CBSE Class 11th PCB Sample Ebook
CBSE Class 11th PCB Sample Ebook
01. Introduction
Ÿ Biology; Bios = life, Logos = Study, means study of life is biology.
Ÿ “Biology is the science of life forms and living processes”
Ÿ Systematic and monumental description of life forms made human to make a detailed
system of identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms i.e. Taxonomy.
Ÿ Hence the study of identification, nomenclature and identification is called taxonomy.
Ÿ All the organisms have been evolved by a very long and complex process of evolution, so
they all are related to each other by sharing of some common genetic material but up to
varying degrees. This sharing may be less or more among different cases..
Ÿ When human came to know this fact then he humbled and led to cultural movements for
conservation of biodiversity.
Ÿ Sharing of common characters was also proved when human studied the similarities among
living organisms both horizontally and vertically.
Ÿ The living world is full of amazing diversity of living organisms.
Ÿ The diversity of habitats of organisms is also very vast and amazing.
Ÿ This diversity makes us deeply reflect on “What indeed is life” ? This question actually
asks to solve two problems.
(i) First is a technical → What living is as opposed to the non living means Living v/s Non
living.
(ii) Second is a philosophical one → what the purpose of life is?
As scientists we will try to solve the first question, because the second question is more
related to philosophy rather science.
CELLULARORGANISATION
CONSCIOUSNESS
The character which has no exception is called as defining property of life.
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Growth
Ÿ Increase in mass or overall size of a tissue or organism or its parts is called growth.
Ÿ Increase in mass and increase in number of individuals are twin characters of growth.
Ÿ Growth is an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or even of an
individual cell.
Ÿ Growth is of two types :
(a) Intrinsic growth :- This growth is from inside of the body of living organisms.
(b) Extrinsic growth :- This growth is from outside i.e. accumulation of material on any body
surface Non living exhibts this type of growth.
Ÿ Growth is of two types :
(a) Indeterminate growth = Unlimited growth → Growth which occurs continuously
throughout their life span is indeterminate growth or unlimited growth. It occurs in plants
and not in animals.
(b) Determinate growth = Limited growth → Growth which occurs only up to a certain age
is determinate growth or Limited growth. It occurs in animals. However, cell division
occurs in certain tissues to replace lost cells.
Ÿ In majority of higher plants and animals, growth and reproduction are mutually exclusive
events.
Ÿ Because both living and nonliving exhibit growth so it can not be taken as defining
property.
Ÿ Growth from inside (intrinsic growth) can be taken as defining property.
Reproduction
Reproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. It can be defined
as the production of new individuals of same kind by the grown up individuals. It is
characteristic exhibited by living organisms which can produce new young ones of their own
kind. There are two modes of reproduction ― asexual and sexual.
Ÿ In lower organisms like yeasts and Hydra, budding takes place in which new individuals
are produced by the formation of an outgrowth known as ‘bud’.
Ÿ Fragmentation is another mode of asexual reproduction, as in this, body of an organism
(parent body) breaks up into two or more parts (known as fragments) each of which
grows into a new individual. It is also quite common in filamentous algae, fungus,
bryophytes (at protonema stage which occurs during life cycle in mosses).
Ÿ Planaria (flat worms) exhibit an extraordinary ability to regenerate its lost body parts
completely (which is known as true regeneration).
Metabolism :
Ÿ The sum total all the chemical reactions occuring in our body is metabolism.
Ÿ All living organisms, both unicellular and multicellular exhibit metabolism.
Ÿ No non-living object shows metabolism.
Ÿ In this way metabolism is a defining character of living organisms because it has no
exceptions.
Ÿ Now we have known most of the chemical or metabolic reactions occuring in our body so
we can demonstrate many of them in a cell free medium or in a test tube in lab..
Ÿ The isolated metabolic reaction outside the body of an organism, performed in a test tube
(in-vitro) is neither living nor nonliving.
Ÿ These isolated reaction can be regarded as living things, but they are definitely living
reactions because they are similar to the reactions performing in our body.
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Ÿ Here we should not forget the fact that metabolism is the total sum of all the chemical
reactions performing in our body, it is not the sum of few or more living reactions.
Ÿ All organisms are made of small or big chemicals perform thousands of reactions and form
some other chemicals also in the bodies of living organisms.
Consciousness
Ÿ Most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organism. All living
organisms are able to detect changes, i.e., sense their surroundings and can also respond to
them. This is known as sensitivity which is defined as the ability to detect changes in the
environment and to give response towards it accordingly. Any change that can be detected
by an organism is called stimulus. This can be physical (like intensity, duration, direction
of light, sound, change in temperature, duration of day length, i.e., photoperiod, etc.),
chemical (like acids, pollutants, etc.) or biological (like other organisms).
