Sri Vidya College of Engineering & Technology, Virudhunagar Course Material (Lecture Notes)

Introduction to Mobile Computing

The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and

satellite services will make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless of
size, most mobile computers will be equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed part of the
network, and, perhaps, to other mobile computers. The resulting computing
environment, which is often referred to as mobile or nomadic computing, no longer
requires users to maintain a fixed and universally known position in the network and
enables almost unrestricted mobility. Mobility and portability will create an entire new class of
applications and, possibly, new massive markets combining personal computing and consumer
electronics.
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that enable people
to access network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.
A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:
1. F i x e d and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office.
Neither weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile usage. The
devices use fixed networks for performance reasons.
2. M o b i l e and wired: Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the laptop
from one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the telephone
network and a modem.
3. F i x e d and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical
buildings to avoid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network
setup.
4. M o b i l e and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user, who
can roam between different wireless networks. Most technologies discussed in this book
deal with this type of device and the networks supporting them. Today’s most successful
example for this category is GSM with more than 800 million users.

APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING

In many fields of work, the ability to keep on the move is vital in order to utilise
time efficiently. The importance of Mobile Computers has been highlighted in many fields of
which a few are described below:
1. Vehicles: Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast
information are received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s.
For personal communication, a universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS)
phone might be available offering voice and data connectivity with 384 kbit/s. The
current position of the car is determined via the global positioning system (GPS). Cars
driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of
information in emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe distance. In case
of an accident, not only will the airbag be triggered, but the police and ambulance

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service will be informed via an emergency call to a service provider. Buses, trucks,
and trains are already transmitting maintenance and logistic information to their home
base, which helps to improve organization (fleet management), and saves time and
money.
2. Emergencies: An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital can
carry vital information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of the
accident. All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and
specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis. Wireless networks are the only means
of communication in the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes. In
the worst cases, only decentralized, wireless ad-hoc networks survive.
3. Business: Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to major
customers. They can access the latest market share information. At a small recess, they
can revise the presentation to take advantage of this information. They can
communicate with the office about possible new offers and call meetings for discussing
responds to the new proposals. Therefore, mobile computers can leverage competitive
advantages. A travelling salesman today needs instant access to the company’s
database: to ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable
the company to keep track of all activities of their travelling employees, to keep
databases consistent etc. With wireless access, the laptop can be turned into a true
mobile office, but efficient and powerful synchronization mechanisms are needed to
ensure data consistency.
4. Credit Card Verification: At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and
Supermarkets, when customers use credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication
required between the bank central computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect
verification of the card usage, can take place quickly and securely over cellular channels
using a mobile computer unit. This can speed up the transaction process and relieve
congestion at the POS terminals.
5. Replacement of Wired Networks: wireless networks can also be used to replace wired
networks, e.g., remote sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings. Due to economic
reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for weather forecasts, earthquake
detection, or to provide environmental information. Wireless connections, e.g., via
satellite, can help in this situation. Other examples for wireless networks are computers,
sensors, or information displays in historical buildings, where excess cabling may
destroy valuable walls or floors.
6. Infotainment: wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any
appropriate location. The travel guide might tell you something about the history of a
building (knowing via GPS, contact to a local base station, or triangulation where you
are) downloading information about a concert in the building at the same evening via a
local wireless network. Another growing field of wireless network applications lies in
entertainment and games to enable, e.g., ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people

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meet to play together.

Limitations of Mobile Computing

Resource constraints: Battery

Interference: Radio transmission cannot be protected against interference using shielding and
result in higher loss rates for transmitted data or higher bit error rates respectively
Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are still very low
for wireless devices compared to desktop systems. Researchers look for more efficient
communication protocols with low overhead.
Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in signal power within a region,
thus link delays and connection losses
Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to destination and connection stability
Interoperability issues: the varying protocol standards
Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the radio
interface is also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access must always include
encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms that must be efficient and simple to
use.

