit and collections, the system
would assign the call to a collector assigned to that customer or region.
 The credit and collections application should contain the names of all appropriate
customer contacts (keeping in mind the fact that the people you are going to call are probably not the
people who will be called regarding sales and marketing).
 When you make the call all of the information relevant to each overdue invoice is one
click away (including sales order details).
 All of the information regarding the customer’s past payment history is available.
 If a customer has multiple overdue invoices, you can see each invoice and
automatically copy contact details to each invoice. This is particularly effective when the objective of
your call is securing payment for a number of invoices rather than a single or limited number of
invoices. As an example if the customer has 20 overdue invoices totaling $25,000, the objective might
be securing a $20,000 payment.
 You can take notes regarding the call.
 You can assign a next contact date.
 If the invoice needs to be escalated, the credit and collections application will allow you
to transfer the responsibility to another person. This transfer process could also be utilized to cover
vacations and other absences.
 Once an invoice has been paid, the credit and collections application will automatically
delete the next planned call relating to that invoice.
 Credit and collections specific histories will be available so you can more effectively
plan your credit and collections strategies and tactics.
This list of activities is just a summary of what’s possible when your credit and collections
efforts are software supported.

Searching for a New Accounting System or ERP System?

If you are contemplating the purchase of a new accounting system or ERP system, keep in
mind the fact that a software supported credit and collections application can help you reduce your
Accounts Receivable (AR) significantly. If you are a $50 million organization and credit and collections
is an issue (AR is way too high), a slight reduction in AR (say 3 days) has the potential to generate a
one-time cash flow of $135,000. Since you will need to justify the investment in a new accounting
system or ERP system this cash flow can be used to reduce the Total Cost of Ownership of the
contemplated accounting or ERP system.
If you are in the process of selecting a new accounting or ERP system (or might do so at
some point in the near future) you might want to contemplate the use of a software selection tool
like The Accounting Library. As you are defining your functional requirements, you can specifically
search for a system that features software supported credit and collections.

Summary
AR can be reduced, sometimes significantly. Rather than applying the exact same tactics for
all customers, determine how you are going to handle each customer, but always remember that credit
and collections is an integral part of customer relationship management. Your actions must help your
firm manage receivables effectively as well as support your firm’s sales objectives.
Home » Unlabelled » Elements, Objectives, and Function of Credit

Elements, Objectives, and Function of Credit

Have you heard the term credit? Of course the answer is often. In everyday life, we often
encounter the term loan. Both in the process of buying and selling as well as in the form of loans to
banks. But, you know the definition of credit? Put simply, credit is a transaction or a deferred
payment agreement.

Definition of Credit
The term loan actually comes from the Latin, yatiu credere, which means 'trust'. Meanwhile,
according to Big Indonesian Dictionary, credit means a loan up to a certain limit to the amount
allowed by a bank or other entity. According to the origin he said, the credit means 'trust'.
Therefore, the trust became one of the most important factor in a credit process.
Elements of Credit
The following are the elements contained in the credit.

1. Trust - Confidence the bank as lender of accomplishment given to debtors to repay the
mortgage according to a predetermined time period.

2. Period - The time-scale has been agreed regarding the provision of credit by banks and credit
repayment by the debtors.

3. Achievement - Achievement may be regarded as an object of interest or fee agreed upon banks
and debtors.

4. Risk - To avoid bad risks in the credit agreement, was held binding angunan or warranties are
charged to the debtors or borrowers.

Loan purpose
Here are a few credit purposes.

- Banks as lenders gain the advantage of interest, administrative costs, rewards, fees, and other
fees charged to debtors or borrowers.

- Business debtors or borrowers will increase. With the granting of credit and investment capital
loans, the borrower is expected to increase their business.

- The amount of credits channeled to improve implementation of development banks in the

economic sector. Thus, the provision of credit can help the government's job.
Credit function
Besides having a goal, credit has the following functions.

- Enhances the usability of the money.

- Increasing the amount of money in circulation and traffic of money.
- Increasing the value or usability of the goods.
- Increasing the circulation or distribution of goods.
- As a means of supporting economic stability.
- Activate and enhance the usefulness or the existing economic potential.
- As one of the bridges increase the national income distribution.
- As one means to establish international relations.