04. Taxonomy
Ÿ This word was proposed by A.P. De Candolle in his book “Theories elementaire de la
botanique” (Theory of elementary botany)
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05. Systematics
(i) The term “Systematics” was pro posed by Linnaeus. The word systematics is derived
from the latin word “systema” which means systematic arrangement of organisms.
(ii) According to G. Simpson : Systematics is the study of diversity of organisms and all
their comparative and evolutionary relationship.
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10. Nomenclature
Ÿ Polynomical system :
v According to this system name of any plant consists of many words.
v For eg. Caryophyllum → Caryophyllum saxatilis folis gramineus umbellatis corymbis
v Based of morphology mainly
Ÿ Trinomical system :
v Proposed by Lamarck.
v According to this system name of any plant or species is composed of three names-
Ÿ Generic name
Ÿ Specific epithet
Ÿ Subspecific name (Name of variety)
v When members of any species have large variations then trinomial system is used.
v On the basis of dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species. eg.
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Ÿ Binomial system :
v Binomial system was first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book -“Pinax Theatre
Botanica”
v Carolus Linnaeus : Linnaeus used this nomenclature system for the first time on large
scale and proposed scientific name of all the plants and animals.
v Linnaeus is the founder of binomial system.
v Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book “Species Plantarum”
v It was published on 1 May, 1753. So this was the initiation of binomial system for
plants.
v So any name proposed (for plants) before this date is not accepted today.
v Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book “Systema Naturae” (10th
edition).
v This 10th edition of Systema Naturae was first published on 1 August, 1758.
v So initiation of binomial system for animals is believed to be started on 1 August,
1758.
11. ICBN
Ÿ Main rules of ICBN :
v According to binomial system name of any species consists of two components or
words.
Ÿ Generic name Name of genus
Ÿ Specific epithet
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12. Classification
Ÿ Empirical Classification :
v In this type, the actual nature or character of plants is not considered.
v Plants are classified on the basis of their alphabetical order.
v In this way plants are classified into 26 groups.
Ÿ Rational Classification
In this classification, plants are classified on the basis of their actual character or nature
i.e. by viewing the characters.
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Herbarium
Ÿ It is defined as “store house of collected plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
preserved on sheets”. Further, these sheets are arranged in the sequence of a universally
accepted system of classification.
Ÿ Such herbaria serve as quick source of reference in taxonomical studies. It also provides
information about the local flora as well as flora of distant areas. This information is also
useful in locating wild varieties and relatives of economically important plants.
List of some Herbaria of the world :
(i) Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (England)
(ii) Central National Herbarium, Calcutta
15. Museum
Ÿ Museum is a place used for storing, preservation and exhibition of both plants and
animals. All educational institutes and universities maintain museums in their Botany and
Zoology departments.
Ÿ A commonly used preservative solutions is “Formalin”. Plants and animals specimen may
also be preserved as dry specimens. For instances, insects are collected, killed and pinned
before preserving them in special insect boxes while larger animals like reptiles, birds
and mammals are usually stuffed and then preserved.
Ÿ National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) in Delhi is important from natural science
point of view.
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17. Key
Ÿ Key is an important taxonomic aid used for identification of plants and animals based on
the similarities and dissimilarities. Actually, it is a set of alternate characters of different
types arranged sequence wise in such a fashion that by selection and elimination one can
quickly find out the name of the organism.
Ÿ The keys are based on the set of contrasting characters generally in a pair known as
“couplet”. Each character of the couplet or statement in the key is called as “lead”.
Ÿ One has to choose correct option between two statements of characters of definite species
so that the animal or plant is identified accurately. Keys are generally analytical in nature.
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3. Define genus
6. What is meant by living ? Give any four defining features of all life forms.
8. Metabolism is a defining feature of all living organisms without exception. Isolated metabolic
reactions in vitro are not living things but surely living reactions. Comment
10.What is binomial system of nomenclature? Who proposed this system? Why is binomial
nomenclature the most acceptable mode of naming organism?
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Q1
Species→genus → family → order → class → Phylum → kingdom
Q2
Chemotaxonomy is based on the presence or absence of certain chemicals in cells or tissues.
Q3
Terms ’Genus was coined by Tournefort. Genera are the aggregates of closely related species. For
example, Potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and brinjal (Solanum nigrum)
are three diff
Q4
It is a taxonomical aid used for the identification of plants and animals. The keys are based on the
paired contrasting characters called as couplet. It represent two alternate forms of a given character.
Keys are generally of two types
(i) Indented or yoked keys It has a sequence of forms of different characters.
(ii) Bracketed keys It includes one pair of contrasting statements for a given characters.
Separate taxonomic keys are required for each taxonomic category such as family, genus and
species for identification purposes.