A SIMPLIFIED REFERENCE MODEL

The figure shows the protocol stack implemented in the system according to the
reference model. End-systems, such as the PDA and computer in the example, need a full
protocol stack comprising the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer,
and physical layer. Applications on the end-systems communicate with each other using the
lower layer services. Intermediate systems, such as the interworking unit, do not necessarily
need all of the layers.

A Simplified Reference Model

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a) Physical layer: This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is responsible
for the conversion of a stream of bits into signals that can be transmitted on the sender
side. The physical layer of the receiver then transforms the signals back into a bit stream.
For wireless communication, the physical layer is responsible for frequency selection,
generation of the carrier frequency, signal detection (although heavy interference may
disturb the signal), modulation of data onto a carrier frequency and (depending on the
transmission scheme) encryption.
b) Data link layer: The main tasks of this layer include accessing the medium, multiplexing
of different data streams, correction of transmission errors, and synchronization (i.e.,
detection of a data frame). Altogether, the data link layer is responsible for a reliable
point-to-point connection between two devices or a point-to-multipoint connection
between one sender and several receivers.
c) Network layer: This third layer is responsible for routing packets through a network
or establishing a connection between two entities over many other intermediate
systems. Important functions are addressing, routing, device location, and handover
between different networks.
d) Transport layer: This layer is used in the reference model to establish an end-to-
end connection
e) Application layer: Finally, the applications (complemented by additional layers that
can support applications) are situated on top of all transmission oriented layers.
Functions are service location, support for multimedia applications, adaptive applications
that can handle the large variations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access
to the world-wide web using a portable device.

Media Access Control (MAC)

The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also known
as the Medium Access Control, is a sublayer of the Data Link Layer specified in the seven-layer
OSI model (layer 2). The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a Medium Access
Controller. The MAC sub-layer acts as an interface between the Logical Link Control (LLC)
sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex logical
communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide unicast, multicast or
broadcast communication service.

LLC and MAC sublayers

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Motivation for a specialized MAC

One of the most commonly used MAC schemes for wired networks is carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). In this scheme, a sender senses the medium (a wire
or coaxial cable) to see if it is free. If the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is free. If the
medium is free, the sender starts transmitting data and continues to listen into the medium. If the
sender detects a collision while sending, it stops at once and sends a jamming signal. But this
scheme doest work well with wireless networks. The problems are:
a) Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
b) The sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver
c) It might be a case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
d) Furthermore, CS might not work, if for e.g., a terminal is “hidden”

Hidden and Exposed Terminals

Consider the scenario with three mobile phones as shown below. The transmission range
of A reaches B, but not C (the detection range does not reach C either). The transmission range of
C reaches B, but not A. Finally, the transmission range of B reaches A and C, i.e., A cannot detect
C and vice versa.

Hidden terminals
a) A sends to B, C cannot hear A
b) C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails) and starts transmitting
c) Collision at B occurs, A cannot detect this collision (CD fails) and continues with its
transmission to B
d) A is “hidden” from C and vice versa

Exposed terminals
a) B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B) outside the range
b) C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy.
c) C postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as being idle again but A is outside
radio range of C, waiting is not necessary
d) C is “exposed” to B

Hidden terminals cause collisions, where as Exposed terminals causes unnecessary delay.

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Near and far terminals

Consider the situation shown below. A and B are both sending with the same transmission power.
a) Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
b) So, B’s signal drowns out A’s signal making C unable to receive A’s transmission
c) If C is an arbiter for sending rights, B drown out A’s signal on the physical layer making
C unable to hear out A.

The near/far effect is a severe problem of wireless networks using CDM. All signals
should arrive at the receiver with more or less the same strength for which Precise power control
is to be implemented.

SDMA
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a separated space to users
in wireless networks. A typical application involves assigning an optimal base station to a mobile
phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base stations with different quality. A MAC
algorithm could now decide which base station is best, taking into account which frequencies
(FDM), time slots (TDM) or code (CDM) are still available. The basis for the SDMA algorithm is
formed by cells and sectorized antennas which constitute the infrastructure implementing space
division multiplexing (SDM). SDM has the unique advantage of not requiring any multiplexing
equipment. It is usually combined with other multiplexing techniques to better utilize the
individual physical channels.

