Chapter 2 Literature review on learning styles

2.1 Background of learning styles

Learning styles have received considerable attention in recent years. There are more than 20 style
dimensions that have been identified so far. It has come out of the more general research on cognitive
styles, particularly from the field of psychology. The earliest and frequently discussed dimension of
learning styles is the concept of field dependence and field independence that is advocated by
psychologist Herman Witkin. Recent researchers, such as Lardner (1989), Reid(1995), Nam & Oxford
(1998), Bailey & Onwuegbuzie (2000), Malinsky (2001), Ehrman & Leaver (2003), Decapua & Wintergerst
(2005), have contributed greatly to the development of learning style theories.

Kolb’s (1976) experiential learning theory is prevalent in educational settings, because his theory
explains more about the teaching and learning process (Cited by Reid, 1995). Many researchers and
instructors have adopted his theory and applied it into different educational areas. The most important
thing is that he has proposed four learner types on the basis of his learning theories. And the four
learner types are converger, diverger, assimilator, and accommodator.

Claxton and Murrell (1987) use an onion metaphor to describe the multi-constructs of learning styles
(Cited by Eliason, 1995). The multi-constructs of learning styles are compared as the layers of an onion.
The core is composed of personality characteristics, then from insideto outside, the layers are
sequentially information-processing the second layer, social interaction the third layer, and instructional
layer the fourth and the outermost layer. The core is the mostm constant and stable part, but the
successive layers around it can be slightly changed to some extent.

Reid (1995) divides the learning-style researches into three major categories: cognitive learning styles,
sensory learning styles, and personality styles. Cognitive learning styles, according to her introduction,
include field-independent and field-dependent learning styles, analytic. and global learning styles,
reflective and impulsive styles, and Kolb’s Experiential Model. Sensory learning styles consist of
perceptual learning styles and environmental learning styles. Personality learning styles are made up of
Myers-Briggs Temperament styles, tolerance of ambiguity styles, right and left hemisphere styles.

Riding & Rayner (1998) just discuss and describe the two basic dimensions of cognitive styles, including
wholist-analytic and verbal-imagery styles. The wholist-analytic style learners tend to organize
information into wholes or parts, while verbal-imagery style learners are inclined to represent
information during thinking verbally or in mental pictures.

It is inevitable that diverse assessment instruments of learning styles exist. It is difficult to find a
comprehensive assessment instrument because of the complex nature of learning styles. The majority of
the assessment instruments are only to measure one or two dimensions of learning styles. For instance,
O’Brien’s (1990) Learning Channel Preference Checklist (LCPC) and Reid’s (1984) Perceptual Learning
Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSP) are instruments just to measure perceptual learning styles,
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measures personality traits, such as extroversion-introversion,
sensing-perception and the like, and

Oxford’s (1993) Style Analysis Survey (SAS) is relatively multi-dimensional and includes learning styles,
such as perceptual learning styles, extroverted and introverted learning styles, concrete and sequential
learning styles and so on. In this study, we mainly focus on perceptual learning style preference because
it is one of the most obvious aspects of learning styles. Rossi-le (1989) refers to it as an individual’s
preferred mode for perceiving, organizing, and retaining information. Reid’s (1984) Perceptual Learning
Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSP) is used in this study, because of her high reliability and validity for
non-native speakers. It measures six types of perceptual learning styles, including visual, auditory,
tactile, kinesthetic, individual, and group learning styles. Each of the learning styles possesses unique
learning characteristics. Visual-style learners like to learn through eyes. For example, they prefer to
obtain information through reading, computers, TV, and bulletin boards. Students of auditory learning
styles rely heavily on listening or talking; they remember what you say. Tactile-style and kinesthetic-style
learners like to learn through touching or moving and prefer to obtain information from audio tapes,
lectures, class discussions, field trips, and role-plays. Individual-style learners learn best when they work
alone, which contrasts strongly to group-style learners who learn effectively when work with other
students or peers. It is evident that all learners have individual attributes relating to their own learning
process and learn differently because of their biological and psychological differences.