Q5
1. Classical Taxonomy deals with morphospecies. Modern Taxonomy deals with biological species.
2. Classical Taxonomy has typological concept. Modern Taxonomy has a population or biosystematic
concept.
3. In Classical taxonomy, species is considered to be static. In moder taxonomy, species is
considered to be dynamic.
4. Classical taxonomy does not study evolution and inter-relationships of species. Modern Taxonomy
studies premitiveness, advancement and inter-relationships of specoes.
Q6
The living organism exhibit distinctive characteristics, which are as follows (i) Growth All living
organisms grow in size as well as in number. Plants show growth all through their life whereas
animals up to a certain growth period after which growth ceases. (ii) Reproduction The process of
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reproduction is essential for the continuity of life on earth. Every organism whether unicellular or
multicellular gives rise to an individual of its own kind. Lower organisms usually reproduce
asexually, e.g.. Hydra, fungi, yeast, etc. Sexual reproduction is found in advanced group of
organisms, which involves two parents. In Amoeba growth and reproduction however is
synonymous. (iii) Metabolism There are thousands of enzymatic ally controlled reactions occurring
in all living cells. These are synthesizing (anabolic) and breaking down (catabolic) reactions. Hence,
it is the most important characteristic of living organisms. (iv) Response to stimuli Consciousness
and response to stimulus is the defining property of all living organisms. Plants respond to light,
water temperature. Unicellular organisms also sense their environment and respond accordingly. (v)
Cellular organization The cellular organization of the body is the defining feature of life forms.
Cells work together in hierarchical manner group of cells make tissues, tissues make organs, organs
make systems, systems when work in co-ordination form an individual. So, we can say living
organisms are self replicating, evolving and capable of responding to external stimuli.
Q7
The taxonomic aids are the aids which help in identification, classification and naming of a newly
discovered organisms (plant or animal). It could be in the form of preserved document like herbaria
or specimen kept at museums or scientific institutions. Other aids can be in the form of written
document like monograph ,taxonomic keys, couplets, etc. A new organism found can be studied
while comparing it with living plants and animals living in protected areas like Botanical gardens,
Zoological parks, etc. Botanical gardens helps in conservation of plants by (i) Growing important
local plant species and keeping record of them. (ii) Growing and maintaining rare and endangered
species. (iii) Supplying seeds for different, aspects of botanical research. Whereas zoological parks
also contribute in conserving biodiversity by (i) Providing natural environment and open space to
animals, i.e., wild life species. (ii) Keeping them safe from their predators ensuring protection, food
and shelter. (iii) Providing home to different native and exotic wild animals. (iv) Involving in the
rescue of endangered species. (v) Facilitating breeding of animals and releasing them free. Thus,
both botanical gardens and zoological parks play an important role in conservation ofbiodiversity.
Q8
All living organisms are made of chemicals which belong to various classes and have different
sizes and functions. In the cells, these chemicals are constantly being made and changed into
some other biomolecules. These conversions or chemical reactions taking place in the body are
collectively known as metabolism. All plants, animals, fungi and microbes exhibit metabolism.
Non-living objects do not exhibit metabolism. So we can say metabolism is a defining feature of
all living organisms without exception.
Metabolic reactions can be demonstrated outside the body in a test-tube. A metabolic reaction
preformed in a test-tube (in vitro) is neither living nor non-living but surely living reaction.
Q9
The study of taxonomy has led to the taxonomic categories – Kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species. Now let us see how all the organisms are classified into the hierarchy.
Species
It is the lowest level of classification and shows the high level of similarities among the organisms. One
species can be distinguished from other closely related species based on distinct differences in
morphology. Let us look at an example; Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum – Both are
malaria-causing parasites but have different effects on a patient. Plasmodium is the name of the genus and
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Q10
Binomial nomenclature, introduced by Carolus Linnaeus is the method of naming an organism with
the genus name first and species name later.
Conventions followed while naming
*Name of the genus begins with a capital letter.
*Name of the species should begin with a small letter.
*Scientific name should be in Italics when printed.
*Genus name and the species name should be underlined separately while handwritten.
The advantages of scientific over common names are that they are accepted by speakers of all
languages, that each name applies only to one species, and that each species has only one name.
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Class 11 |Chemistry
02 Structure of Atom
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01. Introduction
John Dalton 1808, believed that matter is made up of extremely minute indivisible particles,
called atom which takes part in chemical reactions. These particle can neither be created nor
be destroyed. However, modern researches have conclusively proves that atom is no longer an
indivisible particle. Modern structure of atom is based on Rutherford’s scattering experiment,
quantization of energy and wave mechanical model.
Composition of Atom
The works of J.J. Thomson and Ernst Rutherford actually laid the foundation of the modern
picture of the atom. If is now verified that the atom consists of several sub-atomic particles
like electron, proton, neutron, positron, neutrino, meson etc. Out of these particles the
electron, proton and the neutron are called fundamental subatomic particles.