FDMA
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) describes schemes to subdivide the frequency
dimension into several non-overlapping frequency bands.

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Frequency Division Multiple Access is a method employed to permit several users to

transmit simultaneously on one satellite transponder by assigning a specific frequency within the
channel to each user. Each conversation gets its own, unique, radio channel. The channels are
relatively narrow, usually 30 KHz or less and are defined as either transmit or receive channels. A
full duplex conversation requires a transmit & receive channel pair. FDM is often used for
simultaneous access to the medium by base station and mobile station in cellular networks
establishing a duplex channel. A scheme called frequency division duplexing (FDD) in which
the two directions, mobile station to base station and vice versa are now separated using different
frequencies.

FDM for multiple access and duplex

The two frequencies are also known as uplink, i.e., from mobile station to base station or
from ground control to satellite, and as downlink, i.e., from base station to mobile station or from
satellite to ground control. The basic frequency allocation scheme for GSM is fixed and regulated
by national authorities. All uplinks use the band between 890.2 and 915 MHz, all downlinks use
935.2 to 960 MHz. According to FDMA, the base station, shown on the right side, allocates a
certain frequency for up- and downlink to establish a duplex channel with a mobile phone. Up-
and downlink have a fixed relation. If the uplink frequency is fu = 890 MHz + n·0.2 MHz, the
downlink frequency is fd = fu + 45 MHz, i.e., fd = 935 MHz + n·0.2 MHz for a certain channel
n. The base station selects the channel. Each channel (uplink and downlink) has a bandwidth of
200 kHz.
This scheme also has disadvantages. While radio stations broadcast 24 hours a day, mobile
communication typically takes place for only a few minutes at a time. Assigning a separate
frequency for each possible communication scenario would be a tremendous waste of (scarce)
frequency resources. Additionally, the fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender makes the
scheme very inflexible and limits the number of senders.

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TDMA
A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical mobile communications is time division
multiplexing (TDM). Compared to FDMA, time division multiple access (TDMA) offers a much
more flexible scheme, which comprises all technologies that allocate certain time slots for
communication. Now synchronization between sender and receiver has to be achieved in the time
domain. Again this can be done by using a fixed pattern similar to FDMA techniques, i.e.,
allocating a certain time slot for a channel, or by using a dynamic allocation scheme.

Listening to different frequencies at the same time is quite difficult, but listening to many
channels separated in time at the same frequency is simple. Fixed schemes do not need
identification, but are not as flexible considering varying bandwidth requirements.

Fixed TDM
The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating time slots for channels in a fixed
pattern. This results in a fixed bandwidth and is the typical solution for wireless phone systems.
MAC is quite simple, as the only crucial factor is accessing the reserved time slot at the right
moment. If this synchronization is assured, each mobile station knows its turn and no interference
will happen. The fixed pattern can be assigned by the base station, where competition between
different mobile stations that want to access the medium is solved.

The above figure shows how these fixed TDM patterns are used to implement multiple
access and a duplex channel between a base station and mobile station. Assigning different slots

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for uplink and downlink using the same frequency is called time division duplex (TDD). As
shown in the figure, the base station uses one out of 12 slots for the downlink, whereas the mobile
station uses one out of 12 different slots for the uplink. Uplink and downlink are separated in time.
Up to 12 different mobile stations can use the same frequency without interference using this
scheme. Each connection is allotted its own up- and downlink pair. This general scheme still
wastes a lot of bandwidth. It is too static, too inflexible for data communication. In this case,
connectionless, demand-oriented TDMA schemes can be used.

Classical Aloha
In this scheme, TDM is applied without controlling medium access. Here each station can
access the medium at any time as shown below:

This is a random access scheme, without a central arbiter controlling access and without
coordination among the stations. If two or more stations access the medium at the same time, a
collision occurs and the transmitted data is destroyed. Resolving this problem is left to higher
layers (e.g., retransmission of data). The simple Aloha works fine for a light load and does not
require any complicated access mechanisms.