2.2 Definitions of styles and learning styles

The concept of style has existed in literature for approximately a century. It can be dated back to a
description of personality in classical Greek literature about the ancient classification of temperament
and physique created by Hippocrates (Riding & Rayer, 1998). Styles are the words used to describe
differences among people. They are the general, broad approaches a person uses to learn or to solve a
problem. Brown (1994) defines it as consistent and rather enduring tendencies or preference within an
individual. Generally speaking, styles are an individual’s habitual patterns or preferred ways of doing
something that remain consistent over a long period of time.

Learning styles originate from the concept of “style”. There is a lack of concept agreement over the basic
terminology. The term has been used in various and sometimes confusing ways in the literature, often
interchangeably with the terms of cognitive styles, affective styles, or learning strategies. Cognitive
styles and affective styles are only sub-constructs of learning styles and learning styles are more
comprehensive. Cognitive styles are often referred to as an individual’s preferred and habitual approach
to organize and represent information. Its important dimensions are field-dependent and field
independent, leveling and sharpening, holist and serialist, impulsive and reflective, and abstract and
concrete etc. Affective styles are usually related to an individual’s emotional states, including self-
esteem, inhibition, risk-taking and anxiety and the like. Learning styles are constant and innate and
difficult to be changed, whereas learning strategies can be learned and consciously applied in different
learning situations.

Learning strategies are specific procedures or techniques a person consciously uses in solving a problem
or in working through an assignment. Literature on definitions of learning styles is also rich and diverse.
Different researchers emphasize on different aspects of learning styles when rendering the definitions.
Keefe (1979) defines learning styles as the cognitive, affective and physiological behaviors that serve as
relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning
environment (Cited by Eliss, 1994). Reid (1995) holds the view that learning styles are an individual’s
natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and
skills. It is difficult to find an overall and comprehensive definition of learning styles, but similarities can
be concluded from these definitions that the characteristics of consistency and perseverance are the
core of all the learning style definitions.

2.3 Models of learning styles

For researchers, it is difficult to propose a comprehensive learning model that encompasses all
dimensions of learning styles. Thus the majority of learning style models focus on one or two aspects. In
the following part, only two learning style models are introduced and elaborated because of their great
popularity in research field.

2.3.1 The Dunn and Dunn learning-style model

Compared with other learning-style approaches, the Dunn and Dunn learning-style model encompasses
greater comprehensiveness and consistent effectiveness. According to Dunn and Dunn (1993), learning
style is the way that students begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and
difficult academic information and is composed of both biological and developmental characteristics
that make the identical instructional environments, methods, and resources effective for some learners
and ineffective for others (Cited by Dunn and Griggs, 2000).

In this model, the Dunns describe learning style as the ways to affect an individual’s abilities to master
new and difficult academic information or skills. 21 elements have been identified in this model and are
classified into five categories of learning stimuli.

(1) Environmental. The elements are sound, light, temperature, and design. Part of an individual’s
learning style depends on his or her preference regarding sound versus silence, bright versus soft
lighting, warm versus cool temperatures, and formal versus informal seating.

(2) Emotional. These elements are motivation, persistence, responsibility (conformity versus
nonconformity), and preference for structure versus choice.

(3) Sociological. These elements describe the group in which a student prefers to learn, such as whether
to learn alone, with peers, or with either a collegial or authoritative adult, andlor in a variety of ways as
opposed to patterns or routines.

(4) Physiological. These elements include perceptual strengths like auditory, visual, tactual, and
kinesthetic skills; time-of-day energy levels; intake (snacking while concentrating); and mobility needs.

(5) Psychological. These elements describe the way in which a student processes information. For
example, analytic students focus on facts or details in step-by-step fashion.