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(iii) A very few of the -particles suffered strong deflections on even returned on their
path indicating that the nucleus is rigid and -particles recoil due to direct collision
with the heavy positively charged mass.
where, v=frequency of X-rays, Z=atomic number, ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants. When the values
of square root of the frequency were plotted against atomic number of the elements producing
X-rays, a straight line was obtained.
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Isotopes : Atoms of an element with the same atomic number but different mass number.
1 2 3
eg. 1H 1H 1H
Protonium deuterium Tritium
Isodiapheres : The elements which have same value of (n – p) is called Isodiapheres.
14 16
eg. 7N 8O
Values of (n - p) 0 0
Isotone : Elements which contain same no. of neutron is called Isotone.
30 31 32
eg. 14Si 15P 16S
number of neutrons 16 16 16
Isobar : The two different atoms which have same mass number but different atomic number
is called Isobar.
40 40 40
eg. 18Ar 19K 20Ca
Isoelectronic : Ion or atom or molecule which have the same mass number of electron is
called Isoelectronic species.
- + +2
eg. 17Cl 18Ar 19K 19Ca
No. of electrons 18 18 18 18
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Where, m = mass of the electron, r = radius of the electronic orbit, v = velocity of the
electron in its orbit.
h h h nh
(iv) The angular momentum can be , , ,...... . This principal is known as
quantization of angular momentum. In the above equation ‘n’ is positive integer which
has been called as principal quantum number. It can have the values n=1,2,3,...... (form
the nucleus). Various energy levels are designed as K(n=1), L(n=2), M(n=3),......etc. Since
the electron present in these orbits is associated with some energy, these orbits are called
energy levels.
(v) The emission or absorption of radiation by the atom takes place when an electron jumps
from one stationary orbit to another.
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nh ×mZe Ze
then v , v
mnh nh
on putting the values of e and h,
Z
v × × msec
n
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P E
T E K E
(i) Wave length : The distance between two adjacent crest or trough of the wave (or the
distance between two similar neighbouring points)
(ii) Time period (T): Time for one complete oscillation of wave is called the period (T). Time
taken by the wave to travel a distance equal to one wavelength. If C is the speed of
wave, then C .
T
C
(iii) Frequency (v): Number of oscillations per unit time is called frequency. v
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1010
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i.e. a body can emit or absorb energy as h, 2h ..... but it can not emit or absorb energy
in fractional values of h such as 1.5 h, 2.5 h.
Einstein supported the planck’s theory and explained the photoelectric effect considering that
electromagnetic radiations also propagate in the form of photon. Energy of each photon
hc
depends on frequency of light E h .
Since wave character of light explains the interference and diffraction phenomenon while the
particle character explains, black body radiations and photoelectric effect, the light was
considered to have wave as well as particle character [Dual character of light.]
(i) Wave nature : diffraction, interference, polarisation.
(ii) Particle nature : photoelectric effect.
Maximum number of lines produced when an electron jumps from nth level to ground level =
nn
.
1111
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(d) RH where n always
n
n
(e) For marginal line of limiting line n ∞. Hence the wavelength of marginal line =
R H
for all series. So, for lyman series it is .
RH
n
(vi) The wavelength of marginal line of Balmer series = .
RH RH RH
(vii) RH where n always
n
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de Broglie derived an expression for calculating the wavelength of the wave associated with
the electron. According to Planck’s equation
c
E h h .....(1)
The energy of a photon on the basis of Einstein’s mass-energy relationship is
E = mc2 .
....(2)
Where, c is the velocity of the electron.
From (1) and (2) equation
c
h × mc
h h
.....(3)
mc p
Momentum of the moving electron is inversely proportional to its wavelength.
Let kinetic energy of the particle of mass ‘m’ is E.
E mv
2Em = m2v2
Em mv p momentum
h h
.....(4)
p Em
Let a charged particle, with charge q be accelerated with a potential of V; then the kinetic
energy may be given as : E=qV
mv qV
m2v2 = 2qVm
mv qVm
h
and, .....(5)
qVm
Metal
Work function or threshold energy may be defined as the minimum amount of energy
required to eject electrons from a metal surface. According to Einstein,
Maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electron = absorbed energy – work function
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mvmax hc
where, v0 and are threshold frequency and threshold wavelength respectively.
Stopping Potential
The minimum potential at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping
potential.
If V0 is the stopping potential, then
h v v KEmax
eV h v v or V
e e
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Significance of Ψ :
The wave function may be regarded as the amplitude function expressed in terms of
coordinates x, y and z. The wave function may have positive of negative values depending
upon the values of coordinates
Significance of Ψ2 :
Ψ2 is a probability factor. It describes the probability of finding an electron within a small
space. The space in which there is maximum probability of finding an electron is termed as
orbital.