That discussion includes an overview of the credit which the elements, goals and functions.
Hopefully this article can add to your insight on credit so it can be used as a reference before
applying for a loan. However, credit is beneficial to both parties over the interest rate set at
reasonable levels may be useful
 Role Of The Credit And Collections
Department In Business

Companies expect their credit department to be sales oriented. Put simply,

this means the credit department should be looking for reasons to justify
establishing open account terms and/or releasing orders pending, rather than
looking for excuses to hold orders or to reject applicants for open account terms.
Having this simple idea in mind can make the difference between having the credit
department seen by senior management as a roadblock to the company reaching its
goals, and having the credit department and the credit manager viewed in a far
more favorable light.
The credit function is an important component of any company's business
operations. Using creative methods when necessary to structure transactions so
that sales can be approved, the credit department can make a significant
contribution to sales and profit maximization. The key is knowing when and how to
accomplish the sale safely. It’s important to find the best way to minimize the risk
of late payment or non-payment by customers.
The core activities of the credit department include:
o Maximizing sales,
o Accelerating cash inflow,
o Minimizing bad debt losses,
o Reviewing and approving new accounts,
o Developing and updating credit and collection policies,
o Establishing appropriate credit limits and terms of sale for new and
active customers,
o Creating new or more appropriate payment terms [terms of sale],
o Placing accounts on credit hold, and releasing orders from credit hold,
o Managing the collection function,
o Maintaining current information in the credit file on each active
customer,
o Documenting credit decisions and actions,
o Performing financial analysis on customer financial statements,
o Researching and resolving disputes and deductions that would
otherwise delay or prevent payment of accounts receivable,
 o Communicating with other departments within the company including
order entry, sales and shipping,
o Management reporting, and
o Safeguarding the company's investment in accounts receivable.
Collections and Credit Holds: Customers occasionally overreact to a
decision by a creditor company to place orders on credit hold. However, most
debtors understand the collection process that creditors use, and understand the
risk they face when they delay payment. Occasionally, the penalty for delaying
payments to creditors involves a credit hold.
Collections and Credit Risk Management: Most collection problems and bad
debts result from a flawed or inadequate initial credit investigation. It may be
helpful to think of credit extension as making a loan to an applicant. We know that
a bank would not make a loan without a completed and signed application, and
without a detailed understanding of the creditworthiness and financial worth of the
applicant. The care that banks take in approving loans should not be lost on trade
creditors. A creditor should not approve open account terms until there is
sufficient documentation to show the applicant is creditworthy.
Fin. Man.
(Investment and Portfolio Management)

Chapter 1- Introduction to
Investment Management
Fin. Man. 6 (Credit and
(Salem, Navarro, Sagrado, Awatin, Collection/ Feasibility Study)
Jao, Go, Navales)

Chapter 2- Bank Accounts and Credit Chapter 1 - Credit and collection

Security management in the Philippines setting
(Castaños, Tagod, Lagulay, Rago, Angelo (Sanaga, Celestino, Pantollano, Oclarit,
P., Paguican, ) Magallones, Weiss, Uba, Eljune, Guiterez)

Chapter 3- Stock Investment Chapter2- Credit Investigation and

( Cabalang, Caneos, Eljohn, Pantollano, Property appraisal
Besande, Humoc, Dansule) (Magdales, Waminal, Uayan, Lustre,
Babael, Lagulay, Dagoc, Sagrado, Kent,
Balaba)
Chapter 4- Mutual Funds
(Tubiano, Parra, Bala, Eljune, Paderanga,
Uba, Jomarisce) Chapter3- Credit Evaluation,
Financial Analysis,
Chapter 5- Real State Investment Credit Decision Making
(Flordeles, Mangmang, Dagoc, Jansol, (Tubiano, Gabac, Paguican, Paderanga,
Cimacio, Lustre, Llimit, Yvonne) Lobido, Raniego, Caneos, Cimacio,
Jomarisce R., Dansule)

Chapter 6-
Chapter 4- Collection Management
(Magdales, Pacto, Raniego, -Recovery of Credit Granted
Babael, Montalba, Jaway, Garillo) -Friendly/ Drastic recovery efforts
-Handling checks
Chapter 7- Personal Finance (Cabalang, Garillo, Besande, Ligan, Eljohn
(Oclarit, Uayan, Visto, Waminal, Lobido, H., Lloren, Jansol, Navarro, Bacor)
Jose, Weiss)
Chapter5- Remedial Account Management
Chapter 8- Investment Strategies (Salem, Humoc, Go, Montalba, Jao,
( Sanaga, Celestino, Magallones, Gabac, Awatin, Mangmang,Naval is Parra, Nova)
Bacor, Balaba, Marieta Ligan)
Chaper 6- Relevant Laws affecting credit
transaction
(Castaños, Pacto, Jaway, Paderanga,
Bala, Rago, Visto, Tagod, Navales,
Yvonne)