Gradually the facts build up to an understanding. Conversely, global students need to understand how
they are learning relating to them and their lives before they can begin to focus on facts.

Also, analytic students respond to printed words and numbers, whereas global students respond better
to illustrations and pictures (Searson, R., & Dunn, R., 2001).

In summary, Dunn and Griggs (2000) explain the theoretical base towards the Dunn and Dunn Learning-
Style Model as follows:

1. Most individuals can learn.

2. Instructional environments, resources, and approaches respond to diverse learning-style strengths.

3. Everyone has strengths, but different people have very different strengths.
4. Individual instructional preference exists and can be measured reliably (Burke, Guastello et
al.,1999/2000).

5. Given responsive environments, resources, and approaches, students attain statistically higher
achievement- and attitude-test scores in congruent, rather than in incongruent, treatments ( Dunn &
Dunn, 1992, 1993; Dunn, Dunn, & Perrin, 1994; Dunn, Griggs et al., 1995); they also behave better in
style-responsive environments (Oberer, 1999).

6. Teachers can learn to use learning styles as a cornerstone of their instruction ( Dunn & DeBello, 1999).

7. Students can learn to capitalize on their learning-style strengths when concentrating on new and
difficult information (P. Roberts, 1999; Schiering, 1999).

2.3.2 Kolb’s learning style model

Kolb’s learning style model has attracted considerable interest since the mid-1970s and has greatly
contributed to the development of learning style theories. Kolb remarks that learning is the process
whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience (Cited by Riding & Rayer,
1998). Learning style is described by Kolb (1976) as the individual’s preferred method for assimilating
information and makes learners actively involve in the learning process.

Hauer, Straub and Wolf (2005) state that Kolb’s theory of learning is based on Dewey’s emphasis on the
need for learning in experience; on Kurt Lewin’s work which stresses the importance of a person’s active
learning; and John Piaget’s theory of intelligence which explains the interaction between the person and
the environment. According to Kolb, the learning model comprises two independent dimensions:
perception and process. The first dimension involves concrete experiences and abstract
conceptualization, and the second includes active experimentation and reflective observation.
Perception reflects how individuals perceive information. For example, abstract learners comprehend
information conceptually and analytically, whereas concrete learners learn most effectively through
specific learning experiences. Processing describes how individuals process information. Active learners,
for instance, learn primarily by manipulating the environment, while reflective individuals typically learn
by introspection and internal reflection on the external world.

The learning model of two dimensions can be further classified into the following four learner types:
Converger (Common sense learner): these students perceive information abstractly and learn through
active experimentation. They are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They prefer
activities, such as small-group discussions, classroom participation, and computer use. Their favorite
question is “How does this work?”.

Diverger (Innovative learner): these students learn better when they are able to perceive concretely and
to process reflectively. They like to do things by themselves and have good imaginative abilities. They
are interested in people and culture, and tend to be social learners. Brain-storming and lectures are
their favorite activities. They usually bear the question “Why do I need to learn this?” in their minds.
Assimilator (Analytic learner): these students learn more effectively when they are able to perceive
abstractly and to process reflectively. They are good at putting the separate information into a logical
organization and enjoy theoretical reading. They are more interested in facts and important things. They
are more used to traditional classroom learning. Their favorite question is “What do I need to learn?”.
Accommodator (Dynamic learner): these students learn more effectively when they are able to perceive
concretely and to process actively. They are good at hands-on experience and like to connect their
learning into the context of real world. They like activities of risk-taking, presentations, debates, and
group discussions, but dislike authority figures. They always hold the question like “What if…?”.

The four learner types can be summarized briefly as below: accommodators are people who learn
primarily from “hands-on” experience rather than from logical analysis; divergers are best at viewing
concrete situations from many different points of view; assimilators are best at organizing information
into a concise and logical form; convergers are best at finding practical use for ideas and theories.

REFERENCE:
Essays, UK. (November 2018). Literature review on learning styles. Retrieved from
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