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(vi)
Value of l 0 1 2 3
Name of
s p d f
subshell
Shape of Clover leaf (Except
spherical Dumbbell dz doughtnut) Complex
orbital
(vii) It represent the orbital angular momentum, which is equal to .
(viii) The number of electrons in subshell = 2(2l+1).
(ix) For a given value of ‘n’ the total value of ‘l’ is always equal to the value of ‘n’.
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When two orbitals have same value of (n+l) the orbital having lower value of “n” has lower
energy and such an orbital will be filled up first.
Thus, order of filling up of orbitals is as follows:
1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4d<5p<6s<4f<5d
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2. A certain particle carries 2.5 × 10–16 C of static electric charge. Calculate the number of
electrons present in it.
4. If the diameter of a carbon atom is 0.15 nm, calculate the number of carbon atoms which can
be placed side by side in a straight line across the length of scale of length 20 cm long.
6. The quantum numbers of four electrons are given below. Arrange them in order of increasing
energies. List if any of these combination (s) has/have the same energy:
(i) n = 4, l = 2, ml = –2, ms = –1/2
(ii) n = 3, l = 2, ml = –1, ms = +1/2
(iii) n = 4, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = +1/2
(iv) n = 3, l = 2, ml = –2, ms = –1/2
9. The work function for caesium atom is 1.9 eV. Calculate (a) the threshold wavelength and (b)
the threshold frequency of the radiation. If the caesium element is irradiated with a wavelength
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500 nm, calculate the kinetic energy and the velocity of the ejected photoelectron.
10.
(i) Calculate the total number of electrons present in one mole of methane.
(ii) Find (a) the total number and (b) the total mass of neutrons in 7 mg of 14C (Assume that the
mass of neutron = 1.675 × 10–27 kg)
(iii) Find (a) the total number and (b) the total mass of protons in 34 mg of NH3 at S.T.P.
(Assume the mass of proton = 1.6726 × 10–27 kg)
Will the answer change if temperature and pressure are changed?
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Q1
No. of electron are: Na+ = 11–1 = 10, K+=19–1 = 18, Mg2+ = 12 – 2 = 10,
Ca2+ = 20–2 = 18, S2–=16+2 = 18, Ar = 18.
Hence, isoelectronis species are Na+ and Mg2+; K+, Ca2+, S2– and Ar.
Q2
Charges carried by one electron =1.6022×10–19C
×
∴Electrons present in particle carrying 2.5×10–16C charges
×
Q3
Mass number = 81, i.e., p + n = 81
If protons = x, then neutrons ×
∴ x + 1.317 x=81 or 2.317 x= 81 or
Thus , protons= 35, i.e., atomic no. = 35
Hence, the symbol is Br
Q4
Diameter of carbon atom= 0.15 nm = 0.15×10–9 m 1.5×10–10 m
Length along which atoms are to be placed = 20 cm 20×10–2 m = 2×10–1 m
×
∴No. of C-atoms which can be placed along the line
×
×
Q5
×
E J atom
For ionization from 5th orbit, n1 = 5, n2 = ∞
∴ ∆E = E2 – E1 = – 21.8 × 10–19 21.8 × 10−19 =21.8×10–19
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∞
8.72×10–20J
Q7
∆ x = 0.002 nm = 2×10–3 nm = 2×10–12 m
h × kg m s
∆ x × ∆ ∴ ∆ =2.638×10–23 kg m s–1
∆x × × × m
× kg m s
Actual momentum
× nm × × m × × × m
= 1.055×10–24 kg m s–1
It cannot be defined as the actual magnitude of the momentum is smaller than the uncertainty.
Q8
For H-like particles in general RZ
+
∴For He spectrum, for Balmer transition, n = 4 to n = 2.
R
RZ R × ×
Q9
(i) Work function (W0) = h v0
W × × J
∴
× (1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19J)
× J s
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KE × J or kg m s
∴ × × kg × kg m s
or v2=2.055×1011 m2 s–2 = 20.55×1010 m2 s–2 or v=4.53×105ms–1.
Q10
(i) 1 molecule of CH4 contains electrons = 6+4=10
∴ 1 mole, i.e., 6.022×1023 molecules will contains electrons = 6.022×1023
(ii)
(a) 1 g atom of 14C = 14 g = 6.022×1023 atoms = (6.022×1023)×8 neutrons.)