Slotted Aloha
The first refinement of the classical Aloha scheme is provided by the introduction of time
slots (slotted Aloha). In this case, all senders have to be synchronized, transmission can only start
at the beginning of a time slot as shown below.

The introduction of slots raises the throughput from 18 per cent to 36 per cent, i.e., slotting
doubles the throughput. Both basic Aloha principles occur in many systems that implement
distributed access to a medium. Aloha systems work perfectly well under a light load, but they

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cannot give any hard transmission guarantees, such as maximum delay before accessing the
medium or minimum throughput.

Carrier sense multiple access

One improvement to the basic Aloha is sensing the carrier before accessing the medium.
Sensing the carrier and accessing the medium only if the carrier is idle decreases the probability
of a collision. But, as already mentioned in the introduction, hidden terminals cannot be detected,
so, if a hidden terminal transmits at the same time as another sender, a collision might occur at the
receiver. This basic scheme is still used in most wireless LANs. The different versions of CSMA
are:
a) 1-persistent CSMA: Stations sense the channel and listens if its busy and transmit
immediately, when the channel becomes idle. It’s called 1-persistent CSMA because the
host transmits with a probability of 1 whenever it finds the channel idle.
b) non-persistent CSMA: stations sense the carrier and start sending immediately if the
medium is idle. If the medium is busy, the station pauses a random amount of time before
sensing the medium again and repeating this pattern.
c) p-persistent CSMA: systems nodes also sense the medium, but only transmit with a
probability of p, with the station deferring to the next slot with the probability 1-p, i.e.,
access is slotted in addition
CSMA with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is one of the access schemes used in wireless
LANs following the standard IEEE 802.11. Here sensing the carrier is combined with a back-off
scheme in case of a busy medium to achieve some fairness among competing stations.

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Demand assigned multiple access

Channel efficiency for Aloha is 18% and for slotted Aloha is 36%. It can be increased to
80% by implementing reservation mechanisms and combinations with some (fixed) TDM patterns.
These schemes typically have a reservation period followed by a transmission period. During the
reservation period, stations can reserve future slots in the transmission period. While, depending
on the scheme, collisions may occur during the reservation period, the transmission period can
then be accessed without collision.
One basic scheme is demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) also called reservation
Aloha, a scheme typical for satellite systems. It increases the amount of users in a pool of satellite
channels that are available for use by any station in a network. It is assumed that not all users will
need simultaneous access to the same communication channels. So that a call can be established,
DAMA assigns a pair of available channels based on requests issued from a user. Once the call is
completed, the channels are returned to the pool for an assignment to another call. Since the
resources of the satellite are being used only in proportion to the occupied channels for the time in
which they are being held, it is a perfect environment for voice traffic and data traffic in batch
mode.
It has two modes as shown below.

During a contention phase following the slotted Aloha scheme; all stations can try to
reserve future slots. Collisions during the reservation phase do not destroy data transmission, but
only the short requests for data transmission. If successful, a time slot in the future is reserved, and
no other station is allowed to transmit during this slot. Therefore, the satellite collects all successful
requests (the others are destroyed) and sends back a reservation list indicating access rights for
future slots. All ground stations have to obey this list. To maintain the fixed TDM pattern of
reservation and transmission, the stations have to be synchronized from time to time. DAMA is an
explicit reservation scheme. Each transmission slot has to be reserved explicitly.

PRMA packet reservation multiple access

It is a kind of implicit reservation scheme where, slots can be reserved implicitly. A certain
number of slots form a frame. The frame is repeated in time i.e., a fixed TDM pattern is applied.
A base station, which could be a satellite, now broadcasts the status of each slot to all mobile
stations. All stations receiving this vector will then know which slot is occupied and which slot is
currently free.