(as each 14C atom has 14−6=8 neutrons)
Thus, 14 g or 14000 mg have 8×6.022×1023 neutrons
× ×
∴ 7 mg will have neutron × ×
–27
(b) Mass of 1 neutrons = 1.675×10 kg
∴Mass of 2.4088×10–21 neutrons = (2.4088×1021) (1.675×10−27 kg) = 4.0347×10–6 kg
(iii)
(a) 1 mol of NH3 = 17 g NH3 = 6.022×1023 molecules of NH3
= (6.022×1023)×(7+3) protons = 6.022×1024 protons
×
∴ 34 mg, i.e., 0.034 g NH3 × × protons
–27
(b) Mass of one proton = 1.6726×10 kg
∴Mass of 1.2044×1022 protons = (1.6726×1027)×(1.2044×1022) kg = 2.0145×10−5 kg
There is no effect of temperature and pressure.
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Class 11 |Biology
03 The Living Organism
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01. Introduction
Ÿ Biology; Bios = life, Logos = Study, means study of life is biology.
Ÿ “Biology is the science of life forms and living processes”
Ÿ Systematic and monumental description of life forms made human to make a detailed
system of identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms i.e. Taxonomy.
Ÿ Hence the study of identification, nomenclature and identification is called taxonomy.
Ÿ All the organisms have been evolved by a very long and complex process of evolution, so
they all are related to each other by sharing of some common genetic material but up to
varying degrees. This sharing may be less or more among different cases..
Ÿ When human came to know this fact then he humbled and led to cultural movements for
conservation of biodiversity.
Ÿ Sharing of common characters was also proved when human studied the similarities among
living organisms both horizontally and vertically.
Ÿ The living world is full of amazing diversity of living organisms.
Ÿ The diversity of habitats of organisms is also very vast and amazing.
Ÿ This diversity makes us deeply reflect on “What indeed is life” ? This question actually
asks to solve two problems.
(i) First is a technical → What living is as opposed to the non living means Living v/s Non
living.
(ii) Second is a philosophical one → what the purpose of life is?
As scientists we will try to solve the first question, because the second question is more
related to philosophy rather science.
CELLULARORGANISATION
CONSCIOUSNESS
The character which has no exception is called as defining property of life.
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Growth
Ÿ Increase in mass or overall size of a tissue or organism or its parts is called growth.
Ÿ Increase in mass and increase in number of individuals are twin characters of growth.
Ÿ Growth is an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or even of an
individual cell.
Ÿ Growth is of two types :
(a) Intrinsic growth :- This growth is from inside of the body of living organisms.
(b) Extrinsic growth :- This growth is from outside i.e. accumulation of material on any body
surface Non living exhibts this type of growth.
Ÿ Growth is of two types :
(a) Indeterminate growth = Unlimited growth → Growth which occurs continuously
throughout their life span is indeterminate growth or unlimited growth. It occurs in plants
and not in animals.
(b) Determinate growth = Limited growth → Growth which occurs only up to a certain age
is determinate growth or Limited growth. It occurs in animals. However, cell division
occurs in certain tissues to replace lost cells.
Ÿ In majority of higher plants and animals, growth and reproduction are mutually exclusive
events.
Ÿ Because both living and nonliving exhibit growth so it can not be taken as defining
property.
Ÿ Growth from inside (intrinsic growth) can be taken as defining property.
Reproduction
Reproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. It can be defined
as the production of new individuals of same kind by the grown up individuals. It is
characteristic exhibited by living organisms which can produce new young ones of their own
kind. There are two modes of reproduction ― asexual and sexual.
Ÿ In lower organisms like yeasts and Hydra, budding takes place in which new individuals
are produced by the formation of an outgrowth known as ‘bud’.
Ÿ Fragmentation is another mode of asexual reproduction, as in this, body of an organism
(parent body) breaks up into two or more parts (known as fragments) each of which
grows into a new individual. It is also quite common in filamentous algae, fungus,
bryophytes (at protonema stage which occurs during life cycle in mosses).
Ÿ Planaria (flat worms) exhibit an extraordinary ability to regenerate its lost body parts
completely (which is known as true regeneration).
Metabolism :
Ÿ The sum total all the chemical reactions occuring in our body is metabolism.
Ÿ All living organisms, both unicellular and multicellular exhibit metabolism.
Ÿ No non-living object shows metabolism.
Ÿ In this way metabolism is a defining character of living organisms because it has no
exceptions.
Ÿ Now we have known most of the chemical or metabolic reactions occuring in our body so
we can demonstrate many of them in a cell free medium or in a test tube in lab..
Ÿ The isolated metabolic reaction outside the body of an organism, performed in a test tube
(in-vitro) is neither living nor nonliving.
Ÿ These isolated reaction can be regarded as living things, but they are definitely living
reactions because they are similar to the reactions performing in our body.
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Ÿ Here we should not forget the fact that metabolism is the total sum of all the chemical
reactions performing in our body, it is not the sum of few or more living reactions.
Ÿ All organisms are made of small or big chemicals perform thousands of reactions and form
some other chemicals also in the bodies of living organisms.
Consciousness
Ÿ Most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organism. All living
organisms are able to detect changes, i.e., sense their surroundings and can also respond to
them. This is known as sensitivity which is defined as the ability to detect changes in the
environment and to give response towards it accordingly. Any change that can be detected
by an organism is called stimulus. This can be physical (like intensity, duration, direction
of light, sound, change in temperature, duration of day length, i.e., photoperiod, etc.),
chemical (like acids, pollutants, etc.) or biological (like other organisms).
04. Taxonomy
Ÿ This word was proposed by A.P. De Candolle in his book “Theories elementaire de la
botanique” (Theory of elementary botany)
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05. Systematics
(i) The term “Systematics” was pro posed by Linnaeus. The word systematics is derived
from the latin word “systema” which means systematic arrangement of organisms.
(ii) According to G. Simpson : Systematics is the study of diversity of organisms and all
their comparative and evolutionary relationship.
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10. Nomenclature
Ÿ Polynomical system :
v According to this system name of any plant consists of many words.
v For eg. Caryophyllum → Caryophyllum saxatilis folis gramineus umbellatis corymbis
v Based of morphology mainly
Ÿ Trinomical system :
v Proposed by Lamarck.
v According to this system name of any plant or species is composed of three names-
Ÿ Generic name
Ÿ Specific epithet
Ÿ Subspecific name (Name of variety)
v When members of any species have large variations then trinomial system is used.
v On the basis of dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species. eg.
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Ÿ Binomial system :
v Binomial system was first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book -“Pinax Theatre
Botanica”
v Carolus Linnaeus : Linnaeus used this nomenclature system for the first time on large
scale and proposed scientific name of all the plants and animals.
v Linnaeus is the founder of binomial system.
v Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book “Species Plantarum”
v It was published on 1 May, 1753. So this was the initiation of binomial system for
plants.
v So any name proposed (for plants) before this date is not accepted today.
v Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book “Systema Naturae” (10th
edition).
v This 10th edition of Systema Naturae was first published on 1 August, 1758.
v So initiation of binomial system for animals is believed to be started on 1 August,
1758.
11. ICBN
Ÿ Main rules of ICBN :
v According to binomial system name of any species consists of two components or
words.
Ÿ Generic name Name of genus
Ÿ Specific epithet
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12. Classification
Ÿ Empirical Classification :
v In this type, the actual nature or character of plants is not considered.
v Plants are classified on the basis of their alphabetical order.
v In this way plants are classified into 26 groups.
Ÿ Rational Classification
In this classification, plants are classified on the basis of their actual character or nature
i.e. by viewing the characters.
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Herbarium
Ÿ It is defined as “store house of collected plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
preserved on sheets”. Further, these sheets are arranged in the sequence of a universally
accepted system of classification.
Ÿ Such herbaria serve as quick source of reference in taxonomical studies. It also provides
information about the local flora as well as flora of distant areas. This information is also
useful in locating wild varieties and relatives of economically important plants.
List of some Herbaria of the world :
(i) Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (England)
(ii) Central National Herbarium, Calcutta
15. Museum
Ÿ Museum is a place used for storing, preservation and exhibition of both plants and
animals. All educational institutes and universities maintain museums in their Botany and
Zoology departments.
Ÿ A commonly used preservative solutions is “Formalin”. Plants and animals specimen may
also be preserved as dry specimens. For instances, insects are collected, killed and pinned
before preserving them in special insect boxes while larger animals like reptiles, birds
and mammals are usually stuffed and then preserved.
Ÿ National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) in Delhi is important from natural science
point of view.
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17. Key
Ÿ Key is an important taxonomic aid used for identification of plants and animals based on
the similarities and dissimilarities. Actually, it is a set of alternate characters of different
types arranged sequence wise in such a fashion that by selection and elimination one can
quickly find out the name of the organism.
Ÿ The keys are based on the set of contrasting characters generally in a pair known as
“couplet”. Each character of the couplet or statement in the key is called as “lead”.
Ÿ One has to choose correct option between two statements of characters of definite species
so that the animal or plant is identified accurately. Keys are generally analytical in nature.
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3. Define genus
6. What is meant by living ? Give any four defining features of all life forms.
8. Metabolism is a defining feature of all living organisms without exception. Isolated metabolic
reactions in vitro are not living things but surely living reactions. Comment
10.What is binomial system of nomenclature? Who proposed this system? Why is binomial
nomenclature the most acceptable mode of naming organism?
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Q1
Species→genus → family → order → class → Phylum → kingdom
Q2
Chemotaxonomy is based on the presence or absence of certain chemicals in cells or tissues.