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The base station broadcasts the reservation status ‘ACDABA-F’ to all stations, here A to
F. This means that slots one to six and eight are occupied, but slot seven is free in the following
transmission. All stations wishing to transmit can now compete for this free slot in Aloha fashion.
The already occupied slots are not touched. In the example shown, more than one station wants to
access this slot, so a collision occurs. The base station returns the reservation status ‘ACDABA-
F’, indicating that the reservation of slot seven failed (still indicated as free) and that nothing has
changed for the other slots. Again, stations can compete for this slot. Additionally, station D has
stopped sending in slot three and station F in slot eight. This is noticed by the base station after the
second frame. Before the third frame starts, the base station indicates that slots three and eight are
now idle. Station F has succeeded in reserving slot seven as also indicated by the base station.
As soon as a station has succeeded with a reservation, all future slots are implicitly reserved
for this station. This ensures transmission with a guaranteed data rate. The slotted aloha scheme is
used for idle slots only; data transmission is not destroyed by collision.

Reservation TDMA
In a fixed TDM scheme N mini-slots followed by N·k data-slots form a frame that is
repeated. Each station is allotted its own mini-slot and can use it to reserve up to k data-slots.

This guarantees each station a certain bandwidth and a fixed delay. Other stations can now
send data in unused data-slots as shown. Using these free slots can be based on a simple round-
robin scheme or can be uncoordinated using an Aloha scheme. This scheme allows for the
combination of, e.g., isochronous traffic with fixed bitrates and best-effort traffic without any
guarantees.

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Multiple access with collision avoidance

Multiple access with collision avoidance (MACA) presents a simple scheme that solves
the hidden terminal problem, does not need a base station, and is still a random access Aloha
scheme – but with dynamic reservation. Consider the hidden terminal problem scenario.
A starts sending to B, C does not receive this transmission. C also wants to send something
to B and senses the medium. The medium appears to be free, the carrier sense fails. C also starts
sending causing a collision at B. But A cannot detect this collision at B and continues with its
transmission. A is hidden for C and vice versa.
With MACA, A does not start its transmission at once, but sends a request to send (RTS)
first. B receives the RTS that contains the name of sender and receiver, as well as the length of the
future transmission. This RTS is not heard by C, but triggers an acknowledgement from B, called
clear to send (CTS). The CTS again contains the names of sender (A) and receiver (B) of the user
data, and the length of the future transmission.

This CTS is now heard by C and the medium for future use by A is now reserved for the
duration of the transmission. After receiving a CTS, C is not allowed to send anything for the
duration indicated in the CTS toward B. A collision cannot occur at B during data transmission,
and the hidden terminal problem is solved. Still collisions might occur when A and C transmits a
RTS at the same time. B resolves this contention and acknowledges only one station in the CTS.
No transmission is allowed without an appropriate CTS.
Now MACA tries to avoid the exposed terminals in the following way:

With MACA, B has to transmit an RTS first containing the name of the receiver (A) and
the sender (B). C does not react to this message as it is not the receiver, but A acknowledges using
a CTS which identifies B as the sender and A as the receiver of the following data transmission. C

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does not receive this CTS and concludes that A is outside the detection range. C can start its
transmission assuming it will not cause a collision at A. The problem with exposed terminals is
solved without fixed access patterns or a base station.

Polling
Polling schemes are used when one station wants to be heard by others. Polling is a strictly
centralized scheme with one master station and several slave stations. The master can poll the
slaves according to many schemes: round robin (only efficient if traffic patterns are similar over
all stations), randomly, according to reservations (the classroom example with polite students) etc.
The master could also establish a list of stations wishing to transmit during a contention phase.
After this phase, the station polls each station on the list.
Example: Randomly Addressed Polling
 base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals
 terminals ready to send transmit random number without collision using CDMA or FDMA
 the base station chooses one address for polling from list of all random numbers (collision
if two terminals choose the same address)
 the base station acknowledges correct packets and continues polling the next terminal
 this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list

Inhibit sense multiple access

This scheme, which is used for the packet data transmission service Cellular Digital Packet
Data (CDPD) in the AMPS mobile phone system, is also known as digital sense multiple access
(DSMA). Here, the base station only signals a busy medium via a busy tone (called BUSY/IDLE
indicator) on the downlink.

After the busy tone stops, accessing the uplink is not coordinated any further. The base
station acknowledges successful transmissions; a mobile station detects a collision only via the
missing positive acknowledgement. In case of collisions, additional back-off and retransmission
mechanisms are implemented.

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CDMA
Code division multiple access systems apply codes with certain characteristics to the
transmission to separate different users in code space and to enable access to a shared medium
without interference.
All terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and can use the whole
bandwidth of the transmission channel. Each sender has a unique random number, the sender
XORs the signal with this random number. The receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the
pseudo random number, tuning is done via a correlation function
Disadvantages:
1. higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and start
receiving if there is a signal)
2. all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
Advantages:
1. all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
2. huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
3. interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
4. forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated

The following figure shows a sender A that wants to transmit the bits 101. The key of A is
shown as signal and binary sequence Ak. The binary “0” is assigned a positive signal value, the
binary “1” a negative signal value. After spreading, i.e., XORing Ad and Ak, the resulting signal
is As.

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Coding and spreading of data from sender A and sender B

The same happens with data from sender B with bits 100. The result is Bs. As and Bs now
superimpose during transmission. The resulting signal is simply the sum As + Bs as shown above.
A now tries to reconstruct the original data from Ad. The receiver applies A’s key, Ak, to the
received signal and feeds the result into an integrator. The integrator adds the products, a
comparator then has to decide if the result is a 0 or a 1 as shown below. As clearly seen, although
the original signal form is distorted by B’s signal, the result is quite clear. The same happens if a
receiver wants to receive B’s data.

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Reconstruction of A’s data

Soft handover or soft handoff refers to a feature used by the CDMA and WCDMA
standards, where a cell phone is simultaneously connected to two or more cells (or cell sectors)
during a call. If the sectors are from the same physical cell site (a sectorised site), it is referred to
as softer handoff. This technique is a form of mobile-assisted handover, for IS-95/CDMA2000
CDMA cell phones continuously make power measurements of a list of neighboring cell sites, and
determine whether or not to request or end soft handover with the cell sectors on the list.
Soft handoff is different from the traditional hard-handoff process. With hard handoff, a
definite decision is made on whether to hand off or not. The handoff is initiated and executed
without the user attempting to have simultaneous traffic channel communications with the two
base stations. With soft handoff, a conditional decision is made on whether to hand off. Depending
on the changes in pilot signal strength from the two or more base stations involved, a hard decision
will eventually be made to communicate with only one. This normally happens after it is evident
that the signal from one base station is considerably stronger than those from the others. In the
interim period, the user has simultaneous traffic channel communication with all candidate base
stations. It is desirable to implement soft handoff in power-controlled CDMA systems because
implementing hard handoff is potentially difficult in such systems.

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Sri Vidya College of Engineering & Technology, Virudhunagar Course Material (Lecture Notes)

Spread Aloha multiple access (SAMA)

CDMA senders and receivers are not really simple devices. Communicating with n devices
requires programming of the receiver to be able to decode n different codes. Aloha was a very
simple scheme, but could only provide a relatively low bandwidth due to collisions. SAMA uses
spread spectrum with only one single code (chipping sequence) for spreading for all senders
accessing according to aloha.
In SAMA, each sender uses the same spreading code, for ex 110101 as shown below.
Sender A and B access the medium at the same time in their narrowband spectrum, so that the
three bits shown causes collisions. The same data could also be sent with higher power for shorter
periods as show.

The main problem in using this approach is finding good chipping sequences. The
maximum throughput is about 18 per cent, which is very similar to Aloha, but the approach benefits
from the advantages of spread spectrum techniques: robustness against narrowband interference
and simple coexistence with other systems in the same frequency bands.

IT6601 Mobile Computing Unit I STUDENTSFOCUS.COM

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