Q3
Terms ’Genus was coined by Tournefort. Genera are the aggregates of closely related species. For
example, Potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and brinjal (Solanum nigrum)
are three diff
Q4
It is a taxonomical aid used for the identification of plants and animals. The keys are based on the
paired contrasting characters called as couplet. It represent two alternate forms of a given character.
Keys are generally of two types
(i) Indented or yoked keys It has a sequence of forms of different characters.
(ii) Bracketed keys It includes one pair of contrasting statements for a given characters.
Separate taxonomic keys are required for each taxonomic category such as family, genus and
species for identification purposes.
Q5
1. Classical Taxonomy deals with morphospecies. Modern Taxonomy deals with biological species.
2. Classical Taxonomy has typological concept. Modern Taxonomy has a population or biosystematic
concept.
3. In Classical taxonomy, species is considered to be static. In moder taxonomy, species is
considered to be dynamic.
4. Classical taxonomy does not study evolution and inter-relationships of species. Modern Taxonomy
studies premitiveness, advancement and inter-relationships of specoes.
Q6
The living organism exhibit distinctive characteristics, which are as follows (i) Growth All living
organisms grow in size as well as in number. Plants show growth all through their life whereas
animals up to a certain growth period after which growth ceases. (ii) Reproduction The process of
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reproduction is essential for the continuity of life on earth. Every organism whether unicellular or
multicellular gives rise to an individual of its own kind. Lower organisms usually reproduce
asexually, e.g.. Hydra, fungi, yeast, etc. Sexual reproduction is found in advanced group of
organisms, which involves two parents. In Amoeba growth and reproduction however is
synonymous. (iii) Metabolism There are thousands of enzymatic ally controlled reactions occurring
in all living cells. These are synthesizing (anabolic) and breaking down (catabolic) reactions. Hence,
it is the most important characteristic of living organisms. (iv) Response to stimuli Consciousness
and response to stimulus is the defining property of all living organisms. Plants respond to light,
water temperature. Unicellular organisms also sense their environment and respond accordingly. (v)
Cellular organization The cellular organization of the body is the defining feature of life forms.
Cells work together in hierarchical manner group of cells make tissues, tissues make organs, organs
make systems, systems when work in co-ordination form an individual. So, we can say living
organisms are self replicating, evolving and capable of responding to external stimuli.
Q7
The taxonomic aids are the aids which help in identification, classification and naming of a newly
discovered organisms (plant or animal). It could be in the form of preserved document like herbaria
or specimen kept at museums or scientific institutions. Other aids can be in the form of written
document like monograph ,taxonomic keys, couplets, etc. A new organism found can be studied
while comparing it with living plants and animals living in protected areas like Botanical gardens,
Zoological parks, etc. Botanical gardens helps in conservation of plants by (i) Growing important
local plant species and keeping record of them. (ii) Growing and maintaining rare and endangered
species. (iii) Supplying seeds for different, aspects of botanical research. Whereas zoological parks
also contribute in conserving biodiversity by (i) Providing natural environment and open space to
animals, i.e., wild life species. (ii) Keeping them safe from their predators ensuring protection, food
and shelter. (iii) Providing home to different native and exotic wild animals. (iv) Involving in the
rescue of endangered species. (v) Facilitating breeding of animals and releasing them free. Thus,
both botanical gardens and zoological parks play an important role in conservation ofbiodiversity.
Q8
All living organisms are made of chemicals which belong to various classes and have different
sizes and functions. In the cells, these chemicals are constantly being made and changed into
some other biomolecules. These conversions or chemical reactions taking place in the body are
collectively known as metabolism. All plants, animals, fungi and microbes exhibit metabolism.
Non-living objects do not exhibit metabolism. So we can say metabolism is a defining feature of
all living organisms without exception.
Metabolic reactions can be demonstrated outside the body in a test-tube. A metabolic reaction
preformed in a test-tube (in vitro) is neither living nor non-living but surely living reaction.
Q9
The study of taxonomy has led to the taxonomic categories – Kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species. Now let us see how all the organisms are classified into the hierarchy.
Species
It is the lowest level of classification and shows the high level of similarities among the organisms. One
species can be distinguished from other closely related species based on distinct differences in
morphology. Let us look at an example; Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum – Both are
malaria-causing parasites but have different effects on a patient. Plasmodium is the name of the genus and
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Q10
Binomial nomenclature, introduced by Carolus Linnaeus is the method of naming an organism with
the genus name first and species name later.
Conventions followed while naming
*Name of the genus begins with a capital letter.
*Name of the species should begin with a small letter.
*Scientific name should be in Italics when printed.
*Genus name and the species name should be underlined separately while handwritten.
The advantages of scientific over common names are that they are accepted by speakers of all
languages, that each name applies only to one species, and that each species has only one name.
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